UHMS- and FDA-approved indications for hyperbaric oxygen therapy.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9441",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) - Past, Present, and Progress",title:"Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)",subtitle:"Past, Present, and Progress",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The 21st century is characterized as an era of natural resource depletion, and humanity is faced with several threats due to the lack of food, energy, and water. Climate change and sea-level rise are at unprecedented levels, being phenomena that make predicting the future of ocean resources more complicated. Oceans contain a limitless amount of water with small (but finite) temperature differences from their surfaces to their floors. To advance the utilization of ocean resources, this book readdresses the past achievements, present developments, and future progress of ocean thermal energy, from basic sciences to sociology and cultural aspects.",isbn:"978-1-78985-572-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-571-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-521-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86591",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-otec-past-present-and-progress",numberOfPages:184,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"b0f6032c45ead7f1cb11bb488bfcd48d",bookSignature:"Albert S. Kim and Hyeon-Ju Kim",publishedDate:"May 13th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9441.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6476,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:15,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 1st 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 30th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 31st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 9th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 8th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!0,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/21045/images/system/21045.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Albert S. Kim earned his physics degree of BS from Kyung Hee University and MS from Yonsei University, South Korea. He received his MS (1997) and Ph.D. (2000) in Civil and Environmental Engineering from the University of California at Los Angeles, USA. He joined the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Hawaii at Manoa in 2001. \r\nDr. Kim’s scientific accomplishments include the US National Science Foundation Faculty Early Career (CAREER) Award (2005), the University of Hawaii Regents’ Medal for Excellence in Research (2006) and the Medal for Excellence in Teaching (2017). Professor Kim has published almost 60 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters. He researches on computational environmental physics for engineering purposes.",institutionString:"University of Hawaii at Manoa",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Hawaii at Manoa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"204519",title:"Dr.",name:"Hyeon-Ju",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"hyeon-ju-kim",fullName:"Hyeon-Ju Kim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204519/images/system/204519.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Kim is the Principal Researcher, Offshore Plant, and Marine Energy Research Division, Korea Research Institute of Ships and Ocean Engineering (KRISO) and Project Manager of the Korean OTEC program. He received his Ph.D. at the Dept. of Ocean Engineering, Pukyong National University. His fields of specialization are Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion system technology, Seawater Desalination, and Mineral Extraction system technology, Deep Ocean Water Application technology for Food, Energy and Water. He is Vice Chairman of the Korean Society for Power System Engineering and a Member of the board of directors of the Korean Society for Marine Environment and Energy, The Korean Society of Ocean Engineering, etc.",institutionString:"Korea Research Institute of Ships and Ocean Engineering",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"770",title:"Renewable Energy",slug:"engineering-energy-engineering-renewable-energy"}],chapters:[{id:"71764",title:"Can Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion and Seawater Utilisation Assist Small Island Developing States? A Case Study of Kiribati, Pacific Islands Region",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91945",slug:"can-ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-and-seawater-utilisation-assist-small-island-developing-states-a",totalDownloads:841,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The deployment of a land-based Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) plant in South Tarawa, Kiribati, Pacific Islands Region, in 2020/2021, represents a major technical achievement, alongside an international development opportunity. Pacific Small Island Developing States (PSIDS) are archipelago nations with small land areas and large oceanic exclusive economic zones. Geographical isolation and large transport distances make economic development a challenge. A lack of affordable and reliable energy in many PSIDS is a development inhibitor. PSIDS are situated within the areas of highest ocean thermal potential in the world. Temperature differences between surface and 1 km depth waters, are in excess of 24°C. Regional geology and tectonics allow access to deeper, colder, waters within few kilometres of many shorelines, and close to market. Seawater Utilization technologies can catalyse varied industrial development (e.g., fresh water/aquaculture/agriculture/mineral salts). The KRISO (Korean Research Institute of Ships and Ocean Engineering)-Government of Kiribati OTEC partnership is already 7 years old (2013–2020) and has involved extensive negotiations, awareness raising programmes, and inclusive collaboration. The project will test OTEC technologies and explore a range development opportunities for Kiribati. The programme could become a role model for the application of the concept of ‘Interconnected Geoscience’.",signatures:"Michael G. Petterson and Hyeon Ju Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71764",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71764",authors:[{id:"204519",title:"Dr.",name:"Hyeon-Ju",surname:"Kim",slug:"hyeon-ju-kim",fullName:"Hyeon-Ju Kim"},{id:"304123",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",surname:"Petterson",slug:"michael-petterson",fullName:"Michael Petterson"}],corrections:null},{id:"71102",title:"The Social Energy: Contexts for Its Assessment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91168",slug:"the-social-energy-contexts-for-its-assessment",totalDownloads:827,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The recognition that interdisciplinary approaches must be integrated in any planning that concerns science and technology has shifted from theoretical perspectives to practical implementation. The once distant worlds of Engineering and Social Sciences must cross their boundaries if they are to contribute to the transition toward a carbon-neutral energy supply. The objective of this chapter is to explicitly state the connection of the social dimension with engineering applications (such as the OTEC technology) by developing basic elements of social analysis and explaining the conceptual and practical framework of instruments and practices like the social impact assessment. The chapter will mention the holistic perspective of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and the general debate of integrating the social sciences and humanities in environmental change research.",signatures:"Alonso Pérez Pérez, Mauricio Latapí Agudelo and Graciela Rivera Camacho",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71102",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71102",authors:[{id:"306562",title:"Dr.",name:"Alonso",surname:"Pérez Pérez",slug:"alonso-perez-perez",fullName:"Alonso Pérez Pérez"},{id:"306856",title:"MSc.",name:"Mauricio Andres",surname:"Latapi Agudelo",slug:"mauricio-andres-latapi-agudelo",fullName:"Mauricio Andres Latapi Agudelo"},{id:"307095",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Graciela",surname:"Rivera Camacho",slug:"graciela-rivera-camacho",fullName:"Graciela Rivera Camacho"}],corrections:null},{id:"70647",title:"Current Development and Prospect of Turbine in OTEC",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90608",slug:"current-development-and-prospect-of-turbine-in-otec",totalDownloads:859,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter mainly introduces the development and prospect of turbines utilized in ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), including brief introduction, aerodynamic design, mechanical and electric control system, problems, and prospect of the turbine in OTEC. At the beginning, the first section mainly introduces compositions and types of turbine in OTEC systems, different working fluids in the turbine, status of OTEC turbine currently in the world, and so on. After that, the aerodynamic design of turbine has the greatest impact on the efficiency of the turbine and is the most important process during the turbine development. Therefore, the second section focuses on turbine aerodynamic design. Furthermore, the third section mainly introduces the mechanical system and the electric control system of the turbine. Finally, the problems in the turbine currently are listed, and the prospects for the development of the turbine in OTEC are discussed in the fourth section.",signatures:"Weimin Liu, Yunzheng Ge, Lei Liu and Yun Chen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70647",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70647",authors:[{id:"304136",title:"Dr.",name:"Weimin",surname:"Liu",slug:"weimin-liu",fullName:"Weimin Liu"},{id:"304138",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Yunzheng",surname:"Ge",slug:"yunzheng-ge",fullName:"Yunzheng Ge"},{id:"304139",title:"Dr.",name:"Yun",surname:"Chen",slug:"yun-chen",fullName:"Yun Chen"},{id:"306181",title:"MSc.",name:"Lei",surname:"Liu",slug:"lei-liu",fullName:"Lei Liu"}],corrections:null},{id:"70689",title:"Novel OTEC Cycle Using Efficiency Enhancer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90791",slug:"novel-otec-cycle-using-efficiency-enhancer",totalDownloads:998,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) plant is designed to improve the efficiency of the existing plants. Various researches are being conducted to increase the plant’s efficiency and output with the use of an enhancer, and studies for performance improvement are also in progress from the Kalina and Uehara cycles to ejector pump OTEC (EP-OTEC). Their performance can be improved by increasing the evaporation pressure using an unused heat source and reducing the heat consumption using a reheating system and a regenerator. In the case of EP-OTEC, an ejector is installed near the turbine-exit to reduce the pressure and therefore increase the power output. In simulations and experiments conducted in this study, EP-OTEC showed 38% efficiency improvement from the basic cycle, which is due to the power output volume increase. The optimum ratio was derived by adjusting the pressure ratio. The demonstration plant to be developed in the future is expected to be applied to the high-efficiency OTEC demonstration plant with improved performance, and new technologies will be continuously developed considering economics and commercial viability.",signatures:"Hosaeng Lee, Seungtaek Lim, Jungin Yoon and Hyeonju Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70689",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70689",authors:[{id:"204519",title:"Dr.",name:"Hyeon-Ju",surname:"Kim",slug:"hyeon-ju-kim",fullName:"Hyeon-Ju Kim"},{id:"309185",title:"Dr.",name:"Ho-Saeng",surname:"Lee",slug:"ho-saeng-lee",fullName:"Ho-Saeng Lee"},{id:"309188",title:"Mr.",name:"Seung-Taek",surname:"Kim",slug:"seung-taek-kim",fullName:"Seung-Taek Kim"},{id:"309189",title:"Prof.",name:"Jung-In",surname:"Yoon",slug:"jung-in-yoon",fullName:"Jung-In Yoon"}],corrections:null},{id:"70632",title:"Analysis and Development of Closed Cycle OTEC System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90609",slug:"analysis-and-development-of-closed-cycle-otec-system",totalDownloads:691,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we present the methodology for the selection of the working fluid, the environmental and working conditions for operation, and the development carried out for the design of a closed cycle OTEC prototype plant. This prototype uses the temperature difference between the cooler deep waters and the warmer surface waters of the Mexican Caribbean Sea to feed a thermal machine capable of generating 1 kW of electrical energy; and it works with an organic Rankine cycle, composed of a pump, a turbine, and two heat exchangers. The advances carried out in installing the prototype are also presented.",signatures:"Estela Cerezo Acevedo, Jessica G. Tobal Cupul, Victor M. Romero Medina, Elda Gomez Barragan and Miguel Angel Alatorre Mendieta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70632",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70632",authors:[{id:"306709",title:"Dr.",name:"Estela",surname:"Cerezo-Acevedo",slug:"estela-cerezo-acevedo",fullName:"Estela Cerezo-Acevedo"},{id:"306711",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor Manuel",surname:"Romero Medina",slug:"victor-manuel-romero-medina",fullName:"Victor Manuel Romero Medina"},{id:"306712",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",surname:"Alatorre Mendieta",slug:"miguel-alatorre-mendieta",fullName:"Miguel Alatorre Mendieta"},{id:"309398",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessica Guadalupe",surname:"Tobal Cupul",slug:"jessica-guadalupe-tobal-cupul",fullName:"Jessica Guadalupe Tobal Cupul"},{id:"309399",title:"Dr.",name:"Elda",surname:"Gomez Barragan",slug:"elda-gomez-barragan",fullName:"Elda Gomez Barragan"}],corrections:null},{id:"70537",title:"Research and Development Activities of Ocean Thermal Energy-Driven Development in Malaysia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90610",slug:"research-and-development-activities-of-ocean-thermal-energy-driven-development-in-malaysia",totalDownloads:780,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The search for potential investors in the conversion of ocean thermal energy to power or hydrogen, and its spinoff projects in Malaysia and the region, continues. In the meantime, several pre-feasibility studies have been completed for selected sites, including that of Pulau Layang-Layang and Pulau Kalumpang (Sabah, Malaysia); Timor-Leste, and off Pulau Weh (Aceh, Indonesia). Various research projects have been completed such as the conversion of solar-thermal to the chilled-water system; the cooling of tropical soils for the culture of temperate crops; the design of offshore structure off the continental slope; hydrogen fuel production and distribution, deep seawater properties to reduce obesity, cholesterol and blood pressure; and the legal-institutional framework for the development of ocean thermal energy conversion. UTM Ocean Thermal Energy Centre (UTM OTEC) has entered into the Collaborative Research Agreement with the Institute of Ocean Energy of Saga University (Japan) to undertake joint research for the development of an experimental rig that introduces a hybrid system with stainless steel heat exchanger. Other aspects of this joint research would include a new design for 3 kW turbine, the introduction of nano-working fluids, the eDNA of intake waters, and improved productivity in the culture of high-value marine produce and products.",signatures:"A. Bakar Jaafar, Mohd Khairi Abu Husain and Azrin Ariffin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70537",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70537",authors:[{id:"193214",title:"Dr.",name:"Abu Bakar",surname:"Jaafar",slug:"abu-bakar-jaafar",fullName:"Abu Bakar Jaafar"},{id:"311007",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Khairi",surname:"Abu Husain",slug:"mohd-khairi-abu-husain",fullName:"Mohd Khairi Abu Husain"},{id:"311008",title:"Mr.",name:"Azrin",surname:"Ariffin",slug:"azrin-ariffin",fullName:"Azrin Ariffin"}],corrections:null},{id:"70334",title:"General Criteria for Optimal Site Selection for the Installation of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Plants in the Mexican Pacific",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90280",slug:"general-criteria-for-optimal-site-selection-for-the-installation-of-ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-",totalDownloads:777,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of this chapter is to provide an assessment of the resource potential for ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) in the Mexican Pacific Ocean (MPO). Research methodology adopted in this study is a combination of geographic information system (GIS), to identify the most promising site in the MPO for OTEC deployment. Site selection criteria rely on conditions such as distance to cold water pumping, bathymetry, thermal difference (not less than 20°C), and social and environmental aspects. Finally we concluded that sites located in the states of Guerrero and Oaxaca have the highest potential of the entire MPO, although there are other areas in the states of Baja California Sur, Nayarit, or Michoacan that might have some interest for OTEC technology.",signatures:"Alejandro García Huante, Yandy Rodríguez Cueto, Erika Paola Garduño Ruiz and Ricardo Efraín Hernández Contreras",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70334",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70334",authors:[{id:"306425",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Alejandro",surname:"García Huante",slug:"alejandro-garcia-huante",fullName:"Alejandro García Huante"},{id:"306426",title:"MSc.",name:"Yandy",surname:"Rodríguez Cueto",slug:"yandy-rodriguez-cueto",fullName:"Yandy Rodríguez Cueto"},{id:"306427",title:"MSc.",name:"Erika Paola",surname:"Garduño Ruíz",slug:"erika-paola-garduno-ruiz",fullName:"Erika Paola Garduño Ruíz"},{id:"306428",title:"MSc.",name:"Ricardo Efraín",surname:"Hernández Contreras",slug:"ricardo-efrain-hernandez-contreras",fullName:"Ricardo Efraín Hernández Contreras"}],corrections:null},{id:"71144",title:"Environmental Impact Assessment of the Operation of an Open Cycle OTEC 1MWe Power Plant in the Cozumel Island, Mexico",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91179",slug:"environmental-impact-assessment-of-the-operation-of-an-open-cycle-otec-1mwe-power-plant-in-the-cozum",totalDownloads:703,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"An environmental impact assessment (EIA) was made for the operation of a 1MWe open-cycle OTEC plant on Cozumel Island, Quintana Roo. Due to its bathymetric characteristics and its proximity to the population center, the ideal location for the placement of the OTEC plant is in the western coastal area of the island. An environmental inventory was developed in which the susceptible factors to be impacted were described (air, soil, water, landscape, geology and flora). The essential components of the OC-OTEC PLANT operation process were studied: vacuum pump, flash evaporator, turbine, condenser and pipes. An impact matrix (Leopold matrix) was created, which prompts to impacts on the environment list, generated by the OC-OTEC PLANT operation: CO2 emissions; nutrients dragged to the surface; artificial reef effect/contamination by heavy metal salts; drag and compression of organisms; redistribution of oceanic water bodies; impacts by organic antifouling chemicals; noise; illumination; turtle nesting alteration; brine discharges; cause significant public controversy; alteration and interruption of migration routes; and waste, among others. Once the most significant impacts were assessed through the Leopold matrix, corrective and preventive measures were established on those actions, in order to minimize their negative impact on the environment.",signatures:"Enrique Celestino Carrera Chan, María Fernanda Sabido Tun, Juan Francisco Bárcenas Graniel and Estela Cerezo Acevedo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71144",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71144",authors:[{id:"306709",title:"Dr.",name:"Estela",surname:"Cerezo-Acevedo",slug:"estela-cerezo-acevedo",fullName:"Estela Cerezo-Acevedo"},{id:"306847",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Francisco",surname:"Bárcenas Graniel",slug:"juan-francisco-barcenas-graniel",fullName:"Juan Francisco Bárcenas Graniel"},{id:"306868",title:"BSc.",name:"Enrique Celestino",surname:"Carrera Chan",slug:"enrique-celestino-carrera-chan",fullName:"Enrique Celestino Carrera Chan"},{id:"306869",title:"BSc.",name:"María Fernanda",surname:"Sabido Tun",slug:"maria-fernanda-sabido-tun",fullName:"María Fernanda Sabido Tun"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8416",title:"Non-Equilibrium Particle Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c3add7639dcd1cb442cb4313ea64e3a",slug:"non-equilibrium-particle-dynamics",bookSignature:"Albert S. 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Chemical kinetics, also known as reaction kinetics or chemical reaction kinetics, is a key branch of physical chemistry. Its main task is to investigate the rate during chemical process and to propose the catalytic mechanism of chemical process by a method of research object acting as a nonequilibrium dynamic system whose properties change with time [1, 2]. Through the study of chemical kinetics, it can reasonably guide us to know how to control the reaction conditions and improve the main reaction rate, in order to increase the production of chemical products, and also guide us to learn how to suppress or slow down the reaction rate of side reactions to reduce the consumption of raw materials, reduce the burden of separation operations, and eventually improve the product quality. Chemical kinetics can provide general knowledge on how to avoid explosion of dangerous goods, material corrosion, and aging and deterioration of products. It can also carry out optimal design and control for the industrialization of scientific research results and select the most suitable operating conditions for the existing production. Generally speaking, chemical kinetics is one of the main theoretical bases of chemical reaction engineering, accompanied by the chemical thermodynamics for the improved study of chemical reactions.
Chemical kinetics is of great antiquity with continuous improvements. Date back to the first half of the twentieth century, a great deal of research was devoted to the parameter determination, theoretical analysis, and using these parameters to study the reaction mechanism. However, investigation of the reaction mechanism was extremely difficult at that time, which was dominantly limited by the abilities of probe and analyze reaction intermediates. As time goes on, the study of free radical chain reaction kinetics was generally carried out in the late twentieth century, which brought two development trends for chemical kinetics. One was for the study of elemental reaction dynamics, and the other was to urgently establish a method for detecting active intermediates. Such researches were accompanied by the development of electronics and laser technology. Notably, Herschbach, Lee, and Polanyi, three famous scientists in this field, were awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1986, which marked the importance of chemical kinetics and indicated the current progress and the achieved level.
Nowadays, chemical kinetics has become an indispensable tool in both chemical discipline development and scientific research. The application in heterogeneous catalysis is a typical example [3]. Heterogeneous catalysis, possessing most of the catalytic reactions in the industry, refers to the catalytic reaction that occurs at the interface of two phases. The heterogeneously catalytic reaction generally occurs on the catalyst surface on which the reactant molecular adsorbs, diffuses, activates, reacts, and desorbs to acquire the final products. Therefore, the surface compositions and structures of catalytic materials are extremely critical in determining the catalytic properties [4]. The adsorption center on catalyst surface is often the center of catalytic activity, which is denoted as active site. The reactant molecule bonds to the active site to form surface adsorption complex, which is denoted as active intermediate species. The existence of active site on catalyst surface can affect the formation and activation of active intermediate species, thus altering the reaction path and consequently the required activation energy [5, 6].
In this chapter, two important kinetic equations, the Arrhenius equation and the reaction rate equation, were comprehensively introduced, accompanied by the applications in heterogeneous catalysis. Through the introduction of the Arrhenius equation, the apparent activation energy (
The Arrhenius equation is an empirical formula with chemical reaction rate changing with temperature, which was established by Svante August Arrhenius, a famous scientist in Sweden. This equation can be expressed in different forms containing the differential expression (Eq. (1)), antiderivative form expression (Eq. (2)), derivative form expression (Eq. (3)), and exponential form expression (Eq. (4)), as listed below. Among them,
As shown in the above listed equations, it shows a wide applicability in catalytic reactions, including not only gas-phase reactions but also liquid-phase reactions, as well as most of complex catalytic reactions. However, the precondition of this equation in use is to assume that
This equation is of wide applications in heterogeneous catalysis. Typical in the catalytic oxidation of CO, a representative probe reaction in heterogeneous catalysis [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12], the Arrhenius equation is often used as an evaluation standard to compare the intrinsic activity of different catalysts and relative amount of active sites. Bao et al. [7] reported a crystal-plane-controlled surface restructuring and catalytic performance of Cu2O nanocrystals in CO oxidation with excess O2. As shown in Figure 1, the relationships of catalyst structure and catalytic property were deeply explored. Based on the microscopic and spectroscopic characterization results (detailed descriptions shown in Ref. [7]), the surface compositions and structures of the restructured CuO/Cu2O catalysts were distinctly identified. Their corresponding catalytic performance in CO oxidation with the plotted Arrhenius equation was also conducted. The derived
(A) Catalytic performance of c-Cu2O, o-Cu2O, CuO/c-Cu2O, and CuO/o-Cu2O in CO oxidation reaction and (B) the Arrhenius plot of CO oxidation catalyzed by CuO/o-Cu2O and CuO/c-Cu2O [
Similar results have been extensively reported in many other heterogeneous catalytic reactions, which were used by the calculated
(A) Reaction rate (molCOs−1 molsurface Cu−1) of Cu cubes, Cu octahedra, and Cu rhombic dodecahedra in the water gas shift reaction as a function of reaction temperature; (B) reaction rate (molCOs−1 molsurface Cu−1) of Cu cubes and rhombic dodecahedra at 548 K in the water gas shift reaction as a function of reaction time; (C) the Arrhenius plots of Cu cubes, rhombic dodecahedra, and commercial Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 catalyst in the water gas shift reaction [
The above-mentioned results are a relatively straightforward and convenient method in the use of the Arrhenius equation. For more in-depth use, the Arrhenius equation can also have been utilized to identify the role and contribution of different active sites of a catalyst nanoparticle to the catalytic reaction based on the calculated
(A) Stable light-off curves of the CuO/c-Cu2O structures in different sizes during the oxidation of CO and (B) the corresponding Arrhenius plots; (C) calculated apparent pre-exponential factors (ln A) as a function of the measured BET surface area and the calculated edge length; (D) reaction rates as a function of the partial pressures of CO and O2: (a) CuO/c-Cu2O-1029, (b) CuO/c-Cu2O-682, (c) CuO/c-Cu2O-446, (d) CuO/c-Cu2O-109, and (e) CuO/c-Cu2O-34 [
The Arrhenius equation is also suitable for some complex reactions [16, 17, 18], such as the oxidative dehydrogenation of propane (ODHP) to selectively produce propene. You et al. [16] reported that the NbOx/CeO2-rod catalysts applied for such a reaction and the calculated
(A) C3H8 conversion and C3H6 selectivity of CeO2 rods and NbOx/CeO2 catalysts in the oxidative dehydrogenation of propane reaction and (B) the corresponding Arrhenius plots with calculated apparent activation energies (
Reaction rate equation is an equation of utilizing the concentration or partial pressure of reactants to calculate the reaction rate of chemical reaction. The general expression (Eq. (5)) and differential expression (Eq. (6)) are listed, in which
For a sample heterogeneous catalytic reaction involving a typical MvK mechanism, such as the above-mentioned CO oxidation reaction in Figure 3D [8], the calculated reaction orders of CO and O2 are 1 and 0, respectively, indicating that the catalytic reaction is only dependent on CO but not on O2. Such dependence suggests the adsorption of CO and O2 onto catalyst surface proceeded step by step, as well as the rate-determining step prior to the O2 adsorption process. Thereby, it can be reasonably proposed that the CO oxidation reaction catalyzed by the facet sites and edge sites of CuO/c-Cu2O catalysts is both proceeding with the MvK mechanism.
But for complex reactions, the reaction mechanism is hardly proposed by the reaction orders [19, 20, 21]. However, the reaction orders are still useful to speculate the important catalytic process, especially in determining the rate-determining step of catalytic reaction [22, 23, 24, 25]. A typical example is in the preparation of formic acid, an important chemical in the H2 storage and other industrial applications, from CO2 hydrogenation. The support plays a key role in determining the catalytic mechanism of CO2 hydrogenation into formic acid, which has been confirmed in our previous report by using two common metal oxide (CeO2 and ZnO) supported Pd catalysts dominantly based on the apparent kinetic analysis and in situ DRIFTS results [22]. The calculated
The Arrhenius plots of (A) 0.05%Pd/CeO2 and 2%Pd/CeO2 catalysts and (D) 0.05%Pd/ZnO and 2%Pd/ZnO catalysts; CO2 reaction orders of (B) 0.05%Pd/CeO2 and 2%Pd/CeO2 catalysts and (E) 0.05%Pd/ZnO and 2%Pd/ZnO catalysts at 373 K; and H2 reaction orders of (C) 0.05%Pd/CeO2 and 2%Pd/CeO2 catalysts and (F) 0.05%Pd/ZnO and 2%Pd/ZnO catalysts at 373 K [
This conclusion is further proved by Pd/ZrO2 catalyzed CO2 hydrogenation into formate (Figure 6) [23]. Experimental observation results in CO2-TPD profiles (detailed description shown in Ref. [23]) showed the basicity densities following an order of 2%Pd/ZrO2-T (Tetragonal ZrO2) > 2%Pd/ZrO2-M&T (Mixed ZrO2) ≈ 2%Pd/ZrO2-M (Monoclinic ZrO2), in consistent with the intrinsic activity order. Comparing the reaction orders of H2 and CO2 on 2%Pd/ZrO2-T and 2%Pd/ZrO2-M catalysts, similar H2 reaction orders were observed, while the CO2 reaction orders were higher on 2%Pd/ZrO2-M catalyst than that on 2%Pd/ZrO2-T catalyst. These results clearly demonstrate that the catalytic performance of Pd/ZrO2 catalyst in CO2 hydrogenation into formate is strongly dependent on the surface basicity densities, 2%Pd/ZrO2-T support holds the higher surface basicity densities, and thus, Pd/ZrO2-T catalyst is more active in catalyzing the formate production.
(A) Production rate (molHCOO− molsurf. Pd−1 h−1) of formate on representative various 2%Pd/ZrO2 catalysts based on the surface Pd atoms; reaction orders of (B) H2 and (C) bicarbonate of 2%Pd/ZrO2-M and 2%Pd/ZrO2-T catalysts [
Reaction rate equation is the real reflection of chemical reaction rate. It has been widely used as an important method in investigating the catalytic mechanism. However, several factors, including temperature, chemical reaction, concentration, pressure, order, solvent, light, and catalyst, strongly affect the rate of a chemical reaction. Among them, temperature usually plays a key factor. Generally, the rate of a chemical reaction increases with an increase in reaction temperature because higher kinetic energy can result in more collisions between the reactant molecules. The increase of collision chance will cause the catalytic reaction more likely to happen. The temperature effect on reaction rate can be quantified by the Arrhenius equation. Notably, some reaction rates are negatively affected by the temperature, while some others are independent of temperature. The chemical reaction, concentration, pressure, and order directly determine the reaction rate. In chemical reaction, the complexity of the reaction and the state of the reactants are important. Such as, the reaction of a powder in a solution always proceeds faster than the reaction of a large chunk of a solid. Concentration, pressure, and order are the important parameters of reaction rate equation and thus directly affect the reaction rate. Solvent, light, and catalyst are the external factors that generally do not participate in a reaction but affect the reaction rate. In familiar with these influence factors, it can guide us to better understand and apply the reaction rate equation.
In summary, this chapter introduced the Arrhenius equation and reaction rate equation, two important equations in chemical kinetics, and their applications in heterogeneous catalysis in detail. By the analysis of some specific reactions in the documents, the Arrhenius equation could be used to calculate the
Nowadays, the development of chemical kinetics is very rapid and the contained fields gradually enlarged with the research mode from basement state turning to excitation state, from small molecule turning to big molecule, and from gas phase turning to condensed phase. Benefiting from the improvement of advanced characterization skills, especially in the development of surface analysis and intermediate tracking skills, the catalytic science has become the frontier field of chemical kinetics. Furthermore, the progress of basic theory method also accelerates the application and development of chemical kinetics in catalytic science. The combination of theory and experiment can help to gain a deep insight into how various elementary reactions occur. The combination of more precise experimental results with more precise theoretical research is a powerful driving force for the continued development of this research field. Practice once again proves that the close combination of theory and experiment is the only way for the development of science.
Thanks to Li-Ping Fan and Yue-Juan Wang who provided the partial writing materials and also commented on the manuscript. This work was financially supported by Shuang-long Scholars Program, Special Foundation of Youth Scholars of Zhejiang Normal University, and Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province (LQ20B030007).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Since 4500 BC, breath-holding dives for mother-of-pearl, sea sponges, and coral was a distinct occupation. These free divers could hold their breath for extended periods of time, and their work was confined to waters less than 30 m (100 ft) deep. It was undoubtedly a hazardous occupation, and many of them succumbed to decompression sickness after rapid surfacing. Persian king Xerxes the Great (520–465 BC) employed divers to salvage sunken goods and treasures from the wrecks of Greek ships he had sunk in numerous battles at sea. Some of these dives were recorded to depths of 20–30 m and lasting 4 minutes at a time. The ancient Greek historians Herodotos and Pausanias wrote about a Greek hero named Scyllias from Scione, who used a reed and diving capsule made from animal skins to cut the mooring lines of enemy ships. Pausanias even taught his own daughter Hydna to dive. Alexander the Great (365–323 BC), under the advice of a reputed astronomer named Ethicus, dived into the Bosphorus straits in a bathysphere, accompanied by a dog, a cat, and a rooster, after entrusting the security of the hoisting chain to his most loyal mistress. Taking advantage of the moment, she chose to elope with her lover after casting the chain into the sea, abandoning Alexander and leaving him to figure out his escape on his own! In 300 BC, Aristotle described the ruptured eardrum as a complication of undersea diving.
While living in Venice in the late fifteenth century, Leonardo da Vinci designed diving suits to enable divers cut holes in the hulls of invading ships, but none seem to have been developed or used [1].
In 1620, Dutch inventor Cornelis Jacobszoon Drebbel (1572–1633) designed a wooden diving boat, sealed against water by greased leather, to travel in the River Thames at a depth of around 4 m, from Westminster to Greenwich. Air was supplied by two tubes with floats to maintain one end above water [2]. In sixteenth century England and France, full diving suits made of leather were used to depths of 60 ft with air being pumped down from the surface with the aid of manual pumps.
The first documented use of hyperbaric therapy was in 1662, when a British clergyman and physician named Nathaniel Henshaw used a system of organ bellows with unidirectional valves to change the atmospheric pressure in a sealed chamber called a domicilium (Figure 1). Without any scientific rationale whatsoever, Henshaw claimed that high air pressures would remedy acute conditions while lower pressures would yield salutary results in chronic disorders. His domicilium therapy was touted to improve digestion and prevent lung diseases by manipulating ambient pressures without increasing oxygen concentrations, as oxygen was not discovered until nearly a century later [2].
Henshaw and his domicilium.
In 1690, Edmond Halley designed a diving bell ventilated with weighted barrels of air sent down from the surface. Employing this device, Halley, escorted by five of his close friends, undertook a dive to a depth of 60 ft in the River Thames in that bell and remained submerged at that depth for 90 minutes. Too heavy for salvage work, Halley made improvements to his bell, extending his underwater exposure time to over 4 hours. The first deep-sea diving suit was invented in 1819 by Augustus Siebe. It used compressed air supplied to the helmet for ease of movement underwater.
All of these early submersibles used ambient air and were called “pneumatic chambers” or “compressed air baths.”
Nearly two centuries later, in the 1830s, there was a rebirth of interest in hyperbaric medicine in France. In 1834, the French physician Junod built a hyperbaric chamber designed by the steam engine inventor James Watt, who was well-versed in pressure physics. This appliance could generate a maximum of 4 atmospheres pressure and used to treat pulmonary afflictions using pressures between 2 and 4 ATA. Junod referred to his treatment as “Le Bain d’air com-primé” (the compressed air bath), and claimed that it increased circulation to the internal organs and the brain, resulting in feelings of well-being and better general health.
Taberie designed a spherical pneumatic chamber made of cast iron with two pipes, one to provide pressure from a hydraulic compressor run by steam and the other to allow for ventilation. Carpet covered the floor to conceal the pipes, and it featured an antechamber to allow the physician to enter and exit without disturbing the pressure. The passage was also used to stock books, newspapers, and drinks for the patients (Figure 2).
Taberie’s pneumatic chamber.
Lange had a cylindrical chamber constructed out of wrought iron, designed to accommodate four persons. The temperature of the compressed air within the chamber was lowered in two ways. The first employed a stream of cold water directed against the force pump and the supply pipes. The second method was by filling a cup-shaped space at the top of the chamber with cold water and allowing it to cascade down the sides to soak sheets of linen and cool the air by evaporation. In winter the chamber was kept at a comfortable temperature by heating. The chamber was also provided with a device for regulating the flow of the incoming air so that it entered in a steady stream (instead of a succession of puffs in earlier versions) by a force pump. The pressure was secured, as in Tabarie’s system, by regulating the inflow and outflow of the air (Figure 3).
Lange’s pneumatic chamber.
Leibig’s pneumatic chamber was located at Dianabad in Reichenhall, Bavaria, Germany. This pneumatic chamber had three chambers, each one capable of accommodating three persons. One antechamber connected all three rooms, allowing the physician to enter and exit without affecting the ambient pressure. The antechamber also acted as a large pressure regulator, preventing the patients from being affected by sudden surges of pressure. A ventilation pipe through an opening in the ceiling provided good ventilation (Figure 4). The temperature and pressures within each chamber could also be individually controlled [3].
Leibig’s pneumatic chamber.
In 1837, Pravaz built the largest hyperbaric chamber in Lyon, France, to seat 12 patients and treat patients with pulmonary conditions including tuberculosis, laryngitis, tracheitis, and pertussis, as well as unrelated conditions such as cholera, conjunctivitis, deafness, menorrhagia, and rickets. In 1855, Bertin wrote a book on compressed air therapy and even constructed his own hyperbaric chamber.
Compressed air therapy was first introduced into the USA by JL Corning in 1871. In 1876, Kelly treated a patient in a “Compressed Air Bath Apparatus” having two locking plates operated from outside to seal pressures. In 1877, French surgeon Fontaine developed the first mobile hyperbaric operating theater. The high ambient pressure was claimed to facilitate the reduction of hernias and provide relief for patients with lung diseases. Over the next 3 months, 27 surgeries were successfully performed within this mobile hyperbaric chamber (Figure 5). Spurred by the results, Fontaine ventured to erect a mammoth hyperbaric surgical amphitheater to accommodate 300 patients in one sitting. This did not see the light of day as Fontaine died from an accident at the Pneumatic Institute to become the first physician to be martyred in the history of hyperbaric medicine [4].
Fontaine’s mobile hyperbaric operation theater.
In 1885, C Theodore Williams published his “Lectures on the Compressed Air Bath and its Uses in the Treatment of Disease” in the
Back in the USA, during the closing days of the World War I, Kansas-bavsed physician Orval J Cunningham built a hyperbaric chamber in 1921 at Lawrence, Kansas. He used the facility to treat victims of the Spanish influenza epidemic that swept North America. Noticing that people in the valley fared better than those living in the mountains, Cunningham theorized that atmospheric pressure or barometric factors were responsible for the higher mortality rates in those residing at higher elevations. He observed remarkable improvements in patients treated with HBO, especially those who were cyanotic and comatose. In 1923, heat from open gas burners warming the chambers in winter scorched the insulation and started a fire, but all patients were safely evacuated. In another incident, a mechanical failure caused a complete loss of pressure within the chamber and all patients died. This did not, however, deter Cunningham’s enthusiasm for hyperbaric air. He went on to treat diseases such as syphilis, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and cancer, believing that anaerobic infections played a role in the etiology of all these afflictions. In 1928, with the financial backing of Henry H. Timken, a roller bearing manufacturer and tycoon, Cunningham built the largest hyperbaric chamber in the world along the shores of Lake Erie in Cleveland, Ohio, at a cost of 1 million dollars. This “Steel Ball Hospital” or “Cunningham’s Sanitarium” was a five-story high steel sphere, 64 ft in diameter with 60 rooms and weighing 900 tons. Each floor of this structure had 12 rooms, with all the amenities of a good hotel (Figures 6 and 7). The growing popularity of Cunningham’s treatments prompted the Bureau of Investigation of the American Medical Association (AMA) to request the doctor to validate his claims regarding the effectiveness of hyperbaric therapy. Cunningham refused to share the details or cooperate with the AMA, leading to his being labeled a quack and a fraud. The chamber was dismantled in 1937 and sold for scrap during World War II [6].
Cunningham’s hyperbaric hotel—outside and inside view.
Cunningham’s hyperbaric hotel—exterior and interior views.
In 1840, Charles Pasley, charged with the recovery of the sunken warship HMS Royal George, commented that, of those who made frequent dives, “not a man escaped the repeated attacks of rheumatism and cold.” In 1841, Trigger, a French mining engineer, used a pressure chamber to deliver workers to the bottom of the river to extract coal. In 1845, he reported that some of his miners complained of joint pains and nervous disorders after surfacing. The first recorded death from “caisson disease” (which later came to be known as decompression illness (DCI) or acute decompression sickness) occurred in 1859 during the building of the Royal Albert Bridge, a railway bridge in England spanning the River Tamar from Saltash to Plymouth. Several workers were taken ill after emerging from deep underground after long hours of work under high atmospheric pressure conditions. In 1871, during the construction of the Eads Bridge in St. Louis, 352 compressed air workers, including Alphonse Jaminet, the physician in charge, were employed. Thirty workers developed serious conditions with 12 ending fatally. Jaminet himself suffered decompression sickness, and his personal description was the first such recorded. It was in 1873 that Andrew Smith first utilized the term “caisson disease” to describe 110 cases of decompression sickness that occurred during construction of the Brooklyn Bridge. The project employed 600 compressed air workers, and recompression treatment was not available on site. In 1882, during the Hudson tunnel construction in New York, every fourth worker died of bends until a recompression chamber was installed to treat the condition. Only three workers died of bends over the next 18 months.
Paul Bert, a French professor of physiology and a student of Claude Bernard, is considered the father of pressure physiology (Figure 8). In 1878, while working closely with Dr. Alphonse Gal, the first doctor to actually dive in order to study how the body reacted underwater, Bert studied Gal’s reports on divers who became symptomatic or died while surfacing. He conducted a series of dog experiments, exposing them to 7–9¾ atmospheres and subjecting them to rapid decompression. A majority of them died and exhibited grossly distended bodies with their right heart chambers filled with gas. When decompression was done at slowly over 1–2 hours after exposure to similar pressures, none of the dogs succumbed. Applying Dalton’s and Henry’s gas laws, Bert concluded that too rapid a decompression induced a pathophysiologic insult secondary to supersaturation of body tissues with nitrogen, causing the formation of nitrogen bubbles. He also went on to suggest that divers stop halfway to the surface to allow for slow decompression after a deep dive—what is now known as deep stops. Bert was also the first to describe oxygen toxicity at pressures in excess of 1.75 ATA. This adverse effect on the central nervous system came to be known as the “Paul Bert effect” [7, 8].
Dr. Paul Bert (1883–1886).
In 1908, Scottish physiologist John Scott Haldane conducted experiments at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine in London assisted by Lieutenant Guybon Damant of the Royal Navy, an expert diver and amateur scientist, and a physiologist Edwin Arthur Boycott. A herd of 85 goats was assembled, and the researchers put groups of up to eight goats inside compression chambers for specific periods of time. Pressures were then normalized before releasing the animals into the institute’s yard for observation. These studies confirmed that those goats decompressed by stages did not exhibit signs of the bends (Figure 9). Haldane then introduced the concept of half times—the time required for a particular tissue to become half saturated with a gas—and recommended staged decompression, especially at shallower depths. He prepared detailed practical dive tables for the Royal Navy to prevent acute decompression sickness. These guidelines remained the foundation of all diving operations until 1956 [10]. Heinrich Drager was the first to explore the use of pressurized oxygen in decompression sickness (Figure 10). His protocols were put into practice by Behnke and Shaw, who used HBOT for treating decompression sickness in the late 1930s. They replaced oxygen in place of compressed air, and their work resulted in the use of the first nitrogen-oxygen mixtures and hyperbaric treatment being tailored to the severity of the injury [11]. In 1939, the US Navy began treating divers suffering decompression sickness with hyperbaric oxygen therapy. After World War II, the US military conducted extensive research in HBOT, and this expanded the existing knowledge about survivable pressures and popularized HBOT in the late 1950s and early 1960s. In the 1980s, Paul Harch began an in-depth study of brain decompression illness (DCI) and evaluated divers with this disorder. He concluded that it was not residual gas that was being treated but ischemic brain injury. He went on to develop individualized treatment protocols for over 50 different chronic neurological disorders. Harch is considered to be the foremost authority in the use of HBOT and SPECT brain blood flow imaging in neurology [12, 13, 14]. In 1990, former microbiology professor Igor Gamow invented and patented the Gamow Bag that provided mountaineers with a mobile and effective method to treat high-altitude sickness. This bag is a single-place portable hyperbaric chamber, pressurized with a foot pump, to simulate a descent to 7000 ft (Figure 11). In 1992, Harch treated the first delayed decompression sickness, which led to the treating of “dementia pugilistica” in boxers and cerebral palsy and autism in children [15].
Bends in the foreleg of a goat after experiments performed by physiologist Haldane [
Drager and his recompression chamber.
The Gamow Bag.
In 1937, Brazilians Ozorio de Almeida and Costa pioneered the use of HBOT in treating leprosy [16]. In the 1950s, Ite Boerema, a cardiac surgeon from the Netherlands, conceived the idea of “flooding” the body’s tissues with extra oxygen. Working with the help of the Royal Dutch Navy, Boerema conducted a series of animal experiments and operations within a hyperbaric oxygen chamber (Figure 12). These went off without a hitch and led to the installation of a large operating hyperbaric chamber at the University of Amsterdam. Many children with congenital heart diseases like tetralogy of Fallot, transposition of great vessels, and pulmonic stenosis were operated in this facility with great success. Boerema mooted the concept of “Life without blood” using HBO, when dissolved oxygen sufficed to meet the entire body’s oxygen needs without the need for red cells or hemoglobin. Boerema is credited with being the father of modern-day hyperbaric medicine [17].
Dr. Boerema with children operated by him.
In 1955–1956, I Churchill-Davidson evaluated clinical trials on HBOT as a potentiator for radiation therapy in cancer patients at St. Thomas Hospital in London [18]. Public interest in hyperbaric oxygen therapy started to grow in the 1960s after publicity about its use in treating President John F Kennedy’s sick infant. In 1961, a colleague of Boerema, W. H. Brummelkamp, published a paper on inhibition of anaerobic infections by HBOT [19]. In 1962, Smith and Sharp reported the enormous benefits of HBO in carbon monoxide poisoning. They recommended that all those having a verified carboxyhemoglobin level above 25% needed immediate HBOT at 3 ATA for 90 minutes, followed by two or three more sessions for full recovery, making HBO very cost-effective [20]. Global interest in HBOT was rekindled by this finding, resulting in hyperbaric units being installed at many centers like Duke University, New York Mount Sinai Hospital, Presbyterian Hospital and Edgeworth Hospital in Chicago, Good Samaritan in Los Angeles, St. Barnabas Hospital in New Jersey, Harvard Children’s Hospital, and St. Luke’s Hospital in Milwaukee. In 1965, Perrins from the UK demonstrated the effectiveness of HBOT in osteomyelitis [21]. In 1966, Saltzman and coworkers from the USA proved the effectiveness of HBOT in stroke patients [22].
In 1970, Boschetty and Cernoch of Czechoslovakia conducted a trial of HBOT for multiple sclerosis. In their series 15 out of 26 patients with multiple sclerosis showed improvement after HBOT at 2 atmospheres [23]. In 1971, Lamm of West Germany used HBOT for treatment of sudden deafness. It was shown that HBOT shortens the course of healing in high-pitch perception dysacusis by upregulating constitutive nitric oxide synthase in the substructure of the cochlea [24]. In 1973, Thurston pioneered studies that showed lower mortality figures in patients with myocardial infarction treated with HBO. HBOT was shown to improve oxygen supply to the threatened heart and reduce the volume of infarct size and other major adverse outcomes [25]. In 1972, Richard A Neubauer set up the Ocean Hyperbaric Neurologic Center in Lauderdale-by-the-Sea exclusively for HBOT in the management of various central nervous system disorders. He mooted the concept of “idling” neurons capable of surviving for years or even decades after the original injury. He claimed that these injured neurons could be re-activated with HBOT and that the greater the number of idling neurons, the better would be the patient’s response to HBOT [26]. Neubauer was also the co-founder and executive director of the American College of Hyperbaric Medicine. After his death in 2007 at the age of 83, his clinical research center in Florida was renamed the Neubauer Hyperbaric Neurologic Center. In 1976, Hollbach and Wasserman determined that 1.5 ATA (atmospheres absolute) maximizes oxygen content and glucose metabolism in the brain [27].
In 1985, RE Marx and his colleagues observed that the rate of osteoradionecrosis was 30%/patient in patients treated with penicillin alone while rates in those treated with HBO was only 5% [28]. In 1987, Jain successfully treated patients with paralytic stroke using HBOT [29, 30]. In 2002, a US Army study confirmed that HBOT repairs white matter damage in children with cerebral palsy. In 2005, Stoller of the USA treated the first case of a child with fetal alcohol syndrome using HBOT and with good outcome [31]. In 2006, Thom of the USA discovered that HBO causes stem cell mobilization [32]. In 2010, Godman discovered that HBOT activated 8101 genes, resulting in reduction of inflammation and increase in growth in body tissues [33, 34]. In 2011, Stoller treated the first retired National Football League (NFL) player for chronic traumatic encephalopathy [35]. In 2012, Harch and his colleagues demonstrated that blast-induced post-concussion syndrome and post-traumatic stress disorders responded to HBOT [15].
The UHMS and FDA approved HBOT for treatment of conditions like autism, stroke, air embolism, ischemic limbs, split-thickness skin graft acceptance, failed grafts, flap survival and salvage, wound reepithelialization, acute thermal burns, etc. (Table 1) [36, 37].
Air or gas embolism |
Carbon monoxide poisoning; cyanide poisoning; smoke inhalation |
Clostridial myositis and myonecrosis (gas gangrene) |
Crush injuries, compartment syndromes, and other acute traumatic peripheral ischemias |
Decompression sickness |
Enhancement of healing in selected problem wounds |
Exceptional blood loss anemia |
Intracranial abscess |
Necrotizing soft tissue infections |
Refractory osteomyelitis |
Skin flaps and grafts (compromised) |
Delayed radiation injury (soft tissue and bony necrosis) |
Thermal burns |
UHMS- and FDA-approved indications for hyperbaric oxygen therapy.
Many patients do not respond to aggressive acid-suppressing medications. HBOT has a beneficial effect in patients with blunt duodenal trauma, duodenal ulcers, and indomethacin-/radiation-induced gastritis. This salubrious effect is mediated by decreased production of oxidative stress markers like tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1beta, neopterin, myeloperoxidase, and malondialdehyde. HBOT is seen to improve the acid-neutralizing function of the stomach, normalize gastric motility, reduce the duodenum acidification, decrease edema, and improve the blood flow both in human and equine studies [38, 39]. These effects were also seen in cases of inflammatory bowel diseases like Crohn’s [40].
In September 1961, the First International Congress on the clinical applications of hyperbaric oxygen was held in Amsterdam. The Second International Conference on HBO was held in Glasgow in September 1964, with detailed deliberations on various aspects of HBOT. In November 1965, the Third International Congress on HBOT was organized at the Duke University at Durham, North Carolina. The Fourth and Fifth International Congresses were held in Sapporo, Japan, and Vancouver, respectively, in 1969 and 1973. The University of Aberdeen, Scotland, hosted the sixth conference in August 1977. The subsequent International Congress was held in Moscow in 1981 and is an annual event thereafter. The deliberations during these academic forums threw fresh light on the basic physiology, oxygen toxicity, and therapeutic applications of HBO in human disease.
The Undersea Medical Society (it added hyperbaric to its name in 1986), an organization made up largely of naval and ex-navy physicians, was founded in 1967 in the USA. It reviewed the indiscriminate and inappropriate use of the HBO chamber for a variety of medical conditions by practitioners searching for a “cure-all” therapy, tarnishing the credibility of hyperbaric medicine. This nonprofit organization, now known as the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society (UHMS), set up a Committee on Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy in the 1970s to systematically review all the available scientific evidence for HBOT and formulate absolute indications for HBOT. This was accepted by insurance providers, including Medicare. The UHMS is committed to providing, promoting, developing, and raising the quality of care across the spectrum in scientific communication, life sciences, and clinical practices of hyperbaric medicine by promoting high standards of patient care and operational safety. It offers accreditation and certificate of competency and credibility and has over 2500 members in 50 countries. UHMS also awards board certification in Undersea and Hyperbaric Medicine through the American Board of Emergency Medicine (ABEM), the American Board of Preventive Medicine (ABPM), and fellowship training in Undersea and Hyperbaric Medicine.
In 1980, Dr. Richard A. Neubauer and Dr. William S. Maxfield formed the American College of Hyperbaric Medicine (ACHM) to foster the ethical advancement and expansion of hyperbaric medicine. The International Society of Hyperbaric Medicine was founded in 1988.
Hyperbaric medicine was approved by the American Board of Medical Specialties as a sub-specialty of emergency and preventative medicine in 2000.
In 1860, the first hyperbaric chamber in the North American continent was constructed in Oshawa, Ontario, Canada. A year later, a neurologist, James Leonard Corning, built the first hyperbaric chamber in the USA in New York. This chamber was used to treat “nervous and related disorders.” The first decompression chamber was invented by the Italian engineer Alberto Gianni in 1916 [39, 40]. In 1928, the Harvard Medical School built a hyperbaric chamber for medical research. Among the largest HBOT chambers is the 22 ton 32 ft wide 14 ft wide one at the Utah Valley Regional Medical Center, USA.
In modern times, many traditional hard-shell hyperbaric chambers and soft-shell, portable hyperbaric chambers (Figures 13–18) are manufactured by several companies and available in every major city. The latest chambers must comply with NFPA-992012 Edition Chapter 14 Code in the USA and European 1997 CEN pressure vessels 97/23E standards as well as the 1998 ECHM recommendations for safety. The newer chambers feature hingeless pressure-sealed doors, antifriction bearings, antibacterial leather upholstery, and high-quality resin fiber loop mattresses and pillows that dissipate heat and moisture generated by the body during therapy. The newer low-pressure monoplace chambers are portable and less expensive. Operating between 1.2 and 1.3 ATA pressures, they are eminently suited for use in homes and spas and also find use to improve results after plastic surgery.
The evolution of hyperbaric chambers.
Monoplace HBO chamber.
Recompression chamber.
Multiplace HBOT chamber.
Hyperbaric operation suite.
Hyperbaric operation suite. (Image courtesy: CONE Health Wound Care and Hyperbaric Center, Greensboro, North Carolina, USA).
The earliest documentation of therapeutic use of HBOT in animals was in 1998. The Veterinary Hyperbaric Medicine Society was formed in 2006. Veterinary-specific hyperbaric chambers are available.
The evolution of HBOT chambers over time is chronicled in Figure 13.
HBOT was called the Cinderella of modern medicine since it was not taught in medical schools and had no pharmaceutical companies to nurture and protect it. Over the course of time, it has shed the label of being a mysterious therapy and become a major tool in the armamentarium of clinicians either as a primary or adjunctive therapy for a spectrum of diseases. Stroke, cancer, heart disease, and chronic lung disease account for almost 60% of the total number of deaths. Hypoxia is a significant component of the pathology of these conditions, and this leads to metabolic acidosis, organ dysfunction, and death. Conventional oxygen therapy may not have desired results, when HBOT yields remarkable clinical improvement. HBOT prevents 75 percent of all major amputations that would otherwise be necessary for diabetic wounds and a 450% increase in complete recovery in patients with traumatic brain injury receiving HBOT vs. standard intensive care. Newer application of HBOT is in emergency care for resuscitation in cases of acute blood loss, near drowning, hanging and poisoning, and cardiorespiratory arrest.
Athletic associations like the NFL employ hyperbaric oxygen therapy as part of the recovery regimen for its athletes, and some players own their own HBOT chambers. Joe Namath experienced remarkable recovery from the head injuries he sustained during his career, leading him to be part of an FDA-approved study of HBOT at the Joe Namath Neurological Center of the Jupiter Medical Center in Florida. Ace swimmer Michael Phelps and football stars Maurice Jones-Drew and James Harrison have endorsed the benefits of HBOT, along with professional boxers like Evander Holyfield [41].
With the utilization of isotopic tracers, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), HBOT is getting evidence-based recognition. Various conditions like brain injuries, stroke, and neurological diseases with poor prognosis are now amenable to improved outcomes with the application of HBOT. There are more than 500 hyperbaric facilities in the USA alone. Much research remains to be done regarding the efficacy of HBO2 therapy to develop treatment plans for those in extremes of age. The use of hyperbaric medicine to treat wounds in the foot or in the brain is a divine gift, and great advances in this field are on the horizon. The future of healthcare is here!
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\n\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
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\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. 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He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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