Fatty acid composition (mg FA 100 g−1 milk) in goat milk fat in comparison to cow milk (1Posati & Orr, 1976; 2Žan et al., 2005)
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5110",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Miniinvasive Techniques in Rhinoplasty",title:"Miniinvasive Techniques in Rhinoplasty",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is divided into two parts. The first part describes mini-invasive surgical techniques, sufficient to perform the most important tasks in rhinoplasty, such as: tip rotation and projection; closure of the open roof after humpectomy; alignment and stabilization of the columella; refinement of the nasal tip, lower third and medial third; narrowing of the alar base. The second part concerns medical rhinoplasty techniques using nerve blocks, injectable fillers etc., which aim is to achieve similar results, despite their temporary effect. Currently, the request for such procedures and their number exceeds this of surgical operations and demonstrates their importance. Although minimally invasive techniques will not totally replace surgical rhinoplasty, this book will serve as a tool to enhance refinement of rhinoplasty and clinical aesthetics.This first textbook in minimally invasive rhinoplasty techniques will be of great help to many doctors and will provoke further development of time-saving, atraumatic and mini-invasive techniques with preservative attitude toward nasal tissues in the modern art of nasal and face beautification.",isbn:"978-953-51-2260-9",printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7278-9",doi:"10.5772/60908",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"miniinvasive-techniques-in-rhinoplasty",numberOfPages:192,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"795ab5e7adfc30a3907f52b636c45029",bookSignature:"Nikolay Serdev",publishedDate:"March 9th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5110.jpg",numberOfDownloads:29894,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:8,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:17,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 26th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 20th 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 19th 2015",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 18th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",middleName:null,surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32585/images/1704_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Nikolay Serdev, MD, PhD is a renowned cosmetic surgeon. He has trained hundreds of doctors globally in minimally invasive aesthetic surgery and medical procedures as well as in his author techniques. \r\nHe is the creator of Scarless Serdev Suture® lifts of face and body and pioneer in many other mini-invasive cosmetic surgery techniques: ultrasound liposculpture of face, body and leg elongation and beautification; T-excision and columella sliding in rhinoplasty; non-surgical body contouring; and their combination with his own suture to facial rejuvenation, beautification and tissue volumising. He is also a world authority in ultrasound-assisted (VASER) body contouring and has trained doctors from around the world in its basic and advanced techniques. \r\nDr. Serdev is Honorary professor at the New Bulgarian University in Sofia and director of its program of qualification in Aesthetic Surgery. He divides his time between his clinic, the University and short travels for international meetings, live surgery demonstrations and hands-on courses in countries of all continents. \r\nHe is editor and author of several comprehensive textbooks in the field of Cosmetic and Plastic Surgery, including Liposuction, Sutures Lifts on Face and Body Areas, Thread vs Suture lift techniques, Rhinoplasty and has authored many chapters in aesthetic surgery and medicine books, as well as original papers in medical journals.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"20",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1143",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",slug:"cosmetic-surgery"}],chapters:[{id:"49862",title:"T-Excision for Nasal Tip Rotation",doi:"10.5772/62061",slug:"t-excision-for-nasal-tip-rotation",totalDownloads:2461,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Authors “T-excision” for nasal tip rotation is used to reduce long noses as an independent procedure or as a part of primary or secondary rhinoplasties. It consists of “en bloc” excision of the cephalic part of the greater alar cartilages and elongated caudal septum, using: 1) total retrocolumellar incision, prolonged in transcartilaginous incisions, through opposite nostrils, leaving only skin intact; 2) septal incision, perpendicular to dorsum to form correct dorsum length, prolonged into intercartilaginous incisions, through opposite nostrils, leaving only skin intact. Thus, the cephalic strip resection is done en bloc with the unnecessary excessive and prolonged septum and soft tissue. Two, three mattress transmucosal septocolumellar sutures for 2–3 weeks are enough to support healing. The T-excision technique is mini-invasive, nearly bloodless, and time-saving. It is safe; well-tolerated by patients; there is no pain after surgery; no need of plaster, tampons, and bandages. Patients can return next day to social life and work.",signatures:"Nikolay P. Serdev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49862",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49862",authors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],corrections:null},{id:"49886",title:"Excision of Prominent Posterior Septal Angle and Nasal Spine for Downward Tip Rotation, in Short Upper Lip, or Over-Rotated Tip",doi:"10.5772/62062",slug:"excision-of-prominent-posterior-septal-angle-and-nasal-spine-for-downward-tip-rotation-in-short-uppe",totalDownloads:1833,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The author uses resection of the posterior septal angle and nasal spine for downward tip rotation in cases of obtuse nasolabial angle and a short upper lip [1-8]. It could be an independent procedure or part of T-excision, or other type of primary or secondary rhinoplasty. This excision is easy to perform, prolonging the retrocolumellar incision downward. A 2–3 mm excision of the length of the caudal septum in the part of the posterior septal angle (including the spina nasalis anterior) may be enough to shorten the length of the nasal pyramid at its base and adapt the long pyramid to the aesthetic middle-third of the face. This is helpful especially in women with delicate faces and unproportional noses. This procedure is mini-invasive, nearly bloodless, does not require tampons or bandages. There is almost no downtime.",signatures:"Nikolay P. Serdev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49886",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49886",authors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],corrections:null},{id:"49885",title:"Columella Sliding for Nasal Tip Projection Using Septocolumellar Transmucosal Mattress Sutures",doi:"10.5772/62063",slug:"columella-sliding-for-nasal-tip-projection-using-septocolumellar-transmucosal-mattress-sutures",totalDownloads:1883,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In author’s hands, columella sliding is a surgical technique to correct unaesthetic/unwanted depression or projection of the nasal tip. The tip can be increased or decreased by a simple mini-invasive technique during primary or secondary rhinoplasty as well as by a separate procedure. Main aim of the technique is to obtain the aesthetic 30° angle between dorsum and profile line and correct volume of the nasal tip at the line of the beauty triangle. It is possible to change the projection of the nasal tip using a retrocolumellar incision, to slide columella against septum upward or downward and fix the new position with 2–3 transmucosal columella-septal sutures. The stitches will be removed after 2–3 weeks, which is enough for columella to heal stable initially to septum. Columella sliding is an important technique to obtain a dorsoprofile angle of 30°, which is an aesthetic rule. The technique is atraumatic, mini-invasive, nearly bloodless. The procedure is very well tolerated by patients: there is no need of casts, tampons, and patients return to social life almost immediately.",signatures:"Nikolay P. Serdev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49885",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49885",authors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],corrections:null},{id:"49887",title:"Digital Fracture Versus Lateral Osteotomy",doi:"10.5772/62064",slug:"digital-fracture-versus-lateral-osteotomy",totalDownloads:1651,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of digital fracture versus lateral osteotomies is to narrow the bony base of the nose after the dorsal correction, by closing the open dorsal roof, avoiding the lateral “rocker” or steplike deformities. The author presents the digital fracture technique, which is simple, safer, closes the open dorsal roof after medial osteotomy much better, and does not provoke bleeding and bruising. It is atraumatic and saves time during the operation and recovery.",signatures:"Nikolay P. Serdev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49887",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49887",authors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],corrections:null},{id:"49888",title:"Debridement of Lower Lateral Cartilages in Cleft Lip–Nose Cases along with Management of Skin and Fibrotic Traction",doi:"10.5772/62075",slug:"debridement-of-lower-lateral-cartilages-in-cleft-lip-nose-cases-along-with-management-of-skin-and-fi",totalDownloads:1341,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Rhinoplasties in case of cleft lip–nose and palate are difficult and may include: primary repair of nasal deformities at the time of cleft lip repair; secondary staged repair of cleft lip–nasal deformities; separation of the quadrangular cartilage of the septum from the maxillary crest and securing it to the midline; removal of deviated portions, strut grafts, transplants to project the radix and dorsum, cartilage grafts, multidisciplinary care, etc. Results can vary widely, from excellent in primary corrections to very poor in late surgery cases. In some secondary rhinoplasties, based on skin and fibrotic tractions and deviations, the author offers a more simple method of debridement of the normally formed cartilages. It includes closed approach T-excision with releasing the alar cartilages from their attachments, columella sliding and sutures for stabilization of the columella, nasal tip refinement, dorsal augmentation, and overall symmetry. Such approach could be sufficient in selected cases. In other cases, additional steps may be necessary.",signatures:"Nikolay P. Serdev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49888",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49888",authors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],corrections:null},{id:"49853",title:"Transcutaneous and Transmucosal Serdev Sutures® for Nasal Tip Refinement, Alar Base Narrowing, and Other Corrections",doi:"10.5772/62074",slug:"transcutaneous-and-transmucosal-serdev-sutures-for-nasal-tip-refinement-alar-base-narrowing-and-othe",totalDownloads:2439,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The author describes his experience with the transcutaneous Serdev Suture® techniques in different aesthetic disproportions of the external nose and in secondary cases. Author’s needles are specifically designed for these techniques. Rhinoplasty is part of the beautification process. The cosmetic surgeon should be guided by correct nose proportions, angles, and volumes. Proportional nose is one that fits in 1/3 of the face length. Proper volumes are: thin dorsum, thin tip, narrow alar base. The tip of the nose prominence gives volume to the central face and its position should be in harmony with the beauty triangle (projected cheekbones and chin). The tip should be in the line of the cheekbone prominences. The nasal dorsum should be straight or slightly concave. The best angles are: 90° angle at the tip, 110° nasolabial angle, 30° angle of nostrils to columella, 30° dorsum to profile line. The aim of Serdev Suture® techniques in beautification rhinoplasty is to improve the above-mentioned aesthetic proportions, volumes, and angles of the nose, adapted to the face as a whole. Serdev Sutures® in rhinoplasty include: tip rotation, refinement of the tip, lower and medial thirds, alar base narrowing and nasal dorsum lifting of concavities and irregularities.",signatures:"Nikolay P. Serdev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49853",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49853",authors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],corrections:null},{id:"49848",title:"Depressor Septi Nasi Muscle Resection or Nerve Block",doi:"10.5772/62073",slug:"depressor-septi-nasi-muscle-resection-or-nerve-block",totalDownloads:3146,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In our daily practice, we usually perform the rhinoplasty without considering the dynamic functions.The depressor septi nasi muscle (DSNM) is very important in nose dynamics. Its hyperactivity in some rhinoplasty patients while they smiling or speaking causes a deformity that includes drooping of the nasal tip, elevation and shortening of the upper lip, and increased maxillary gingival show. The dissection of the depressor septi muscle during rhinoplasty can improve the tip-upper lip relationship in appropriately selected patients.",signatures:"Daniel G. Moina and Gabriel M. Moina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49848",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49848",authors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],corrections:null},{id:"49849",title:"Sutures or Resection of the Protruding End of Medial Crura",doi:"10.5772/62072",slug:"sutures-or-resection-of-the-protruding-end-of-medial-crura",totalDownloads:2425,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The anatomic alterations of the columella may compromise aesthetically both the nasal base and its function.",signatures:"Daniel G. Moina and Gabriel M. Moina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49849",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49849",authors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],corrections:null},{id:"49811",title:"Medical Rhinoplasty – The Treatment of Mimical Patients",doi:"10.5772/62071",slug:"medical-rhinoplasty-the-treatment-of-mimical-patients",totalDownloads:1903,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The plunging tip of the nose is a diffused cosmetically annoying problem. The medical rhinoplasty is a useful tool for the repair/reshaping of the plunging tip of the nose when the genesis is mimical. Botulinum toxin is used to repair this deformity. The anatomical details, the preparation of the materials, and the technique are discussed in this chapter with all the details that will permit the readers to understand and repeat the technique.",signatures:"Alessio Redaelli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49811",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49811",authors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],corrections:null},{id:"49889",title:"Botulinum Toxin in the Nasal Area",doi:"10.5772/62070",slug:"botulinum-toxin-in-the-nasal-area",totalDownloads:2851,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Introduction: Botulinum toxin type A for aesthetic purposes has been used since 1987, proving to be one of the most popular procedures in aesthetics due to its effectiveness in softening dynamic wrinkles.",signatures:"Diego Schavelzon, Guillermo Blugerman, Gabriel Wexler and Lorena Martinez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49889",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49889",authors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],corrections:null},{id:"49890",title:"Five Fluorouracil, Hyaluronidase, and Triamcinolone in the Nasal Region",doi:"10.5772/62068",slug:"five-fluorouracil-hyaluronidase-and-triamcinolone-in-the-nasal-region",totalDownloads:1835,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Introduction: The use of five fluorouracil (5 FU) as antifibrotic started in the 1960s, in the hands of ophthalmologists, to prevent adherence after glaucoma and pterigion surgery. In 1999, Fitzpatrick presented his experience in keloids and hypertrophic scars, making a great contribution to their treatment. Fibroblasts’ main function is collagen synthesis; in vicious scar the amount of collagen is normal, but what is altered is the ratio between collagen subtypes. The use of triamcinolone, the previous standard treatment, produced different degrees of atrophy and telangiectasias.",signatures:"Guillermo Blugerman, Diego Schavelzon and Gabriel Wexler",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49890",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49890",authors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],corrections:null},{id:"49891",title:"Auxiliary Procedures in the Nasal Skin",doi:"10.5772/62067",slug:"auxiliary-procedures-in-the-nasal-skin",totalDownloads:1804,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dermabrasion: This is a procedure that removes epidermis and superficial dermis in order to stimulate neo formation of collagen, elastic fibers, and vessels. Radiofrequency: The equipment can be regulated in ablative or nonablative (heat in dermis results in collagen fibers contraction) mode. The main effect is contraction and remodeling of collagen fibers. Chemical peels: Most used products are: retinoic acid, alpha hydroxy acids, trichloroacetic acid, phenol, and resorcinol. Superficial and mid peels are indicated in pigmented lesions and fine wrinkles. Deep wrinkles need a deep peel. External nasal lifting: As we age, flaccidity and solar damage in nasal skin turns the tip downward, and its classical correction (rhinoplasty) deepens the nasal dorsum wrinkles. Incisions and skin resection is planned in the nasoglabellar area. Subnasal lifting: An open nasolabial angle creates disequilibrium between the lip and nose in the central face. A buffalo horn like resection in the implantation of the nasal ala in the lip solves this angle, restoring the loss balance. Treatment of vascular lesion with luminic energy: Here we present our experience with nasal vascular lesions in the last 15 years. Treatment of nasal vascular lesions through thermocoagulation with radiofrequency: This technique is indicated in vascular lesions smaller than 3 mm of diameter, and punctiform lesions as rubi nevus and telangiectasias. Hair removal with LASER or IPL: The hairs anagen period of the nasal tip and vestibule gets longer as people age, turning hair to be unaesthetic.",signatures:"Guillermo Blugerman, Diego Schavelzon, Gabriel Wexler and Roberto Schale",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49891",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49891",authors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],corrections:null},{id:"49917",title:"Medical Rhinoplasty – Profile Correction with Resorbable Fillers",doi:"10.5772/62066",slug:"medical-rhinoplasty-profile-correction-with-resorbable-fillers",totalDownloads:1884,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The correction of nasal profile is a typical surgical field dating back centuries. In the last decade, with the fabrication of resorbable fillers, a new technique, which is mini-invasive, has emerged. For this treatment, the study of patients is especially important. The procedure can be performed with needles or cannulas; is very simple and easy; and the results are immediate. It must become baggage of any aesthetic doctor.",signatures:"Alessio Redaelli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49917",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49917",authors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],corrections:null},{id:"50019",title:"Nonsurgical Rhinoplasty",doi:"10.5772/62065",slug:"nonsurgical-rhinoplasty",totalDownloads:2441,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The goal of this chapter is to acquaint the experienced injector with the technique of Nonsurgical Rhinoplasty (NSR). This is an advanced technique and I am assuming that readers will be thoroughly familiar with how to perform cosmetic injections. I am also assuming that readers are knowledgeable about the various fillers and injectables available today in the United States.",signatures:"Alexander Z. Rivkin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50019",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50019",authors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"3",title:"Monograph",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"330",title:"Advanced Techniques in Liposuction and Fat Transfer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b46d7571b3a7f78d03a83f809c7a637f",slug:"advanced-techniques-in-liposuction-and-fat-transfer",bookSignature:"Nikolay Serdev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/330.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2989",title:"Miniinvasive Face and Body Lifts",subtitle:"Closed Suture Lifts or Barbed Thread Lifts",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7e9600ab8fe9125b2c41161d2ee91ff3",slug:"miniinvasive-face-and-body-lifts-closed-suture-lifts-or-barbed-thread-lifts",bookSignature:"Nikolay Serdev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2989.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7047",title:"Botulinum Toxin",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2a6791462a0bbc32c6da3218dcf5ac28",slug:"botulinum-toxin",bookSignature:"Nikolay Serdev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7047.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5346",title:"Body Contouring and Sculpting",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79bcaa74382f64066fe10bf59e89be6d",slug:"body-contouring-and-sculpting",bookSignature:"Nikolay P. 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Based on the potential benefits to long-term human health there is interest in developing sustainable nutritional strategies for reducing saturated and increasing specific unsaturated fatty acids in ruminant milk. Despite the lower scale of milk production from goats compared with cows in Europe, there is an increasing interest in goat milk due to inherent species-specific biochemical properties that contribute to nutritional quality. Goat milk has been identified as a viable alternative for consumers that are sensitive or develop allergic reactions to bovine milk.
Fat composition in goat milk is one of the most important components of the technological, nutritional or dietetic quality of goat milk. Milk fat content in goat milk is high after parturition and then decreases during the major part of lactation. This is related to at least two phenomena: a dilution effect due to the increase in milk volume until the lactation peak, and a decrease in fat mobilization that decreases the availability of plasma non-esterified fatty acids, especially C18:0 and C18:1, for mammary lipid synthesis (Chilliard et al., 2003). Even that, total solids, fat, crude protein, lactose, and ash contents of goat milk are almost similar to cow milk, there are important differences in the individual fatty acids and casein fractions and fat globule sizes. Fat globules of goat milk are smaller in size and do not coalesce upon cooling because of lack of agglutinin, which is responsible for the aggregation of fat globules in cow milk.
Goat milk fat is composed primarily of triglycerids (or triacylglycerides) (in 98%) and in a small part from phospholipids and sterols. Triglycerids are synthesized on the outer surface of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum of the milk alveolar cells from precursor substances: fatty acids and glycerol. They are forming larger globules, which are travelling to the margin of cell. At the beginning, they attach to the membrane and they pass through. Then, they are eliminated from the cell as fat globules of the milk. The synthesis is endogenous in a large extent, where the presence of the conjugated linoleic acid plays an important role (Hurley, 2009).
Fatty acids in goat milk are synthesized in epithelial cells of the mammary gland de novo or they are passing over from the blood (Chilliard et al., 2003). Two coenzymes have a major role in the synthesis of fatty acids in goat milk: acetyl-coenzyme A-carboxylase, which participates in the synthesis of fatty acids de novo and fatty acid synthase, which is a complex of enzymatic active substances and is responsible for the extension (elongation) of the fatty acid chain (Hurley, 2009). Fatty acids of exogenous origin are presented via the circulation to mammary epithelial cells either in the form of non-esterified fatty acids or esterified as the acyl groups of the triacylglycerol component of lipoprotein particles. In the mammary gland of ruminant animals, short and medium chain saturated fatty acids are the major products of de novo lipogenesis whereas plasma lipids contribute longer chain and mono unsaturated species. The acetate is the precursor of fatty acids synthesis in ruminants, while in monogastric animals, the precursor is glucose (Clegg et al., 2001).
Average goat milk fat differs in contents of its fatty acids significantly from average cow milk fat, being much higher in butyric (C4:0), caproic (C6:0), caprylic (C8:0), capric (C10:0), lauric (C12:0), myristic (C14:0), palmitic (C16:0), linoleic (C18:2), but lower in stearic (C18:0), and oleic acid (C18:1) (Table 1). Three of the medium chain fatty acids (caproic, caprilyc, and capric) have actually been named after goats, due to their predominance in goat milk. They contribute to 15% of the total fatty acid content in goat milk in comparison to 5% in cow milk (Haenlein, 1993). The presence of relatively high levels of medium chain fatty acids (C6:0 to C10:0) in goat milk fat could be responsible for its inferior flavour (Skjevdal, 1979).
Fatty acid | Goat milk1 | Goat milk (from highland flock)2 | Goat milk (from mountain flock)2 | Cow milk1 |
C4:0 butyric | 130 | - | - | 110 |
C6:0 caproic | 90 | - | - | 60 |
C8:0 caprylic | 100 | 106 | 85 | 40 |
C10:0 capric | 260 | 433 | 321 | 80 |
C12:0 lauric | 120 | 228 | 149 | 90 |
C14:0 myristic | 320 | 441 | 392 | 340 |
C16:0 palmitic | 910 | 984 | 990 | 880 |
C16:1 palmitoleic | 80 | - | - | 80 |
C18:0 stearic | 440 | 333 | 300 | 400 |
C18:1 oleic | 980 | - | - | 840 |
C18:2 linoleic | 110 | 103 | 76 | 80 |
C18:3 linolenic | 40 | 32 | 26 | 50 |
Fatty acid composition (mg FA 100 g−1 milk) in goat milk fat in comparison to cow milk (1Posati & Orr, 1976; 2Žan et al., 2005)
Nutrition (forage-to-concentrate ratio, type of forages, etc.) is the main environmental factor regulating milk fat synthesis and fatty acid composition in ruminants (Nudda et al., 2003; Bernard et al., 2009). Forage in the diet is known to affect milk fat composition responses to plant oils, including trans-18:1 and conjugated linoleic acid isomer concentrations. Inclusion of fat in the diet enhances milk fat secretion in the goat in the absence of systematic changes in milk yield and protein content (Bernard et al., 2009; Chilliard et al., 2003, 2007). Bernard et al. (2009) found out that, changes in goat milk fatty acid composition were dependent on forage type and plant oil composition, with evidence of an interaction between these nutritional factors. Responses to lipid supplements were characterised as a reduction in fatty acids synthesised de novo (C10:0–C16:0) and an increase in C18:0, cis-C18:1, conjugated linoleic acid and polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrations, indicating that plant oils can be used to effect potentially beneficial changes in milk fat composition without inducing detrimental effects on animal performance. Moreover, goats fed a high level of pasture forage had higher milk fat contents of C4:0, C6:0, C18:0, C18:l, C18:3, C20:0, iso-, ante-iso-, and odd fatty acids, but lower values of C10:0, C12:0, C14:0, C16:0, and C18:2, than those fed the low levels of forage. However, high levels of alfalfa forage also produced the lowest contents of the less desirable trans-C18:1 fatty acids (LeDoux et al., 2002). The conclusion was that decreasing the fibre content and increasing the grain part in the goat daily ration would lead to higher contents of the undesirable trans-C18:1 fatty acids in milk. The composition of goat milk fatty acids differed also in goats grazing one flock on highland (615-630 m altitude) and one flock on mountain (1060-1075 m altitude) pasture by Žan et al. (2005). The most abundant fatty acids in milk of both flocks were C16:0, C18:1, n−9, C14:0 and C10:0 (Table 1). The average content of saturated fatty acids was 74.52 and 73.05% in milk from the highland and mountain flocks, respectively. Three saturated fatty acids (caprylic (C8:0), capric (C10:0) and lauric acid (C12:0)), were present at significantly higher amounts in milk from the highland flock than in milk from the mountain flock. Monounsaturated fatty acids represented 20.49 and 22.32% and polyunsaturated fatty acids 3.73 and 3.24% of the milk from the highland and mountain flocks, respectively. Among the monounsaturated fatty acids, palmitoleic + palmitelaidic acid (C16:1, n−7) showed a significantly higher concentration in milk from mountain flock than in milk from the highland flock. The content of linolelaidic acid (C18:2, n−6) was significantly higher in comparison to milk from the highland flock. The average quantity (32 mg 100 g−1 milk) of essential α-linolenic acid (C18:3, n−3) was slightly higher in milk of the highland flock than in milk from the mountain flock (26 mg 100 g−1 milk). Hou et al. (2011) stated that the supplementation of fish oil can significantly increase the production of cis-9, trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid, and trans-11 C18:1, while lowering the amount of trans-10 C18:1 and trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid in the ruminal fluid of goats. Increased cis9, trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid, and trans-11 C18:1 can lead to a higher output of cis-9, trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid in milk product, and the decrease in trans-10 C18:1 and trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid supports the role of fish oil in the alleviation of milk fat depression.
Conjugated linoleic acid consists of a series of positional and geometric dienoic isomers of linoleic acid that occurs naturally in foods. It is a product of biohydrogenation in the rumen of ruminants and has a great influence on synthesis of fatty acids in milk in low concentrations (Bessa et al. 2000; Chouinard et al. 1999; Griinari & Bauman, 1999; Griinari et al. 2000; Khanal & Dhiman, 2004). Actually, the conjugated linoleic acid found in goat milk fat originate from two sources (Griinari & Bauman, 1999). One source is conjugated linoleic acid formed during ruminal biohydrogenation of linoleic acid (C18:2 n-6) that leads first to vaccenic (trans-11 C18:1) and finally to stearic acid (C18:0) (Nudda et al., 2003). The second source is conjugated linoleic acid synthesized by the animal’s tissues from trans-11 C18:1, another intermediate in the rumen biohydrogenation of unsaturated FA. Thus, the uniqueness of conjugated linoleic acid in food products derived from ruminants relates to the incomplete biohydrogenation of dietary unsaturated fatty acids in the rumen. Ruminal biohydrogenation combined with mammary lipogenic and ∆-9 desaturation pathways considerably modifies the profile of dietary fatty acids and thus milk composition (Chilliard et al., 2007).
Dietary sources from ruminants such as milk, cheese and meats contain more conjugated linoleic acid than foods of non-ruminant origin (Bessa et al. 2000; Khanal & Dhiman, 2004). The increase of linoleic acid intake is one of the feeding strategies for conjugated linoleic acid enrichment in ruminant fat since linoleic acid is the main precursor of conjugated linoleic acid (Bessa et al., 2000). The main available sources of linoleic acid in animal feeds are cereal and oilseed grains or oils obtained from these. Goat milk conjugated linoleic acid content increases sharply after either vegetable oil supplementation (Bernard et al., 2009) or fresh grass feeding containing unsaturated fatty acids, but does not change markedly when goats receive whole untreated oilseeds (Chilliard et al., 2003). Mir et al. (1999) found that it is possible to increase conjugated linoleic acid content of goat milk by manipulation of dietary regimen such as supplementation with canola oil. The pasture has major effects by decreasing saturated fatty acids and increasing fatty acids considered as favourable for human health (C9-18:1, C18:3n-3 and C9t11-CLA), compared to winter diets, especially those based on maize silage and concentrates (Chilliard et al., 2007). Investigations have shown that milk fat conjugated linoleic acid content can be also enhanced by manipulation of the rumen fermentation (Bessa et al., 2000; Griinari et al., 1999) or by direct addition of a dietary supplement of conjugated linoleic acid (Lock et al., 2008).
Milk, apart from its nutritional traits, contains substances which have beneficial effects on human health and is, therefore, considered essential to a correct nutrition. In particular, in milk are present vitamin A, vitamin E, β-carotene, sphingomyelins, butyric acid, and conjugated linoleic acid, all with a strong antitumor effect (Parodi, 1999). Different FA (short and medium chain, saturated, branched, mono and polyunsaturated,
The physiological and biochemical facts of the unique qualities of goat milk are just barely known and little exploited, especially not the high levels in goat milk of short and medium chain fatty acids, which have recognized medical values for many disorders and diseases of people (Haenlein, 2004). Goat milk exceeds cow and sheep milk in monounsaturated, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and medium chain triglycerides, which all are known to be beneficial for human health, especially for cardiovascular conditions. Capric, caprylic acids and medium chain triglycerides have become established medical treatments for an array of clinical disorders, including malabsorption syndromes, chyluria, steatorrhea, hyperlipoproteinemia, intestinal resection, premature infant feeding, non-thriftiness of children, infant malnutrition, epilepsy, cystic fibrosis, coronary by-pass, and gallstones, because of their unique metabolic ability to provide direct energy instead of being deposited in adipose tissues, and because of their actions of lowering serum cholesterol, inhibiting and limiting cholesterol deposition (Alferez et al., 2001; Greenberger & Skillman, 1969; Kalser, 1971; Schwabe et al., 1964; Tantibhedhyanangkul & Hashim, 1978).
Conjugated linoleic acid was recognized as having antioxidative and anticarcinogenic properties in animal model studies (Ip et al., 1991; Jiang et al., 1996; Parodi, 1997). Several
Somatic cells in milk are the total sum of white blood cells present in milk and udder epithelial cells, which may be an indicator of the udder health status (Das & Singh, 2000; Manlongat et al., 1998; Zeng & Escobar, 1996; Wilson et al., 1995). They are present in milk all the time. In cows, a somatic cell count above the regulatory standard is generally considered as an indication of mastitis. An increased number of somatic cell count is either the consequence of an inflammatory process due to the presence of an intramammary infection or under non-pathological conditions due to physiological processes such as oestrus or advanced stage of lactation. For this reason, the somatic cell count of milk represents a sensitive marker of the health of the udder and is considered a useful parameter to evaluate the relationship between intramammary infection and changes in milk characteristics. The standard for the permissible number of somatic cell count for cow milk exists, while it is still under study for goat milk due to considerable fluctuations. When the udder is tired during late lactation, the number of somatic cells in normal conditions can considerably enlarge, and approximately 80% of the cells may be polymorphonuclear leukocytes (Manlongat et al., 1998). The same authors found that normal nonmastitic late-lactation-stage goat milk is significantly higher in polymorphonuclear leukocytes chemotactic activity than early-lactation-stage goat milk. The chemotactic factor(s) present in the milk of normal late-lactation-stage goats is nonpathological and may play a physiologic regulatory role in mammary gland involution. On the other hand, the increase of leucocytes is a response to the inflammatory process in the mammary gland or somewhere in the body. The number of leucocytes increases due to bacterial infections, but it could also be increased due to the stage of lactation, age of the animal, stress, season of the year, nutrition and udder injuries. The variability of somatic cell count in goat milk is very high, which exists among the animals and within the time span of individual animals (Das & Singh, 2000). Therefore, it is important to determine how nutrition can influence the reduction of somatic cell count in goat milk. Gantner & Kompan (2009) found that a five-day supplementation of α-linoleic acid in Alpine goat diet had a significant effect on lower somatic cell count in milk. Based on this experiment, it was concluded that α-linoleic acid supplementation had no effect on milk yield; it had low effect on milk components and significant effect on somatic cell count. A decrease in somatic cell count was determined in the 1st day of the treatment period and continued until 30th day after the treatment period. The supplementation of the goat diet with α-linoleic acid could be used as a method of choice for reduction of somatic cell count in goat milk.
The aim of our study was therefore to ascertain the changes in goat milk yield and its contents of fat, protein, lactose, dry matter, somatic cell count, and total number of microorganisms when goats are supplemented with the following fatty acids: α-linoleic acid, eicosapentanoic acid, and docosahexanoic acid and how these three fatty acids influence on the content of particular fatty acids during and after the supplementation.
The research was performed on the farm with 90 Slovenian Alpine and Slovenian Saanen goats. Goats were machine milked. During the experiment, goats were in different stages of lactation. The average body weight of the goats was 51 ± 6 kg. All kids were weaned. Goats were arranged into three pens according to their stage of lactation, namely, after kidding from the forth to the tenth week of lactation (pen A), from the 11th to the 20th week of lactation (pen B), and after the 20th week of lactation (pen C). Goats were milked twice a day, at 6 a.m. (± 30 min) and at 6 p.m. (± 30 min). Diet was composed from hay (2 kg/animal/day) which was given to goats twice a day. Goats were supplemented with feed mixture at milking parlor during the milking time. Supplemental feed mixture contained 50% of grounded maize grains, 30% of dried beet pulp, and 20% of wheat bran. Goats from pen A were supplemented with 500 g, goats from pen B with 350 g, and goats from pen C with 250 g of feed mixture. Vitamin-mineral supplement and water were offered to goats
The whole experiment was performed in three periods:
There were 90 goats all together in the flock, which were milked on the milking parlor with 24 places for milking goats connected to milk pipeline. Goats were milked every morning between 5:40 and 7:20 a.m. and every evening between 6:20 and 8:00 p.m. A measuring gauged flask was connected to milking unit to measure milk yield. Milk yield was written down for every goat. A milk sample was also taken for the analysis. During the experiment, 30 daily records were collected for every goat, which means 60 records for each goat and 60 milk samples by 70 ml for milk analysis (sample A) and 60 samples by 2 ml (sample B) for fatty acid analysis. The preservative azidiol on the basis of NaN3 in concentration 0.02% with the addition of chloramphenicol for the stabilization of microorganisms was added to the sample A. For every 50 to 70 ml of the milk sample, 0.2 ml of the preservative was added. Milk samples A were then delivered to the Laboratory for dairying, while milk samples B were delivered to the Chemical laboratory at Biotechnical Faculty in Ljubljana.
The statistical package SAS (SAS/STAT, 2000) and partly the statistical package S-PLUS (1966) were used to analyse the data. The statistical analysis did not include records collected during the first six days of the preparation period. In the meantime, the situation in the stable was stabilizing and the team who participated in the experiment was introducing in the everyday milk measuring and collecting samples.
Due to the large fluctuations in individual values of the somatic cell count and number of microorganisms among animals and among observations within animals, we analyzed each animal individually as its time series, and for the most variable ones the logarithm of the values was found (X = log10Y).
The time series were first standardized (S) in the way that last four days (from the7th to 10th day) of the preparatory period (before supplementing with fatty acids) were took as a starting point. Mean value of this period was calculated by the median (Me), the measure of variability was the average absolute deviation (AD). In this way we reduced the impact of outliers. Although, it is usual to standardize by the average and standard deviation, we decided for median and absolute deviation. In this way, the standardized time series for the animal was calculated using the following equation:
S=((X-Me)/AD)
In this way, the standardized time series (S) are comparable for animals with different values. Then, we calculated the median for the three periods on the standardized time series:
median for the period from the seventh to tenth day of the experiment (preparatory period), which was in all cases zero (=0);
median for the period from 11th to the 15th day of the experiment (the period of supplementing with fatty acids);
median for the period from the 16th to the 63rd day of the experiment (the post supplemention period of the fatty acids).
For each animal, the corresponding median has become an input data for the statistical analysis. In this way, we analyzed milk yield (ml), the content of milk proteins (g/100 ml), milk fat (g/100 ml), milk lactose (g/100 ml), dry matter (g/100 ml), non-fat dry matter (g/100 ml), total number of microorganisms (n*103/ml), and somatic cell count (n*103/ml) in milk.
In this way, a comparison of groups with a simple analysis of variance was made where the zero assumption was checked for that the averages by groups were the same. If a statistically significant difference test was found (5% level of significance was considered), then the groups were compared also by the Duncan test or by the contrast analysis, where each group was compared with the control group.
All other traits were analyzed by the GLM procedure (General Linear Model) with statistical package SAS, which included the impacts of the group (4) and period (3). Differences among groups were estimated by the linear contrasts, while connections between the properties were calculated by the Pearson correlation coefficient. The limit of statistical significance was taken at P <0.05 and highly statistically significance was taken at P <0.001.
The average milk yield and its content of fat, proteins, lactose, dry matter, non-fat dry matter, total number of microorganisms, and somatic cell count in different periods of the experiment by groups is shown in Table 2. In the preparatory period, only somatic cell count statistically significantly differed among groups. Statistically significant differences among groups in the experimental period appeared in dry matter, somatic cell count, and logarithm of the somatic cell count. In the third period of the experiment, statistically significant differences among groups appeared in the majority of observed traits.
It seems that the short time fatty acid supplementation into goat’s diet does not negatively affect their milk yield. Milk yield did not vary statistically significant during the observed period (Table2). As found by Sampelayo et al. (2002), the supplemented fatty acids into the diet of Granadina goats did not affect their milk yield and the content of fat, proteins, lactose, and dry matter in milk.
Group | EPA | ALFA | DHA | KONT | EPA | ALFA | DHA | KONT | EPA | ALFA | DHA | KONT |
Trait/Period | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
Milk (ml) | 780a | 748a | 869a | 766a | 790a | 708a | 888a | 824a | 765a | 719a | 884a | 789a |
Fat (g/100 ml) | 3.05a | 3.15a | 3.00a | 2.99a | 2.65a | 3.40b | 2.52a | 2.91a | 2.84a | 3.30b | 2.77a | 3.06a |
Proteins (g/100 ml) | 2.93a | 3.12a | 2.98a | 3.01a | 3.01a | 3.21b | 3.01a | 3.06a | 3.15a | 3.28a | 3.29a | 3.07b |
Lactose (g/100 ml) | 4.59a | 4.55a | 4.49a | 4.53a | 4.58a | 4.54a | 4.48a | 4.44a | 4.50a | 4.54a | 4.44a | 4.46a |
NFDM (g/100 ml) | 8.32a | 8.48a | 8.26a | 8.33a | 8.39a | 8.55a | 8.29a | 8.30a | 8.45a | 8.62b | 8.53a | 8.33a |
DM (g/100 ml) | 11.37a | 11.62a | 11.26a | 11.33a | 11.04a | 11.76b | 10.81a | 11.21a | 11.29a | 11.92b | 11.30a | 11.39a |
MO (n*103/ml) | 653a | 609a | 498a | 505a | 315a | 334a | 350a | 494a | 266a | 267a | 267a | 347a |
SCC (n*103/ml) | 1316a | 1095a | 585b | 526b | 1631a | 975b | 1166a | 1258a | 1531a | 915b | 1884a | 1364a |
log10_MO (n*103/ml) | 2.64a | 2.62a | 2.47a | 2.58a | 2.44a | 2.44a | 2.48a | 2.62b | 2.35a | 2.34a | 2.34a | 2.48a |
log10_SCC (n*103/ml) | 2.69a | 2.68a | 2.62a | 2.54a | 2.82a | 2.72a | 2.80a | 2.99a | 2.83a | 2.77b | 2.88a | 2.99a |
Average values of the observed traits in different periods of the experiment by groups
Milk fat yield statistically significantly increased in ALFA group from 3.15 to 3.40 g/100 ml on average when goats were supplemented with linseed oil rich in α-linoleic acid (Table 2) and it slightly decreased to 3.30 g/100 ml until the third period of the experiment. In groups EPA and DHA, milk fat yield firstly decreased, while it increased slightly after the end of supplementation with fatty acids.
There were no statistical significant differences among the groups of goats in milk protein yield before the supplementation with fatty acids (Table 2). During the supplementation of goats with fatty acids, milk protein yield increased and it was increasing also after the end of supplementation. Group ALFA had the highest protein yield in milk in the whole time of the experiment.
In general, lactose in milk varies little, what was confirmed also in our research. There were no statistical significant differences in lactose yield among the observed groups, neither during the supplementation with fatty acids nor after that (Table 2).
Non-fat dry matter increased during the experiment in all observed groups which were supplemented with fatty acids, but not in the control group KONT (Table 2). Differences among groups were not statistically significant. Total dry matter decreased after supplementing with fatty acids in groups EPA, DHA, and KONT, while it increased in ALFA group. After the end of supplementing with fatty acids, total dry matter increased in all groups. Group ALFA statistically significantly differed in milk dry matter from other observed groups in the second and third period of the experiment.
The number of microorganisms in milk mostly depends on milking hygiene, which includes staff, animals, facilities, equipment, hygiene maintenance, and cleaning of the equipment. It also depends on the health of the udder and the presence of mastitis. Soon after the beginning of the experiment, the hygiene and cleaning improved, and the number of microorganisms in milk decreased (Table 2). There was no mastitis detected in the whole time of the experiment. No statistically significant differences were noticed among groups in the number of microorganisms in milk.
Somatic cell count was one of the most variable traits in our experiment, since we found that values ranged from 13.000 to 24,312.000 of somatic cells in ml of milk. Despite the great variability, transformation of somatic cell count to the logarithmic value enabled to find the possible impacts of supplementation with fatty acids on somatic cell count (Figure 1). Preliminary report by Košmelj et al. (2001) showed the impact of supplementing alpha-linolenic fatty acid to goats, which was reflected in a reduction of the number of somatic cells during the supplementation and four weeks after.
The average values for medians during the supplementation with fatty acids (Me1) and for medians five days after the supplementation with fatty acids (Me2) are shown in Table 3. Results showed statistical significant differences among groups of goats for medians during the supplementation with fatty acids and also for medians five days after the supplementation with fatty acids. The average of medians (Me1 and Me2) in group ALFA is negative, so it could be affirmed, that the supplementation of linseed oil rich in α-linoleic acid decreases the number of somatic cell count in milk.
Standardization and log10 value median for number of somatic cells by groups
Period / Group | EPA | ALFA | DHA | KONT |
Average for Me1 | 1.01b | -3.11 a | 1.68 b | 3.52 b |
Average for Me2 | 1.75 b | -2.47 a | 1.78 b | 3.20 b |
Average value of Me1 in Me2 in different group
On average, somatic cells in goat milk are present in a greater number than in cow milk. Zeng et al. (1997) reported that 17% of goat milk samples recorded on goat farms which are members of the Association of goat farmers in the U.S. exceeded the standard 1.0x106 of somatic cells ml-l when the experiment of daily monitoring of somatic cells in milk was carried out.
Das & Singh (2000) studied somatic cells in goat milk and electrical conductivity of milk. In the blood samples total leucocytes and differential leucocytes (lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophil, and basophils) were also determined. Somatic cell count in goat milk was high during early lactation and decreased subsequently as the lactation advanced. There were found individual variations (P<0.01) in somatic cell counts between different lactation periods as weel as among and within animals. For example, one goat had very high somatic cell count in comparison to other goats from the beginning to the end of the experiment. The goat was then tested for mastitis using California mastitis test and it was found to have normal milk. Similar results were found in our experiment. Total leucocyte count in blood also decreased as the lactation progressed and remained fluctuated during late lactation in the study by Das & Singh (2000). Lymphocytes and neutrophils were low during early lactation and with establishment of lactation stabilized to normal levels. Protein content of milk did not vary during different periods of lactation. However, lactose decreased and fat percent increased with advanced lactation. It is interesting that the connection between somatic cell count and milk yield and between somatic cell count and milk composition was not found in any stage of lactation.
Mastitis is typically associated with a large number of somatic cells in small ruminants. In our experiment, the number of somatic cells significantly reduced only in the ALFA group and lasted statistically significant 39 days after the supplementation with fatty acids. For α-linolenic fatty acid is known, that it could incorporate into phospholipids five hours after ingestion (Adam et al., 1986). The other two, eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid can incorporate into phospholipids only after a few days supplementation. The statistically significant effect of the α-linolenic fatty acid only on somatic cell count could be explained by the rapidness of incorporation into membrane phospholipids of this fatty acid.
The fluctuations of the somatic cell count in goat milk are subjected to many influences. Researchers have not explored other reasons for the number of somatic cells in goat milk except the hygiene measures. Ruminants are in the last 20 years fed adding n-3 fatty acids to improve the fatty acid composition of milk and meat, but the impact on the number of somatic cells have not been monitored. Our experiment clearly shows that the supplementation of the α-linolenic fatty acid had a relatively long time impact on reducing somatic cell count or to a low level of somatic cells in milk. The interpretation may be possible, that we achieved a more appropriate relationship between n-3 and n-6 long chain fatty acids with the supplementation of α-linolenic fatty acid which was not provided by the diet.
Chemical analysis of goat milk fat was done for fatty acids from 10:00 to 24:6, n-9. The fat composition of goat milk was studied by each milking during the experiment time. Therefore, values listed below (Table 3) represent the percentage of the all analyzed fatty acids rather than total fat in goat milk.
During our experiment, there was from 9.0 to 14.0 wt % of the capric acid (10:0) in the goat milk fat. Some authors (Hurley, 2009; Jandal, 1996; Sanz Sampelayo et al., 2002) indicated values from 8.4 to 11.1%. EPA group had the lowest level of capric acid before supplementing with fatty acids, while its level exceeded groups ALFA and KONT during the supplementation and declined to the lowest level among groups in the last period of the experiment. DHA group had the highest level of the capric acid during the supplementation with fatty acids as well as all the time after the supplementation. It is known that goat milk has more short-chain fatty acids (C4:0 to C10:0) than cow’s milk, which are easier to digest than long-chain fatty acids.
We found that the
Experimental period | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
FA / GROUP | EPA | ALFA | DHA | KONT | EPA | ALFA | DHA | KONT | EPA | ALFA | DHA | KONT |
10:0 | 9.55a | 11.63a | 10.84a | 11.16a | 11.64a | 11.20a | 13.13b | 11.60a | 9.84a | 10.64a | 12.09b | 10.08a |
12:0 | 4.43a | 6.06a | 4.97a | 5.38a | 5.41a | 5.65a | 6.56a | 6.06a | 4.93a | 5.56a | 6.21a | 4.96a |
14:0 | 10.79a | 12.31a | 11.44a | 11.88a | 11.88a | 10.90b | 11.62a | 12.49a | 11.25a | 11.25a | 11.39a | 11.14a |
16:0 | 25.62a | 24.92a | 27.61a | 26.01a | 23.98a | 22.79a | 25.24a | 25.04a | 24.75a | 23.29a | 24.12a | 23.81a |
16:1, n-7 | 1.25a | 1.19a | 1.32a | 1.18a | 1.24a | 1.18a | 1.51b | 1.16a | 1.22a | 1.25a | 1.57b | 1.25a |
18:0 | 11.09a | 9.98a | 10.65a | 10.24a | 7.26b | 10.32a | 4.23b | 9.54a | 11.14a | 11.08a | 7.31b | 11.04a |
18:1, n-9c, 18:1, n-9t, 18:1, n-12t, 18:1, n-7c | 26.19a | 23.08a | 22.29a | 23.68a | 21.89a | 22.80a | 19.94b | 22.62a | 24.25a | 24.58a | 22.50a | 26.00a |
CLA (1) | 0.82a | 0.81a | 0.74a | 0.79a | 1.73b | 1.35b | 2.89b | 0.92a | 1.19b | 1.06a | 2.50b | 0.93a |
18:2, n-6c | 2.31a | 2.14a | 2.22a | 2.17a | 2.81b | 3.10b | 2.40a | 2.19a | 2.22a | 2.48a | 2.39a | 2.55a |
18:3, n-3 | 0.70a | 0.57a | 0.53a | 0.52a | 0.97a | 2.98b | 0.60a | 0.80a | 0.87a | 0.95b | 0.66a | 0.78a |
18:3, n-6 | 0.05a | 0.04a | 0.03a | 0.00a | 0.14a | 0.29b | 0.14a | 0.17a | 0.08a | 0.12a | 0.09a | 0.04a |
20:3, n-3 | 0.03a | 0.02a | 0.02a | 0.02a | 0.32b a | 0.03a | 0.04a | 0.03a | 0.12b | 0.04a | 0.02a | 0.03a |
20:3, n-6 | 0.02a | 0.03a | 0.02a | 0.02a | 0.06b | 0.03a | 0.04a | 0.02a | 0.03a | 0.02a | 0.04a | 0.03a |
20:4, n-6 | 0.25a | 0.21a | 0.22a | 0.21a | 0.39b | 0.21a | 0.47b | 0.20a | 0.32b | 0.22a | 0.30b | 0.23a |
20:5, n-3 | 0.08a | 0.07a | 0.07a | 0.06a | 2.41b | 0.14a | 0.48a | 0.13a | 0.50b | 0.15a | 0.30a | 0.09a |
22:3, n3 | 0.00a | 0.00a | 0.00a | 0.00a | 0.04b | 0.00a | 0.07b | 0.00a | 0.00a | 0.00a | 0.07b | 0.02a |
22:4, n6 | 0.07a | 0.08a | 0.07a | 0.07a | 0.10a | 0.07a | 0.10a | 0.09a | 0.10a | 0.09a | 0.10a | 0.10a |
22:5, n-3 | 0.18a | 0.15a | 0.14a | 0.13a | 0.64b | 0.19a | 0.49b | 0.15a | 0.60b | 0.24a | 0.33b | 0.18a |
22:6,n-3 | 0.07a | 0.06a | 0.05a | 0.06a | 0.13a | 0.16a | 2.27b | 0.13a | 0.15a | 0.11a | 0.79b | 0.10a |
n-3 | 0.99 a | 0.81 a | 0.76 a | 0.73 a | 4.13 b | 3.34 b | 1.68 a | 1.11 a | 1.99 b | 1.38 a | 1.38 a | 1.10 a |
n-6 | 2.70 a | 2.50 a | 2.56 a | 2.47 a | 3.47 b | 3.70 b | 3.17 b | 2.67 a | 2.69 b | 2.93 a | 2.92 a | 2.95 a |
n-3/n-6 | 0.37 a | 0.32 a | 0.30 a | 0.30 a | 1.19 a | 0.90 b | 0.53 b | 0.42 a | 0.74 b | 0.47 a | 0.47 a | 0.37 a |
n-3 : n-6 (1:X) | 2.73 a | 3.09 a | 3.37 a | 3.38 a | 0.84 b | 1.11 b | 1.89 a | 2.41 a | 1.35 b | 2.12 a | 2.12 a | 2.68 a |
LC PUFA n-3 | 0.36 a | 0.30 a | 0.28 a | 0.27 a | 3.29 b | 0.52 a | 3.35 b | 0.44 a | 1.27 b | 0.54 a | 1.51 b | 0.42 a |
LC PUFA n-6 | 0.34 a | 0.32 a | 0.31 a | 0.30 a | 0.52 b | 0.31 a | 0.63 b | 0.31 a | 0.39 a | 0.33 a | 0.44 a | 0.36 a |
LC PUFA n-3/ LC PUFA n-6 | 1.06 a | 0.94 a | 0.90 a | 0.90 a | 6.33 b | 1.68 a | 5.32 b | 1.42 a | 3.26 b | 1.64 a | 3.43 b | 1.17 a |
LC n-3 : n-6 (1:X) | 3.11 a | 2.93 a | 2.91 a | 3.00 a | 12.17 b | 5.41 a | 8.44 b | 4.58 a | 8.35 b | 4.96 a | 7.80 b | 3.24 a |
Average values of fatty acids, secreted in milk in different periods of the experiment by groups (wt %)
There was between 20 and 29 wt % of the
In goat milk fat, between 1.06 and 1.73 wt % of the
The content of oleic fatty acid (18:1, n-9) was in our experiment determined in the concentration from 19.0 to 28.0 wt %. During the supplementation with fatty acids, the content of oleic acid statistically significantly declined in EPA and DHA groups. An increase of the content of oleic acid in milk was observed in groups KONT and ALFA, as during as well as after the supplementation with fatty acids, but differences in these two groups before and after the supplementation were not statistically significant. Sanz Sampelayo et al. (2002) noted the content of oleic acid in goat milk around 22 to 24% and stated that despite the addition of various concentrations of protected polyunsaturated fatty acids the content of oleic fatty acid in goat milk remained fairly constant.
Average value of rumenic acid in goat milk
Conjugated linoleic acid is an intermediate product of the biohydrogenation, therefore its high concentration in DHA group was logical, since the degradation of the docosahexaenoic acid in the rumen is the slowest. The concentration of the conjugated linoleic acid in goat milk fat was relatively high also in ALFA group, knowing that the biohydrogenation of the α-linoleic acid is the fastest (Gulati et al., 1999), what we also observed in an increased concentration of C 18:1 in ALFA group. The conjugated linoleic acid is synthesised in the mammary gland of lactating animals and in the muscles of young animals. In our experiment, the conjugated linoleic acid probably did not originate only from the supplemented fatty acids, what was found also by Griinari et al. (2000).
Before the supplementation with fatty acids, there was from 2.00 to 2.66 wt % of the
There was less than 0.06 wt % of the
The content of
At the beginning of the experiment, the content of
Average value of cis-5,8,11,14,17-eicosapentaenoic acid in goat milk
The maximum concentration of
According to the fact that the transfer of eicosapentaenoic acid through diet into the milk can be so effective, it is important how to produce milk enriched with n-3 and n-6 fatty acids. Consumers are increasingly use milk with lower fat content. Thus, milk enriched with n-3 and n-6 fatty acids would significantly help to more correct and balanced diet, especially in children and elderly people.
Before supplementation with fatty acids, the content of
There was from 0.046 to 0.136 wt % of the
Only 0.05 to 0.1 wt % was the concentration of
The effectiveness of transfer the docosahexaenoic fatty acid into milk was observed in cows by Chilliard et al. (2001), which amounted 4.1%. In goats, it amounted 3.5% for unprotected fatty acids and 7.6% for protected fatty acids (Kitessa et al., 2001). The estimated transfer of docosahexaenoic fatty acid in our experiment was 7.84.
There was 53 to 57 wt % of the
Average value of cis-4,7,10,13,16,19- docosahexaenoic fatty acid in goat milk
As reported Kitessa et al. (2001), a significant decrease appeared in C10 to C16 fatty acids after adding fish oil into the diet for goats, but when Chilliard et al. (2001) fed cows with fish oil only, they noticed a slight decrease in C4 to C14 fatty acids, or even 1.3% increase of these fatty acids when adding fish oil in the duodenum. In the experiment by Kitessa et al. (2001), a group of animals were supplemented a protected fish oil from 19th to 26th day and then unprotected fish oil from the 37th to 42nd day. Due to the significantly reduced feed intake and milk production in sheep the unprotected fish oil was administered a short time. Between one and another type of feeding was only eight days, which is questionable. It is possible that there was an influence of the previous supplementation, because our data showed that the effect of supplementation with some types of fatty acids can take more than 10 days on changes in the fermentation of medium chain fatty acids. Even Sanz Sampelayo et al. (2002) in goats found that the percentage of total unsaturated fatty acids reduced after the supplementation with protected polyunsaturated fatty acids.
The content of
Before the supplementation with fatty acids,
The passage of the supplemented polyunsaturated fatty acids from the gastrointestinal tract into milk was estimated on the basis of the differences between the content of fatty acids before supplementation and the difference between KONT group and other groups during the supplementation and thereafter, taking into account the amount of milked milk during the supplementation and 14 days thereafter. The results are shown in Table 3, where it is clear that the passage of the conjugated linoleic acid into milk was 12.79%, 14.03% of the eicosapentaenoic acid, and 21.13% of the docosahexaenoic acid. The differences were statistically significant (p <0.05).
GROUP | EPA | ALFA | DHA | KONT |
Supplement | EPA | CLA | DHA | no |
Supplemented PUFA during experiment (g) | 95 | 72 | 75 | 0 |
PUFA appeared in milk from the 6th to the 34th day (g) | 50.78 | 46.66 | 53.3 | 37.45 |
Difference or estimated passage (%) | 14.03 | 12.79 | 21.13 | 0 |
Estimated passage of the supplemented polyunsaturated fatty acids from food into milk
The
Correlations between somatic cell count and some fatty acids during the experiment were calculated by the Pearson correlation coefficient. The same correlations were calculated also for the second and third period of the experiment (from the 11th to the 65th day) and for the period from the 21st to the 65th day of the experiment. Statistically significant correlations between somatic cell count and C10 throughout the whole experiment were found in EPA group (r=0.24), ALFA (r=-0.18), and (r=-0.17) KONT group. The correlations between somatic cell count and C12 and between somatic cell count and C14 were statistically significant throughout the whole experiment only in EPA group (r=0.25 and r=0.24, respectively; p<0.01). From the 11th to the 65th day of the experiment, there were only correlations between somatic cell count and C10 in DHA group (r=-0.30), between somatic cell count and C12 in DHA group (r=-0.37), and between somatic cell count and C14 in ALFA (r=0.26) and DHA (r=-0.29) groups found statistically significant (p<0.05). From the 21st to the 65th day of the experiment, correlations between somatic cell count and C10 in EPA (r=-0.45) and DHA (r=-0.46) groups, between somatic cell count and C12 in EPA (r=-0.43), DHA (r=-0.53), and KONT (r=0.39) groups, and between somatic cell count and C14 in ALFA (r=-0.59), DHA (r=-0.57), and KONT (r=0.44) groups were statistically significant (p<0.05).
Correlation between somatic cell count and C18:1 was statistically significant only in EPA group (r=-0.24) throughout the whole experiment, in DHA group (r=0.47) from the 11th to the 65th day of the experiment, and in EPA (r=0.42), ALFA (r=-0.49), and DHA (r=0.67) groups from the 21st to the 65th day of the experiment. Between somatic cell count and C18:3, the correlation was statistically significant only in ALFA (r=-0.43) group from the 11th to the 65th day of the experiment. No correlations between somatic cell count and C20:4 throughout the whole experiment were statistically significant. There were only correlations between somatic cell count and C20:4 in EPA group from the 11th to the 65th day of the experiment (r=0.36) and from the 21st to the 65th day of the experiment (r=0.66) statistically significant.
Statistically significant correlation between somatic cell count and monounsaturated fatty acids throughout the whole experiment was found only in ALFA group (r=-0.22) and from the 11th to the 65th day of the experiment in DHA group (r=0.50). From the 21st to the 65th day of the experiment, this correlation was statistically significant in EPA (r=0.43), ALFA (r=-0.50), and DHA (r=0.68) groups. Between somatic cell count and polyunsaturated fatty acids, only the correlation in ALFA group from the 21st to the 65th day of the experiment was found statistically significant (r=-0.49).
Our research proved that the supplementation of fatty acids into the diet had no effect on daily milk yield of goats. In ALFA group, a statistically significant impact on the increase of the protein content in milk (p<0.01) during the supplementation and thereafter was observed. Fat content was increasing during the supplementation and thereafter in ALFA group, while in EPA and DHA groups, fat content significantly reduced during the supplementation with fatty acids (p<0.001) and a few days thereafter. This finding indicates that the supplementation with fatty acids (eicosapentanoic and docosahexanoic fatty acid) had a negative impact on the milk fat production. Lactose content did not change significantly during the supplementation and no differences were found among groups. Non-fat dry matter content was the highest in ALFA group, its increased value reflected even after the end of the supplementation with fatty acids.
The supplementation of α-linoleic fatty acid decreased somatic cell count in milk, even 30 days after the end of the supplementation. Statistically significant decrease of somatic cell count, compared to the period prior to the supplementation, was appeared till the 29th day after the end of the supplementation (p<0.05). The number of micro organisms in milk is the result of hygienic conditions at milking, hygiene of milking personnel, equipment, environment and hygiene of the animals. In the case of our study, it has been established that the lower number of micro organisms was the consequence of better hygiene during the experiment due to the experimentalists’ presence.
The supplementation of α-linoleic, eicosapentanoic and docosahexanoic fatty acids had different effects on the composition of fatty acids in milk fat. Eicosapentanoic fatty acid supplemented into the diet of EPA group increased the following fatty acids: capric, lauric, myristic, conjugated linoleic, linoleic, γ-linolenic, cis-11,14,17-eicosatrienoic, cis-8,11,14-eicosatrienoic, arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic, docosatrienoic, docosatetraenoic, and docosapentaenoic acid. The supplementation of eicosapentanoic fatty acid decreased palmitic, stearic, and oleic fatty acid. α-linoleic fatty acid supplemented to ALFA group increased the following fatty acids: lauric, miristoleic, oleic, conjugated linoleic, linoleic, α-linoleic, γ-linolenic acid. This means that there was no elongation from α-linoleic acid into fatty acids with longer chain. A decrease was observed in myristic, palmitic, and docosatetraenoic acid. DHA group was supplemented with docosahexaenoic fatty acid where the increase of the following fatty acids was recorded: capric, lauric, myristic, palmitoleic, conjugated linoleic, linoleic, γ-linolenic, cis-8,11,14-eicosatrienoic, arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic, docosatrienoic, docosatetraenoic, docosapentaenoic, docosahexaenoic acid, while a decrease was noticed in the following fatty acids: miristoleic, palmitic, stearic, and oleic acid. In the control group, only slight variations in some fatty acid levels were recorded, which were not statistically significant.
Research showed that the supplementation of α-linoleic acid had a positive impact on reduction of the somatic cell count in goat milk. However, the surprising result was found, that the supplementation of eicosapentanoic and docosahexanoic acid did not affect the reduction of somatic cell count in the same extent. There is a question, whether this is the result of the supplement or of the n-3:n-6 ratio which changed after the supplementation. Since the ratio n-3:n-6 changed to the similar value when other fatty acids were supplemented and the effect was not the same, it seems that the n-3:n-6 ratio was not the cause of this effect. It is suggested that α-linoleic acid could be rapidly incorporated into cell membranes, which displace arachidonic acid. This is resulted in more flexible cell membranes and better anti-inflammatory effect. Perhaps this mechanism was the one which contributed to the reduction of somatic cell count. For further research, it would be necessary to also include this kind of analysis. The results also showed that the transition of long chained polyunsaturated fatty acids into goat milk appeared relatively in large extent, therefore, polyunsaturated fatty acids occur in milk fat very quickly after their consumption.
Food habits and disease prevention have a clear link; the effects of food on diseases including diabetes, obesity, osteoporosis, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease have been reported in the literature [1]. The indigenous knowledge of traditional medicinal plants are becoming more widely recognized around the world. Since it is the world’s largest producer of traditional medicinal herbs, India is considered as the “Botanical Garden of the World” and “Land of spices” [2]. Herbs and their extracts have been used to fortify foods as preservatives, flavorings, medicinal agents, and food additives throughout history [3]. Consumer knowledge and interest in adding herbs to dairy and food products to enhance dietary strategy and balanced nutrition for achieving health benefits from foods beyond providing basic nutrition has increased worldwide as a result of the advent of functional foods, and consequently, the demand for value-added functional foods has grown worldwide [4]. Since India is the world’s largest producer of milk, a significant amount of liquid milk is utilized for traditional dairy products. Incorporating herbal bioactives into conventional Indian dairy products facilitate to compete in the global functional food market, which is growing at a rapid pace [5].
Herbs and spices are plants or parts of plants, mostly leaves and seeds, that are used for their taste, flavor, aroma, and imparting color in food products, or for medicinal and functional properties. These are cultivated primarily in temperate and tropical climates and harvested to be used as flavorings or seasonings [6]. The diverse phytochemicals and bioactive compounds present in herbs and spices give additional nutraceutical, medicinal and functional health benefits. In addition to leaves and seeds, spices may be derived from different other parts of the plant such as bark, buds and flowers, fruits and seeds, rhizomes and roots, or sometimes the complete whole plant tops [7]. Although, the term ‘spice and ‘herbs’ are used interchangeably, ‘herb’ is considered as a subset of spice and refers to plants with aromatic leaves with medicinal and functional health benefits. In addition to taxonomic classification, herbs and spices have been classified according to seasonality and lifespan, based on usage and applications and on the basis active principles and functional and medicinal properties present in them. Classification of herbs based on their seasonality and lifespan, usage and bioactive phytochemicals present in them has been presented in Table 1 [6, 8].
Classification | Properties | Examples |
---|---|---|
Medicinal herbs | Curative and healing properties and used as pharmaceutical and therapeutical purposes. | Tulsi, sage, pepper mint, rosemary, thyme, asparagus, |
Culinary herbs | Have strong flavors and/or imparts color in food and thus used in cooking. | Borage, chives, mint, parsley, basil, dill, thyme, sage, oregano, chervil, paprika, turmeric, saffron etc. |
Aromatic herbs | Have pleasant smelling flowers or foliage and used for aroma. | Lemon verbena, clove pink, lavender, bergamot, myrtle, scented geranium, sweet violet, rose etc. |
Ornamental herbs | Used for decoration and Ornamental purposes. | Chives, lavender, chicory, yarrow, jewelweed, rosemary, chamomile, thyme, sage, feverfew etc. |
Aromatic herbs | Owing to the presence of volatile essential oils, they have a good odor and are widely used both therapeutically and as flavorings. These are of two types: | |
Capsicum, damiana, fennel, garlic, ginger, peppermint, sage, thyme, catnip, feverfew, lemon grass, penny royal etc. | ||
Chamomile, crampbark, dong quai, ginger, hops, lobelia, skullcap, valerian, catnip, lady’s slipper, and sarsaparilla etc. | ||
Astringent herbs | They have an impact on the digestive, circulatory, and urinary systems because of astringent components including tannins. | Bayberry, comfrey, eyebright, golden seal, peppermint, red raspberry, slippery elm, white oak, white willow, black walnut, crampbark, mullein, and penny royal etc. |
Bitter herbs (phenolics, saponins, and alkaloids) | The presence of phenols and phenol glycosides, alkaloids, or saponins, and are classified into subcategories such as laxative herbs, diuretic herbs, digestive herbs etc. | Aloe vera, blessed thistle, yam root, cascara, licorice, pumpkin, senna, yellow dock, yucca, barberry, gentian, safflowers, and golden seal etc. |
Mucilaginous herbs | Polysaccharides give mucilaginous herbs their properties, including a smooth, mild flavor that tastes sweet in water. They aid in the removal of toxins from the digestive system, as well as its regulation and the reduction of bowel transit time. | Althea, aloe vera, burdock, comfrey, dandelion, echinacea, fenugreek, kelp, psylium, slippery elm, dulse, konjak root, Irish moss, and mullein etc. |
Nutritive herbs | Provide carbohydrates, and fats, as well as vitamins and minerals. | Banana, barley grass, bilberry, broccoli, grapefruit, hibiscus, lemon, oat straw, onion, red clover, apple, asparagus, banana, barley grass, bilberry, broccoli, cabbage, carrot, cauliflower, spirulina, stevia, wheat germ etc. |
Annuals | Complete their life cycle in one season within a year | Anise, basil, borage, calendula (pot marigold), chamomile, chervil, cilantro/coriander, dill bouquet, dill dukat, fennel, smoky, marjoram, parsley, shiso, saffron, summer savory etc. |
Biennials | Grow for more than one season | Caraway seeds, prime rose, bai zhi, mullein, teasel, viper’s bugloss, angelica, caraway, clary, watercress, and parsley etc. |
Perennials | Which live for two seasons and only bloom in the second. | Alfalfa, allspice, aloe vera, angelica, avens, bee balm, bay leaves, catnip, chamomile, common thyme, dill, echinacea, fennel, lavender, lemon balm, mint: spearmint/ peppermint/ applemint/ orangemint, marjoram sweet, mitsuba, oregano, rosemary, stevia, salad burnet, sage, tarragon, watercress, yarrow etc. |
Classification of herbs based on their usage and applications, active principles in them and their seasonality and lifespan.
Herbs and their extracts have been shown to be beneficial to one’s health. Flavonoids, polyphenols, phenolic acid, terpenoids, sulphides, carotenoids, coumarins, lignans, saponins, curcumins, phthalides, and plant sterols are only a few of the natural bioactive compounds found in it. These naturally occurring bioactive compounds shows several biological effects such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiallergic and antihypertensive effects [9]. Herbs are very high in natural antioxidants. Antioxidants are substances that inhibit or prevent the oxidation process. Synthetic antioxidants, such as butyl hydroxy anisole or butylhydroxytoluene, are commonly used in the food industry to prevent the deterioration of food quality (including the degradation of lipids, carbohydrates and proteins). Such antioxidants, on the other hand, are volatile and easily decompose at high temperatures, and their ingestion may pose serious health risks. Herbal phytochemical based natural antioxidants are currently in high demand among consumers, owing to concerns about the safety of synthetic antioxidants. Antioxidant properties are demonstrated by phenolic compounds found in herbs [10, 11]. Herbal bioactive compounds have also been shown to prevent or reduce the risk of degenerative diseases such as diabetes, cancer, obesity, and cardiovascular disease [12].
Polyphenols are plant secondary metabolites which work as antioxidants, scavenge free radicals and protects against cancer, cardiovascular disease, asthma, infection, and diabetes. Based on the number of phenol rings and the structural elements that hold these rings together, polyphenols are divided into 4 groups; phenolic acids, flavonoids, stilbenes and lignans. Acid fruits contain phenolic acids, which are further divided into hydroxyl benzoic and hydroxyl cinnamic acids [13]. Flavanoids are a form of polyphenol that is abundant in the human diet and is responsible for the attractive colors of flowers, fruits, and leaves [14]. Flavonoids are classified into six classes, as flavonols, flavones, flavanones, flavanols, anthocyanins, and isoflavones. Plant stilbenes are antifungal phytoalexins. Many studies confirms that supplementation of polyphenol-rich herbs with a healthy diet can help prevent coronary heart disease, reduce cancer cell growth, and have anti-diabetic effects [13].
The antimicrobial properties of herbs can effectively regulate the growth of spoilage and pathogenic bacteria in dairy products. Phenolic compounds are the main antimicrobial compounds found in herbs, and they can be used as effective replacements for artificial antimicrobial agents used in food production. Some pathogenic bacteria (
Common name | Scientific name | Bioactive components | Functional and medicinal properties |
---|---|---|---|
Basil | Phenolic acids (rosmarinic acid & caffiec acid), flavanol glycosides (quercetin & kaempferol), anthocyanins | Anti-asthmatic, anti-stress, gastric anti-ulcer activity, antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-fungal, antiviral, anti-mutagenic, antitumor and immuno-stimulant activities. | |
Aloe vera | Aloin, emodin, lupeol, auxins, gibberellin, Vitamins A, C & E (antioxidants) | Antibacterial, antiviral, antiseptic, analgesic wound healing, anti-inflammatory gastroprotective, antitumor. | |
Arjuna | Flavonoid and phenolic content, sitosterol | Antioxidant & free radical scavenger activities, heart tonic for healthy cardiovascular system, lowers blood cholesterol. | |
Sage | Phenolic acid, flavonoids | Anti-oxidative properties and anti-inflammatory activities. | |
Ashwagandha | Steroidal lactones, alkaloids and flavonoids | Antitumor, respiratory stimulant activities and immuo-stimulating effect. | |
Pudina leaf | Menthol, mint L-carvone, essential oils | Digestive health, natural coolant and mouth-freshener | |
Coriander leaf | Essential oils, linalool | Rich in antioxidant, help lower blood sugar, fight infections, and promote heart, brain, skin, and digestive health | |
Rosemary | p-cymene, linalool, thymol | Rich source of antioxidants and anti-inflammatory compounds, help to boost the immune system and improve blood circulation. | |
Origanum | carvacrol, β-fenchyl alcohol, thymol, rich in phenolic content | Antibacterial agent, reduction of asthma, cramping, diarrhea, and indigestion. |
Some important herbs commonly used for development of functional dairy products, their bioactive components and functional and medicinal properties.
Recently the demand for milk fortified with herbs and spices has increased due to their therapeutic effects and health benefits. Kumar Gaur et al. reported that herbal milk containing tulsi juice, turmeric powder and ginger juice) was rich in antioxidants and total phenolic content which enhanced the shelf life of the product in addition to imparting the typical herbal flavor, improved sensory quality and consumer acceptability due to their various potential health benefits such as anti-carcinogenic. Cardio-protective, anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial [18]. Pathur et al. reported that tulsi flavored herbal milk has improved sensory attributes and overall acceptability, enhanced keeping quality with good antioxidant properties when compared with normal milk [19]. Jankar et al. developed ready-to-serve turmeric-flavored milk by combining milk and turmeric powder. Turmeric is high in antioxidants and has anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, immunomodulant along with several other medicinal, and nutritional properties. Turmeric blended milk relieves cough and cold symptoms, as well as headache and wound pain [20].
Kamble et al. [21] formulated flavored milk with different varieties of piper betel leaves.
Sawale et al. developed
Herbal supplemented yoghurts were formulated with potential multifunctional health benefits to consumers. Chowdhury et al. developed herbal yoghurts with a variety of herbal leaves, including tulsi (
There is growing experimental evidence for the use of aloe vera as nutraceutical and functional attributes as it contains important nutrients and essential minerals, bioactive compounds with several health benefits and immune modulating effects. Incorporation of aloe vera gel in yoghurt improves the functional properties and therapeutic values. In a study conducted by Govindammal et al. reported that adding 15% aloe vera gel to yoghurt increased overall acceptability based on sensory evaluation. When compared to plain yoghurt, the addition of aloe vera gel increased protein, fiber content, phytonutrients (such as steroids, anthroquinones, saponins, and phlabotannins) and showed an improvement in vitamin C. Aloe vera also served as a stabilizer, lowering the syneresis value of aloe vera yoghurt and improving the texture [29].
The effect of garlic (
Azizkhani and Parsaeimehr indicated that addition of essential oils extracted from herbs such as peppermint, basil and zataria in probiotic yoghurt increases the antioxidant activity, antiradical activity and consumer acceptability [32]. Similarly, yoghurt made with
Addition of
Labneh a concentrated yoghurt, is a traditional Middle Eastern food. According to studies, adding 0.2 ppm of thyme, marjoram, and sage essential oils to labneh increased its shelf life at 5°C. When stored at 5°C, the control Labneh (without essential oil) showed the presence of yeast and mold from the 14th day onwards [39]. Zaky et al. observed that adding 2 μL/100 ml milk of dill and caraway essential oils to labneh enhanced the flavor, shelf life, and organoleptic properties, especially taste and odor. Dill and caraway essential oils are both antioxidant and antimicrobial agents that are safe to use. The use of these essential oils aided in the development of total volatile fatty acids (TVFAs), which gradually increased in treated samples during storage. Furthermore, the contents of acetaldehyde and diacetyl in treated samples reached their highest levels after 14 days of storage, then gradually decreased until the end of the storage period. El-Sayed et al. investigated the antimicrobial properties of
Dahi and lassi are traditional fermented milk beverages that have gained widespread popularity in India and several other countries. Many studies have found that supplementing lassi and dahi with aloe vera (
The addition of herbal extract to ghee was influenced by growing customer understanding of food ingredients. Foods fortified with herbs that have inherent antioxidant properties are used in particular for people who suffer from Cardio Vascular Diseases (CVDs) [43]. The most commonly used extracts in ghee, according to Ozcan et al. are Sage (
The effects of sage, rosemary, and oregano extracts on butter stability were investigated by Ahmet et al. They came to the conclusion that these extracts were more effective than BHA at stabilizing butter against oxidation. When stored at 5°C, sage extracts at 0.02–0.05 percent proved to be the most effective in stabilizing butter samples [48]. Renata et al. tested the oxidative stability of butter with added phenolics from rosemary herbs. The study found that rosemary alcoholic extract has the highest antioxidant properties measured in both DPPH radical inhibition and malondialdehyde (MDA) quantification assays, as well as no cytotoxicity. This suggests that using rosemary alcoholic extract as a natural antioxidant is effective, as it achieved the highest oxidative stability of butter when applied to butter at temperatures of 60 and 110°C, with a concentration of 400 mg of phenolic compounds per kg of butter. This reflected at the lowest formation of degraded peroxides from lipids [49].
Currently, the herbs incorporated ghee is advertised as medicinal ghee in India and around the world. In a clinical study conducted by Rajanikant and Patil, it was discovered that incorporating functional attributes of
Using the carotene bleaching assay, DPPH assay, and Rancimat procedure, Nilkanth et al. evaluated the antioxidant activities of ashwagandha (
Trivedi et al. reported that incorporating
In order to exploit the medicinal and functional health benefits of aloe vera, particularly fir diabetic patient, Ankush Verma standardized the process of development of ice cream with various levels of aloe vera and mint. The reported that 90 percent of ice cream mix, 10% aloe vera, and 0.05 percent mint extract earned the highest sensory ranking, with the best chemical characteristics (maximum total solids, acidity, protein, carbohydrate, and ash), and the best microbial analysis (SPC and negative in coli type test), suggesting that ice cream has good storage stability [56].
Pinto et al. [57] prepared ginger ice cream with 4, 6, and 8% ginger shreds in the ice cream mix and compared it to a control made with vanilla flavoring. The addition of ginger shreds resulted in a decrease in compositional attributes such as fat, protein, sugars, total solids, and pH, as well as an increase in acidity, which was particularly true at higher levels of shred addition. However, at higher levels of ginger shred addition, acidity, viscosity of ice cream mixes, and melting resistance of ice cream all increased significantly. Among different recipes, 4 percent ginger shredded ice cream had the best appropriate body and texture score as well as the highest acceptability score [57]. Gabb et al. developed ice cream with ginger rhizomes, which were converted into juice, pulp, candy, and powder before being added to the ice cream during the freezing process. The ginger paste and juice reduced fat, total solids, protein, and overrun while increasing antioxidant activity and phenols, while the ginger candy and powder increased solids, crude fiber, antioxidant activity, and phenols while lowering fat and overrun [58].
Sensory evaluation of curcumin (turmeric) powder as natural color for butterscotch flavor ice cream was investigated by Manoharan et al. Turmeric is a bright yellow colorant produced from the roots of the herb
Mint incorporated herbal ice cream had an increased protein and acidity levels and decreased fat and overrun levels. Herbal menthol at 0.5 percent of the ice-cream mix generated the strongest results for the mint flavored ice cream, providing a cooling sensation without altering the sensory and physical properties of the dessert [60]. Similarly, Jana et al. investigated the development of herbal ice cream with 3.50 percent and 2.50 percent lemon grass distillate and curry leaf distillate, respectively and lemongrass powder and curry leaf powder at 0.75 percent and 0.70 percent, respectively. They reported that, the herbal ice cream made with herbal distillates and, especially lemon grass distillate was due to its highest sensory score than herbal ice creams made with herbal powders [61].
Mohamed et al. reported an improved shelf life and consistency of cream cheese (an acid-curd soft cheese with a short shelf life) on addition of
Bakheit and Foda developed spicy Mudaffara cheese by adding three different spices (clove, black cumin, and black pepper) with good consumer acceptability. The results suggested that, spicy Mudaffara cheese could be stored at room temperature for 4 to 6 weeks with good taste, depending on the spices used, while its shelf life increased to 8 weeks when kept refrigerated. Clove Mudaffara cheese, on the other hand, had the highest antioxidant activity, followed by black cumin and black pepper cheese [63]. Similarly, Hamid and Abdel developed traditional herbal Sudanese white cheese called Gibna cheese by adding 0.02 percent fenugreek, cinnamon, and cardamon powder to coagulated goat’s milk curd. Adding spices to cheese significantly increased fat, protein, and ash content during storage, but total solids and acidity were not affected. The flavor, odor, and consistency of goat’s milk cheese were all enhanced by using these spices [64]. Marinho et al. tested semi-hard cheese made from pasteurized and raw Holstein cow milk, coating it with and without lard and rosemary, and ripening it for 60 days. The cheese made from raw milk and coated with lard and rosemary was found to be the most acceptable, giving the final products a higher moisture content, as well as preferred color and texture characteristics [65].
The properties of fresh and ripened herby cheese samples were investigated by Zekai et al. Herby cheese, also known as Otlu peynir – a traditional cheese of eastern Turkey, is made from sheep milk, is widely produced and consumed. Herby cheese is made with around 25 different types of herbs, such as Allium spp., Thymus spp., Ferula spp., Anthriscus nemorosa, and so on. Coskun and Tuncturk also investigated the impact of the herb Allium sp. on biochemical changes in Turkish herby cheese. They observed that, by growing the herb ratios up to 3%, the herby cheese after ripening greatly raises the levels of lipolysis, Water-soluble Nitrogen, TCA-soluble Nitrogen, and PTA-soluble Nitrogen, which are indicators of proteolysis degrees [66].
Shan et al. [15] observed that cinnamon stick, oregano, clove, pomegranate peel, and grape seed extracts were effective against three foodborne pathogens in cheese (
Hassanien et al. [68] found that supplementing cheese with 0.1 percent or 0.2 percent black cumin seed oil, w/w, has important inhibitory effects against certain pathogenic bacteria (
Josipović et al. developed a new herbal cottage cheeses with fresh or dried parsley, dill, pepper, garlic, and rosemary. The herbal cottage cheeses had optimal sensory properties, improved biological value, and extended shelf life. Foodborne pathogens such as
Ashwagandha herb powder (0.5%) enriched shrikhand (an Indian dairy product made from lactic fermented curd) was developed by Landge et al. They observed that adding ashwagandha powder to shrikhand improved the organoleptic properties, consistency and extended the shelf life of the product to 52 days when kept refrigerated [70]. Nidhi Ojha investigated the effects of tulsi and turmeric powder in herbal shrikhand. They reported that adding 0.4 percent tulsi powder and 0.5 percent turmeric powder on the basis of Chakka in Shrikhand improved the product’s sensory, microbiological activity, and nutritional value [71]. Similarly, Himanshu et al. developed tulsi extract (0.9%) incorporated functional herbal shrikhand without compromising the physicochemical properties of the product [72].
Neethu et al. developed Origanum vulgare (also known as oregano, Spanish thyme and wild marjoram) incorporated in paneer made from malic acid coagulated milk. The sensory acceptability of malic acid was higher when it was combined with oregano spiced paneer. In comparison to industrial paneer, the growth of microorganisms was found to be less in this herbal paneer [73]. Shweta et al. reported that 0.6 percent turmeric can be used as a preservative to prolong the shelf life of paneer. When stored at 7 ± 1°C the shelf-life of the herbal paneer was increased to 12 days, compared to 7 days for control paneer [74]. Similarly, Bullerman and Gourma claimed that the compound Oleuropein, derived from the olive tree, can inhibit the development of aflatoxins, and that this property of oleuropein may be useful in products like chhana and paneer, where mold growth contributes to the production of mycotoxins, which can be harmful to one’s health [75].
Turmeric, coriander, curry leaf and spinach were incorporated separately at the 10% level to manufacture sandesh, a heat-desiccated product of coagulated milk protein mass or chhana [76]. Incorporation of herbs did not significantly affect the overall acceptability of sandesh. According to numerous reports, sandesh combined with coriander leaves has high sensory acceptability as well as high neutraceutical, antimicrobial, and antioxidant properties. When opposed to non-herbal sandesh, herbal sandesh had a longer shelf life [76].
Desale et al. investigated the use of ginger powder in the preparation of peda. Peda is a healthy indigenous milk sweet made by heating a mixture of khoa and sugar until it reaches the desired granular, hard texture and flavor. The product was made with buffalo milk and 30 percent sugar by weight of khoa, along 2–6% ginger powder by weight of khoa. Fat, protein, and moisture content in the finished product decreased significantly compared to regular non-ginger khoa, while total solid, total sugar, and ash content increased significantly. Furthermore, peda made with ginger powder had a twice-as-long shelf life than regular peda [77]. A comprehensive list of some herbal dairy products formulated by incorporating different herbs for their functional and medicinal health benefits is presented in Table 3 [78].
Dairy products | Herb(s) and spice(s) used | Targeted functional benefits | References |
---|---|---|---|
Milk | Tulsi juice (25%), ginger juice (3%) and turmeric powder (0.1%). | Anti-carcinogenic. Cardio-protective, anti-inflammatory. Anti-pyretic and anti-microbial. | Gaurav Kumar [18] |
Tulsi | Good antioxidant and iron-chelating properties | Palthur et al. | |
Turmeric powder | Immunity booster. | Jankar [20] | |
Stimulant for muscular and mental efficiency, carminative, an antiseptic and an expectorant. | Kamble et al. [21] | ||
Aloe vera pulp (5%) | It is nutrient-dense and aids in the prevention of the several diseases. | Pugazhenth and Jothylingam [22] | |
Fennel, tulsi and lemon grass oil | Lowers blood pressure, reduces the risk of heart disease, relieves fever, headaches, and sore throats, helps in blood purification. It also has antioxidant, anti-bacterial, and ulcer-prevention properties. | Kishore [23] | |
High antioxidant activity | Sawale et al. [24] | ||
Wheat grass juice | Anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and antibacterial properties. | Vaquil et al. [25] | |
Ginger juice | Antioxidant. Improve sensory and keeping quality. | Rathod et al. [26] | |
Yoghurt | Tulsi leaf | Greater β-D-galactosidase enzymatic activity. | Chowdhury et al. [27] |
Tulsi extract and beet root extract | Antiradical properties | Ghosh [28] | |
Aloe vera gel | Antiviral, antimicrobial activity, adjuvant cancer care, ulcer remedy. | Govindammal et al. [29] | |
Essential oils from peppermint, basil and zataria | Antioxidant activity | Azizkhani and Parsaeimehr [32] | |
Moringa olifera leaf powder | Antimicrobial. | Kabuo et al. [36] | |
Beet root and ginger extract | Higher antioxidant properties | Srivastava et al. [34] | |
Garlic, cinnamon and peppermint | Antimicrobial and proteolytic activity | Bakrm and Salihin [30] | |
Cinnamon powder | Intensify gastro intestinal stability | Ahmed Helala and Davide Tagliazcchi [31] | |
Improved functional properties | Ghalem and Zouaoui [33] | ||
Peppermint, dill and basil | Enhances inhibition of ACE activity. | Amirdivani and Baba [35] | |
Labneh | Thyme, marjoram and sage essential oils | Deliver phytochemicals and other nutrients for health benefits | Otaibi and Demerdash [39] |
Dill and caraway essential oil | Antioxidant and antimicrobial activity | Zaky et al. [79] | |
Moringa oliefera oil | Antimicrobial activity | El-Sayed et al. [40] | |
Lassi | Ginger, turmeric and carrot extract | Rich in antioxidant and provides nutrients | Soma Maji et al. [42] |
Shrikhand | Ashwagandha powder. | Respiratory stimulant activities and immuno-stimulating effect | Landge et al. [70] |
Turmeric and tulsi powder | Increased functional properties | Nidhi Ojha [71] | |
Tulsi extract | Increased flavor and health benefits | Himanshu et al. [72] | |
Butter | Sage and rosemary | Increases oxidative stability. | Najgebauer et al. [45] |
Sage rosemary and oregano extracts | Increases oxidative stability. | Ahmet et al. [48] | |
Rosemary extracts | Increases oxidative stability. | Renata et al. [49] | |
Thyme and cumin essential oils. | Prevent deterioration of butter | Farag et al. [46] | |
Rosemary | High antioxidant properties | Santos et al. [49] | |
Ghee | Sage and rosemary | High antioxidant properties | Ozcan [44] |
Terminalia arjuna | Protective against cardiovascular diseases | Rajanikant and Patil [50] | |
Tulsi leaf powder | Increases oxidative stability | Merai et al. [47] | |
Vidarikand | Antioxidant properties | Nilkanth Pawar [53] | |
Ice cream | Basil juice and freeze dried powder | Anti-stress, antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-fungal, antiviral and immuno-stimulant activities. | Trivedi et al. [54] |
Aloe vera and mint | anti-inflammatory gastro protective, antimicrobial and improve storage stability | Ankush Verma [56] | |
Shredded ginger | Improves melting resistance | Pinto et al. [57] | |
Curcumin powder | Improves sensory attributes and health benefits | Manoharan et al. [59] | |
Pudina | Cooling sensation | Patil et al. [60] | |
Lemon grass and distillate | Improves flavor and sensory attributes | Janu Atanu et al. [61] | |
Cheese | Cinnamon stick, oregano and clove | Effective against food borne pathogens. (Antimicrobial) | Shan et al. [15] |
Clove oil | Antimicrobial | Vrinda and Garge [67] | |
Lard and rosemary | Flavor, color and texture | Marinho et al. [65] | |
Black cumin seed | Inhibit food borne pathogens (Antimicrobial) | Hassanien et al. [68] | |
Rosemary | High antioxidant property | Josipovic et al. [69] | |
Moringa oliefera | High total phenolic content and antioxidant activities | Mohamed et al. [62] | |
Black pepper | High antioxidant property | Bakcheit and Foda [63] | |
Fenugreek, cinnamon and cardamom powder | Enhance flavor, color and consistency | Hamid and Abdelrahman [64] | |
Oregano, thyme | Antimicrobial | Govaris et al. [80] | |
Garlic | Antimicrobial | Shan et al. [15] | |
Black cumin seed oil | Antimicrobial | Hassanien et al. [68] | |
Rosemary essential oil | Antimicrobial | Moro et al. [81] | |
Paneer | Origanum vulgare | Reduction in asthma, diarrhea and indigestion. | Neethu et al. [73] |
Turmeric powder | Improved texture and keeping quality | Shweta Bunch et al. [74] | |
Peda | Ginger powder | Increases texture and flavor | Desale et al. [77] |
Burfi | Stervia powder and safed musli powder | Superior in physic-chemical, microbial and quality attributes | Goyal and Samsheer [78] |
List of some herbal dairy products formulated by incorporating different herbs for their functional and medicinal health benefits.
The growing popularity of functional foods has led to the fortification of dairy products with natural herbs that have medicinal properties promoting nutrition and immunity in the body and resulting in promising health benefits that are free of side effects. Herbs in dairy products not only serve as a functional food, but also as a natural preservative that can replace synthetic preservatives that have been linked to negative human health effects. Moreover, the herbal dairy product shall adhere to all regulatory requirements in terms of protection, effectiveness, quality testing, and marketing authorization. Despite the fact that systematic scientific studies and modern techniques are required to determine food constituents, bioavailability of functional components in herbs, new procedure for optimized extraction and refining separation methods of herbs and their impact on human health need to be considered.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
.
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PhD.",name:"Blandína",middleName:null,surname:"Šramová",slug:"blandina-sramova",fullName:"Blandína Šramová"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"9113",doi:"10.5772/7588",title:"Photocatalytic Processes on the Oxidation of Organic Compounds in Water",slug:"photocatalytic-processes-on-the-oxidation-of-organic-compounds-in-water",totalDownloads:5772,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:null,book:{id:"3704",slug:"new-trends-in-technologies",title:"New Trends in Technologies",fullTitle:"New Trends in Technologies"},signatures:"C. J. Philippopoulos and M. D Nikolaki",authors:null},{id:"61197",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76023",title:"Diversifying Electricity Customer Choice: REVing Up the New York Energy Vision for Polycentric Innovation",slug:"diversifying-electricity-customer-choice-reving-up-the-new-york-energy-vision-for-polycentric-innova",totalDownloads:1140,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Electric utility business models are changing to integrate new technologies and distributed energy resources (DER). Diversifying energy mix and customer choices are both novel and useful in understanding key drivers of this transformation, including distribution system planning and customer-service options. Practical implementation of these solutions, however, shows that without proper planning, energy diversification could come at very high social and economic costs. For example, regulators have been slow in implementing policy, regulatory, and business model constructs that promote customer choice to animate high levels of grid reliability and resiliency. Equally important is how viable existing utility business models are to navigating transformation processes, including strategic resource management, revenue model, customer interface, and value propositions. This chapter discusses our use of the Hamel business model to offer strategic analysis of Reforming the Energy Vision (REV), which is aimed at decarbonizing New York’s energy sector and increasing customer choice and control. Specifically, we build from existing literature to argue that implementing distribution management systems (DMS) in which customer choice and DERs are prominent requires a shared or ‘polycentric,’ networked business-model innovations that build on competitive and comparative advantages of existing institutions to meet the growing demand for electricity services and utility strategic goals.",book:{id:"6525",slug:"energy-systems-and-environment",title:"Energy Systems and Environment",fullTitle:"Energy Systems and Environment"},signatures:"Joseph Nyangon and John Byrne",authors:[{id:"225597",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Nyangon",slug:"joseph-nyangon",fullName:"Joseph Nyangon"},{id:"245796",title:"Prof.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Byrne",slug:"john-byrne",fullName:"John Byrne"}]},{id:"59590",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73833",title:"Biochar Derived from Agricultural Waste Biomass Act as a Clean and Alternative Energy Source of Fossil Fuel Inputs",slug:"biochar-derived-from-agricultural-waste-biomass-act-as-a-clean-and-alternative-energy-source-of-foss",totalDownloads:1115,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"In this study, pyrolysis was used to upgrade the agricultural biomass waste (ABW) and increase its energy at pyrolysis temperatures ranging from 350 to 950°C and a residence time of 60 minutes. The produced biochars were characterized and their fuel qualities (such as, fixed carbon & carbon percentage, gross calorific value, pH and surface area) were evaluated. Physiochemical analysis showed that the biochar has improved fuel qualities compared to the raw biomass, such as decreased volatile matter, increased carbon content, pH and its gross calorific value with lower ash content. The evolution of derived biochar, as determined by TG-DTG and FT-IR, showed that most hemicellulose and cellulose were decomposed at below 350°C while the decomposition of lignin only occurs at higher pyrolysis temperatures. The biochars had increased ignition temperatures and higher combustion temperature regions compared to raw biomass feedstock. The present study showed that pyrolysis pointed the differences in fuel qualities among different agricultural biomass feedstocks. It also compromises with a promising conversion process for the production of biochar which has an alternative, clean and environment friendly energy source.",book:{id:"6525",slug:"energy-systems-and-environment",title:"Energy Systems and Environment",fullTitle:"Energy Systems and Environment"},signatures:"Swapan Suman and Shalini Gautam",authors:[{id:"223329",title:"Dr.",name:"Swapan",middleName:null,surname:"Suman",slug:"swapan-suman",fullName:"Swapan Suman"}]},{id:"65521",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83435",title:"Nuclear Energy Policy after the Fukushima Nuclear Accident: An Analysis of “Polarized Debate” in Japan",slug:"nuclear-energy-policy-after-the-fukushima-nuclear-accident-an-analysis-of-polarized-debate-in-japan",totalDownloads:1758,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The Tokyo Electric Power’s Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident in 2011 was a turning point for Japan’s nuclear energy and overall energy policy. In reality, Japan has reduced its dependence on nuclear energy drastically despite the government’s policy to maintain nuclear energy as a major power source. Even with sharp drop in production from nuclear energy, Japan could achieve carbon reduction of around 60–70% by 2050 even without nuclear power. But the biggest impact of the Fukushima accident is the loss of public trust. The policy debate on nuclear energy is now divided between “pro” and “anti” of nuclear power. The aim of this study is to analyze why such “polarized debate” has not been resolved and find a way to restore public trust. This study analyzes three important nuclear energy policy issues, i.e., decommissioning of Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant, spent nuclear fuel and waste management, and plutonium stockpile management. The analysis of these three cases suggest that lack of independent oversight organizations is a common cause of impasse of nuclear energy policy debate. The author argues that Japan needs to establish independent oversight organizations in order to gain public trust and solve important policy issues regardless of the future of nuclear energy.",book:{id:"7633",slug:"energy-policy",title:"Energy Policy",fullTitle:"Energy Policy"},signatures:"Tatsujiro Suzuki",authors:[{id:"277612",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatsujiro",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"tatsujiro-suzuki",fullName:"Tatsujiro Suzuki"}]},{id:"59860",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74039",title:"Bioelectrochemical Systems for Energy Valorization of Waste Streams",slug:"bioelectrochemical-systems-for-energy-valorization-of-waste-streams",totalDownloads:1107,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Bioelectrochemical systems (BES) encompass a group of technologies derived from conventional electrochemical systems in which the electrodic reactions are directly or indirectly linked to the metabolic activity of certain types of microorganisms. Although BES have not yet made the leap to the commercial scale, these technologies hold a great potential, as they allow to valorize different liquid and gas waste streams. This chapter is devoted to exploring some of the possibilities that BES offer in the management and valorization of wastes. More specifically, it focuses on analyzing practical aspects of using BES for energy valorization of wastewaters and CO2-rich streams. Here, it is shown how BES can compete, in terms of energy usage, with conventional wastewater treatment technologies by exploiting the energy content of some of the chemicals present in the wastewater. Moreover, it explores how BES could enable using wastewater treatment plants as load regulation system for electrical grids. It also includes some insights on the capability of BES to recover valuable products such as fertilizers form wastes, a feature that allows this technology to promote energy efficiency in the fertilizers industry, and a sector that demands substantial amounts of energy in our world today. Finally, some of the most relevant scale-up experiences in the field are also covered.",book:{id:"6525",slug:"energy-systems-and-environment",title:"Energy Systems and Environment",fullTitle:"Energy Systems and Environment"},signatures:"María Isabel San-Martín, Daniel David Leicester, Elizabeth Susan\nHeidrich, Raúl Marcos Alonso, Raúl Mateos and Adrián Escapa",authors:[{id:"228404",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrián",middleName:null,surname:"Escapa",slug:"adrian-escapa",fullName:"Adrián Escapa"},{id:"239957",title:"MSc.",name:"María Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"San Martín Becares",slug:"maria-isabel-san-martin-becares",fullName:"María Isabel San Martín Becares"},{id:"239958",title:"Dr.",name:"Elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Heidrich",slug:"elizabeth-heidrich",fullName:"Elizabeth Heidrich"},{id:"239959",title:"MSc.",name:"Raúl Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Alonso García",slug:"raul-marcos-alonso-garcia",fullName:"Raúl Marcos Alonso García"},{id:"239960",title:"MSc.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Mateos González",slug:"raul-mateos-gonzalez",fullName:"Raúl Mateos González"},{id:"239987",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Leicester",slug:"daniel-leicester",fullName:"Daniel Leicester"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69228",title:"Advances in Passive Cooling Design: An Integrated Design Approach",slug:"advances-in-passive-cooling-design-an-integrated-design-approach",totalDownloads:2073,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Incorporating passive cooling devices within building design requires analysis of device variables and actions to improve cooling performance, maximize efficiency, and integrate with building elements. Improving devices performance requires understanding the relation of devices to design stages, building elements, and working mechanism, and actions performed by devices to enhance cooling process and effectiveness. Therefore, designers could integrate passive devices as intrinsic design elements. The current research introduces SARS as an innovative classification of passive devices based on cooling actions that are performed by a device like storing, avoidance, removal or slowing (SARS). All actions, devices, and variables were discussed and analyzed to help integrate them within design stages: analysis, designing, and performance. Understanding actions will help maximize the performance of the devices, combine two or more devices together, and integrate the devices’ deign in design process. Combining more devices together to perform more than one function will move passive design to a new level to become as whole building design approach and to be a core design element.",book:{id:"8496",slug:"zero-and-net-zero-energy",title:"Zero and Net Zero Energy",fullTitle:"Zero and Net Zero Energy"},signatures:"Ahmed A.Y. Freewan",authors:[{id:"284866",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Freewan",slug:"ahmed-a.y.-freewan",fullName:"Ahmed A.Y. Freewan"}]},{id:"64590",title:"Acoustic Filters for Sensors and Transducers: Energy Policy Instrument for Monitoring and Evaluating Holy Places and Their Habitants",slug:"acoustic-filters-for-sensors-and-transducers-energy-policy-instrument-for-monitoring-and-evaluating-",totalDownloads:1072,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The aim of the study is to present a brief overview of energy policy instrument for monitoring and evaluating holy places and their habitants with the aid of acoustic filters for sensors and transducers. A monitoring protocol for policy instrument is presented for noise protection and security from power systems. Methods of information and data collection are briefly elaborated. The power systems are classified as per source signals of solar power, electric power, light power, sound power, heat power, fluid power and fire power. The acoustic filters as per source of noise signals from power systems are defined. The filters are differentiated as per source signal of unwanted frequencies from solar power, electric power, light power, sound power, heat power, fluid power and fire power. Some examples of acoustic filters are mentioned as per source of noise signal. A slide rule for noise measurement is illustrated along with its noise grades and flag colors under limiting conditions. Some noise filtering results from various power systems of an outdoor duct are also tabulated. An overview of noise systems integration with command and control center is described. A brief discussion on management of holy places and their habitants through monitoring and evaluation is also mentioned.",book:{id:"7633",slug:"energy-policy",title:"Energy Policy",fullTitle:"Energy Policy"},signatures:"Himanshu Dehra",authors:[{id:"12304",title:"Mr.",name:"Himanshu",middleName:null,surname:"Dehra",slug:"himanshu-dehra",fullName:"Himanshu Dehra"}]},{id:"61018",title:"Reused Lithium-Ion Battery Applied in Water Treatment Plants",slug:"reused-lithium-ion-battery-applied-in-water-treatment-plants",totalDownloads:1093,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"For stabilizing renewable energies and shaving peak power at noon, both the energy consumption and potential renewable energies in Dihua waste water treatment plant (WWTP) in Taiwan are analyzed. Under the consideration of environment, cost, and performance, automotive reused lithium-ion battery (RLIB) is employed. Two typical automotive lithium-ion batteries are used in this study after the selection of suitable battery cells. In particular, one simple, converterless energy management system (EMS) is developed and integrated in new RLIB packs. The control strategy between RLIB and an additional physical battery is adjusted by simulation. An online estimation of RLIB’s internal resistance and open-circuit voltage monitoring scheme is applied in EMS to ensure the safety of RLIB. The bench test and rough economical estimation reveal that EMS shows great potential in elongating life cycle and possibly benefits from feed-in tariff and peak shift of electricity charges.",book:{id:"6525",slug:"energy-systems-and-environment",title:"Energy Systems and Environment",fullTitle:"Energy Systems and Environment"},signatures:"Yi-Hsien Chiang and Wu-Yang Sean",authors:[{id:"228433",title:"Prof.",name:"Wu-Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Sean",slug:"wu-yang-sean",fullName:"Wu-Yang Sean"}]},{id:"62283",title:"Greening Municipality Through Carbon Footprint for Selective Municipality",slug:"greening-municipality-through-carbon-footprint-for-selective-municipality",totalDownloads:1028,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Evaluation of the organizational greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from operational activities of selective municipality was investigated in this study. The selected municipality is located in Songkhla Province, the southern part of Thailand, and is divided into seven functional units. The total GHG emissions were estimated at 16,920.29 ton CO2 eq. in the fiscal year 2016. The carbon footprints under direct, indirect, and optional indirect emissions (scopes 1, 2, and 3, respectively) were found to be 1129.92, 255.24, and 15,535.13 ton CO2 eq./year, respectively. The highest carbon footprint was from methane emissions related to solid waste decomposition in sanitary landfills (15,524 ton CO2 eq./year). Therefore, the main GHG mitigation strategy proposed was the installation of waste to energy recovery in order to reduce waste throughput to the landfill. For specific municipal operations, diesel combustion in municipality-owned vehicles had the highest carbon emission followed by fugitive emissions from refrigerants and electricity consumption (746.92, 289.60, and 255.24 ton CO2 eq./year, respectively). The important constraints in reducing GHG emissions from upstream and downstream of the organizational activities were identified in terms of time, cost, and data accessibility. Further, convergent cooperation and public participation are also significant for effective implementation of global warming mitigation strategies.",book:{id:"6500",slug:"low-carbon-transition-technical-economic-and-policy-assessment",title:"Low Carbon Transition",fullTitle:"Low Carbon Transition - Technical, Economic and Policy Assessment"},signatures:"Warangkana Jutidamrongphan, Luke Makarichi and Samnang Tim",authors:[{id:"234045",title:"Dr.",name:"Warangkana",middleName:null,surname:"Jutidamrongphan",slug:"warangkana-jutidamrongphan",fullName:"Warangkana Jutidamrongphan"},{id:"245443",title:"Mr.",name:"Luke",middleName:null,surname:"Makarichi",slug:"luke-makarichi",fullName:"Luke Makarichi"},{id:"245444",title:"Mr.",name:"Samnang",middleName:null,surname:"Tim",slug:"samnang-tim",fullName:"Samnang Tim"},{id:"395980",title:"Dr.",name:"Warangkana",middleName:null,surname:"Jutidamrongphan",slug:"warangkana-jutidamrongphan",fullName:"Warangkana Jutidamrongphan"},{id:"395981",title:"Dr.",name:"Luke",middleName:null,surname:"Makarichi",slug:"luke-makarichi",fullName:"Luke Makarichi"},{id:"395982",title:"Dr.",name:"Samnang",middleName:null,surname:"Tim",slug:"samnang-tim",fullName:"Samnang Tim"}]},{id:"71825",title:"Towards Energy Security for the Twenty-First Century",slug:"towards-energy-security-for-the-twenty-first-century",totalDownloads:901,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Energy security is a goal that many countries are pursuing to ensure that their economies function without interruption and that their people have access to adequate, reliable and affordable supplies of modern and clean energy. It is a pressing concern because the demand for energy is growing rapidly due to robust economic expansion, population growth, new uses of energy and income growth, and yet the supplies of energy resources required to power these needs are finite and in most cases non-renewable. Furthermore, the production, transportation and utilization of energy are a major source of greenhouse gases that cause global warming and climate change. This chapter examines the multidimensional nature of energy security, presents some indicators that can be used to assess changes in energy security and outlines a range of policy measures that can be used to improve energy security. These include more investments in energy production and transmission; promotion of energy efficiency in various end-use sectors; modernization of the grid to enable the integration of renewables such as wind, solar and geothermal energy into the energy system; undertaking reforms in energy markets to attract private sector investment in energy production, increase competition, reduce wastage and lower costs to energy users and fostering greater international collaboration on energy issues and regional energy trade.",book:{id:"7633",slug:"energy-policy",title:"Energy Policy",fullTitle:"Energy Policy"},signatures:"Collins Ayoo",authors:[{id:"224658",title:"Dr.",name:"Collins",middleName:null,surname:"Ayoo",slug:"collins-ayoo",fullName:"Collins Ayoo"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1352",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"306970",title:"Mr.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Tamadon",slug:"amin-tamadon",fullName:"Amin Tamadon",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002oHR5wQAG/Profile_Picture_1623910304139",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bushehr University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186048/images/5818_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79615/images/system/79615.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"84459",title:"Prof.",name:"Valerie",middleName:null,surname:"Chappe",slug:"valerie-chappe",fullName:"Valerie Chappe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/84459/images/system/84459.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalhousie University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. 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He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture in college. Dr. Chen's research interests are bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published over 60 research papers, reviewed over 260 manuscripts, and edited at least 150 papers in international peer-review journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"313856",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:"F.E.",surname:"Hano",slug:"christophe-hano",fullName:"Christophe Hano",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313856/images/system/313856.png",institutionString:"University of Orléans",institution:{name:"University of Orléans",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/33993/images/system/33993.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Spanish National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",middleName:null,surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191770/images/system/191770.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tanta University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"247858",title:"Dr.",name:"Saddam",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"saddam-hussain",fullName:"Saddam Hussain",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSF2aQAG/Profile_Picture_1625658281836",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:43,paginationItems:[{id:"81796",title:"Apoptosis-Related Diseases and Peroxisomes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105052",signatures:"Meimei Wang, Yakun Liu, Ni Chen, Juan Wang and Ye Zhao",slug:"apoptosis-related-diseases-and-peroxisomes",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81723",title:"Peroxisomal Modulation as Therapeutic Alternative for Tackling Multiple Cancers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104873",signatures:"Shazia Usmani, Shadma Wahab, Abdul Hafeez, Shabana Khatoon and Syed Misbahul Hasan",slug:"peroxisomal-modulation-as-therapeutic-alternative-for-tackling-multiple-cancers",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81638",title:"Aging and Neuropsychiatric Disease: A General Overview of Prevalence and Trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103102",signatures:"Jelena Milić",slug:"aging-and-neuropsychiatric-disease-a-general-overview-of-prevalence-and-trends",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81566",title:"New and Emerging Technologies for Integrative Ambulatory Autonomic Assessment and Intervention as a Catalyst in the Synergy of Remote Geocoded Biosensing, Algorithmic Networked Cloud Computing, Deep Learning, and Regenerative/Biomic Medicine: Further Real",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104092",signatures:"Robert L. Drury",slug:"new-and-emerging-technologies-for-integrative-ambulatory-autonomic-assessment-and-intervention-as-a-",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Autonomic Nervous System - Special Interest Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10835.jpg",subseries:{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7264",title:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7264.jpg",slug:"calcium-and-signal-transduction",publishedDate:"October 24th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"John N. Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",biography:"Full Professor and Vice Chair, Division of Pharmacology, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine. He received his B.S. Degree in Biology at La Sierra University, Riverside California (1980) and a PhD in Pharmacology from Loma Linda University School of Medicine (1988). Post-Doctoral Fellow at University of California, Irvine, College of Medicine 1989-1992 with a focus on autonomic nerve function in blood vessels and the impact of aging on the function of these nerves and overall blood vessel function. Twenty years of research funding and served on NIH R01 review panels, Editor-In-Chief of Edorium Journal of Aging Research. Serves as a peer reviewer for biomedical journals. 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. 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Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. 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Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"8",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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