The average noise level generated by different types of vehicles (International Union of Railways (UIC)).
\r\n\t
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When we visually experience a veiling luminance from any light source it is a phenomenon known as glare. There are different types of glare: disability glare, discomfort glare, dazzling glare, and scotomatic glare [1]. We commonly experience discomfort glare when the intensity of the light source causes an uneasiness or annoyance on our eyes. Furthermore, we also regularly encounter disability glare. Disability glare is the scattering of light that enters our eyes that leads to visual impairment. Since disability glare directly affects our visual ability, it has been a focus of research, which particularly is important in an aging population and various disease states.
Light is focused to the retina to receive visual information of the world around us. Thus, the transmittance of light is integral to how we visually function. To this accord, the human visual system is finely tuned to allow the maximum amount of light transmission to the retina with least scatter. The retinal anatomy is also tuned to decreased sensitivity to shorter wavelength light and the retinal pigment epithelium and macular pigment allows the absorbance of stray light. However, disability glare interrupts the direction of light to the eye thereby interfering with the way we see [2]. This is especially debilitating, and the effects of glare are worsened in those who suffer from ocular pathologies. The many layers and components of the eye is involved in directing and processing light and cues to interpret our surrounding. Thus, a disease that impacts any part of the eye can exasperate disability glare decreasing the ability to see and perform daily activities such as driving.
The impact of disability glare makes it an important visual function to measure. However, currently there is no standardized way to measure glare [3]. There are both commercial and self-made device that hope to address this problem. However, more evaluation will be necessary to solidify their validity for research and clinical use. As a result, much of disability glare in visual function and pathology is still under research.
The major function of the cornea is to direct and refract light to the retina as well as provide structural support to the eyeball. Thus, preserving transparency and corneal shape is highly important in visual function [4, 5]. In various corneal diseases, the cornea is damaged through inflammation, swelling, and dystrophy [6]. The transparency of the cornea is the function of tight controls on water content, diameter of the collagen fibrils, and the spacing between the fibrils. The collagen fibrils have a diameter of 27–35 nm and the distances between fibrils are 41.4–60 nm [7]. The precise pattern of the collagen fibrils enables efficient light transmittance with minimal scattering or absorbance in a healthy eye. Any increase or decrease in the distance between the fibrils will compromise the transmittance of light [7].
Corneal edema is one example of a condition that disrupts the uniformity of these fibrils. The increased water content that results in edema changes the distance between fibrils, and thus can affect the overall transparency of the cornea. Reduced transparency, as we know, induces scattering when light enters the eye. Furthermore, scarring of cornea or deposits in the cornea can lead to the scattering of light as well. Post-surgical scarring is known to decrease vision and increase glare [8]. Additionally, certain medications like amiodarone causes cornea verticillata or deposits in the cornea that leads to the scattering of light rays [9].
Moreover, the type of light scatter that occurs can either be backwards or forward light scatter, depending on the angle of deviation light enters the eye. In backward light scatter, the scattering of light causes less light to reach the retina. While in forward light scatter, the scattering of light causes a luminance over the retinal image.
Reduced transparency that leads to increased reflection and scatter of light can potentially cause disability glare. The disability glare along with diffraction and high-order aberration attribute to distorted retinal image, and thus impaired visual function. Components of vision such as contrast sensitivity can be hampered and if scattering is severe can lead to a deficit in visual acuity [4]. Therefore, those with corneal aberrations and abnormalities experience intensified forms of disability glare as well as reduced contrast sensitivity and visual acuity.
Keratoconus is a corneal dystrophy that leads to the progressive thinning of the center of cornea. Corneal thinning causes the center to protrude outward resulting in a cone shape cornea. Those with keratoconus can experience blurred vision as well as sensitivity to light [6]. Being reactive to light can make individuals with this corneal disease vulnerable to disability glare. Jinabhi and colleagues surveyed forward light scatter and visual function in subjects with mild to moderate keratoconus with no corneal scarring or history of ocular surgeries [10]. In the study, keratoconic and normal ocular healthy subjects underwent contrast sensitivity testing and glare testing to evaluate their visual function. The subjects with keratoconus exhibited lower contrast sensitivity than normal ocular subjects in testing. These results agreed with previous studies done and suggested contrast sensitivity was commonly compromised in keratoconus. Furthermore, keratoconic subjects also presented with intraocular scatter that resembled the increased scattering found in older populations or to those with early cataracts. Greater light scatter makes an individual with keratoconus more susceptible to disability glare [10]. More evidence of glare sensitivity in keratoconus could be found in a study done by Mäntyjärvi and Latinen. These researchers measured contrast sensitivity under glare conditions in keratoconic and ocular healthy subjects. The Pelli-Robson chart was used to measure contrast sensitivity. The chart contained letters of decreasing contrast that provided a quick and accessible way to measure contrast sensitivity [11]. The subjects were asked to read the Pelli-Robson chart under glare illuminance provided by the BAT. Then contrast sensitivity performance with and without glare was compared. The results of the comparison demonstrated that subjects with keratoconus experienced greater contrast sensitivity loss when tested under glare conditions than normal subjects [10]. Visual impairments being significantly greater in keratoconic subjects advocates the need for disability glare testing in measuring visual function. Disability glare performance can distinguish between normal individuals and those with ocular pathologies. Thus, in the case of corneal disease, disability glare can be a helpful diagnostic tool and could be a potential method of monitoring the disease progression. NEI VFQ (REF) or similar survey techniques can be used in conjunction to assist in evaluation of quality of vision and may be used in assessing glare related problems (Figure 1).
An optical coherence tomography image from a patient with early age-related macular degeneration. The drusen bodies are visible in the retinal pigment epithelium.
Glaucoma is globally the second most common cause of blindness and it affects over – millions worldwide and is a very large socio-economic burden to the health care system [12]. The risk of glaucoma increases with increase age and elevated intraocular pressure is a major risk factor in glaucoma. Lowering intraocular pressure remains the only proven alterable risk factor that has shown to slow down the disease progression. Although, the exact pathogenesis in glaucoma remains to be identified, glaucoma leads to progressive damage to the to the optic nerve fiber layer and changes in visual field that is in part associated to the level of intraocular pressure. If left unmanaged, glaucoma leads to progressive vision loss and blindness [12, 13].
Glaucoma affects several aspects of an individual’s daily activities and task. Nelson and colleagues had articulated five major areas of difficulties in individuals with glaucoma. These difficulties include: (1) near vision issues, (2) peripheral vision issues, (3) dark adaptation and glare, (4) personal care and (5) household tasks, and outdoor mobility [14]. Their study measured both visual function and self-reported visual impairments. Subjects underwent multiple functional vision tests to assess the full spectrum of their visual capacity. The tests carried out included: Humphrey Visual Field Analyzer for visual field, Critical Flicker Frequency, Brightness Acuity Test (BAT) for disability glare, Goldmann-Weekers Dark Adaptometer for dark adaptation, Frisby Stereotest for stereopsis, and Farnsworth desaturated D-15 color test for color discrimination [14]. When comparing the results of the functional vision test to the self-reported impairments of the subject, there was a strong correlation between those two measures. Among the functional vision tests, disability glare testing done by the BAT best accounted for the difficulties the subjects reported. Nelson et al. also showed that disability glare had one of the strongest relationship with the severity of visual field loss [14]. This relationship suggest that progression of glaucoma will be likely accompanied by increasing disability glare. Furthermore, the outcomes of this study affirm disability glare as a concerning visual impairment of glaucoma. In addition, the observed correlation between disability glare and visual field loss can potentially explain the components of the visual system that is involved in glare tolerance. This can in turn further the understanding of overall visual function.
As it is apparent that glaucoma patients suffer from disability glare, they found this impairment most concerning when driving. In surveying the value of various activities, glaucoma patients rate driving as highly important to maintaining their independence [15]. And so, understanding the impairments glaucoma patients face when driving is essential to addressing the concerns and preserving the quality of life for these individuals. Janz and colleagues surveyed open-angle glaucoma drivers and non-drivers about the types of visual problems they encounter during driving at a 6-month and a 54-month period. These surveys were also accompanied by ophthalmologic examinations. From the surveys and examinations, increasing visual field loss accounted for the differences between subjects who stayed drivers and subjects who became nondrivers because of their declining vision [15]. Thus, it can be inferred that those who are still drivers only had mild to moderate visual field loss. Despite little visual field loss, those drivers still reported many visual complications. One of the highest complaints from the drivers were tasks involving glare, which was said to be more troubling than visual search, peripheral vision, or visual processing speed which showed a lot of variation. Glare was a consistent issue among glaucoma drivers. Furthermore, glare was noted as one of the first issues subjects recognized when they first began to struggle with driving [15]. The study presents the driving challenges faced by glaucoma patients due to their sensitivity to disability glare. As mentioned earlier, driving is deemed as an important task to glaucoma patients to sustain autonomy. Therefore, assessing and managing disability glare is imperative to treating the visual impairments experienced by these individuals. Furthermore, since glare is one of the first detectable visual problems, disability glare test can potentially be utilized as a tool to identify the progression or worsening of a glaucoma in a patient. Though it is important to note that in the current state, it may be able to identify progression of the disease but may not give idea of the localization of the retinal damage in this disease. It will be interesting to evaluate the glare tolerance in various quadrants to see if the quantification of glare in specific locations is more sensitive than the non-specific glare tolerance testing.
The lens is a specialized structure that relies on its transparency, high refractive index, and curved surface to project clear images to the retina. Most of the lens comprises of concentric elongated fibers covered with an epithelium on its anterior surface. The epithelium along with the superficial fiber cells secrete an elastic extracellular matrix that encases the lens in what is known as the capsule [1]. Below the capsule, at the equator of the epithelium is where new fiber cells arise and differentiate [2]. The newer fiber cells constitute the periphery of the lens, named the cortex [1]. While the center of the lens is comprised of older fiber cells, some originating from embryonic and fetal development, known as the nucleus [1]. Maintaining the transparency of the lens depends on the integrity of the arrangement of these fiber cells. However, as we age, oxidative damage and protein instability can accumulate, forming opacity in the lens and disrupting vision.
Cataracts is a disease cause by an opacification or cloudiness of the lens in the eye. The disease affects certain components of the lens, thus understanding the anatomy of the lens is important to pathophysiology of cataracts. There are various types of cataracts, but age-related cataract can be mainly divided into one of three types cortical, nuclear, and posterior capsular. Although, mixed type with features of three cataract types cortical, nuclear and posterior sub capsular are not uncommon. Each type has its own pathophysiology, anatomical differences and prevalence in the population [16]. Nuclear cataracts affect the oldest fiber cells of the lens which are the those formed in embryonic and fetal life. Evidence supports that nuclear cataracts arise due to the accumulation of reactive oxidative species that disrupt the normal protein and lipid components of fiber cells in the nucleus. The resulting cataracts causes patient to experience increase light scatter [17, 18]. However, cortical cataracts occur in matured fiber cells that arise later in life which lie closer to the surface of the lens. The progression of the cortical cataract encircles the outer circumference of the lens. The damages due to cortical cataract is much greater than that of nuclear cataract, the effects [17, 18]. On the other hand, posterior subscapular cataracts take place at the posterior surface of the lens where the cells just below the capsule are swollen. Since, the pathology of posterior subscapular cataracts is at the optical axis, visual function particularly reading tasks are greatly compromised. Furthermore, swelling of the posterior fiber cells impairs visual function even more by increasing the scattering of light [17, 18]. Clinically the cataract that causes the most glare related disability is the posterior subcapsular cataract. This is due two reasons (1) the entrance angle of the peripheral light rays is more oblique than central light rays and (2) the area that the posterior capsule cataract covers is also greater compared to nuclear cataract. Clinically in age related cataract we see mixed type of cataracts that has features that combine the nuclear, cortical and to some extent posterior subcapsular cataract.
The light is refracted through the lens before reaching the retina to be processed, and any sort of opacity that disrupts light transmittance can increase light scatter particularly if the opacity is large and spread throughout the lens. Being prone to disability glare, makes glare one of the biggest visual complaints and impairments experienced by those suffering from cataracts. Glare devices have an integral part in the research behind cataracts and currently, a large basis of literature is focused on the effects of disability glare on cataracts and how to accurately assess these visual challenges. Most glare devices available are geared toward cataract testing with the purpose of mimicking visual problems in real life in a clinical setting with the additional purpose of evaluating, monitoring and treatment of the disease state [2].
Clinically, cataracts are commonly evaluated by visual acuity charts which poses some problems. Visual acuity testing optotypes are at 100% contrast with black letters on white background and do not simulate real life scenario. In many cases, patients with cataract will have good visual acuities meeting legal standards of driving but still report experiencing visual impairments while driving, difficulties in dimly lit environments and especially with disability glare [19]. Thus, the purpose of disability glare devices and testing methods is to provide additional information and insight that cannot be given with visual acuity testing.
There is evidence that supports that those with cataracts often experience a decrease in contrast sensitivity when compared to the age-match ocular healthy groups without cataract [20]. The contrast sensitivity loss in patients with cataract is even more pronounced under glare luminance [21]. Furthermore, cataract patients also have lower contrast sensitivity in mesopic conditions [1]. This becomes an issue when driving at night because that activity integrates mesopic light levels, contrast sensitivity, and the presence of glare. Thus, patients with cataract frequently complain of debilitating problems related to driving at night, under foggy, or rainy conditions, particularly with the addition of glare from incoming headlights [22]. Thus, as an importance of safety and the quality of life issue for those with cataracts, disability glare testing that accurately measures the challenges of night time driving is necessary. Disability glare in the daytime can also present visual impairments. Glare during the day predominantly originates from incoming rays of the sun. Unlike nighttime glare, daylight glare can be more accurately measured under photopic conditions [23].
There are numerous devices available that intend to simulate glare under the various conditions such as night, foggy, or rainy conditions, however, glare devices are not yet standardized [2]. Thus, the foundation on how to measure disability on those with cataracts have not been set. Though, the present literature already provided some insight to the impairments of cataracts. Research continues to find a valid, repeatable, and reproducible method for testing the disability glare.
Overall it is shown that glare induces a significant loss in visual function and individuals with cataract have further decline in visual acuity and contrast sensitivity in a range conditions with glare.
Centered at the retina is the macula which is highly packed with cone photoreceptors, and xanthophyll pigments that give it a darken appearance [24]. The macula is responsible for the majority of our photopic visual acuity, despite only comprising of less than 4% of the retinal space [24]. A disease known as age-related macular degeneration causes a gradual breakdown of these photoreceptors in the macula as well as changes in the retinal pigment. These damages lead to a decline in central vision [24]. Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is divided into non-exudative (dry AMD) and exudative type (wet AMD). Early stages of dry AMD symptoms may go unnoticed, but patients slowly experience vision loss and can ultimately be converted to the wet AMD [25]. Some of the symptoms of AMD includes: decrease vision, blurry vision, metamorphopsia, and central scotomas [25].
As mentioned previously, the macula is comprised of xanthophyll pigments, specifically lutein and zeaxanthin. The role of these pigments is thought to have protective effects on the macula, as this is an area vital to visual function. Lutein and zeaxanthin are believed to filter some of the harmful short-wave length blue light [24, 25]. Additionally, these pigments can also act as antioxidants to tackle free radicals and eradicate reactive oxygen species that damage the photoreceptors of the macula. Furthermore, lutein and zeaxanthin has shown to absorb straylight which can decrease the amount of harmful light entering the retina and possibly lower glare. The protective properties of these pigments led researchers to believe that increasing these pigmentations could potentially improve visual function.
One of the visual functions believed to be improved is disability glare and glare recovery. Stringham and Hammond looked at the relationship between disability glare and macular pigments. They measured macular pigment optical density (MPOD) of their subjects and compared that to their disability glare scores. The disability glare score was attained by measuring the level of illuminance from Maxwellian-View optical system that is high enough to induce disability glare when viewing sinusoidal gratings at 100% contrast [26]. From this test, the disability glare scores calculated showed a strong correlation to the macular pigment density. The researchers attributed the lower disability glare when there is a greater pigment density to the filtering effect of macular pigments. This was supported by the lack of correlation they showed between disability glare scores and macular pigment density when the glare source excluded the wavelengths of light that macular pigments are believed to filter [26]. These results provide compelling evidence for the involvement of the macula in disability glare. Disability glare is most associated with issues involving the optical media of the eye like the cornea and lens. However, as research has shown, the effects of disability glare can also be mediated by macular pigment. This provides more insight to visual function as well as the visual impairments that result from ocular diseases.
In additional studies, Stringham and Hammond recruited normal subjects who were given daily a 500-mg tablet that contained 10 mg of lutein and 2 mg of zeaxanthin over a 6 months period [27]. The research recruited 40 participants consisting of 23 women and 17 men. The subjects were assessed at 1,2,4 and 6-month period where their disability glare, photostress recovery, and macular pigment optical density (MPOD) were measured. As the researchers had done previously, disability glare was tested by utilizing the by the Maxwellian-view optical system to determine the illuminance level sufficient to cause visual impairment. All the subjects except for two had shown increase MPOD at the end of 6 months. The study subject also displayed reduced disability glare compared to baseline, tolerating greater veiling lights before any effects to their vision. On average, the participants tolerated 58% more glare (p < 0.0001) [27]. These results proposed a correlation between MPOD and tolerance to disability glare. This was further supported by the two subjects who did not experience any changes. These subjects that did not show an improvement in the MPOD also did not show an increased tolerance to glare. The researchers inferred that the macular pigment reduce glare disability by acting similarly to a yellow filter that cuts out short wavelength light and decreases veiling luminance [27].
From the relationship between macular pigment and disability glare, we speculate that the disability glare experienced by those suffering with macular degeneration can be partially due to the reducing level of MPOD. Moreover, knowing that MPOD can be supplemented and increased leaves possibility to improve the visual function of those with AMD, especially in the visual impairment of disability glare.
Disability glare plays an impairing role in many ocular pathologies such as the ones previously mentioned [2]. Thus, glare testing is not only valuable to understanding visual function, but it can also serve as a tool to evaluate the efficacy of treatments and surgeries of ocular diseases as well.
Though obvious that disability glare affects visual function, it still under study of what component of vision is most impaired by glare. Vision involves visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, stereopsis and many other components that can potentially be impaired by glare. Disability glare is commonly evaluated by either visual acuity or contrast sensitivity [28] (Figure 2). However, disability glare has shown to influence those aspects of vision differently, and so are important factors to consider when testing glare. Furthermore, glare is also tested under various light conditions such as photopic and mesopic. This is to mimic the changing luminance from day to night. Disability glare effects also varies from different light conditions; thus, presenting its own specific challenges in each light level [29]. Since glare testing is highly specific, appropriate variables must be incorporated for reliable and interpretable results.
Brightness acuity test (BAT) commonly utilized as a glare source for glare testing. Elliot et al. [
Knowing the role of glare in visual function, proper glare testing methodology and devices are important. There are many components involved in glare testing some of which are the type of stimuli, glare source, and conditions. These factors play a role in the effectiveness of measuring disability glare and creating a real-world simulation. The capability of a glare testing method or device depends mainly on three criteria: discriminative ability, reliability, and validity [28]. Since glare methods and devices vary on the components they incorporate, so do their performance on the criteria mentioned. However, most current devices do fail to meet all three criteria, and thus there is still no standard way to measure glare. While there is a lack of standardization, there are a number commercial machines that are utilized in clinics and research [28]. Some of these devices are potentially valuable assessment tools but further research is necessary to evaluate their validity. However, there are many self-made devices created by researchers to address the glare test problem. Those have also shown good discriminative and repeatability. Despite positive findings, these devices and methods are still new and require much more additional research to assess their accuracy and validity.
Stereopsis is the visual function of depth perception in a 3D world. The visual system integrates binocular disparity to interpret the placement of objects in space. Primarily a binocular visual function, good and balanced acuity of both eyes are necessary for proper depth perception [30].
As with some visual functions, stereopsis has shown to decrease with age even when visual acuity is still good. It is speculated that the decline in stereopsis is due to changes the eye undergoes with aging. The refractive and ocular motor system that can change with age can also influence stereopsis [30]. Alongside other visual functions such as contrast sensitivity and mesopic vision, disability glare has also shown to worsen with age [31]. Seeing a potential link, researchers considered the relationship between disability glare and stereopsis and whether they can predict the performance of one another. Schneck and colleagues measured coarse stereopsis and several other visual functions including disability glare in a population of individuals older than 58 years of age [31]. Disability glare was measured using a low contrast vision chart and a glare source. Further details of the disability glare testing were not given. These visual function tests were then analyzed on its relation to stereopsis. The results demonstrated that those who exhibited good visual function which included performing well on the disability glare test were also those with good stereopsis. Similarly, when the visual function was low, their stereopsis performance was significantly lowered as well [32]. However, since the research grouped disability glare with other visual components in the analysis, there is no convincing evidence of a direct relationship with stereopsis. The inference that can be made is that an individual with healthy visual function should have both stereopsis and tolerance to disability glare intact.
Despite some correlational evidence, current literature does not show a strong relationship between stereopsis and disability glare. Though they are commonly assessed in visual function, stereopsis may not provide further insight to the effects of disability glare. Thus, glare testing seldom utilizes stereopsis as a measurement of visual performance.
Glare testing consists of evaluating visual function under glare conditions. The most commonly used basis to determine visual function is contrast sensitivity and visual acuity [28] (Figure 3). The information provided by visual acuity and contrast sensitivity are utilized to determine severity of pathology, the need for ocular surgeries, and evaluate treatments. However, both these measurements convey different information, and so it becomes necessary to assess the validity of visual acuity and contrast sensitivity in evaluating glare. Furthermore, understanding how these measurements influence glare testing, it can provide us with further insight to what glare devices and testing techniques will ensue the most credible results.
The Pelli-Robson chart tests varying levels of contrast but only at low spatial frequency. Image courtesy of Clement Clarke International Ltd. Elliot et al. [
Visual acuity is a familiar assessment done clinically using a chart with high contrast letters such as in the Snellen Chart or using symbols such as the Landolt C. The patient is asked to read the row of letters in assorted sizes at a set distance [33]. The smallest optotype the patient can read corresponds to their visual acuity [34]. Visual acuity has been shown to be a valuable tool to correct refractive errors. However, visual acuity has not been as effective in assessing target identification and detection [35]. Furthermore, the black letters on a white background found in visual acuity charts are not representative of the type of objects and conditions that are observed in day to day life. This is where visual acuity falls short of accurately portraying the visual difficulties one can experience in reality.
A less prevalent clinical evaluation is contrast sensitivity where varying levels of contrast is presented in the form of sinusoidal gratings, symbols, or letters. Much of contrast testing is done using sinusoidal gratings which has various phases, frequency, and contrast. The spatial frequency of the gratings correlates with sizes of realistic objects encountered in everyday settings. Low spatial frequencies have larger gratings, therefore is analogous to viewing larger objects. While higher spatial frequencies have smaller gratings, and thus analogous to viewing smaller objects [35]. Testing for contrast evaluates the various brightness and shades of gray commonly observed in real life.
Visual acuity and contrast sensitivity can provide overlapping visual information. Measuring visual function using high contrast and small letters in visual acuity is comparable to high contrast and high frequency optotypes in contrast sensitivity. However, contrast sensitivity has the advantage of incorporating a range of spatial frequencies, specifically low spatial frequencies which visual acuity lacks. Additionally, contrast sensitivity also supplies information on low contrast sensitivity which is often vision involved with nighttime [35].
There has been debate as to which measurement more accurately pertains to disability glare in real life situations. Increasing evidence in literature has shown that contrast sensitivity is a better predictor and more discriminative of disability glare in those with ocular pathologies than visual acuity. Those with cataracts often complain of visual impairments but measurements of their visual acuities meet normal standards. Hence, visual acuity may not be sufficient to identify problems caused by glare. Additionally, valuable information on visual function can be extracted by contrast sensitivity testing. A comparison study done by Elliot et al. looked at both the predictability of visual acuity and contrast sensitivity in subjects with early cataracts [36]. Since contrast sensitivity comprises of multiple factors, contrast was measured at high and low spatial frequencies. LogMAR charts with different contrasts was used to the measure the contrast sensitivity. In an age-matched evaluation of normal and cataract subjects, high spatial frequency contrast sensitivity showed the most visual impairments in subjects with early cataracts than low spatial frequency and visual acuity. An example of contrast sensitivity testing in low spatial frequency is the use of the Pelli-Robson chart. As this study has shown, low spatial frequency does not provide additional information or have good discriminative ability. This is further supported by another study completed by Elliot and his colleague, Bullimore. In their study, the Pelli-Robson chart in conjunction with the glare source from the BAT also showed poor discriminative ability. The researchers also believed this was attributed to the low spatial frequency of the Pelli-Robson chart [28, 36].
Furthermore, Abrahamsson et al. carried out a studied that assessed the sensitivity of visual acuity and contrast sensitivity to reflecting pathological differences under glare testing. Abrahamsson et al. was introducing a new methodology and device to test for glare [21]. The device had a point light source and used sinusoidal gratings as a measure of contrast sensitivity. The study used a glare score to analyze visual function between subject groups. The glare score was determined by using the lowest contrast visible to the subject. Once calculated, cataract and normal age-matched subjects were compared. Additionally, their visual acuity was also tested separately. By using contrast sensitivity as the basis of visual function, the glare device attained a disability glare score that correlated with the opacity of the lens in cataract patients. However, visual acuity showed a low correlation with the disability glare score, indicating that visual acuity may not be sensitive enough to detect changes in opacity [21]. These results suggest that contrast sensitivity tests can reflect subtle physiological changes. This can be beneficial to monitoring the progression of a disease and allow intervention before late stages. Also, contrast sensitivity can potentially lead to earlier detection of ocular pathologies.
While discrimination is necessary in glare testing, reliability is also highly important in attaining meaningful results. In the study done by Abrahamsson mentioned previously, the reliability of their glare device which used contrast sensitivity was good [21]. However, keep in mind that their retest was done on a small number of subjects and so further testing is necessary. While visual acuity tests have shown little discriminative ability, Elliot and Bullimore found glare testing that used visual acuity displayed high reliability. This is a potential positive in utilizing visual acuity in glare testing. The Berkeley Glare Test and the Regan charts using the BAT (Brightness Acuity Test) as the glare source are examples of glare tests using visual acuity [28]. In that same study, the evaluation of glare devices, Vistech and Miller-Nadler Glare Tester, which utilized contrast sensitivity demonstrated low reliability [28]. However, both those devices also exhibited little discriminative ability. Hence, the problem may reside in the design of the device and less so on contrast sensitivity. Moreover, the reliability of both visual acuity and contrast sensitivity is still not clear and their reliability needs to be further examined to determine its effectiveness in evaluating glare.
The measurements of visual function for disability glare are important considerations. However, it is also necessary to keep in mind that both visual acuity and contrast sensitivity perform differently depending on lighting conditions. Thus, one must consider the luminance levels used during disability glare testing and how that relays to realistic encounters in everyday situations.
Contrast sensitivity performance in photopic conditions do not always correlate with mesopic conditions. Hertenstein et al. compared contrast sensitivity under both photopic and mesopic conditions [37]. Individuals recruited for the research comprised of normal, cataract patients, and glaucoma patients. The study utilized a glare testing device known as the Mesotest for the mesopic condition while using two different visual acuity test, Freiburg Acuity and Contrast Sensitivity Test (FrACT) and the Mars Letter Contrast Sensitivity Test for the photopic condition. Furthermore, the three testing methods were also retested to assure the reliability of the results. Overall, the study demonstrated that high mesopic contrast sensitivity score correlated with high photopic contrast sensitivity score. That correlation was also true when the subjects had low photopic contrast sensitivity score and low mesopic scores. However, high photopic contrast sensitivity score did not show the same predictability because individuals with those scores had various mesopic contrast sensitivity scores [37]. This suggest that to fully understand the visual impairments of disability glare, glare must be tested in different light conditions. Disability glare is present in everyday life at various light settings and so testing in many conditions provides more applicable knowledge of impairments patients face daily. As research has shown, visual performance differs depending on lighting and one condition cannot completely predict the results of another. However, testing under mesopic conditions may provide more information about visual function because a high score correlated to good vision in both light levels.
In patients with ocular pathologies and older drivers, concerns associated with disability glare often comes from difficulty driving at night. Realistic visual problems cannot always be accurately tested in clinical examination because visual acuity only tests visual function with high contrast and in photopics conditions. A study done by Kimlin and colleagues demonstrates this flaw by assessing the predictability of visual tests on the driving performance of its subjects [38]. These subjects had little to no ocular pathologies but had trouble night time driving. The subjects were put through driving obstacles to monitor their driving performance during night time. The subjects were also tested under photopic conditions for both visual acuity and contrast sensitivity. Then, they were tested under mesopic conditions for visual acuity and contrast sensitivity as well as glare testing. The study revealed that out of all the test results, high contrast visual acuity provided the least information about driving performance. In turn, glare and mesopic conditions were better predictors and accounted for more of the driving variations in the subjects [38]. Thus, a major visual problem like night time driving cannot be captured by typical clinical settings. Visual acuity and photopic conditions cannot provide information adequate in assessing all visual complaints. Thus, proper measurements of disability glare should be done in a lighting condition that most accurately addresses the visual complaint of interest.
In addition, mesopic conditions mimic those of night time illuminance as well as fog. While it has been shown that visual acuity decreases during mesopic conditions, central vision is less important and the ability to discriminate contrast becomes more necessary [39]. Thus, the effects of disability glare on contrast sensitivity during mesopic conditions can be more clinically valuable and applicable to daily life.
One widely known clinical tool to measure disability glare is the CSV-1000E from Vector Vision. This device measures disability glare using contrast sensitivity at spatial frequencies ranging from low to high. The spatial frequencies are measured using sinusoidal gratings at varying levels of contrast. The CSV-1000E has a backlit illumination of 85 cd/m2 which can be used for glare testing under photopic conditions. The device can measure in mesopic conditions as well with the use of neutral density filters which lowers illuminance to 3 cd/m2, the FDA recommended setting for mesopic measurements [40] (Figure 4).
CSV-1000E used for glare testing at varying luminance and contrast sensitivity at different spatial frequencies. Image courtesy of VectorVision [
The test consists of eight levels of contrast for each spatial frequency. There are eight columns consisting of two circles each, one which contains the sinusoidal gratings. The subject is tasked with identifying which of the two circles contain the grating for each of the columns. The responses are recorded and converted to a logarithmic scale.
Since the CSV-1000E can test in both photopic and mesopic conditions at various spatial frequencies, it has a variety of useful applications in a clinical setting. Shandiz et al. demonstrated the use of the CSV-1000E in individuals with different types of cataracts and different levels of severity. The CSV-1000E was sensitive enough to display a correlation between the subject’s performance on contrast sensitivity and their level of lens opacity [41]. Since the CSV-1000E is a discriminative test that reflect ocular pathologies, it can be valuable in tracking the progression of a disease such as cataracts.
While the CSV-1000E has shown some discriminative ability, one report has shown the device is unreliable. Kelly et al. looked at the repeatability of the CSV-1000E in children and adults. The results indicated that the CSV-1000E has poor reliability. The reliability only improved in the case of maintaining the same experimenter, but even so the reliability was still low [42]. Some issues with the study was it involved both children and adults and the groups were too small to perform a reliable sub-analysis.
Examining the reliability of the CSV-1000E with a subject of pool of glaucoma patients, the investigators found the device and testing to be reliable. The reliability was calculated as the coefficient of repeatability (COR) which was on average .191 which was lower when compared to another known glare test, the Miller-Nadler Glare Tester (COR = 0.36) [43]. The study tested the effectiveness of a beta-blocker therapy on the contrast sensitivity of open angle glaucoma and looked at the reliability of CSV-1000E. The CSV-1000E was able to detect the changes in visual function from the beta-blocker treatment which can suggest good discriminative sensitivity [43]. Furthermore, based on repeatability the results supported that CSV-1000E can be a clinically reliable tool.
The CSV-1000E is a clinically versatile device as it can measure disability glare in various conditions. The device has also shown discriminative ability in detecting the changes in state of those with cataracts and glaucoma. However, the repeatability of the test remains uncertain and so further assessment of the CSV-1000E with a large sample size will be necessary for understanding its suitability in glare testing.
Disability glare while causing a veil of light over the visual object, can also create an illuminated ring in our viewpoint which is known as a halo. The halo can be quantified by its disk radius and be used as a mean to measure disability glare. In a study conducted by Palomo-Alvarez et al., it was demonstrated that in comparison to straylight and corrected visual distance acuity (CVDA), disk halo radius was more discriminatively sensitive at detecting differences between normal and cataract subjects under glare conditions [44]. Thus, disk halo radius can be a valuable diagnostic tool to measure disability glare in clinics. One of the current tools for measuring halos are halometers. There are several models of halometers which are adopted by researchers to fit their studies. However, the foundational principals of the different halometers for evaluating disability glare are very similar.
The halometer test mainly entails a point light source at the center of the testing screen which varies in intensity depending on the device and study. The optotype used can be illuminated with a green or red light to monitor the effects of wavelength on light scattering. The protocol usually comprises of the subject moving the optotype either away or to the light source until it is just no longer visible or just visible depending on the specific instructions. The distant from the light to the object is then measured and analyzed as the disk radius halo which correlates with the amount of disability glare experienced.
In a study performed by Babizhayev et al., the halometer was used to assess individuals with cataracts [45] (Figure 5). Additionally, the performance of the Halometer was compared to other clinical tools such as visual acuity measurements and digitized opacity representations of the lens to determine the validity of the test. The digitized representations were done with retro-illumination photography that was digitally analyzed for light scattering and absorption. The halometer showed significant correlation between the visual acuity and the digitized opacity measurements. The results indicate that this glare test can contribute additional knowledge to visual function in relation to cataracts. Furthermore, the repeatability of the halometer was also assessed. The halometer performed with high repeatability of about 0.998 with test and retest occurring 1 week apart [45]. The halometer being both discriminative and reliable can be a beneficial and useful addition to clinical evaluation of patients.
Schematic of the Halometer glare device utilized by Babizhayev and colleagues to measure intraocular light scatter in subjects with cataracts. Babizhayev et al. [
Another modification of the halometer utilized an iPad application and an LED point light source. The halometer is known as the Aston Halometer [46] (Figure 6). The study subjects were tested monocularly with the use the Bangerter occlusion foil to induce disability glare. The target, presented at four different Weber contrast levels, was moved from the LED light source in eight different directions. The subject was to identify when the target was just visible from the light source and the distance, being the halo disk radius, was measured and analyzed. The performance of the Halometer was compared to the straylight meter which had been shown to be an accurate measurement of straylight and correlated to the amount of disability glare. The Halometer showed sensitivity to lower contrast letter and had high repeatability during testing which makes for a promising device [46]. However, the device was only tested on normal subjects without ocular pathologies. Therefore, while there is evidence in the Halometer’s sensitivity to varying levels of contrast in normal subjects, the study did not provide insight to glare in ocular pathologies such cataract and glaucoma. Since the population of those living with ocular pathologies struggle with disability glare, a glare device needs to demonstrate discriminative ability in disease such as cataracts, glaucoma, and corneal disease.
Schematic of the Aston Halometer designed on the iPad with an LED light source and target optotype controlled by iPhone. Buckhurst et al. [
Another study also used the Aston halometer to measure disability. They did so to evaluate night time driving in older adults with minimal pathologies including cataracts, glaucoma, and corneal pathology [38]. The subjects recruited was put through a driving obstacle to monitor their driving performance. Then mesopic conditions as well as glare testing was measured to see whether the visual testing is an accurate predictor of the subject’s driving. While the test showed that the Aston halometer was a better predictor than photopic high contrast visual acuity (HCVA) testing, it was not a better predictor than mesopic high contrast visual acuity testing [38]. This suggest that the Aston halometer may need other improvements to increase sensitivity and further studies will be necessary to assess the validity of the halometer.
The Berkeley Glare Test has long been used for glare testing in clinic and research. The Berkeley Glare test measures visual acuity optotypes and different contrast levels under glare conditions [47]. A chart of varying levels of contrast is placed in the device, behind the opal Plexiglas screen which has a back illumination of 85 cd/m2. The device has three levels of glare, being 300, 800, and 3000 cd/m2. The creators of the Berkeley Glare test, Bailey and Bullimore, tested the technique on young and older ocular healthy adults [47]. Older adults were categorized as healthy if no ocular pathologies were present and their nuclear sclerosis score was grade 1 and under. The subjects were tested under four conditions which were no glare, and the three glare illuminations mentioned earlier. The chart used in the Berkeley Glare Test can vary and be chosen to meet specific needs. Visual function at high contrast was measured using the Bailey-Lovie Chart, a letter chart that assessed visual acuity. Low contrast visual function was also measured by using a letter chart that was at a Michaelson 10% contrast. The subjects were scored on a basis of a disability glare index (DGI) which was the difference in the number of letters the subject can see in the no glare versus glare conditions. Bailey and Bullimore’s testing results showed that subjects with early nuclear sclerosis had a higher reduction in disability glare in comparison to visual acuity. The data also reflected subtle changes in lens opacity in the subject’s DGI score before those changes could be detected by visual acuity testing [47]. The significant difference between DGI scores suggested that the Berkeley Glare test was more sensitive to physiological changes when assessing for contrast sensitivity than visual acuity [47]. This also noted the importance of using contrast sensitivity over visual acuity in the case of the Berkeley Glare Test to produce more sensitive and accurate results. Furthermore, the Berkeley Glare Test also presented versatility as a glare device because the charts can be changed to test a wider range of visual function. This is potentially helpful in ocular diseases such as cataracts to evaluate different visual impairments in various settings. The Berkeley Glare Test also presented good discriminative ability as it can differentiate between those with early signs of nuclear sclerosis and normal subjects.
Further evaluation of the validity of the Berkeley Glare Test was done by Elliot and colleagues in a study where different glare tests were also observed [28]. The test was utilized with a low contrast (Weber 15%) Bailey-Lovie chart with a back illumination of 80 cd/m2 and the glare setting was set to 750 cd/m2 illumination. The Berkeley Glare Test displayed good repeatability but did not perform as well as the Regan chart and BAT (Brightness Acuity Test) as the glare source in reliability. The Berkeley Glare Test also exhibited good discriminative ability between normal and cataract patients. However, the study did disclaim that the subjects were referred to the ophthalmologist’s office due to discrepancies in visual acuity. Since visual acuity in these subjects were already low, it can be expected that visual impairments were apparent enough to be easily detected by most tests. And so, these results did not further support the discriminative ability of the Berkeley Glare Test. The Berkeley Glare Test also fulfilled the three criteria of a vision test outlined by the American Academy of Ophthalmology (AAO). The criteria include: a force-choice protocol, test target follows a uniform logarithmic progression, multiple trials should be done at each level of acuity or contrast [28]. The Berkeley Glare Test’s performance as outlined by the AAO criteria is both reliable and discriminative test. Therefore, the Berkeley Glare test can potentially be a strong foundation as both a research and clinical tool.
In another instance, a research study utilized the Berkley Glare Test to evaluate nighttime driving and disability glare. The study compared the Berkeley Glare Test to the Aston Glare Test in predicting night time driving performance. The Berkeley Glare Test did not show any significant correlation in driving performance while the Aston Glare Test displayed significant correlations [38]. This may suggest that while the Berkeley Glare Test can produce valid results, newer glare devices are surpassing it in sensitivity and leaves room for improvement in the test itself.
In another glare test, known as the EpiGlare tester, the inventors developed a glare testing device that has the validity and discriminative disability to detect vision loss caused by glare. Epitropoulos and colleagues assessed the changes in corrected distance visual acuity (CDVA) in cataract and normal subjects under glare conditions [48]. The EpiGlare tester is a LED light emitting device that can be attached to a phoropter. There are four LED lights placed evenly around the aperture of the device. Under induced glare conditions, the subjects are asked to read off an EDTRS chart to assess their CDVA. The study also incorporated a Functional Vision Questionnaire that assessed the subjects driving and glare experiences. An additional question was asked after glare testing on how closely the test resembled their glare problems while nighttime driving (Figure 7).
EpiGlare tester designed by Dr. Alice Epitropoulos can be easily attached to phoropter for clinical use. Image courtesy of good-Lite. Epitropoulos et al. [
From the data of 40 subjects with cataracts and 49 ocular healthy subjects, EpiGlare tester demonstrated that cataract subjects are more impaired by disability glare than normal subjects [43]. These findings support the discriminative ability of the EpiGlare tester to distinguish the visual loss between pathology and healthy vision. Furthermore, the questions asked during the testing provides additional evidence to the validity of the device. From all the subjects, 83% of the cataract subjects reported the device accurately simulated their difficulties nighttime driving [48]. The device was easy to utilize and incorporate in clinical settings. The attachment to phoropter increases repeatability of the glare tester because the device setup will be consistent. The study did not directly examine its reliability and thus further evaluation of the device is still necessary. However, the EpiGlare tester simple use can be advantageous in clinical settings with its discriminative sensitivity and convenience.
While there can be many variations among glare devices, the core of what is required in glare testing is the same. Therefore, there are several present methods and devices that share similar set ups. Two of which are the Ophthimus Glare Tester (Hightech Vision) and the contrast sensitivity function (CSF) glare tester created by Abrahamsson and his colleagues [21, 49]. Both these models examine cataract and normal subjects as well as monitoring their visual performance with contrast sensitivity under glare conditions (Figures 8 and 9).
Schematic of the Ophthimus glare test with the ring light as the glare source and Landolt C at the center. Martin [
Schematic of Abrahamsson and Sjostrand glare device with a ring light as the glare source and sine wave contrast sensitivity in the center. Abrahamsson and Sjostrond [
These devices employed similar setups by using a ring fluorescent tube as the glare source with the optotype presented in the middle. Both assessed contrast sensitivity; however, the Ophthimus Glare Test utilized the Landolt C with varying levels of contrast as its optotype [21]. The CSF Glare Tester, on the other hand, used sinusoidal gratings to measure contrast sensitivity with different contrast levels and spatial frequencies [49]. Furthermore, the type of glare sources differed, and the intensity of both glare sources were not disclosed. Hence, there is no basis to compare the two on illuminance.
When using the Landolt C, the protocol normally ensued a force choice answer. In the case of Ophthimus Glare Tester, the subjects were asked to report which direction the gap of the Landolt C was facing. This was done until the subject reached the lowest contrast in which the direction of the Landolt C could still be answered correctly [21]. This resembled the procedure of the CSF tester as the sinusoidal gratings were gradually increased to the contrast that was barely visible to the subject under glare conditions. The task was done at all spatial frequencies [49]. Both glare test measured the lowest contrast level visible by the subject to determine their contrast sensitivity. These results were both used to calculate a glare score which was used to understand the visual function of the cataract subjects and ocular healthy subjects.
Their shared similarities in testing methods also yielded the same results where both glare tests displayed discriminative ability between cataract subjects and age-matched ocular healthy subjects. However, each study correlated their glare score with different measurements and so each drew their own specific inferences from their results. The Ophthimus Glare Tester study looked at cataract patients in preparation for cataract surgery. These individuals had normal visual acuity, but the results of the study showed their disability glare score to be significantly lower and they also reported visual complaints associated with glare. After the surgery, 24 out of 25 subjects had no self-reported glare problems but some of the subjects still displayed elevated glare sensitivity [21]. This supported the discriminative ability of the Ophthimus Glare Tester that the glare test could still distinguish between cataracts and ocular healthy individuals even after surgery when visual function improved. The validity of the Ophthimus Glare Tester’s performance was supported by being relevant to the subjective visual complaints of the subjects as well as with the results of preoperative and postoperative surgery. The CSF glare tester, on the other hand, measured their scores against opacity levels of the cataract subjects. They demonstrated a correlation between the glare scores and the current pathology of each subject [49]. Hence, the validity that the CSF glare tester was based more so on physiological progress of the disease rather than subjective experiences. Both these glare tests exhibited strong discriminative findings but because the studies that utilized the tests based their results on different foundations, the information yielded by each glare testing device was distinctive. This also applied to the information each study provided about the effects of glare on cataracts even though the glare tests shared a number of similarities. And so more testing should be conducted to assess the comparative validity of these glare tests.
Functional vision deficits may occur in ocular healthy individuals and in individuals that have disease. It appears that glare testing can serve as a good indicator of visual function and may also be affected in disease states. As various new treatment modalities become available for age related macular degeneration, glaucoma and newer intraocular lens surgeries and laser refractive surgeries, treatment outcome may be better assessed using visual function tasks that are more difficult to perform and are more realistic of “real” world activities. To this accord a combination of glare testing with contrast discrimination may be well suited. The difficulties arise in lack of standardization of parameters or lack of existence of evaluation standards makes assessing of the glare tests very difficult. There is tremendous need for these standards setting and independent evaluation of these devices before a clinically acceptable standard can be obtained and accepted. It appears that although the glare testing shows huge promise it cannot be utilized clinically as a useful test and currently remains a technique useful for research arena.
Nowadays noise pollution is the focus of various studies and research due to its proven significant impact on human health and work efficiency. Research shows that traffic noise in urban areas has tremendously increased since the beginning of the century, primarily due to increased transportation of people and goods. It can be concluded that in urban areas the largest source of noise is traffic-induced noise, which accounts for 80% of all communal noise sources. Traffic noise caused by road traffic is the most common type of noise in urban areas and as such poses a serious problem. Figure 1 shows the distribution of human noise annoyance according to the type of noise source [1].
\nDistribution of human noise annoyance according to the type of noise source [
According to Table 1, provided by the International Union of Railways (UIC), all types of trains produce less noise than trucks, cars, airplanes, and other means of transport. Railway is the most favorable form of transport, in terms of noise as an influential factor for environmental degradation and human health. Therefore, it can be determined that the railway has the lowest share of noise in urban areas among other means of transport.
\nType of vehicle | \nAverage noise level [dBA] | \n
---|---|
Car (700–1300 cm3) | \n82 | \n
Motorcycle | \n90 | \n
Heavy cargo truck | \n103 | \n
Turbojet airplane | \n150 | \n
Fast passenger train | \n65 | \n
Cargo train (speed up to 120 km/h) | \n60 | \n
Local train | \n70 | \n
The average noise level generated by different types of vehicles (International Union of Railways (UIC)).
Road traffic noise depends on the following three factors:
Type of road vehicles.
Friction between the vehicle wheels and the road surface.
Driving style and driver behavior.
When considering vehicles that have an internal combustion engine (ICE) as the noise source, most of the noise comes from the sources or systems shown in Figure 2. The aforementioned sources and systems are explained in detail in the following paragraph.
\nNoise sources in a vehicle.
Engine noise is created during the process of compression and expansion in the engine, which creates engine vibrations which then emit noise. The engine noise depends on the engine volume, speed, and capacity. The suction system noise is caused by the opening and closing of the suction valves, and furthermore the intensity of such noise depends on the mode of operation of the engine, the speed of the engine itself, and the type of air filter. Noise from the exhaust system is created by the sudden release of gas into the exhaust system itself in order to open the exhaust valve. The fan noise is generated due to the operation of the fans in the vehicle, and the fans generally produce a broadband noise. Tire noise occurs when the tires and road surfaces come into contact. This type of noise depends on the type of road surface, the tire construction, and finally the speed and driving style [2].
\nIn terms of noise pollution, electric vehicles represent the future, especially when compared to vehicles with an internal combustion engine (see Figure 3). However, at low speeds, electric vehicles produce very small levels of noise, i.e., in current acoustic urban environments, they are practically inaudible. For example, the noise level difference between an electric vehicle and an internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle can be greater than 6 dB (A) at 10 km/h. Unfortunately, much later at higher speeds, both types of car become equally loud, mainly due to tire noise.
\nElectric vehicle.
When considering how traffic flow affects the subjective perception of noise levels, it can be concluded that it depends on the number of vehicles, their speed, and structure as described in the following paragraph.
\nA traffic flow of 2000 vehicles per hour produces twice the perceived noise level than 200 vehicles per hour. If the traffic speed is 105 km/h, it produces twice the perceived noise level than the 50 km/h traffic flow. One heavy weight vehicle (HV > 3.5 tons) with a speed of 70 km/h creates a perceived noise level of 28 lightweight vehicles (LV <3.5 tons).
\nThe main sources of railway traffic noise are noise generated from:
Vehicles traveling the railway.
Maneuvers.
Wagons.
Electromotor trains.
Motor trains.
Warning signals.
There are several other significant sources of noise, apart from the main sources mentioned above, which are:
Propulsion systems for railway and railway vehicles.
Interaction of wagon wheels, locomotives, and trains with rails.
Braking process.
Additional equipment such as ventilation, sirens, air-conditioning, and heating.
Aerodynamic noise, especially in the case of high-speed trains.
On the propulsion system, noise is mainly generated by the operation of the traction engine (suction and exhaust process in the case of the diesel engine which is also the noisiest type of engine), the engine cooling system, the transmission system, and the ventilation system.
\nWheel-rail interaction generates dominant noise in railway vehicles and depends directly on the speed of movement and the geometric configuration of the railway track. When moving on straight railway sections, the noise is mainly generated as a result of the roughness of the wheel and rail surfaces, i.e., from their friction. When driving through the railway curves, the wheels make more noise, not only due to rolling but also due to slipping of the metal wheels, which can be observed as creaking along the railway track. The cause of this phenomenon is the constructive nature of the wagons themselves, in which the wheels are fixed with parallel axles, which is why the outer wheels, when crossing a longer path than the inner ones, must glide, thus generating noise.
\nThe noise generated by the braking process, in addition to the roughness of the wheels and track contact surfaces, depends significantly on the type and form of used brakes.
\nNoise from additional equipment is mostly generated by fans and their engines. Furthermore, it is important to mention the noise generated by the warning and notification signals.
\nAerodynamic noise is caused by the passage of the train through the airspace. The noise level generated by air turbulence at or near the train surface in motion is logarithmically proportional to the train speed; therefore aerodynamic noise is significant only at higher speeds [3].
\n\nFigure 4 shows the noise sources of a high-speed train, apart from ground vibrations resulting from its passage and the conversion of structural sound to airborne sound in buildings.
\nSignificant noise sources in the case of the high-speed train.
Aircraft traffic also causes several environmental problems or in other words an increase of noise. Nowadays, when observing the rapid development of all types of traffic, especially aircraft traffic, it can be concluded that there has been a significant increase in noise levels. In particular, the population living near airports is affected by the negative effects of noise exposure.
\nAircraft noise can be divided into groups, which are shown in Figure 5:
Noise caused by different types of engines.
Noise caused by aircraft structure.
Significant aircraft noise sources.
The noise sources generated by the engine groups are:
Turbojet engine.
Turbofan engine.
Propeller propulsion (classic or turbine engine).
The noise produced by a turbojet engine can be divided into following groups:
Compressor noise.
Vibration-induced noise.
Output jet noise.
Turbojet engine noise presented a big problem in the 1960s, especially the intake noise of this type of engine. The noise source of such intake noise is the compressor blades. During time as technology has evolved, aircrafts have become quieter, and therefore noise reduction in that sense continues even today.
\nThe turbofan engine was designed to reduce aviation noise levels. In the case of the first turbofan engines, the largest noise source was the compressor, turbine, and jet exhaust. Newer turbofan engine models have succeeded to reduce the aforementioned noise levels. Turbofan engine consists of blades and a turbojet engine. This type of engine is often used in commercial aircraft industry.
\nAircraft structure noise is defined as the sound which is produced from the movement of air between a solid body and air. The largest “manufacturers” of aircraft structure noise are landing gear, aircraft wings, and the flaps which are shown in Figures 6 and 7. The noise generated by these aircraft parts depends on different aircraft configurations.
\nAircraft structure noise sources.
Wing with extended flaps.
The noise level of an aircraft takeoff can be compared to the noise level produced by the engine group, while the landing aircraft engine group noise level is almost insignificant.
\nThe noise produced by the flaps is created by the outer edges of the flaps. The main cause of flap noise is the emersion of air vortex which is created by flap extension. This vortex is the main cause of noise at the end of the wings.
\nAnother significant source of aircraft structural noise is landing gear. Landing gear noise is generated during takeoff and landing of an aircraft. During takeoff and landing, the landing gear is lowered; thus high air resistance occurs, which produces the landing gear noise [4].
\nOther noise sources include industrial noise, noise caused by various construction work, and noise produced by different music and sports events.
\nIndustrial noise (shown in Figure 8) is the amount of acoustic energy received by the human hearing system while working at the industrial hall. Occupational noise or industrial noise is a common term used when it comes to occupational safety, since prolonged exposure to this type of noise can cause various health problems (e.g., annoyance, loss of concentration, sleep disorders, headaches, etc.). The worst consequence of prolonged exposure to this type of noise is permanent hearing impairment. Bearing in mind all the above, it can be concluded that this kind of noise certainly affects work efficiency.
\nAn example of industrial site which produces industrial noise.
When considering noise caused by different construction sites which are shown in Figure 9, this type of noise can have extremely high noise levels. Furthermore, such noise levels are very variable given that the construction process has many different phases. Thus, depending on the type and phase of construction, this category of noise can have indoor and outdoor noise sources and sometimes both at the same time. Activities on construction sites include the use of hammers, off-road trucks, cement mixers, cement cutters, electric saws, welding machines, as well as noise generated by hand tools such as a drill. Therefore, such noise represents a challenge for the workers and in addition for the population located near the construction site. This type of noise may have health consequences identical to those described in the previous section for the case of industrial noise.
\nAn example of construction site and some typical noise sources.
Musical events are very dynamic (see Figure 10). In this case, the sound engineer plays a key role in ensuring that the audience gets the full experience of a music event by mixing the music. The order of the songs is usually strategically set in a way that higher levels of tempo or dynamics and energy remain until the end of the night, which represents a certain kind of “peak” of the concert. Naturally, the sound engineer will want to raise the sound levels as much as possible, so it can be expected that the noise levels will increase as the night passes. In addition, stage orientation plays a significant role in sound propagation. If the concert takes place outdoors, the reality is of course that people who are not actually present at the concert site, however live near, will hear the music. In that case it has to be noted that the music impact will be minimal at a distance of more than a mile or two from the concert site, so this type of noise could be annoying or unpleasant (especially if one does not prefer the music performed by an artist). The concert will certainly not be suspended due to a complaint from only one person living relatively near the concert site. Licensing of open-air concerts by the competent authority is a well-established process. Therefore, one can expect only a few concerts a year from a particular outdoor site. Concert organizers can in addition send notices to homeowners near the concert site reminding them of concert details, curfew time, and their right to complain if noise levels become significant and therefore annoying.
\nAn example of open-air musical event.
Sport events (shown in Figure 11) present a very similar situation as music events. Although most people enjoy them, those who are disturbed by the noise levels produced can be protected in some way by using different types of ear protection (e.g., noise-cancelling headphones or popularly called earbuds). For people who are particularly sensitive to noise, there still remains the option of simply physically moving away for a while from the site where a particular sporting or musical event will take place.
\nAn example of sport event.
The previous sections of this chapter have described the most common traffic sources in urban areas. The aim of this paragraph is to propose and describe measures to reduce such noise which are shown in Figure 12 [5].
\nTen ways to reduce noise pollution based on [
Ten ways to reduce noise in urban areas proposed in [5] are:
Urban planning.
Designing living spaces.
Sound insulation of living spaces.
Smart traffic management.
Implementation of quiet road surfaces.
Development of train brake blocks.
Electric cars.
Changing driving styles.
Noise barriers.
Application of soundscape concept.
It is important to emphasize that these solutions are not the only solutions and that there are still different opportunities and prospects for progress and development of both existing and new methods.
\nIn the following sections, a more detailed explanation on how electric vehicles affect the reduction of noise levels will be provided, especially in urban areas. On the other hand, problems which occur with electric cars will be discussed. In addition, the effect of smart traffic management system, traffic behavior changes, and quiet road surfaces in terms of noise reduction will be examined.
\nElectric vehicles (shown in Figure 13) present the future in terms of reducing noise pollution in urban areas. Electric vehicles are quieter especially when compared to vehicles with an internal combustion engine.
\nElectric vehicles:
Electric vehicles at low speeds produce very low levels of noise, i.e., in current urban environments, these vehicles are practically silent and unnoticeable. For example, the difference in noise level between an electric vehicle and an internal combustion engine vehicle can be greater than 6 dBA at 10 km/h [6]. At higher speeds, both types of vehicles become equally loud, mainly due to the tire noise. In urban areas, for pedestrians (especially for vulnerable groups: children and visually impaired people), it becomes much more difficult to detect electric vehicles due to their aforementioned lower noise levels [6]. Therefore, it is necessary to find a solution in the form of an audible signal that electric vehicles will emit in different driving modes.
\nSince 2009, the Japanese government, the United States Congress, and the European Commission have been studying the legislation to determine the minimum level of emitted sound signal for plug-in electric and hybrid vehicles when operating in electric mode. This level of audible signal must be such that visually impaired people, other pedestrians, and cyclists can hear the electric vehicles in motion and detect from which direction they are coming from. Several tests and studies have shown that vehicles operating in electric mode below 32 km/h are almost inaudible for pedestrians [7].
\nIn 2011, the European Commission composed guidelines for Acoustic Vehicle Alerting Systems (AVAS). The aim of the guidelines was to present recommendations to manufacturers for a system to be installed in this type of vehicles that would emit an audible signal to pedestrians and other vulnerable groups in traffic. The guidelines recommend that AVAS automatically generate a continuous sound in the minimum range of vehicle speeds from standing at a place (0 km/h) and starting to drive (up to approximately 20 km/h) and when driving backwards, if applicable to that category of vehicle. Furthermore, the guidelines suggest which types of sounds are not suitable for this purpose [8]. In February 2013, the European Parliament decided that the law draft should combine series of tests, norms, and measures that first must be developed in order to make AVAS mandatory in the future. The approved amendment stipulates that “the sound generated by the AVAS should be a continuous sound of the vehicle in operation providing information to pedestrians and vulnerable traffic users. The sound should clearly demonstrate the behavior of the vehicle and should sound similar to the sound of a vehicle of the same category equipped with an internal combustion engine” [9]. In April 2014, a law (Regulation (EU) No 540/2014) was approved by the European Parliament requiring AVAS to be mandatory for all new electric and hybrid vehicles. The new guidance proposes a transitional period of 5 years after the announcement of the final approval of the April 2014 proposal [10].
\nFor example, a case study was carried out in Zagreb in 2019 [11], which involved 201 participants who had the task to fulfill a specially designed questionnaire. This case study addresses the issue of electric cars in everyday traffic. The research was focused on assigning a desirable (both for pedestrians and drivers) and, at the same time, detectable warning sound to an electrical vehicle in the daily traffic. The case study showed that the majority of participants (especially the ones with a driving license) would prefer that their electric vehicle sounds like an internal combustion engine car. The “nondrivers” were more open to the solution that an electric vehicle has a different sound than a “regular” car. According to the study, they were more opened to a solution of adding a sound of an electric motor to the electric vehicle as a warning sound which would distinguish the electric cars from cars with internal combustion engine in everyday traffic. However, an important question concerning the overall quality of life remains: “Which one of these two sounds would increase more the noise levels in urban environments?”
\nFinally, it can be concluded that electric vehicles will play a significant role in reducing noise levels especially in urban areas while adequately addressing the problem of emitting a certain warning sound when parking, moving forward, and stopping. It is important to note that the unique warning sound has not yet been implemented, i.e., various car manufacturers are still “experimenting” regarding this issue.
\nSmart traffic management is a system in which centrally controlled traffic signals and sensors regulate the flow of traffic through the city in compliance with the current state on the roads in the city (see Figure 14).
\nSmart traffic management system.
Upgrading and integrating all the signals on major roads in the city will have multiple benefits such as:
Significant reduction of daily traffic congestion, equalization of traffic flows, and prioritization of traffic in response to real-time demand.
Pollution reduction in the city: stop-start driving is inefficient and polluting.
Providing priority for busses approaching intersections and phase-coordinating traffic lights enabling a “green wave” through the city.
Enabling a much more efficient response to traffic accidents, especially on motorways, for example, the system can be pre-programmed for a sudden increase in traffic.
Enabling inbound traffic flow control.
In addition to the multiple benefits listed above, the system would also provide the perfect opportunity to install tracking equipment and collect a much more detailed traffic and travel data. Each set of traffic lights would have communication equipment that can be used to transmit (anonymously) vehicle data, either from automatic number-plate recognition (ANPR) cameras or Bluetooth detectors and closed-circuit television (CCTV) transmission (if suitable). There are three components in smart traffic management: traffic lights, queue detectors (in terms of traffic congestion) embedded in the road, and cameras and a central control system. Queue detectors define the traffic flow control system on all major roads in the city. The system controls the traffic lights to maintain the free flow of traffic within the city. Every 2 seconds, the system uses a real condition model to decide whether one will have the priority of changing the phase of any of the traffic lights. A system software considered as an “asset” can be defined as, for example, obeying the bus timetable, less pollution at a particular location, or fewer vehicles waiting at a highway toll booth.
\nIf inbound traffic flow control is used, the most remote sets of traffic lights on arterial or radial roads serve as a special function and are technically known as “doors” or “control points.” They regulate the flow of vehicles entering the city.
\nOne example of software with the purpose of smart traffic management is split cycle and offset optimization technique (SCOOT) which is used in hundreds of European cities for decades. It is used in Cambridge for coordinating traffic signals, where it usually favors busses. In Zurich, Braunschweig, and Potsdam, the system is used to control all traffic in the city [12]. The software is deployed with “knowledge” of the road network and is trained to respond appropriately to a wide range of scenarios (e.g., major traffic “disruptions” such as an accident on the arterial roads). It is important to note that the system also has the option to manually manage and make changes if there is a need for it.
\nTraffic behavior psychology is defined as the study of the behavior and psychological processes of different traffic participants. Its aim is to attempt to identify specific behavior patterns of users of different types of traffic with the ultimate goal of developing effective anti-accident measures [13]. There are two basic approaches that can help psychologists develop and implement measures against traffic accidents. First, traffic psychology can act as an “assistant” of science with a dominant field of traffic engineering. Road safety engineering solutions aim to optimize internal road safety. A safe road can be defined as a road that is designed, operated, or modified in such a way that it [14]:
Warns the driver of any unusual or odd features.
Informs the driver of road conditions.
Guides the driver through atypical parts.
Controls the passage of drivers through problematic points and roads (“black” traffic points).
Has the ability to tolerate a driver’s impolite or inappropriate behavior.
Engineering is powerful for a significant number of traffic problems. However, it would be wrong to assume that it is exclusively an engineering solution. Engineering must also consider sociopsychological solutions that include the implementation, education, and other activities in order to change the behavior of road users. In a significant number of traffic situations, psychological measures can support engineering measures in such a way that the performance of expected safety works even more effectively by informing or motivating traffic participants to change their behavior in the desired direction.
\nRegarding the specific application of this topic to the issue of noise, changes in the traffic participants’ behavior would mean a complete “openness” to newly developed traffic monitoring systems, participation in them, and raising awareness of the most vulnerable groups in traffic (visually impaired people and children). Figure 15 shows worrying data which is a direct consequence of the current behavior of road users.
\nReview of irresponsible and inappropriate traffic participants’ behavior [
In previous paragraphs, it has already been established that the dominant noise source when driving a car at higher speeds is tire noise which is caused by friction between the wheels and the road surface. In the case of light vehicles, tire noise becomes the main noise source already at a speed of 30 km/h, while in the case of heavy vehicles at speeds higher than 60 km/h tire noise becomes the main noise source, which is shown in Figure 16 [16]. Figure 17 shows noise levels for different types of vehicles depending on their speed [17].
\nThe correlation of noise levels and vehicle’s speed (lightweight vehicles marked with full lines and heavy weight vehicles with dashed lines) [
Noise levels for different types of vehicles, depending on their speed [
Tire noise depends on the following road surface properties:
Surface texture.
Acoustic absorption.
Aerodynamic processes.
Improving road surface properties in a way that effectively reduces noise generation and amplification will result in lower noise levels. There are several types of quiet road surfaces, and their application is mainly determined by the noise reduction proportion, the permitted speed in traffic, the composition of the traffic flow, and the possible adhesion of tires to the surface during parking. In urban areas, three types of bases are most commonly used:
Thin surface layers.
Two-layer porous asphalt.
Cast asphalt.
Thin surface layers are often referred as thin asphalt layers of or thin asphalt bases for noise level reduction (see Figure 18) [1]. These layers are usually up to 3 centimeters thick. There are a significant number of different types of thin surface layers on the market, for example, in the Netherlands more than 40, including porous and dense types. They usually reduce noise by 2–4 decibels at 50 km/h for cars when compared to the average dense asphalt concrete. Porous asphalt types are in average about 1 decibel quieter than dense ones; however they have a shorter duration than dense asphalt. The typical duration of a thin surface layer is 7–9 years. Thin surface layers are suitable and increasingly popular on low- and medium-speed roads; however they are not appropriate for places exposed to strong stress forces, such as roundabouts, steep slopes, bends, truck exits, etc.
\nTwo-layer porous asphalt (on the left) and a thin surface layer of asphalt (on the right) [
The two-layer porous asphalt consists of a top layer (2.5 centimeters thick) and a lower layer (4.5 centimeters thick) which is shown in Figure 18. The total thickness of the 7 centimeter porous layer absorbs more noise or more precisely at the beginning of its implementation from 5 to 7 decibels. Two-layer porous asphalt is relatively expensive and suitable for high-speed roads that require extreme noise reduction. Cast asphalt has a thin (3 centimeters) surface layer with a specific molding design. It contains more stone than thin surface layers, and since it is not porous, it does not absorb as much noise; however it is more robust than other asphalts. A test of this type of cast asphalt conducted in Berlin resulted in an initial noise reduction of 1.5 decibels. In addition to installing quiet road surfaces, another method of reducing tire noise is the production of quiet car tires. There are several manufacturers that have developed such tires and successfully placed them on the market. In general, the comfort concept of tires is directly related to their loudness. One of the tire functions is to absorb impacts and dampen vibrations, which means that the tire is an element of the vehicle that ensures the travel comfort. Smaller wheels produce less noise. Basically, a smaller tire represents a smaller surface that adheres to the road and thus produces less noise. In addition to the size, the material from which the tire is made is also significant. There are softer types of rubber that also make less noise. Of course, one of the most important factors is the speed of driving. If one plans to drive at higher speeds, it makes sense to have tires with such performance. However, such tires are thicker and larger, thus creating more noise. Furthermore, weather conditions also play a key role in choosing tires. Tires selected for severe weather will create more noise due to certain safety aspects, i.e., the need to better adhere to the road surface. Tires selected for extreme weather conditions will make the highest noise level. According to their design, tires selected for city driving can make less noise. All of this logically implies that winter tires will make more noise than do summer tires.
\nTire manufacturers can produce tires that make less noise. There are already various models, especially the quietest summer tires, which are 4–6 dB(A) below the limit, and many of the newer winter models are also approaching the limit of 2 dB(A). These restrictions are determined by Regulation No. 117 United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)—Uniform requirements concerning the approval of tires regarding the emission of rolling sound and/or traction on rainy surfaces. The sound pressure levels generated by each tire size are shown in Table 2 (for reinforced tires (XL), the limits are higher by 1 dB(A)) [18].
\nTire size [inches] | \nSound pressure level [dB(A)] | \n
---|---|
<145 | \n72 | \n
145–165 | \n73 | \n
165–185 | \n74 | \n
185–215 | \n75 | \n
>215 | \n76 | \n
Table of decibels [18].
It can be concluded that noise can be limited by using modern quiet road surfaces which reduce its level from 3 to a maximum of 7 decibels. Unfortunately, such materials are usually 2.5 times more expensive than ordinary materials. Furthermore, noise can be reduced by using quieter tires by an additional 3–4 decibels; however the choice of tires depends on the preferences and habits of the driver. In the majority of cases, noise is reduced by speed limits on local roads and highways located near resident areas, and these restrictions are often even more restraining at night.
\nNoise pollution is a serious problem that affects the overall quality of life. This problem is especially noticeable in urban areas where a significant amount of noise pollution is produced by traffic. In this chapter the main traffic sources are described and analyzed. In addition to road, railway, and aircraft noise sources, other typical noise sources common for urban areas are also discussed. Bearing in mind the serious consequences of long-term exposure to noise, it is necessary to implement at least some measure to reduce noise levels. Today there are many initiatives and plans how to tackle this issue; however this chapter has focused on measures directly connected to traffic noise levels. In that sense, this type of noise reduction measures has been described and discussed in detail.
\nFurthermore, it can be concluded that education and some form of encouragement are needed to get the people more involved in the “fight” against noise and its negative impact. In this way, a kind of pressure would be created to set up the necessary city infrastructure (sensor networks), and finally the citizens would obtain a much-needed improvement of the quality of life in the environments in which they live.
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The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\n\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\n\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
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\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
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\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
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\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
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This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]},{id:"42566",doi:"10.5772/53706",title:"Challenges and Opportunities for Spark Plasma Sintering: A Key Technology for a New Generation of Materials",slug:"challenges-and-opportunities-for-spark-plasma-sintering-a-key-technology-for-a-new-generation-of-mat",totalDownloads:9109,totalCrossrefCites:97,totalDimensionsCites:207,abstract:null,book:{id:"3478",slug:"sintering-applications",title:"Sintering Applications",fullTitle:"Sintering Applications"},signatures:"M. Suárez, A. Fernández, J.L. Menéndez, R. 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Kessel",authors:[{id:"102383",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Suárez",slug:"marta-suarez",fullName:"Marta Suárez"},{id:"103822",title:"Dr.",name:"J.L",middleName:null,surname:"Menendez",slug:"j.l-menendez",fullName:"J.L Menendez"},{id:"103833",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Torrecillas",slug:"ramon-torrecillas",fullName:"Ramón Torrecillas"},{id:"162633",title:"Dr.",name:"Adolfo",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",slug:"adolfo-fernandez",fullName:"Adolfo Fernández"}]},{id:"23617",doi:"10.5772/24118",title:"Collagen- vs. Gelatine-Based Biomaterials and Their Biocompatibility: Review and Perspectives",slug:"collagen-vs-gelatine-based-biomaterials-and-their-biocompatibility-review-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:9373,totalCrossrefCites:60,totalDimensionsCites:196,abstract:null,book:{id:"1487",slug:"biomaterials-applications-for-nanomedicine",title:"Biomaterials",fullTitle:"Biomaterials Applications for Nanomedicine"},signatures:"Selestina Gorgieva and Vanja Kokol",authors:[{id:"55577",title:"Prof.",name:"Vanja",middleName:null,surname:"Kokol",slug:"vanja-kokol",fullName:"Vanja Kokol"},{id:"61285",title:"BSc",name:"Selestina",middleName:null,surname:"Gorgieva",slug:"selestina-gorgieva",fullName:"Selestina Gorgieva"}]},{id:"46243",doi:"10.5772/57255",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors – Principles, Mechanisms and Applications",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-principles-mechanisms-and-applications",totalDownloads:13621,totalCrossrefCites:40,totalDimensionsCites:156,abstract:null,book:{id:"3817",slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",fullTitle:"Developments in Corrosion Protection"},signatures:"Camila G. 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They are known as hydrous phyllosilicate having silica, alumina and water with variable amount of inorganic ions like Mg2+, Na+, Ca2+ which are found either in interlayer space or on the planetary surface. Clay minerals are described by presence of two-dimensional sheets, tetrahedral (SiO4) and octahedral (Al2O3). There are different clay minerals which are categorized based on presence of tetrahedral and octahedral layer in their structure like kaolinite (1:1 of tetrahedral and octahedral layers), smectite group of clay minerals (2:1 of tetrahedral and octahedral layers) and chlorite (2:1:1 of tetrahedral, octahedral and octahedral layers). The particle size of clay minerals is <2microns which can be present in form of plastic in presence of water and solidified when dried. The small size and their distinctive crystal structure make clay minerals very special with their unique properties including high cation exchange capacity, swelling behavior, specific surface area, adsorption capacity, etc. which are described in this chapter. Due to all these unique properties, clay minerals are gaining interest in different fields.",book:{id:"10949",slug:"clay-and-clay-minerals",title:"Clay and Clay Minerals",fullTitle:"Clay and Clay Minerals"},signatures:"Neeraj Kumari and Chandra Mohan",authors:[{id:"258132",title:"Dr.",name:"Chandra",middleName:null,surname:"Mohan",slug:"chandra-mohan",fullName:"Chandra Mohan"},{id:"352399",title:"Dr.",name:"Neeraj",middleName:null,surname:"Kumari",slug:"neeraj-kumari",fullName:"Neeraj Kumari"}]},{id:"51535",title:"An Introduction to Hydrogels and Some Recent Applications",slug:"an-introduction-to-hydrogels-and-some-recent-applications",totalDownloads:11460,totalCrossrefCites:61,totalDimensionsCites:125,abstract:"Hydrogels have existed for more than half a century, and today they have many applications in various processes ranging from industrial to biological. There are numerous original papers, reviews, and monographs focused on the synthesis, properties, and applications of hydrogels. 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Bioremediation is the most effective, economical, eco-friendly management tool to manage the polluted environment. All bioremediation techniques have its own advantage and disadvantage because it has its own specific applications.",book:{id:"9343",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",fullTitle:"Trace Metals in the Environment - New Approaches and Recent Advances"},signatures:"Indu Sharma",authors:[{id:"301262",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Indu",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"indu-sharma",fullName:"Indu Sharma"}]},{id:"18275",title:"Modeling and Identification of Parameters the Piezoelectric Transducers in Ultrasonic Systems",slug:"modeling-and-identification-of-parameters-the-piezoelectric-transducers-in-ultrasonic-systems",totalDownloads:9936,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"201",slug:"advances-in-ceramics-electric-and-magnetic-ceramics-bioceramics-ceramics-and-environment",title:"Advances in Ceramics",fullTitle:"Advances in Ceramics - Electric and Magnetic Ceramics, Bioceramics, Ceramics and Environment"},signatures:"Pawel Fabijanski and Ryszard Lagoda",authors:[{id:"13086",title:"Dr.",name:"Pawel",middleName:null,surname:"Fabijański",slug:"pawel-fabijanski",fullName:"Pawel Fabijański"}]},{id:"60680",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:15997,totalCrossrefCites:164,totalDimensionsCites:356,abstract:"The environment and its compartments have been severely polluted by heavy metals. This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"14",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81825",title:"Quantification of Heavy Metal Levels in Sediments of the “Palizada” River in a Protected Natural Area of Southeastern Mexico",slug:"quantification-of-heavy-metal-levels-in-sediments-of-the-palizada-river-in-a-protected-natural-area-",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104657",abstract:"This chapter shows the results of the determination of the levels of Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Magnesium (Mg), Manganese (Mn), and Cadmium (Cd) in sediments of the “Palizada River”; evaluated by atomic absorption. The results show high levels of Fe, Mg, and Mn concerning previous studies and are directly related to agricultural and livestock activities in the area. The metal-metal correlation analysis show significant values, suggesting that the generation source is the same. Some of the pollutants produced by industrial or population centers; end up in natural water bodies; by different physical processes, such as precipitation, complex formation, and others. These contaminants can bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms and reach humans through the food chain. Certain heavy metals such as cadmium (Cd) produced by human activities have been found in the oceans and the tissues of different organisms; which constitutes a risk for consumption; Cd is classified as an element that predisposes to the presence of Cancer. Therefore, the study of sediments is fundamental for determining the degree of contamination of an ecosystem.",book:{id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg"},signatures:"Carlos Montalvo, Claudia A. Aguilar, Yunuen Canedo, Alejandro Ruiz, Brenda Zermeño, Ruby S. Gines and Rosa M. Cerón"},{id:"81461",title:"Fiber Inclusions-Based Epoxy Composites and Their Applications",slug:"fiber-inclusions-based-epoxy-composites-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104118",abstract:"Because of their low cost, lightweight, easy production methods, and design flexibility, polymer-based composites are widely employed in a wide range of applications. Because of its high specific strength, superior mechanical characteristics, super adhesiveness, heat and solvent resistance, and so on, epoxy polymer or polyepoxide represent a significant majority of matrix composites. As a result, fiber fillers-reinforced epoxy resin composites have been investigated for a variety of applications, including high-tech in the ballistic, aircraft, automobile, construction, and sports sectors. In this chapter, the manufacturing procedures of fiber-reinforced epoxy composites have been described. Different categories of fiber are used as fillers in an epoxy matrix and their morphology is discussed as a function of the obtained properties.",book:{id:"11123",title:"Epoxy-Based Composites",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11123.jpg"},signatures:"Nassima Radouane and Abdelkrim Maaroufi"},{id:"81727",title:"Nanoparticle Based Collagen Biomaterials for Wound Healing",slug:"nanoparticle-based-collagen-biomaterials-for-wound-healing",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104851",abstract:"Wounds and infections are extremely common cases that are dealt with in the medical field. Their effective and timely treatment ensures the overall well-being of patients in general. Current treatments include the use of collagen scaffolds and other biomaterials for tissue regeneration. Although the use of collagenous biomaterials has been tested, the incorporation of nanoparticles into these collagenous biomaterials is a fairly new field, whose possibilities are yet to be explored and discovered. The current chapter explores the applications of the amalgamation of collagenous biomaterials with nanoparticles, which themselves are known to be effective in the treatment and prevention of infections.",book:{id:"10945",title:"Collagen Biomaterial",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10945.jpg"},signatures:"Kausalya Neelavara Makkithaya, Sharmila Nadumane, Guan-Yu Zhuo, Sanjiban Chakrabarty and Nirmal Mazumder"},{id:"81726",title:"Design and Fabrication of Microencapsulated Phase Change Materials for Energy/Thermal Energy Storage and Other Versatile Applications",slug:"design-and-fabrication-of-microencapsulated-phase-change-materials-for-energy-thermal-energy-storage",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102806",abstract:"Microencapsulated phase change materials have been considered as potential candidates to overcome the global energy shortage, as these materials can provide a viable method for storing thermal energy and offering consistent energy management by controllable heat release in desirable environments. Microencapsulation technology offers a method for overcoming the trouble associated with the handling of solid–liquid phase change materials (PCMs) via encapsulating PCMs with thin or tiny shells which are known as ‘microcapsules’. Microcapsule shells not only keep PCMs isolated from the surrounding materials but also provide a stable structure and sufficient surface for PCMs to enhance heat transfer. Thus microencapsulation technology received remarkable attention from fundamental studies to industrial growth in recent years. In order to provide a reliable source of information on recent progress and development in microencapsulated PCMs, this chapter emphases on methods and techniques for the encapsulation of PCMs with a diversity of shell materials from traditional organic polymers to novel inorganic materials to pursue high encapsulation efficiency, excellent thermal energy-storage performance and long-term operation durability. The chapter also highlights the design of bi- and multi-functional PCM-based microcapsules by fabricating various functional shells in a multilayered structure to meet the growing demand for versatile applications.",book:{id:"11077",title:"Microencapsulation - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications of Smart Microcapsules",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11077.jpg"},signatures:"Tahira Mahmood, Rahmat Ali and Abdul Naeem"},{id:"81709",title:"New-Age Al-Cu-Mn-Zr (ACMZ) Alloy for High Temperature-High Strength Applications: A Review",slug:"new-age-al-cu-mn-zr-acmz-alloy-for-high-temperature-high-strength-applications-a-review",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104533",abstract:"One of the prime challenges with age hardened Al-Cu alloys is the strength degradation at high temperatures (above ∼250°C) due to the coarsening of strengthening θ′ precipitates and associated metastable θ′ → stable θ phase transformation. A recent discovery suggests that micro-alloying with Manganese (Mn) and Zirconium (Zr) can synergistically restrict θ′ precipitate coarsening, thereby rendering an excellent high temperature stability for Al-Cu-Mn-Zr (ACMZ) alloys. The θ′ precipitates are stabilized primarily from the reduction of interfacial energy by preferential solute segregation (Mn & Zr) at θ′ precipitate/α-Al matrix interfaces. The Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys thereby exhibit excellent high temperature hardness and tensile properties (yield and ultimate tensile strength) in addition to superior fatigue life and creep resistance. This newly developed Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys also showed excellent hot tearing resistance compared to the conventional cast Al-Cu alloys so much so that it meets the industrial standards as well. These alloys also have promising manufacturing possibility by additive route. Overall, Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys offer great potential for the automotive industry because of their unprecedented high temperature performance which should enable engineers to build light weight passenger vehicles leading to a safer and greener environment.",book:{id:"10847",title:"Aluminium Alloys - Design and Development of Innovative Alloys, Manufacturing Processes and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10847.jpg"},signatures:"Samarendra Roy and Shibayan Roy"},{id:"81716",title:"Groove Shape Optimization on Dry Gas Seals",slug:"groove-shape-optimization-on-dry-gas-seals",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103088",abstract:"In this paper, a topological optimum design for the shape of a groove in a dry gas seal is described. Dry gas seals are widely used in high speed and high pressure rotating machinery such as gas turbines, compressors, and so on because of their high reliability compared to other types of seals. However, recent requirements for reducing emission with further control of leakage are in order. With this background, we propose applying topological optimization to the groove shape in a dry gas seal to reduce its leakage while keeping its stiffness for safe operation. First, the method of topological optimum design as applied to the groove of a dry gas seal is explained via numerical analysis. Next, results of the topological optimization are shown via categorizing an optimum shape map. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"26",type:"subseries",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",slug:"ciza-thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/43680/images/system/43680.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government of Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"16614",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Alonso",slug:"juan-ignacio-guerrero-alonso",fullName:"Juan Ignacio Guerrero Alonso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6HB8QAM/Profile_Picture_1627901127555",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3095/images/1592_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"214067",title:"Dr.",name:"W. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. 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