\r\n\tNotably, the book encourages academic scholars and researchers to contribute to the modern concepts of CSR. Fundamentally, it speaks for well-developed literature for entrepreneurs and managers, thus assisting them in the decision-making process. \r\n\tFurthermore, this book is of great value to policymakers, practitioners, and corporations, thus contributing to various disciplines (e.g., social science and management). \r\n\tThese proposed themes encourage future researchers and professionals to share their ideas, concepts and work concerning these subject domains. All these suggested topics had recommended under the rubrics of CSR. Perhaps, all the professionals, researchers, and scholars are welcome to submit their piece of work, in particular to the suggested topics. \r\n\tIndeed, the recommended topics include the following but are not limited to these only. \r\n\t• Corporate Governance and Sustainability \r\n\t• Green Innovation and CSR \r\n\t• Social Entrepreneurship \r\n\t• Green Economy and Social and Environmental Sustainability \r\n\t• Sustainable Development and Industrialization
",isbn:"978-1-80356-165-3",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-164-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-166-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"e3be182f32c4d9b8e44e95e86ee1366b",bookSignature:"Dr. Muddassar Sarfraz",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",keywords:"Sustainability, Stakeholders, Corporate Citizenship, Sustainable Development, Decision-making Process, CSR, Organizational Performance, Financial Performance, Corporate Reputation, Environmental Performance, Environmental Strategy, Green Innovation",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 2nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 2nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 20th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 18th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in Business Management and Sustainability, Associate Editor of Frontiers in Psychology Journal, and published several research articles.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"260655",title:"Dr.",name:"Muddassar",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muddassar-sarfraz",fullName:"Muddassar Sarfraz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260655/images/system/260655.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Muddassar Sarfraz works as an assistant professor at Wuxi University, China. He completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Business Management at the Business School of Hohai University, China. He has published numerous papers in foreign authoritative journals and academic conferences at home and abroad. He is senior editor of Cogent Business & Management, associate editor of Frontiers in Psychology, Energies, and Future Business Journal, and guest editor of Frontiers in Environmental Sciences and INQUIRY. He is a member of the British Academy of Management, Chinese Economists Society (USA), World Economic Association (UK), and the American Economic Association, and an ambassador of the MBA program at Chongqing University, China. 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
Environmental pollution become more and more serious due to today’s development all around the world. Environmental pollution is our concern nowadays because all the daily activities are related to the environment. In order to ensure this situation is under control, Malaysia’s government has already established a network throughout Malaysia to monitor this situation. Air pollution is one of the most important environmental problems, which concentrates mostly in cities. Air pollution in Asian cities has grown with the progressing industrialization and urbanization. Air quality standards often refer to respirable suspended particulate matter (PM), being aerosols with a diameter smaller than 10 µm (PM10) (UNEP). Fine particles are of the greatest concern since they are capable of being easily transported over long distances on currents of air. Also, fine particles may be drawn into the respiratory airways where they may adversely affect health. Recently, the attention of scientists has been drawn towards studying the PM2.5 fraction and even smaller particles, which can penetrate the very deepest parts of the lung (Environmental Protection Service Tameside MBC Council Offices, 2008). The effects of environmental pollution in the study area are shown in Figure 1. The objective of air quality monitoring is to obtain an estimate of pollutant (total suspended particulates TSP) concentrations (Ung, et al., 2001a, 2001b). First, compared to atmospheric gases, aerosol is highly inhomogeneous and variable; that is, aerosol observations have to be global and continuous. Second, the available accuracy of aerosol characterization is often not sufficient. For instance, in situ measurements traditionally considered as the most reliable observations are inappropriate for global monitoring of aerosol radiative forcing parameters and usually do not characterize the aerosol in the total atmospheric column (Dubovik, et al., 2002).
\n\t\t\t
Remote sensing has been widely used for environmental application such as for air quality and water quality studies. But the atmosphere affects satellite images of the Earth’s surface in the solar spectrum. So, the signal observe by the satellite sensor was the sum of the effects from the ground and atmosphere. Tropospheric aerosols act to significantly alter the Earth’s radiation budget, but quantification of the change in radiation is difficult because atmospheric aerosol distributions vary greatly in type, size, space and time (Penner, et al. 2002). Surface reflectance is a key to the retrieval of atmospheric components from remotely sensed data. Optical atmospheric effects may influence the signal measured by a remote sensor in two ways: radiometrically and geometrically. This means that they can modify the signal’s intensity through scattering or absorption processes and its direction by refraction (Sifakis and Deschamps, 1992).
\n\t\t\t
The problem of particulate pollution in the atmosphere has attracted a new interest with the recent scientific evidence of the ill-health effects of small particles. Aerosol optical thickness in the visible (or atmospheric turbidity), which is defined as the linear integral of the extinction coefficient due to small airborne particles, can be considered as an overall air pollution indicator in urban areas (Sifakis, et al., 1998). Air pollution has long been a problem in the industrial nations of the West. It has now become an increasing source of environmental degradation in the developing nations of East Asia. The lack of detailed knowledge of the optical properties of aerosols results in aerosol being one of the largest uncertainties in climate forcing assessments. Monitoring of atmospheric aerosol is a fundamentally difficult problem. The problem of particulate pollution in the atmosphere has attracted a new interest with the recent scientific evidence of the ill-health effects of small particles. Air pollution is one of the most important environmental problems, which concentrates mostly in cities. Aerosols are liquid and solid particles suspended in the air from natural or man-made sources (Kaufman, et al., 1997).
\n\t\t\t
The main objective of the present study is to test the performance of our proposed algorithm for mapping PM10 using Landsat satellite images. In situ measurements were needed for algorithm calibration. We used a DustTrak Aerosol Monitor 8520 to collect the in situ data. We collected the PM10 data simultaneously during the satellite Landsat overpass the study area. An algorithm was developed to determine the PM10 concentration on the earth surface. The efficiency of the proposed algorithm was determined based on the correlation coefficient (R) and root-mean-squares deviation, RMS. Finally, the PM10 map was generated using the proposed algorithm. In addition, the PM10 map was also geometrically corrected and colour-coded for visual interpretation.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
Figure 1.
Air pollution was found at (a) Kuching and (b) Penang, Malaysia
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. Remote Sensing
\n\t\t\t
Remote sensing is a technique for collecting information about the earth without taking a physical sample of the earth’s surface or touching the surface using sensors placed on a platform at a distance from it. A sensor is used to measure the energy reflected from the earth. This information can be displayed as a digital image or as a photograph. Sensors can be mounted on a satellite orbiting the earth, or on a plane or other airborne structure. Because of this energy requirement, passive solar sensors can only capture data during daylight hours. The major applications of remote sensing include environmental pollution, land cover/use mapping, urban planning, and earth management. We have to understand the basic concept of electromagnetic waves well enough for applying to the remote sensing techniques in our studies. We classify electromagnetic energy by its wavelength. This electromagnetic radiation gives an energy source to illuminate the target except the sensed energy that is being emitted by the target (Figure 2).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 2.
Remote sensing instrument (Jensen, 2006)
\n\t\t\t
There are two basic types of sensors: passive and active sensors (Figure 3). Passive remote sensors detect reflected energy from the sun back to the sensor; they do not emit energy itself. But active sensors can emit energy or provide its own source of energy and detect the reflected energy back from the target.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
Figure 3.
a) Passive sensor and (b) Active sensor (Fundamentals of Remote Sensing - http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/resource/tutor/fundam/pdf/fundamentals_e.pdf.)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3. Study Area
\n\t\t\t
The study area is the Penang Island, Malaysia, located within latitudes 5o 9’ N to 5o 33’ N and longitudes 100o 09’ E to 100o 30’ E. The map of the study area is shown in Figure 4. Penang Island is located in equatorial region and enjoys a warm equatorial weather the whole year. Therefore, it is impossible to get the 100 % cloud free satellite image over Penang Island. But, the satellite image chosen is less than 10 % of cloud coverage over the study area. Penang Island located on the northwest coast of Peninsular Malaysia.
\n\t\t\t
Penang is one of the 13 states of the Malaysia and the second smallest state in Malaysia after Perlis. The state is geographically divided into two different entities - Penang Island (or “Pulau Pinang” in Malay Language) and a portion of mainland called “Seberang Perai” in Malay Language. Penang Island is an island of 293 square kilometres located in the Straits of Malacca and “Seberang Perai” is a narrow hinterland of 753 square kilometres (Penang-Wikipedia, 2009). The island and the mainland are linked by the 13.5 km long Penang Bridge and ferry.
\n\t\t\t
Penang Island is predominantly hilly terrain, the highest point being Western Hill (part of Penang Hill) at 830 metres above sea level. The terrain consists of coastal plains, hills and mountains. The coastal plains are narrow, the most extensive of which is in the northeast which forms a triangular promontory where George Town, the state capital, is situated. The topography of “Seberang Perai” is mostly flat. Butterworth, the main town in “Seberang Perai”, lies along the “Perai” River estuary and faces George Town at a distance of 3 km (2 miles) across the channel to the east (Penang-Wikipedia, 2009).
\n\t\t\t
The Penang Island climate is tropical, and it is hot and humid throughout the year. with the average mean daily temperature of about 27oC and mean daily maximum and minimum temperature ranging between 31.4oC and 23.5oC respectively. However, the individual extremes are 35.7oC and 23.5oC respectively. The mean daily humidity varies between 60.9% and 96.8%. The average annual rainfall is about 267 cm and can be as high as 624 cm (Fauziah, et al, 2006).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
Figure 4.
The study area.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4. Satellite Remote Sensing Data
\n\t\t\t
For our research in USM, we use satellite images from passive sensors in our analysed. Images acquired by Landsat TM 5. On March 1, 1984, NASA launched Landsat 5 were used in this study, the agency’s last originally mandated Landsat satellite. Landsat 5 was designed and built at the same time as Landsat 4 and carried the same payload: the Multispectral Scanner System (MSS) and the Thematic Mapper (TM) instruments.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
Figure 5.
Landsat Satellite TM
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
5. Algorithm Model
\n\t\t\t
The atmospheric reflectance due to molecule, Rr, is given by (Liu, et al., 1996)
Pr(\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tΘ\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t) = Rayleigh scattering phase function
µv = Cosine of viewing angle
\n\t\t\t
µs = Cosine of solar zenith angle
\n\t\t\t
We assume that the atmospheric reflectance due to particle, Ra, is also linear with the τa [King, et al., (1999) and Fukushima, et al., (2000)]. This assumption is valid because Liu, et al., (1996) also found the linear relationship between both aerosol and molecule scattering.
The optical depth is given by Camagni and Sandroni, (1983), as in equation (5). From the equation, we rewrite the optical depth for particle and molecule as equation (6)
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tτ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tτ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tτ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t (Camagni and Sandroni, 1983)\n\t\t\t\t
Equations (6) are substituted into equation (4). The result was extended to a three bands algorithm as equation (7) Form the equation; we found that PM10 was linearly related to the reflectance for band 1 and band 2. This algorithm was generated based on the linear relationship between τ and reflectance. Retalis et al., (2003), also found that PM10 was linearly related to τ and the correlation coefficient for linear was better that exponential in their study (overall). This means that reflectance was linear with PM10. In order to simplify the data processing, the air quality concentration was used in our analysis instead of using density, ρ, values.
Ratmi= Atmospheric reflectance, i = 1 and 2 are the band number
\n\t\t\t
aj= algorithm coefficients, j = 0, 1, 2, … are then empirically determined.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
6. Data Analysis and Results
\n\t\t\t
Remote sensing satellite detectors exhibit linear response to incoming radiance, whether from the Earth’s surface radiance or internal calibration sources. This response is quantized into 8-bit values that represent brightness values commonly called Digital Numbers (DN). To convert the calibrated digital numbers to at-aperture radiance, rescaling gains and biases are created from the known dynamic range limits of the instrument.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRadiance\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t L \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tλ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t Bias \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tλ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t[\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGain \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tλ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t x DN \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tλ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tE14
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
where
\n\t\t\t
λ = band number.
\n\t\t\t
L is the radiance expressed in Wm-2 sr-1m-1.
\n\t\t\t
The spectral radiance, as calculated above, can be converted to at sensor reflectance values.
= {1.0-0.016729cos [0.9856(D-4)]} where (D = day of the year)
\n\t\t\t
E0 () = mean solar exoatmospheric irradiance (Wm-2 m-1)
\n\t\t\t
θ= solar Zenith angle (degrees)
\n\t\t\t
The rescaling gain and offset values for Landsat TM 5 used in this paper are listed in Table 1 (Chander, et al. 2007) and Solar Exoatmospheric spectral irradiances are given in Table 2 (Chander and Markham, 2003).
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Landsat TM 5
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rescaling Gain and Bias
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Processing Date
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Mar 1, 1984 - May 4, 2003
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
May 5, 2003 - Apr 1, 2007
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Apr 2, 2007 ? Present
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Acquisition Date
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Mar 1, 1984 - May 4, 2003
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
May 5, 2003 - Apr 1, 2007
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Mar 1, 1984 - Dec 31, 1991
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Jan 1, 1992 - Present
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Band
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Gain
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Bias
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Gain
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Bias
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Gain
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Bias
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Gain
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Bias
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.602431
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-1.52
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.762824
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-1.52
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.668706
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-1.52
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.762824
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-1.52
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.175100
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-2.84
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.442510
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-2.84
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.317020
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-2.84
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.442510
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-2.84
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.805765
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-1.17
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.039880
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-1.17
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.039880
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-1.17
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.039880
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-1.17
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.814549
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-1.51
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.872588
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-1.51
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.872588
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-1.51
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.872588
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-1.51
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.108078
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-0.37
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.119882
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-0.37
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.119882
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-0.37
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.119882
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-0.37
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.055158
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.2378
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.055158
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.2378
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.055158
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.2378
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.055158
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.2378
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.056980
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-0.15
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.065294
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-0.15
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.065294
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-0.15
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.065294
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-0.15
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 1.
Rescaling gains and biases used for the conversion of calibrated digital numbers to spectral radiance for Landsat TM 5
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Unit: ESUN = Wm -2 m -1
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Band
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Landsat TM 5
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1957
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1826
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1554
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1036
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
215.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
80.67
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 2.
Solar Exoatmospheric spectral irradiances in Wm-2 m-1 for Landsat TM 5
\n\t\t\t
Landsat TM satellite data set was selected corresponding to the ground truth measurements of the pollution levels. The PCI Geomatica version 10.1 image processing software was used in all the analyses. The Landsat TM 5 satellite images were acquired on 15th February 2001 (Figure 6), 17th January 2002 (Figure 7), 6th March 2002 (Figure 8) and 5th February 2003 (Figure 9).
\n\t\t\t
Raw digital satellite images usually contain geometric distortion and cannot be used directly as a map. Some sources of distortion are variation in the altitude, attitude and velocity of the sensor. Other sources are panoramic distortion, earth curvature, atmospheric refraction and relief displacement. So, to correct the images, we have to do geometric correction. After applying the correction, the digital data can then be used for other processing steps (Anderson, et al. 1976). Image rectification was performed by using a second order polynomial transformation equation. The images were geometrically corrected by using a nearest neighbour resampling technique. Sample locations were then identified on these geocoded images. Regression technique was employed to calibrate the algorithm using the satellite multispectral signals.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 6.
Raw Landsat TM satellite image of 15th February 2001.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 7.
Raw Landsat TM satellite image of 17th January 2002.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 8.
Raw Landsat TM satellite image of 6th March 2002
\n\t\t\t
Figure 9.
Raw Landsat TM satellite image of 5th February 2003
\n\t\t\t
It should be noted that the relfectance values at the top of atmospherr is the sum of the surface reflectance and atmospheric relfectance. The signals measured in each of these visible bands represent a combination of surface and atmospheric effects, usually in different proportions depending on the condition of the atmosphere. Therefore, it is required to determine the surface contribution from the total reflectance received at the sensor. In this study, we extracted the surface reflectance from mid-infrared band because the surface reflectance at various bands across the solar spectrum are correlated to each other to some extended. The surface reflectances of dark targets in the blue and red bands were estimated using the measurements in the mid-infrared band (Quaidrari and Vermote, 1999). Over a simple black target, the observed atmospheric reflectance is the sum of reflectance of aerosols and Rayleigh contributions (Equation 10). This simplification, however, is not valid at short wavelengths (less than 0.45 pm) or large sun and view zenith angles (Vermote and Roger, 1996). In this study, a simple form of the equation was used in this study (Equation 11). This equation also used by other research in their study (Popp, 2004).
Ratm = reflectance from atmospheric components (aerosols and molecules)
\n\t\t\t
T= transmittance
\n\t\t\t
It should be noted that the relfectance values at the top of atmosphere was the sum of the surface reflectance and atmospheric relfectance. In this study, we used ATCOR2 image correction software in the PCI Geomatica 9.1 image processing software for creating a surface reflectance image. And then the reflectance measured from the satellite [reflectance at the top of atmospheric, ρ(TOA)] was subtracted by the amount given by the surface reflectance to obtain the atmospheric reflectance. And then the atmospheric reflectance was related to the PM10 using the regression algorithm analysis (Equation 7). In this study, Landsat TM signals were used as independent variables in our calibration regression analyses. The atmospheric reflectances for each band corresponding to the ground-truth locations were determined. The atmospheric reflectance were determined for each band using different window sizes, such as, 1 by 1, 3 by 3, 5 by 5, 7 by 7, 9 by 9 and 11 by 11. In this study, the atmospheric reflectance values extracted using the window size of 3 by 3 was used due to the higher correlation coefficient (R) with the ground-truth data. The extracted atmospheric reflectance values were regressed with their respective ground -truth data and the proposed algorithm to obtain the regression coefficients. PM10 maps for all the images were then generated using the proposed calibrated algorithm and filtered by using a 3 x 3 pixel smoothing filter to remove random noise.
\n\t\t\t
The data points were then regressed to obtain all the coefficients of equation (7). Then the calibrated algorithm was used to estimate the PM10 concentrated values for each image. The proposed model produced the correlation coefficient of 0.8 and root-mean-square error 16 µg/m3. The PM10 maps were generated using the proposed calibrated algorithm. The generated PM10 map was colour-coded for visual interpretation [Landsat TM 5 - 15th February 2001 (Figure 10), 17th January 2002 (Figure 11), 6th March 2002 (Figure 12) and 5th February 2003 (Figure 13)]. Generally, the concentrations above industrial and urban areas were higher compared to other areas.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 10.
Map of PM10 around Penang Island, Malaysia-15/2/2001 (Blue < 40 μg/m3, Green = (40-80) μg/m3, Yellow = (80-120) μg/m3, Orange = (120-160) μg/m3, Red = (>160) μg/m3 and Black = Water and cloud area)
\n\t\t\t
Figure 11.
Map of PM10 around Penang Island, Malaysia-17/1/2002 (Blue < 40 μg/m3, Green = (40-80) μg/m3, Yellow = (80-120) μg/m3, Orange = (120-160) μg/m3, Red = (>160) μg/m3 and Black = Water and cloud area)
\n\t\t\t
Figure 12.
Map of PM10 around Penang Island, Malaysia-6/3/2002 (Blue < 40 μg/m3, Green = (40-80) μg/m3, Yellow = (80-120) μg/m3, Orange = (120-160) μg/m3, Red = (>160) μg/m3 and Black = Water and cloud area)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
Figure 13.
Map of PM10 around Penang Island, Malaysia-5/2/2003 (Blue < 40 μg/m3, Green = (40-80) μg/m3, Yellow = (80-120) μg/m3, Orange = (120-160) μg/m3, Red = (>160) μg/m3 and Black = Water and cloud area)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
7. Conclusion
\n\t\t\t
This study indicates that Landsat TM satellite data can provide very useful information for estimating and mapping air pollution. The proposed algorithm is considered superior based on the values of the correlation coefficient, R=0.8 and root-mean-square error, RMS=16 µg/m3. This technique has been proved to be reliable and cost effective for such environmental study. Further study will be carried out to verify the results.
\n\t\t
\n\t
Acknowledgments
\n\t\t\t
This project was supported by the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation of Malaysia under Grant 06-01-05-SF0298 “ Environmental Mapping Using Digital Camera Imagery Taken From Autopilot Aircraft.“, and also supported by the Universiti Sains Malaysia under short term grant “ Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) studies for air quality retrieval from remote sensing data“. We would like to thank the technical staff who participated in this project. Thanks are also extended to USM for support and encouragement.
\n\t\t
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/9534.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/9534.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/9534",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/9534",totalDownloads:9677,totalViews:2766,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:71,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:null,datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 1st 2009",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/9534",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/9534",book:{id:"3343",slug:"advances-in-geoscience-and-remote-sensing"},signatures:"H. S. Lim, M. Z. MatJafri, K. Abdullah and C. J. Wong",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Remote Sensing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Study Area",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Satellite Remote Sensing Data",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Algorithm Model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Data Analysis and Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCamagni\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSandroni\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1983 Optical Remote sensing of air pollution, Joint Research Centre, Ispra, Italy, Elsevier Science Publishing Company Inc\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B2",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDubovik\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHolben\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEck\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT. F.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSmirnov\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKaufman\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY. 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Proceedings of 10th International Symposium “Transport and Air Pollution” September 17- 19, 2001- Boulder, Colorado\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B17",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUng\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWald\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRanchin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWeber\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHirsch\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPerron\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKleinpeter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001b Satellite data for Air Pollution Mapping Over A City- Virtual Stations, Proceeding of the 21th EARSeL Symposium, Observing Our Environment From Space: New Solutions For A New Millenium, Paris, France, 14- 16 May 2001, Gerard Begni Editor, A., A., Balkema, Lisse, Abingdon, Exton (PA), Tokyo, 147\n\t\t\t\t\t151 , [Online] available: http://www-cenerg.cma.fr/Public/themes_de_recherche/teledetection/title_tele_ air/title_tele_air_pub/satellite_data_for_t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B18",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSifakis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDeschamps\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1992 Mapping of air pollution using SPOT satellite data, Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, 58(10), 1433- 1437\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B19",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSifakis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN. I.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSoulakellis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tParonis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1998\n\t\t\t\t\tQuantitative mapping of air pollution density using Earth observations: a new processing method and application to an urban area, International Journal Remote Sensing, 19\n\t\t\t\t\t17\n\t\t\t\t\t3289\n\t\t\t\t\t3300\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B20",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tThe Digital Awakening-Haze in Penang,\n\t\t\t\t\t2009 [Online] available: http://www.petertan.com/blog/2005/08/12/haze-in-penang/\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B21",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tThe Digital Awakening--Haze in Penang Update-\n\t\t\t\t\t1048 [Online] available: http://www.petertan.com/blog/2005/08/13/haze-in-penang-update-1048am/\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B22",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tVincentchow,\n\t\t\t\t\t2009 Available Online: http://www.vincentchow.net/289/haze-in-malaysia\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B23",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVermote\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRoger\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. 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School of Physics, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Penang, Malaysia
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"M. Z. MatJafri",address:null,affiliation:'
School of Physics, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Penang, Malaysia
School of Physics, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Penang, Malaysia
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"C. J. Wong",address:null,affiliation:'
School of Physics, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Penang, Malaysia
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1. Introduction
Global warming is one of the major challenges for mankind, with animal breeding one of the most affected sectors in the agricultural industry. The impacts of increasing environmental temperatures on livestock will most likely differ from place to place, depending on latitude, geographical features and local farming systems [1, 2, 3].
High ambient temperatures negatively affect all domestic animals, but in addition to pork and dairy production, perhaps the poultry industry is hit the hardest. In 2020, the world’s broiler meat production amounted to about 100.81 million metric tons, and is forecasted to increase to about 101.02 million metric tons by 2021 [4]. According to FAO data [5], total egg production in the world was 1.528 billion units in 2018. In 2019, this figure reached 1.577 billion.
These statistics clearly show that broiler meat and egg production play a crucial role in the global supply of animal origin foodstuffs.
Thus, we have a fundamental interest in reducing and/or eliminating the negative effects of climate change, i.e. prolonged high ambient temperature. The main question is, what tools do we have to reduce the harmful effects of high environmental temperatures-especially in the case of heat stress? A solution for prevention of heat stress in animals includes biological (e.g. genetics, thermal conditioning, nutrition) [6, 7] or keeping technology devices (e.g. air conditioning, intensive ventilation, humidification) [8]. However, housing methods are expensive and the service costs are high. Therefore, reducing the biochemical and physiological negative effects of heat stress with different nutritional tools is one of the primary interests for the economical production of food produced from animals.
According to Babinszky et al. [9], basically the following nutritional possibilities are available to eliminate the harmful effects of the heat stress:
reduce animal’s own heat production (e.g. feeding more dietary fat);
compensate for the lower nutrient supply; (e.g. feeding more concentrated diets); and
mitigate heat stress induced metabolic changes (e.g. using different feed additives: vitamins, micro minerals).
It should, however, be noted that during severe heat stress, these methods should be used in combination in order to maintain the production performance of the farm animals and the quality of their products [9]. While this chapter focuses on the third option, i.e. the use of feed additives, we would like to emphasize that whatever feeding method we use, we need to be aware of the changes in the intermediate metabolism of farm animals caused by heat stress, because without this knowledge, there is no effective defense against high ambient temperatures.
Therefore, the aim of this chapter is to summarize the adverse effects of heat stress on energy metabolism, anti- and pro-oxidant capacity, and production in birds. A further goal is to show how various feed additives (vitamin A, C and E, selenium, zinc, betaine, plant extract, and probiotics) can reduce the negative effects of heat stress.
2. Methodology of the literature review
The methodology of the literature review was basically the same as the internationally applied methodology used in animal science. Firstly relevant literature was searched. This follows by evaluation of sources. The third step was identifying the database and gaps in the published scientific findings, than setup the outline structure. Finally the literature review was written.
The literature searching was based on the keywords, using university database, own department data collection on the research field of heat stress, and different international scientific databases of life sciences, animal science and Google Scholar.
In each of the studied paper or book chapter, we asked the same questions as, for example:
What was the aim and methodology of the particular publication (in this case: what kind of heat stress was applied, how many animals were included in the experiment per treatment, whether there were repetitions, what dietary treatments (type of feed additives and their concentration in the diet) were used, what parameters were measured, what was the statistical analysis applied, etc.), furthermore, whether experimental data were correctly evaluated, what results were presented by the authors and what main conclusions were drawn from the data.
To have more clear information on effectiveness of various feed supplements in case of production parameters: daily gain (g/d), average daily gain (g/d) and feed conversion ratio (kg diet/kg gain), the so called mitigation capacity was calculated using the following formula:
Mitigation capacity ofacertain trait%=measured value inHSenvironment andfedwiththe experimental diet−measured value inHSenvironment andfedwith the control diet/measured value inTNenvironment andfedwith the control diet–measured value inHSenvironment andfedwith the control dietx100E1
where: HS = heat stress; TN = thermoneutral.
All collected information (data) was placed in a large work database. This information formed the basis of the subchapter titles of our review chapter and of the chapter outline. Based on this information, the evaluation of research data from more than 90 publications started. The writing of the review chapter then began, including the drawing of main conclusions as well. The investigated and systematized research findings are summarized in tables.
3. Heat production of animals and heat stress
It is well known that heat production of animals is the sum total of non-productive energy utilized by the animal and of the energy lost in the course of transformation dietary nutrients [10]. Animals use this so called non-productive energy for maintenance (i.e. satisfy the energy requirement for the maintenance of body temperature, the functioning of the nervous system, the organs, for minimal activity, etc.) [10]. The extra heat produced in the course of digestion, excretion and metabolism of nutrients is called the heat increment. It is also well known that within a certain range of ambient temperature - with unvarying feed and nutrient intake - the total heat production of the animal remains constant. This temperature range is called the thermoneutral zone. The general scheme of the relationship between ambient temperature and heat production of livestock can be seen in Figure 1 [10].
Figure 1.
Relationship between ambient temperature and heat production of livestock [10].
In a thermoneutral environment, the heat production of the animal is at the minimum, and thus the dietary energy can be used for production (growth, egg and milk production) efficiently [9, 10]. Therefore, whenever the daily amount of energy intake changes, the temperature range of the thermoneutral zone is changed, too. So, if for some reason the animal leaves the thermoneutral zone, this result in an increased heat production by the animal. This means that there is more loss of energy, and in consequence, less energy remains for production and moreover the efficiency of energy utilization deteriorates too. The upper and lower critical temperatures for poultry are summarized in Table 1 [11].
The general scheme of the relationship between broiler behavior and the increasing ambient temperature is shown in Figure 2 [12].
Figure 2.
The effect of increasing ambient temperature on birds [12].
As can be seen in Figure 2, in the thermoneutral zone, birds can lose heat at a controlled rate using normal behavior [12]. Between the lower and upper temperatures, there is no heat stress and body temperature remains constant. If the environmental temperature exceeds the upper critical temperature, birds must lose heat actively by panting. However, it should be noted that panting is a normal response to heat and is not initially considered a welfare problem [12]. However, as temperatures increase, the rate of panting increases. If heat production is greater than maximum heat loss, birds may die due to heat stress. In other words, heat stress occurs when the body cannot get rid of excess heat.
It is well established that heat stress increases the energy cost of maintenance and adversely affects productive and reproductive performance. In a hot environment, the respiration rate in birds can increase 10–20 times, causing increased CO2 loss through the lungs [13]. This loss results in an increase in blood pH and this can upset the acid–base balance, which can impair the health and performance of birds [14, 15, 16].
There are usually two types of heat stress, acute and chronic heat stress. Acute heat stress refers to a short and rapid increase in environmental temperature (a few hours), whereas under chronic heat stress, high temperatures persist for more extended periods (several days) [17].
Heat stress exposed animals can use different ways to maintain thermoregulation and homeostasis. They can increase radiant, convective and evaporative heat loss by vasodilatation and perspiration [18]. However, birds have an extra mechanism which is promote heat exchange between their bodies and the environment. These are the air sacs. Air sacs are very useful especially during panting, as they promote air circulation on surfaces and consequently, the evaporative loss of heat [19, 20].
Unfortunately, there are only few scientific papers that report on the heat production and the heat loss of heat-exposed birds. Consequently, there is only a limited number of scientific publications that report on nutritional possibilities for reducing the heat production of birds under heat stress.
Syafwan et al. [21] concluded in their excellent review that the heat production of broilers is particularly high due to the high growth rate and the high daily feed intake. Developments in the genetic selection of meat-type birds has led to rapid growth and a high metabolic rate, which is accompanied by a higher heat production level due to increased feed intake [22]. Therefore, it can be stated that high genetic capacity hybrid broilers (so called “improved chicken”) are much more sensitive to a hot environment than their unimproved counterparts.
Summarizing the relevant scientific findings, it can be stated that in practical animal agriculture, and especially in factory farming, it is particularly difficult to keep animals in a thermoneutral zone. Therefore, in order to reduce the negative effect of heat stress, it is important to use nutritional tools in addition to technical devices.
4. Reduction of heat production by nutritional tools
4.1 Using fat in the diets
It is well known that if more fat is used in pig diets in high ambient temperature, the total heat production of the animals reduces significantly. Babinszky et al. [23] concluded from their study that lactating sows fed a high level of dietary fat (125 g fat/kg diet) produce significantly less heat than those fed a carbohydrate rich (low-fat level) diet. Babinszky [10] is also concluded, that the energetic efficiency of milk production was improved, when sows received high dietary fat diet (125 g/kg diet). This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that synthesizing milk fat from dietary fat is more efficient than it’s synthesizing from dietary carbohydrates.
In poultry nutrition, relative limited literature data are available on fat feeding against heat stress and its effect on heat production of birds. Das et al. [24], in an excellent review, stated that heat stress may be combated by adding fat and reducing crude protein in poultry diets. Higher energy diets were effective in partially mitigating the effects of heat stress in poultry. This can be explained by the fact that during metabolism, fat produces a lower heat increment than protein and carbohydrates [25].
In other studies, it was concluded that supplementation of fat in the poultry diet increase the nutrient utilization in the gastrointestinal tract by lowering the rate of food passage [26] and also helps increase the energy value of the other feed constituents [27, 28]. Feeding a high fat diet (up to 5%) to heat-exposed broilers reduces heat production. This result occurs because the heat increment of fat is lower than that of either proteins or carbohydrates [21, 25, 29, 30].
4.2 Using vitamin C in chicken diet to change energy metabolism
Because the animal body derives all its energy from oxidation, the magnitude of energy metabolism can be determined from the amount of carbon-dioxide produced and oxygen consumed. The ratio of the volumes of carbon dioxide produced to oxygen consumed is called the respiratory quotient (RQ) [31]. The respiratory quotients are: for protein: 0.809; for fat: 0.711; for starch: 1.000; for sugar: 1.000; and for glucose: 1.000, respectively [32]. If the RQ value is equal to 1.00, this means that e.g. burning 1 g of starch produces as much carbon dioxide as oxygen is needed to burn it (0.829 liter CO2/0.829 liter O2).
However, it should also be noted that RQ values significantly higher than 1 can be achieved if the animals convert the carbohydrate to fat, since in this case oxygen-poor fat is formed from oxygen-rich glucose. During starvation, the RQ value is less than 0.7 [31].
As it can be seen above, the RQ may provide valuable information about the metabolic processes in the body. Therefore, RQ values are very often determined in respiratory studies.
McKee et al. [33] investigated the effect of vitamin C on different variables of energy metabolism of young heat exposed chickens in indirect calorimeters. The experiment started at day 9 and lasted until day 17 posthatch. In this study, CO2 production and O2 consumption were measured in the thermoneutral zone (27.7°C) and in a hot environment (34°C). On the basis of these values, RQ and heat production were calculated daily through day 17 of the experiment. The basal diet was supplemented by a 150 mg/kg diet of ascorbic acid (vitamin C). They found that heat exposure lowered (P < 0.001) the respiratory quotient. Heat-exposed birds consuming the ascorbic acid supplemented diet expressed lower respiratory quotients than their unsupplemented counterparts. The authors concluded that this effect resulted from a nonsignificant increase in O2 consumption and decrease in CO2 production. They also concluded that further investigations are needed to determine whether the ascorbic acid-induced change in the RQ value towards 0.70 reflects an increase in protein or lipid catabolism or both. In further study, the effect of ascorbic acid on the energy metabolism and heat production of domestic animals should also be elucidated.
Despite the many open questions, based on the findings made by McKee et al. in their study, it seems that supplemental ascorbic acid may influence the body energy stores during periods of reduced energy intake (during heat stress).
4.3 Using betaine as feed additive in the diet
Betaine chemical structure (C5H11NO2) contains three methyl groups which play a role in transmethylation reactions [34]. Betaine (trimethylglycine) is an intermediate metabolite in the catabolism of choline which can modify osmolarity, act as a methyl donor, and has potential lipotropic effects [9]. As a by-product of sugar beet processing, betaine is commercially available as a feed additive [35]. Currently, betaine is available in several purified forms (anhydrous, monophosphate and hydrochloride betaine) [36].
Betaine mainly functions as an osmolyte and a methyl-group donor [37]. Under heat stress, betaine plays an important role in cellular osmotic regulation, preventing dehydration by increasing the water-holding capacity of cells. It helps in maintaining the protective osmolytic activity in birds under heat stress. Betaine may promote various intestinal microbes against osmotic variations and this results in improve microbial fermentation activity [38]. Furthermore, betaine is also found to have anti-inflammatory properties and improves intestinal function [39].
Because betaine influences fat and protein deposition, it can also be used to improve carcass quality and reduce fatty livers. Schrama et al. [40] showed that energy retention in pigs improves over time following the supplementation of betaine to the diet. They also found that under thermoneutral conditions, dietary betaine supplementation (1.23g/kg diet) reduced the total heat production of pigs. They suggest the same concentration of betaine in poultry diet, as well.
These scientific findings suggest that betaine may be suitable for reducing heat production in livestock (e.g. in poultry) at high ambient temperatures. However, only few research results have been published in this area to date. Therefore, further studies are needed to determine the impact of betaine on heat production in animals under high ambient temperature.
Another problem is that many of published papers are not clear on the source of betaine used (natural, extracted betaine anhydrous or synthetic betaine hydrochloride). The source is important, as it is likely that the efficacies of the different betaine sources differ.
5. Effects of heat stress on anti- and prooxidant status in birds. Mitigation using different feed additives
5.1 Anti- and prooxidant status
5.1.1 Impacts of heat stress
Increased environmental temperature caused increased lipid peroxidation (as well as induced formation of malondialdehyde (MDA), which is an indicator for lipid peroxidation). Therefore, the antioxidant defense system is altered [41, 42, 43].
According to the latest research, the elimination of the free radicals activates three level antioxidant systems (Figure 3, based on Babinszky et al. [10]).
Elimination is done by the first level of the antioxidant system which functions at the same time as the detoxification and regeneration pathways of the second level. The third level starts working after damage has been done, to repair and eliminate damaged cells. This first level (direct enzymatic pathway) includes the neutralization of the oxygen and nitrogen centred free radicals by enzymes. The second level includes the detoxification and regeneration reactions of the small molecule antioxidants. The third level is activated when damaged systems (proteins, DNA) have to be repaired and/or removed from the cells by chaperones and DNA-repair enzymes.
In general, it can be concluded that a large amount of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) causes disruption of mitochondrial function, increased lipid peroxidation, and decreased the concentration of so called antioxidant vitamins, furthermore induce stress gene expression, and finally it leads to dysfunction in antioxidant enzymes and also causes DNA damage.
According to Yang et al. [44] in heat stressed broilers (35°C for 3h/day), the activity of the mitochondrial respiratory chain is reduced, which led to over-production of ROS. This situation results in lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress in the birds.
In another study [7] lipid peroxidation and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was measured in broilers under heat stress (32°C for 6 h/day). The results showed that high temperature disturbed the equilibrium between the synthesis and catabolism of ROS production. Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and SOD activity increased and catalyze (CAT) activity decreased under heat stress (34°C 5 h/day from d28 to d38) [45].
ROS production reduced Vitamin A and E levels. Vitamin C concentration decreased under heat stress in poultry [46]. It has been reported that heat stress increased zinc (Zn) mobilization from tissues, and thus may cause marginal Zn deficiency and increase requirements [47]. According to Zeng et al. [48, 49], SOD, MDA, CAT activity and the total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) in Muscovy duck liver increased under short term heat stress (39°C for 1 hour then 3-hour recovery at20°C). The same results were found in broilers [50]. During heat stress in broilers, the serum concentrations of Vitamin C, E, A, iron (Fe), and Zn decreased, while the copper (Cu) concentration increased [51].
5.1.2 Using feed additives
5.1.2.1 Vitamin supplementation
High environmental temperature decreases the concentrations of vitamins and micro minerals in serum and increases excretion [52]; therefore, supplementation of direct or indirect antioxidant compounds (e.g. vitamins and micro nutrients) at higher levels is commonly recommended. These additives support mechanisms against lipid peroxidation, improve immune status and performance.
5.1.2.1.1 Vitamin E
Vitamin E functions as a fat-soluble antioxidant which protects cellular and membrane lipids from peroxidation-catalyzed free radicals due to heat stress. In cell membranes and lipoproteins, the essential antioxidant function of Vitamin E is to trap ROO− and to break the chain reaction of lipid peroxidation. While it cannot prevent their formation, it can reduce the formation of secondary radicals [53]. Vitamin E is known as the first line of defense against lipid peroxidation caused by heat stress. It has free radical quenching activity and attacks free radicals in an early stage. When feed was supplemented with Vitamin E (200-250 mg/kg feed), the serum concentration of Vitamins E and A increased in serum and MDA concentration decreased under long term heat stress [51]. Maini et al. [54] reported that CAT, GR, GSH, MDA and SOD level decreased under heat stress due to Vitamin E supplementation. Short term heat stress increased the concentration of Zn in serum when the diet was supplemented with Vitamin E [55] (Table 2, [56]).
Effects of selected vitamin supplementation under heat stress based on different studies [56].
CAT = catalase concentration in blood; GR = glutathione reductase concentration in blood; GSH = reduced glutathione concentration in blood; MDA = malondialdehyde concentration in blood; SOD = superoxide dismutase concentration in blood; Zn = zinc.
↑ Increase; ↓ decrease.
5.1.2.1.2 Vitamin C
Vitamin C protects against oxidative stress-induced cellular damage in the presence of scavenging ROS, and is capable itself of inhibiting lipid peroxidation in plasma. Ascorbic acid can directly scavenge radicals in the aqueous compartment. Ascorbate can scavenge O2−, H2O2, the OH, hypochlorous acid, aqueous ROO−, and singlet oxygen. Under its antioxidant activity, ascorbate has a two-electron reduction [53]. Although chickens are known to synthesize ascorbic acid in the kidney, increased supplementation has proved beneficial effects in broilers reared under heat stress [59]. Ascorbic acid is actively absorbed. This active transport is supported by the sodium electrochemical gradient. However, the vitamin C requirements increase under heat stress. According to different studies, ascorbic acid supplementation (200 mg/kg feed) caused a significant increase in plasma ascorbic acid levels [59, 60] in broilers under heat stress. This indicates that the higher Vitamin C concentrations in the broiler diet could be used against heat stress successfully.
5.1.2.2 Micro-mineral supplementation
5.1.2.2.1 Zinc
Zn is a “member” of the antioxidant network because it is a cofactor of a very important antioxidant enzyme: Cu/Zn-SOD. Zinc plays a role in depressing the free radicals and inhibiting lipid peroxidation and GSH depletion. Zn can have direct antioxidant function and it is necessary for the prevention of free radical formation. However, it does not act directly against them [53]. Zinc supplementation has positive effects on antioxidant status of birds [61, 62, 63]. Zinc may play an important role in suppressing free radicals because it works as a cofactor (Cu/Zn-SOD) and inhibits NADPH-dependent lipid peroxidation [64], thus improving antioxidant status: increased serum Vitamin C and E concentrations [65] and decreased MDA levels [57, 66] (Table 3, [56]).
Effects of micro mineral supplementation under heat stress based on different studies [56].
GPx = glutathione peroxidase concentration in blood; GR = glutathione reductase concentration in blood; GSH = reduced glutathione concentration in blood; GSSG = glutathione disulphide concentration in blood; GPx = glutathione peroxidase concentration in blood; MDA = malondialdehyde concentration in blood; Se = selenium; Zn = zinc.
↑ Increase; ↓ decrease; ᴓ no effect.
5.1.2.2.2 Selenium
Organoselenium compounds are essential micronutrients and are required for cellular defense against oxidative stress and optimal immune function. Selenium is necessary for cellular function and is a component of antioxidant enzymes: an important part (cofactor) of GPx, which works as an important antioxidant enzyme, protecting cells against free radical damage and oxidative stress [53]. Selenium supplementation improved antioxidant status in poultry under heat stress [51, 55, 58]. It is suggested that the metabolic role of Se is to protect cells against oxidation and tissue damage. Rapid oxidation of GSH to GSSH is necessary to compensate the heat stress caused ROS production. However, Se supplementation increases the level of available NADPH to promote the activation of GR, leading to increased GSSH reduction to GSH [67]. Therefore, Se supplementation affected GPx activity and the GPx/GSH ratio (Table 3).
Results of studies done with separated supplementation of Vitamin A (9000–15000 IU/kg diet), Vitamin E (150–500 mg/kg diet), Vitamin C (150–500 mg/kg diet), Zn (30 or 60 mg/kg diet) and Se (0,1-1 mg/kg diet), show that antioxidant status improved in poultry under heat stress. Antioxidant potential has been reported to be more efficient and important in combination than single antioxidant nutrients [68]. The latest research studies show that interactions between vitamin-vitamin and vitamin-minerals used in combination have more improved effects on the antioxidant status and performance of poultry under heat stress than they do separately. Literature data on combinations of vitamin and mineral supplementation can be seen in Table 4 [56].
Effects of vitamin and mineral interactions under heat stress based on different studies [56].
MDA = malondialdehyde concentration in blood; SOD = superoxide dismutase concentration in blood, Se = selenium, Zn = zinc.
↑ Increase; ↓ decrease.
5.1.2.3 Plant extracts
Dried oregano powder (0.5% and 1%) can be supplemented for ducks. Oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) is an herb extract used as an additive in poultry nutrition. It is an aromatic plant, containing more than 30 phenolic antioxidants constituents, including also anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial activity. It can also have beneficial effects on production, mortality, microflora, and the immune system [69]. Antioxidant enzyme activity (SOD, GPx) was improved in poultry [69]. These results suggest that dried oregano powder addition could decrease the changes in antioxidant enzymes under heat stress.
5.1.2.4 Probiotics
Probiotics are non-digestive alternative growth promoters used in poultry nutrition. Probiotics can improve animal performance, and it can manipulate and maintain beneficial microflora in the gut. Several studies prove that probiotics supplementation to feed improves production parameters in poultry [70, 71]. Supplementation of probiotics (Bacillus Subtilis: 1x108 CFU/kg feed) decreased MDA activity and uric acid concentration, and also improved antioxidant response in ducks [72, 73].
6. The effect of heat stress on the performance of broilers reduced by using feed additives
6.1 The effect of heat stress on the performance of broilers
After reviewing the relevant research, we identified three different types of heat stress (HS) that have been applied in experiments: acute, cyclic and chronic. In the case of acute HS, the elevated temperature lasts from several hours up to 24 hours. After exposure to HS, sample and data collection occurs. This type of arrangement is suitable to study the immediate effect of heat stress. However, in temperate countries, even in the case of cooled stables, the actual barn temperature shows a daily cycle which can be mimicked by the cyclic HS environment (4–10 hours per day in the range of three days per week to daily up to 10 days long). In tropical countries, this kind of fluctuation is much less pronounced. Therefore, the environmental conditions can be best modeled with a chronic HS (continuous HS environment usually during the second half of fattening) model [74].
The most often claimed effect of heat stress is a reduction of feed intake. As an immediate effect, acute heat stress reduces feed intake by about 25% (Table 5).
Effect of heat stress on the growth performance of broilers (means ± s.d.).
Thermoneutral environment.
Heat stress environment.
(TN-HS)/TN*100, average values of the calculations from the research cited.
HS environment from several hours to 24 hours.
HS environment 4–10 hours per day in the range of three days per week to daily up to 10 days.
Continuous HS environment (24 hours/day) usually during the second half of the fattening.
Applying the heat stress repeatedly but allowing regeneration at thermoneutral (TN) temperature (cyclic HS-simulating the day-night temperature fluctuation) results in an adaptation, as during this period the lowest decline (in between 5 and 15%) in performance data (feed intake, daily gain and feed conversion ratio) can be observed (Table 5). Chronic heat stress will approximately double the negative effect compared to cyclic heat stress (7–11% point), but still some adaptation can be seen compared to acute heat stress. Acute HS has a dramatic effect on daily gain, as even negative values (weight loss) can occur, which makes it impracticable to calculate the feed conversion ratio. Therefore, researchers did not publish such data. The nutrient content of the unconsumed feed itself does not justify the negative energy balance; therefore, one can assume that the energy and nutrient needs of the HS response are high. When adaptation can occur; cyclic HS has a less adverse effect than chronic HS on both daily gain and the feed conversion ratio (Table 5).
6.2 Mitigation capacity of various feed additives on HS in broilers
One long term aim of researchers is to be able to mitigate the negative effects of heat stress. Supplementation of effective feed additives could be useful for improving intestinal absorption and minimizing the adverse effects of HS [92]. To have more clear information on effectiveness of various feed supplements Ortega and Szabó [93] suggested the calculation of mitigation capacity (see subsection 2 in the present chapter). However, researchers [93] also point out that contrary to the numerous publications in the field, only a limited number of studies are suitable for using this calculation, as it requires at least three treatment groups. HS effect mitigating supplements are usually vitamins expressing antioxidant capacity, probiotics and plant extracts (Tables 6–8).
Mitigation capacity of various feed additives on HS in broilers’ growth performance (feed conversion ratio, kg/kg).
Thermoneutral temperature.
Heat stress temperature.
Thermoneutral environment, control feed.
Heat stress environment, control feed.
Heat stress environment and specialty feed supplement fortified diet.
% mitigation = (HS treatment - HS control)/(TN control – HS control) x 100.
HS environment 4–10 hours per day in the range of three days per week to daily up to 10 days.
Continuous HS environment (24 hours/day) usually during the second half of the fattening.
Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. Bulgaricus, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, Bifidobacterium bifidum, and Streptococcus salivarius ssp. Thermophilus and Enterococcus faecium.
Lactobacillus pentosus ITA23 and Lactobacillus acidophilus ITA44.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Lactobacillus acidophilus.
Combination of two or more feed additives are used.
Only one feed additive used.
HS type averages regardless of single or combined supplementation.
It can be seen that - overall - the most difficult parameter to improve is that of feed intake (Table 7), as the feed additives studied have quite variable mitigation capacities. The overall mitigation percentage is only about 5–15%.Bettervalueswere obtained in the case of chronic heat stress compared to cyclic heat stress, but different feed additives were used. The highest improvement (above 85%) was achieved with a probiotic [88]. However, other probiotics were much less effective.
The adversely affected daily gain can be improved by about 30–35%, and the feed conversion ratio increased up to 60–70%. Observing the mitigation capacity of different feed additives in this regard, it seems that probiotics and vitamins can be the most effective mitigators, especially when they are applied in combination [84]. However, further research is needed to determine the most effective microbe combination(s), and the most effective levels of vitamins, as well as their interactive effects. Only one study reported results with fumaric acid supplementation which also seems promising, but more research is still needed [86]. Quite a few authors have tested the feed supplements in combination, which is in line with feed industry trends. Therefore, we calculated the average % mitigation value for combined and single applications. Data shows that combined applications are more effective in cyclic heat stress conditions, while that benefit cannot be observed in chronic heat stress.
7. Conclusions
Based on the scientific findings presented in this chapter, the following important conclusions can be drawn:
Using fat in the diet (up to 5%) can reduce heat production in livestock.
Vitamins (e.g. A, E and C) are capable of reacting with free radicals, thereby reducing their amounts and lipid peroxidation in the poultry. However, micro minerals (e.g. Zn, Se) are not directly capable of preventing or reducing ROS-formation, but they are essential cofactors for those enzymes which are reacting with free radicals.
Vitamin E and Vitamin C supplementation improved antioxidant parameters (CAT, GR, GSH, MDA, SOD) due to their essential antioxidant function. Both Zn and Se are also improving antioxidant parameters (GR, GSH, GPx, and MDA).
Antioxidant potential of vitamins and micro minerals is more efficient in combination under heat stress in poultry nutrition.
Plant extracts (e.g. oregano) could decrease the negative effects of heat stress on antioxidant enzyme activity due its antioxidant constituents.
Betaine reduces heat production in animals at high ambient temperatures.
Acute heat stress induced a drop in feed intake and increased nutrient demand will result even in weight loss. However, if heat stress is prolonged, adaptation will occur.
Probiotics and vitamins (C and E) seem to be the most effective means of reducing the negative effects of heat stress.
Main conclusion for the practice: Different feed additives and supplementation strategies (single vs. combined) can be more effective in temperate and tropical countries. Therefore, in order to decide which feed additive to use and in what form (single or combined) the most effectively, it is recommended that farmers carry out a pre-study in the given climatic and feeding conditions.
\n',keywords:"Broiler, Feed additives, Heat stress, Antioxidant status, Performance",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79279.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79279.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79279",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79279",totalDownloads:248,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"October 1st 2021",datePrePublished:"November 15th 2021",datePublished:"December 8th 2021",dateFinished:"November 10th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Global warming is one of the major challenges for mankind, with animal breeding one of the most affected sectors in the agricultural industry. High ambient temperatures negatively affect all domestic animals. While it is true that pork and dairy production suffer the consequences of heat waves, it is actually the poultry industry which is hit the hardest by the heat stress poultry must endure due to hotter weather. Consequently, we have a fundamental interest in reducing and/or eliminating the negative effects of climate change, i.e. prolonged high ambient temperatures. The aim of this chapter is to present the adverse effects of heat stress on energy metabolism, anti- and pro-oxidant capacity and production in birds. A further goal is to show how various feed additives (e.g. vitamin A, C and E, selenium, zinc, betaine, plant extract, and probiotics) can reduce the negative effects of heat stress. Based on the large number of recent scientific findings, the following conclusions were drawn: Using fat in the diet (up to 5%) can reduce heat production in livestock. Vitamins (e.g. A, E and C) are capable of reacting with free radicals. Vitamin E and Vitamin C, Zn, and Se supplementation improved antioxidant parameters. Antioxidant potential of vitamins and micro minerals is more efficient in combination under heat stress in poultry nutrition. Plant extracts (e.g. oregano) could decrease the negative effects of heat stress on antioxidant enzyme activity due to its antioxidant constituents. Betaine reduces heat production in animals at high ambient temperatures. While acute heat stress induces a drop in feed intake, with the resulting increased nutrient demand leading to weight loss, if heat stress is prolonged, adaptation will occur. Probiotics and vitamins (C and E) seem to be the most effective means to reduce the negative effects of heat stress.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79279",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79279",signatures:"László Babinszky, Csaba Szabó and Márta Horváth",book:{id:"10496",type:"book",title:"Advanced Studies in the 21st Century Animal Nutrition",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Advanced Studies in the 21st Century Animal Nutrition",slug:"advanced-studies-in-the-21st-century-animal-nutrition",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",bookSignature:"László Babinszky, Juliana Oliveira and Edson Mauro Santos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-404-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-403-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-405-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",email:"babinszky@agr.unideb.hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"345713",title:"Dr.",name:"Csaba",middleName:null,surname:"Szabó",fullName:"Csaba Szabó",slug:"csaba-szabo",email:"szabo.csaba@agr.unideb.hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"345719",title:"Mrs.",name:"Márta",middleName:null,surname:"Horváth",fullName:"Márta Horváth",slug:"marta-horvath",email:"mhorvath@agr.unideb.hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Methodology of the literature review",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Heat production of animals and heat stress",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Reduction of heat production by nutritional tools",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Using fat in the diets",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Using vitamin C in chicken diet to change energy metabolism",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 Using betaine as feed additive in the diet",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Effects of heat stress on anti- and prooxidant status in birds. Mitigation using different feed additives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.1 Anti- and prooxidant status",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"5.1.1 Impacts of heat stress",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_4",title:"Table 2.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_9_5",title:"Table 2.",level:"5"},{id:"sec_10_5",title:"5.1.2.1.2 Vitamin C",level:"5"},{id:"sec_12_4",title:"Table 3.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_12_5",title:"Table 3.",level:"5"},{id:"sec_13_5",title:"Table 4.",level:"5"},{id:"sec_15_4",title:"5.1.2.3 Plant extracts",level:"4"},{id:"sec_16_4",title:"5.1.2.4 Probiotics",level:"4"},{id:"sec_20",title:"6. The effect of heat stress on the performance of broilers reduced by using feed additives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"6.1 The effect of heat stress on the performance of broilers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"6.2 Mitigation capacity of various feed additives on HS in broilers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23",title:"7. 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Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"39599",doi:"10.5772/50046",title:"Encapsulation Technology to Protect Probiotic Bacteria",slug:"encapsulation-technology-to-protect-probiotic-bacteria",totalDownloads:12297,totalCrossrefCites:40,totalDimensionsCites:81,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"María Chávarri, Izaskun Marañón and María Carmen Villarán",authors:[{id:"150285",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"Chávarri Hueda",slug:"maria-chavarri-hueda",fullName:"María Chávarri Hueda"},{id:"151613",title:"MSc.",name:"Izaskun",middleName:null,surname:"Marañon",slug:"izaskun-maranon",fullName:"Izaskun Marañon"},{id:"151621",title:"Dr.",name:"Mª Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Villarán",slug:"ma-carmen-villaran",fullName:"Mª Carmen Villarán"}]},{id:"39607",doi:"10.5772/50121",title:"Recent Application of Probiotics in Food and Agricultural Science",slug:"recent-application-of-probiotics-in-food-and-agricultural-science",totalDownloads:10098,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:74,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"Danfeng Song, Salam Ibrahim and Saeed Hayek",authors:[{id:"107905",title:"Prof.",name:"Salam",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"salam-ibrahim",fullName:"Salam Ibrahim"},{id:"150202",title:"Dr.",name:"Danfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Song",slug:"danfeng-song",fullName:"Danfeng Song"},{id:"151025",title:"MSc.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Hayek",slug:"saeed-hayek",fullName:"Saeed Hayek"}]},{id:"49246",doi:"10.5772/61300",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4607,totalCrossrefCites:24,totalDimensionsCites:55,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]},{id:"51065",doi:"10.5772/63499",title:"Role of the Biofilms in Wastewater Treatment",slug:"role-of-the-biofilms-in-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:6759,totalCrossrefCites:24,totalDimensionsCites:55,abstract:"Biological wastewater treatment systems play an important role in improving water quality and human health. This chapter thus briefly discusses different biological methods, specially biofilm technologies, the development of biofilms on different filter media, factors affecting their development as well as their structure and function. It also tackles various conventional and modern molecular techniques for detailed exploration of the composition, diversity and dynamics of biofilms. These data are crucial to improve the performance, robustness and stability of biofilm-based wastewater treatment technologies.",book:{id:"5197",slug:"microbial-biofilms-importance-and-applications",title:"Microbial Biofilms",fullTitle:"Microbial Biofilms - Importance and Applications"},signatures:"Shama Sehar and Iffat Naz",authors:[{id:"180364",title:"Dr.",name:"Iffat",middleName:null,surname:"Naz",slug:"iffat-naz",fullName:"Iffat Naz"},{id:"183345",title:"Dr.",name:"Shama",middleName:null,surname:"Sehar",slug:"shama-sehar",fullName:"Shama Sehar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65613",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9033,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"62553",title:"Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production and Its Effects on Bacterial Resistance",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-poultry-production-and-its-effects-on-bacterial-resistance",totalDownloads:7129,totalCrossrefCites:42,totalDimensionsCites:82,abstract:"A surge in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance has become a major cause for concern. Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"65914",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-action-mechanisms-of-antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance",totalDownloads:4310,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:null,book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}]},{id:"50992",title:"Probiotics: A Comprehensive Review of Their Classification, Mode of Action and Role in Human Nutrition",slug:"probiotics-a-comprehensive-review-of-their-classification-mode-of-action-and-role-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5325,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Probiotics are live microorganisms that live in gastrointestinal (GI) tract and are beneficial for their hosts and prevent certain diseases. In this chapter, after a complete introduction to probiotics, definition, mechanism of action, and their classification, currently used organisms will be discussed in detail. Moreover, different kinds of nutritional synthetic products of probiotics along with their safety and drug interaction will be noticed. This chapter mentions all clinical trial studies that have been done to evaluate probiotic efficacy with a focus on gastrointestinal diseases.",book:{id:"5193",slug:"probiotics-and-prebiotics-in-human-nutrition-and-health",title:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health",fullTitle:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health"},signatures:"Amirreza Khalighi, Reza Behdani and Shabnam Kouhestani",authors:[{id:"179560",title:"Dr.",name:"Amirreza",middleName:null,surname:"Khalighi",slug:"amirreza-khalighi",fullName:"Amirreza Khalighi"},{id:"185238",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Behdani",slug:"reza-behdani",fullName:"Reza Behdani"},{id:"185239",title:"Dr.",name:"Shabnam",middleName:null,surname:"Kouhestani",slug:"shabnam-kouhestani",fullName:"Shabnam Kouhestani"}]},{id:"56849",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Innate Immune Response Against Pathogens",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-innate-immune-response-against-pathogens",totalDownloads:6083,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Pathogen infections are recognized by the immune system, which consists of two types of responses: an innate immune response and an antigen-specific adaptive immune response. The innate response is characterized by being the first line of defense that occurs rapidly in which leukocytes such as neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, eosinophils, mast cells, dendritic cells, etc., are involved. These cells recognize the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), which have been evolutionarily conserved by the diversity of microorganisms that infect humans. Recognition of these pathogen-associated molecular patterns occurs through pattern recognition receptors such as Toll-like receptors and some other intracellular receptors such as nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD), with the aim of amplifying the inflammation and activating the adaptive cellular immune response, through the antigenic presentation. In the present chapter, we will review the importance of the main components involved in the innate immune response, such as different cell types, inflammatory response, soluble immune mediators and effector mechanisms exerted by the immune response against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites; all with the purpose of eliminating them and eradicating the infection of the host.",book:{id:"5975",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-immunology",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology",fullTitle:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology"},signatures:"José Luis Muñoz Carrillo, Flor Pamela Castro García, Oscar\nGutiérrez Coronado, María Alejandra Moreno García and Juan\nFrancisco Contreras Cordero",authors:[{id:"214236",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Carrillo",slug:"jose-luis-munoz-carrillo",fullName:"Jose Luis Muñoz-Carrillo"},{id:"216080",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno-García",slug:"alejandra-moreno-garcia",fullName:"Alejandra Moreno-García"},{id:"216081",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Gutiérrez-Coronado",slug:"oscar-gutierrez-coronado",fullName:"Oscar Gutiérrez-Coronado"},{id:"216082",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-García",slug:"pamela-castro-garcia",fullName:"Pamela Castro-García"},{id:"220717",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras Cordero",slug:"juan-francisco-contreras-cordero",fullName:"Juan Francisco Contreras Cordero"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"13",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81760",title:"On the Selective Isolation of Actinobacteria from Different Mexican Ecosystems",slug:"on-the-selective-isolation-of-actinobacteria-from-different-mexican-ecosystems",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104699",abstract:"Actinobacteria isolated from less studied sites on our planet represent a huge opportunity for the discovery of novel microorganisms that may produce unique compounds with biological activity. The class actinobacteria encompasses 80% of the microbes that produce the antibacterial compounds used in medicine today. However, the resistance acquired/showed by pathogenic microorganisms opens the opportunity to explore Mexican ecosystems as a source of novel actinobacteria. Air samples have shown to be an excellent site of study, marine ecosystems which include sediments and marine organisms are important sources of novel actinobacteria and soil samples are still a promising source to isolate this microbial group. The isolation of novel actinobacteria is a dynamic strategy that depends on the expertise, patience, and talent of the techniques applied and needs to be fully explored to untap the unknown actinobacterial diversity with potential in biology.",book:{id:"10893",title:"Actinobacteria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10893.jpg"},signatures:"Erika T. Quintana, Luis A. Maldonado, Luis Contreras-Castro, Amanda Alejo-Viderique, Martha E. Esteva García, Claudia J. Hernández-Guerrero, Juan C. Cancino-Díaz, Carlos Sánchez, Luis A. Ladino, Juan Esteban Martínez-Gómez and Noemí Matías-Ferrer"},{id:"81741",title:"Chronic Intraocular Leptospiral Infection Relying on Biofilm Formation inside the Vitreous Cavity Leads to Recurrent Uveitis in Horses",slug:"chronic-intraocular-leptospiral-infection-relying-on-biofilm-formation-inside-the-vitreous-cavity-le",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104527",abstract:"Equine recurrent uveitis (ERU) is a disease known and feared for centuries, as it almost always leads to blindness even with careful and meticulous conservative treatment of the individual episodes of uveitis. In about one-third of horses, both eyes are affected, often necessitating euthanasia. A link between ERU and leptospiral infection has been suspected for nearly 80 years. Vitreous lavage (vitrectomy) can preserve vision in affected eyes. After surgery, no further episodes of uveitis occur in up to more than 95% of operated eyes. With routine performance of vitrectomies, numerous vitreous samples could be used for further investigations. Intraocular anti-Leptospira antibody production was proven, leptospires could be cultured from the vitreous samples, and the LipL32 gene could be detected in the vitreous samples by PCR. Thus, there was convincing evidence of a chronic intraocular leptospiral infection, which can be eliminated most reliably by vitrectomy. Recently, it has been shown that the intraocular leptospires produce biofilm in the equine vitreous. Biofilm formation explains not only the success of vitrectomy, but also the survival of leptospires in the vitreous cavity for many years despite the presence of high intraocular antibody titers and immunocompetent cells, as well as the high tolerance to antibiotics.",book:{id:"11092",title:"Bacterial Biofilms",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11092.jpg"},signatures:"Bettina Wollanke and Hartmut Gerhards"},{id:"81758",title:"Growing Environmental Bacterium Biofilms in PEO Cryogels for Environmental Biotechnology Application",slug:"growing-environmental-bacterium-biofilms-in-peo-cryogels-for-environmental-biotechnology-application",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104813",abstract:"This Chapter discusses the entrapment, growing and biofilm formation by an environmental bacterium immobilized in polyethyleneoxide cryogel to be applied in environmental biotechnology. The KCM-R5 bacterium was isolated from the heavy metal-polluted environment near a large Pb-Zn smelter, also producing precious metals in Bulgaria. Molecular-genetic analysis revealed affiliation with Pseudomonas rhodesiae. The strain is capable of growing in high concentrations of phenol and different phenol derivatives. Polyethylene oxide was found to be friendly and nontoxic to bacteria polymer enabling bacteria easy to penetrate in it and fast to grow. KCM-R5 biofilms were grown for 30 days in batch culture with phenol (300-1000 mg L−1) dissolved in the mineral medium. The bacterium was able to involve phenol in its metabolism and use it as a single carbon supplier. The results obtained in the study showed 98% phenol biodegradation using the biotech installation described. The proposed PEO cryogel-P. rhodesiae KCM-R5 bacterium biotech biofilter can be used for environmental biotechnology application in industrial wastewater detoxification.",book:{id:"11092",title:"Bacterial Biofilms",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11092.jpg"},signatures:"Galina Satchanska"},{id:"81733",title:"Impairment of the Cardiovascular System during SARS-CoV-2 Infection",slug:"impairment-of-the-cardiovascular-system-during-sars-cov-2-infection",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103964",abstract:"Although the infection with the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2) virus affects primarily the respiratory system, it became evident from the very beginning that the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is frequently associated with a large spectrum of cardiovascular involvements such as myocarditis/pericarditis, acute coronary syndrome, arrhythmias, or thromboembolic events, explained by a multitude of pathophysiological mechanisms. Individuals already suffering of significant cardiovascular diseases were more likely to be infected with the virus, had a worse evolution during COVID-19, with further deterioration of their basal condition and increased morbidity and mortality, but significant cardiac dysfunctions were diagnosed even in individuals without a history of heart diseases or being at low risk to develop such a pathology. Cardiovascular complications may occur anytime during the course of COVID-19, persisting even during recovery and, potentially, explaining many of the persisting symptoms included now in terms as subacute or long-COVID-19. It is now well accepted that in COVID-19, the occurrence of cardiovascular impairment represents a significant negative prognostic factor, immensely rising the burden of cardiovascular pathologies.",book:{id:"11369",title:"RNA Viruses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11369.jpg"},signatures:"Cristina Tudoran, Mariana Tudoran, Voichita Elena Lazureanu, Adelina Raluca Marinescu, Dorin Novacescu and Talida Georgiana Cut"},{id:"81718",title:"Advances in the Development of Anti-Trichinella spiralis Vaccine, Challenges, and Future Prospective",slug:"advances-in-the-development-of-anti-trichinella-spiralis-vaccine-challenges-and-future-prospective",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103027",abstract:"Trichinellosis is a food-borne, zoonotic disease that causes infection by a nematode parasite belonging to the genus Trichinella. This is an important disease, and its causative agent is prevalent throughout the world (cosmopolitan). More clinical awareness of trichinellosis is required due to its many outbreaks, increase in the consumption of pork meat and its by-products. Trichinellosis is an epizootic in nature and its economic burden is associated with the prevention of this disease from the human food chain. This disease is transmitted from animals to humans through the consumption of raw or undercooked meat containing encapsulated muscle larvae of Trichinella spiralis. This paper demonstrates the direct effect of progesterone (P4) and mifepristone (RU486) on the progesterone receptors of T. spiralis. Also, studied the challenges in the preparation of DNA and recombinant protein vaccination to control trichinellosis. It is simply done this study at different life cycle developmental stages of T. spiralis. Vaccines development against T. spiralis infection is the new paradime shift from prevention of trichinellosis to fulfilling the food safety requirements.",book:{id:"11380",title:"Parasitic Helminths and Zoonoses - From Basic to Applied Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11380.jpg"},signatures:"Muhammad Tahir Aleem, Ruofeng Yan, Asad Khan, Rida Asrar, Amna Shakoor, Areej Asif, Zhaohai Wen, Zhengqing Yu, Muhammad Abdullah Malik, Tauseef-ur-Rehman, Rao Zahid Abbas, Muhammad Mohsin, Xiaokai Song, Lixin Xu and Xiangrui Li"},{id:"81699",title:"Efflux Pumps among Urinary E. coli and K. pneumoniae Local Isolates in Hilla City, Iraq",slug:"efflux-pumps-among-urinary-e-coli-and-k-pneumoniae-local-isolates-in-hilla-city-iraq",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104408",abstract:"Urinary tract infections (UTI) are the most common bacterial infections affecting humans. Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae were common enterobacteria engaged with community-acquired UTIs. Efflux pumps were vital resistance mechanisms for antibiotics, especially among enterobacteria. Overexpression of an efflux system, which results in a decrease in antibiotic accumulation, is an effective mechanism for drug resistance. The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, small multidrug resistance (SMR), and multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE) families, the major facilitator superfamily (MFS), and the resistance-nodulation- cell division (RND) family are the five superfamilies of efflux systems linked to drug resistance. This chapter highlights the results of studying the prevalence of efflux pump genes among local isolates of E. coli and K. pneumoniae in Hilla City, Iraq. class RND AcrAB-TolC, AcrAD-TolC, and AcrFE-TolC genes detected by conventional PCR of E. coli and K. pneumoniae respectively. The result revealed approximately all studied efflux transporter were found in both E. coli and K. pneumoniae in different percentages. Biofilm formation were observed in 50(100%) of K. pneumoniae and 49(98%) of E. coli isolates were biofilm former and follow: 30(60%), 20(40%) were weak, 12(24%), 22(44%) were moderate and 7(14%) and 8(16%) were Strong biofilm former for E. coli and K. pneumoniae, respectively.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic – Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Hussein Al-Dahmoshi, Sahar A. Ali and Noor Al-Khafaji"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:87},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tThis series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in business and management, economics, and marketing. Topics will include asset liability management, financial consequences of the financial crisis and covid-19, financial accounting, mergers and acquisitions, management accounting, SMEs, financial markets, corporate finance and governance, managerial technology and innovation, resource management and sustainable development, social entrepreneurship, corporate responsibility, ethics and accountability, microeconomics, labour economics, macroeconomics, public economics, financial economics, econometrics, direct marketing, creative marketing, internet marketing, market planning and forecasting, brand management, market segmentation and targeting and other topics under business and management. This book series will focus on various aspects of business and management whose in-depth understanding is critical for business and company management to function effectively during this uncertain time of financial crisis, Covid-19 pandemic, and military activity in Europe.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/22.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"356540",title:"Prof.",name:"Taufiq",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhry",slug:"taufiq-choudhry",fullName:"Taufiq Choudhry",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000036X2hvQAC/Profile_Picture_2022-03-14T08:58:03.jpg",biography:"Prof. Choudhry holds a BSc degree in Economics from the University of Iowa, as well as a Masters and Ph.D. in Applied Economics from Clemson University, USA. In January 2006, he became a Professor of Finance at the University of Southampton Business School. He was previously a Professor of Finance at the University of Bradford Management School. He has over 80 articles published in international finance and economics journals. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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