\r\n\tEven though video surveillance systems have been part an integral part of the public and security sectors for decades, there is a significant interest in them outside of those industries. This interest is largely due to increased crime rates and security threats all around the globe, which are driving a continuous growth of the video surveillance market. According to a recent report, the video surveillance market was valued at $29.98 billion in 2016 and is expected to reach a value of $72.19 billion by 2022. This market potential is also propelled by recent advances in Artificial Intelligence and Computer Vision research fields—boosting the intelligence, scalability, and accuracy of intelligent video surveillance solutions.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book's goal is to provide a game-changing and cross-disciplinary forum that brings together experts from academia, industry, and government to advance the frontiers of theories, methods, systems, and applications.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-342-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-341-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-343-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4d13a124dd9eb965b2e6958786b710cb",bookSignature:"Dr. Pier Luigi Mazzeo",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11548.jpg",keywords:"Hardware and Software Architectures, Privacy in Surveillance, Cybersecurity for Surveillance, Biometrics, Activity and Interaction Analysis, Cognitive Dynamic Systems and Bio-Inspired Methods, Human-Computer Interfaces, Visualization Algorithms, Classification and Recognition, Sensors, Communications and Networked Sensing, Distributed Camera Networks and Smart Cameras",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 17th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 17th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 16th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 4th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 3rd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Artificial Intelligence and Computer Vision enthusiastic researcher at Institute of Applied Science and Intelligent Systems in Lecce (Italy) with more than one hundred publications in his referred research fields.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"17191",title:"Dr.",name:"Pier Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Mazzeo",slug:"pier-luigi-mazzeo",fullName:"Pier Luigi Mazzeo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/17191/images/system/17191.jpeg",biography:"Pier Luigi Mazzeo obtained an MSc in Computer Science from the University of Salento, Lecce, Italy, in 2001. Since then, he has been working on several research topics regarding artificial intelligence and computer vision. Dr. Mazzeo joined the Italian National Research Council of Italy (CNR) as a researcher\nin 2002. He is currently involved in projects for algorithms for video object tracking, face detection and recognition, facial expression recognition, deep neural networks, and machine learning. He has authored and co-authored 100 publications, including more than fifteen papers published in international journals and book chapters. He has also co-authored five national and international patents. Dr. Mazzeo acts as a reviewer for several international journals and for some book publishers. He has been regularly invited to take part in the scientific committees of national and international conferences.",institutionString:"Italian National Research Council",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444315",firstName:"Karla",lastName:"Skuliber",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444315/images/20013_n.jpg",email:"karla@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8725",title:"Visual Object Tracking with Deep Neural Networks",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e0ba384ed4b4e61f042d5147c97ab168",slug:"visual-object-tracking-with-deep-neural-networks",bookSignature:"Pier Luigi Mazzeo, Srinivasan Ramakrishnan and Paolo Spagnolo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8725.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"17191",title:"Dr.",name:"Pier Luigi",surname:"Mazzeo",slug:"pier-luigi-mazzeo",fullName:"Pier Luigi Mazzeo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10390",title:"Deep Learning Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5cc6cd7972551be6cfc4d3c87bf8fb5c",slug:"deep-learning-applications",bookSignature:"Pier Luigi Mazzeo and Paolo Spagnolo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10390.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"17191",title:"Dr.",name:"Pier Luigi",surname:"Mazzeo",slug:"pier-luigi-mazzeo",fullName:"Pier Luigi Mazzeo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"64223",title:"The Adult with Coarctation of the Aorta",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79865",slug:"the-adult-with-coarctation-of-the-aorta",body:'\nCoarctation of the aorta is a congenital cardiac defect. It usually manifests as a discrete constriction of the aortic isthmus. However, it is more likely to represent a spectrum of aortic narrowing from this discrete entity to tubular hypoplasia, with many variations seen in between these two extremes. Morphologists argue that tubular hypoplasia, although it may coexist with discrete coarctation, should be considered as a separate entity [1]. On rare occasions there can be a gap between the ascending and descending thoracic aorta, known as an interrupted aortic arch. Interventions can be required as an infant however procedures may be needed later in life for native coarctation or patients with recurrent coarctation. The presence of associated arch hypoplasia is relevant to longer term risk for the development of hypertension so in addition to re-coarctation, these patients are at increased risk for developing other comorbidities and should have lifelong follow up care.
\nCoarctation of the aorta (CoA) is the fifth most common congenital heart defect, accounting for 6–8% of live births with congenital heart disease, with an estimated incidence of 1 in 2500 births [2, 3, 4, 5]. It affects more male babies than female, with a reported ratio in males of between 1.27:1 and 1.74:1 [6, 7]. Patients with CoA can have other defects like atrial septal defect (ASD), ventricular septal defect (VSD), atrioventricular canal defect (AVCD), bicuspid aortic valve (BAV), transposition of great arteries (TGA), patent ductus arteriosus (PDA), hypoplastic left heart syndrome. CoA often coexists with other left heart obstructive lesions like mitral stenosis, subaortic stenosis and aortic stenosis. About 50–60% patients with coarctation of the aorta or interrupted aortic arch have a BAV [8]. Compared to right-sided lesions, left-sided cardiac obstructions are more frequently seen in males than female [2]. One genetic condition noted to be associated with an increased risk of having coarctation of the aorta (12–35%) is Turner syndrome [9]. Lastly, the etiology of CoA is not well understood and thought to be affected by various factors including a genetic component, environmental factors, and arteriopathy.
\nThe etiology of the discrete isthmic constriction of the aorta seen in patients with CoA remains controversial and is thought to be multifactorial. Although the precise pathogenesis is unknown, the two theories for the development of congenital coarctation of the aorta have been postulated: reduced antegrade intrauterine blood flow causing underdevelopment of the fetal aortic arch [10] and migration or extension of ductal tissue into the wall of the fetal thoracic aorta [11]. Histologic examination of localized aortic coarctation lesions has demonstrated the presence of a tissue ridge extending from the posterior aortic wall and protruding into aortic lumen. This ridge consists of ductal tissue with in-folding of the aortic media [12]. Prenatal environmental exposures have been associated with CoA and other left-sided lesions. However, there is a growing body of literature that suggests a genetic basis for development of these lesions [13]. There has been evidence of genetic contribution to CoA [14, 15]. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) plays a vital role in aortic development, acting as a chemo-attractant, stimulating angioblast migration toward the midline before formation of the aorta. Indeed, targeted disruption of VEGF in mice leads to significant disruption of the developing aorta [16]. Whether an initial mutation leads to secondary effects on VEGF or on other signaling systems involved in recruiting mural cells in fetuses, leading to CoA, is unknown. An increase in collagen and decrease in smooth muscle content of the pre-coarctation aorta in humans has been demonstrated in comparison to post-coarctation aorta or to proximal aorta of young transplant donors [17]. Recently, mutations in the NOTCH1 gene have been identified in individuals with left ventricular outflow tract malformation, including coarctation [18]. Up to 18–30% of patients with Turner syndrome have coarctation [19]. Genetic testing for Turner syndrome (i.e., karyotype analysis) should therefore be performed in female patients diagnosed with coarctation of the aorta [20, 21]. Mechanical models have suggested that abnormalities of blood flow, defective endothelial cell migration, and excessive deposition of aortic duct tissue at the aortic isthmus can result in coarctation [22]. Epidemiological studies have found that for left ventricular outflow tract lesions, there is a higher chance of concordant diagnosis in multiple family members [23]. The co-existence of CoA with other left heart obstructive pathologies like aortic stenosis and hypoplastic left heart syndrome suggests that there could be a common pathogenic mechanism at a molecular level [24, 25]. Williams syndrome, a congenital and multisystem genetic disorder, has been associated with supravalvular aortic stenosis. Aortic arch abnormalities, including coarctation, are present in 10% of patients with Williams syndrome [26]. Coarctation can also be present in congenital cardiovascular anomalies involving multiple left-sided lesions, including Shone syndrome and hypoplastic left heart syndrome [22]. Environmental factors could also play a role in the incidence of CoA since there is increase CoA rate along the US-Mexico border [27]. Seasonal variations have been reported in the incidence of CoA we well [28].
\nThe link between intracranial aneurysms and CoA was described well before the surgical era, accounting for 5% deaths in patients with aortic coarctation on autopsy review [29]. Most of the aneurysms described are small, and therefore have a low risk of spontaneous rupture. Currently the benefits of routine screening for intracranial aneurysms in coarctation remain unclear [22].
\nAlthough most patients have a discrete narrowing of the descending aorta at the insertion of the ductus arteriosus, there is a spectrum of aortic narrowing that encompasses the usual discrete thoracic lesions, long-segmental defects, tubular hypoplasia, and, rarely, coarctation located in the abdominal aorta. In simple terms, coarctation is characterized by discrete narrowing of the thoracic aorta adjacent to the ligamentum arteriosum. Importantly, discrete coarctation is an aortopathy that lies within a spectrum of arch abnormalities ranging from discrete narrowing to a long segment of arch hypoplasia. Morphologically it appears as a localized shelf in the posterolateral aortic wall. There are some anatomic variations of coarctation. It maybe appear as (a) discrete narrowing (b) tubular hypoplasia of any part of the arch or (c) aortic arch interruption [30]. CoA has also been described as a diffuse arteriopathy with abnormalities in the elastic properties of the aorta. Increase in collagen and decreases in smooth muscle component of the pre-coarctation aorta have been reported [31].
\nAlthough CoA can be an isolated CHD, it is also commonly found in other congenital syndromes and cardiovascular anomalies. Thus, deliberate investigation for the presence of coarctation should be made in these patients. The most common cardiovascular malformation associated with CoA is BAV. Prior autopsy examination showed 46% of patients with CoA have congenital BAV [32]. The relative frequency of associated cardiac lesions in patients with CoA differs somewhat based upon the age of the population studies. Adult patients with CoA evaluated with magnetic resonance imaging, 17% had no additional cardiovascular anomalies however, in this cohort, BAV, arch hypoplasia, VSD, and PDA were detected in 60, 14, 13, and 7% of patients, respectively [33]. The coincidence of BAV and CoA is difficult to determine, because BAV is very common and not everyone is screened for the presence of coarctation.
\nThe clinical presentation of coarctation differs significantly in pediatric patients in comparison with adults. Although infants with severe coarctation may present with signs and symptoms of heart failure and cardiogenic shock as the ductus closes, most adults with unrepaired coarctation are generally asymptomatic. A common presentation of coarctation is systemic arterial hypertension. The causes of hypertension in this cohort of patients are not fully understood, but malfunction in a number of individual systems have been implicated, including imbalance within the autonomic nervous system [34], impaired vascular function [35, 36] and hyperactivation of the rennin–angiotensin system [37, 38]. It is likely that more than one of these systems is involved. In young adults presenting with severe upper extremity hypertension, coarctation should be excluded. Patients presenting with severe hypertension may experience symptoms including angina, headache, epistaxis, and heart failure [22]. Coarctation causes upper extremity hypertension, which leads to systemic hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy. There have been several mechanisms proposed for hypertension in patients with coarctation, which include reduced arterial compliance, blunted baroreceptor sensitivity and endothelial dysfunction [39]. Age at repair is an important determinant of developing late hypertension. Patients who get the repair in infancy have less than 5% chance of developing hypertension by early adulthood, whereas those operated on after the age of one have a 25–33% chance of developing hypertension [40, 41, 42]. Late hypertension is associated with residual or recurrent obstruction. Despite the variability in blood pressure in the upper and lower extremities, regional blood flow is generally maintained within normal limits by autoregulatory vasoconstriction in the hypertensive areas and by vasodilation in the hypotensive areas [43]. Nonetheless some patients with satisfactory repair can still develop late hypertension due to vascular dysfunction [44]. In a systemic review of literature, the median prevalence of late hypertension after satisfactory repair was reported to be 32% with a range of 25–68% [45]. Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring can help in early diagnosis of late hypertension [46]. Patients with coarctation remain at a high risk of developing complications like premature coronary atherosclerosis, cerebrovascular events, left ventricular systolic dysfunction and endocarditis. With early repair, timely recognition of late hypertension and treatment of risk factors, the overall survival has improved. However, the life expectancy of these individuals is not as normal as the unaffected peers [47].
\nIn full term newborns one of the important causes of congestive heart failure is aortic coarctation. Beyond the neonatal period most patients are asymptomatic and present with difficult to control hypertension in later years. In previously undiagnosed adults, the classic presenting sign is hypertension. Older patients might complain of headaches, leg fatigue with exercise and cold extremities. As mentioned previously, coarctation can be a part of syndromes like Turner syndrome, Williams Syndrome or Shone’s complex. Almost 50% of the cases are associated with BAV. Other associated abnormalities include intracranial aneurysms (most commonly of the circle of Willis) in 2–10% case and acquired intercostal artery aneurysms [30]. Data on the natural history of coarctation of the aorta are largely derived from hospital postmortem records and from case series prior to the availability of operative repair that was first done in 1945 [48]. The average survival age of individuals with unoperated coarctation was approximately 35 years of age, with 75% mortality by 46 years of age [49]. Common complications in unoperated patients or in those operated on during later childhood or adulthood were systemic hypertension, accelerated coronary artery disease, stroke, aortic dissection, and heart failure. Causes of death include heart failure, aortic rupture, aortic dissection, endocarditis, endarteritis, intra-cerebral hemorrhage, and myocardial infarction [48, 50]. Patients with an associated BAV may also develop significant aortic stenosis, aortic regurgitation, and dilated ascending aorta from myxomatous degeneration of the medial wall of the aorta.
\nCoarctation of the aorta and associated lesions, particularly BAV, aortic stenosis, and ascending aorta dilation should be evaluated before pregnancy for appropriate counseling and advice. Rarely the first manifestation is during pregnancy. In the absence of hemodynamically significant stenotic lesion, pregnancy is well tolerated in patients with repaired aortic coarctation. However there is a greater propensity of developing hypertension during pregnancy [51]. Outcome of pregnancy in patients after repair of aortic coarctation have been reported over the last decade [52]. During pregnancy and delivery, there were no serious cardiovascular complications. Hypertension alone was reported in 21 pregnancies in 14 women, and preeclampsia in 5 pregnancies in 4 women. In another study, serious complications were uncommon in women with a hemodynamically significant gradient (≥20 mmHg) after repair [53]. These women were more likely to have systemic hypertension related to the increased coarctation gradient. However, there are case reports of aortic rupture or dissection that occur with pregnancy after coarctation repair due to the hemodynamic and aortic medial changes of pregnancy, which remain rare.
\nOn physical examination, femoral arterial pulses are diminished and usually delayed. Rarely, claudication may be reported because of lower extremity ischemia. Auscultation of the left sternal border may demonstrate a harsh systolic murmur with radiation to the back. An associated thrill may be palpable in the suprasternal notch. If left ventricular pressure or volume overload have developed, a left ventricular lift can be present. The finding of a continuous murmur may suggest the presence of arterial collaterals in those with long-standing unrepaired significant coarctation [22].
\nIf aortic coarctation is suspected blood pressure should be measured in both arms and legs in supine position. Normally BP in the lower extremities is 10–20% higher than the upper extremities due to wave amplification. If BP in the leg is lower than the arm BP by 10 mmHg or more then coarctation should be suspected. A pressure gradient of 35 mmHg or greater is considered highly specific for coarctation [54]. The presence of collateral vessels may diminish the pressure gradient. Arterial pulsations from collaterals to the intercostal and interscapular arteries can also be palpated. In patients with suspected coarctation, it is important to assess for systolic blood pressure discrepancy between upper and lower extremities. The upper extremity systolic blood pressure is usually 20 mmHg higher than the lower extremities in patients with significant coarctation. In rare instances of coarctation patients with concomitant anomalous subclavian artery origin distal to the coarctation, systolic blood pressure differences may not be detected between ipsilateral arm and legs. On auscultation a continuous murmur of aortoaortic collateral arteries would be audible in the interscapular space. Simultaneous palpitation of radial and femoral artery might reveal a delay or absence of the femoral pulse.
\nThe electrocardiogram of a patient with coarctation may be normal or demonstrate evidence of left ventricular hypertrophy from chronic left ventricular pressure overload. On chest radiograph, a “figure of three” sign formed by the aortic nob, the stenotic segment, and the dilated post stenotic segment of the aorta suggests CoA. The heart border can be normal or mildly enlarged. Inferior rib notching can also be seen in the third to eighth ribs bilaterally caused by the presence of dilated intercostal collateral arteries [22, 30].
\nTransthoracic echocardiography is the most accessible and the main stay for the practicing physician. A comprehensive echocardiogram is recommended in the initial evaluation of a patient with repaired or suspected CoA. In addition to characterization of the coarctation itself, it is important to evaluate for evidence of left ventricular pressure or volume overload, left ventricular hypertrophy, size, and left ventricular systolic and diastolic dysfunction. Particular attention should be placed in identifying associated cardiac defects especially left-sided lesions. The morphology of the aortic valve, and evidence of subvalvular, valvular, and supravalvular aortic stenosis should be interrogated. The dimensions of the aortic root and ascending aorta can be followed serially to assess for associated aortopathy. Suprasternal windows are important to view the aortic arch from the long-axis view, in two-dimensional imaging and by color flow Doppler. Visualization of the aortic arch in the long axis may demonstrate a focal area of narrowing of the thoracic aorta distal to the takeoff of the left subclavian artery with associated flow turbulence on color flow Doppler.
\nCoarctation is imaged from the high left parasternal views with lateral angulation of the probe toward the left shoulder. The suprasternal notch view is used for obtaining Doppler gradient (Figures 1 and 2). Subcostal imaging is used to evaluate the distal thoracic and upper abdominal aorta. The stenotic segment may be discrete, segmental or long therefore the entire aortic arch should be imaged particularly the origin of the left subclavian artery as in transverse arch hypoplasia the distance between the origin of the left common carotid artery and left subclavian artery may be increased. Low frequency imaging and harmonic imaging can improve the image quality.
\n2D transthoracic echo imaging showing coarctation of the aorta distal to the left subclavian artery.
Pulse wave doppler profile through the coarctation segment demonstrating a pressure gradient.
On doppler imaging color flow aliasing would be seen at and beyond the narrow segment. Systolic velocity in the descending aorta is increased. If transverse arch hypoplasia is present the proximal velocity increases as well therefore the systolic pressure gradient should be calculated with the expanded Bernoulli equation 4 (V22-V12) [55, 56]. In severe cases there is a gradient during both systole and diastole across the stenosis, which results in the classic saw tooth pattern. The presence of collateral arteries can cause doppler to underestimate the severity of obstruction [57]. Some of the other factors, which can affect the Doppler gradient, include severe obstruction, long tortuous vessels or eccentric gradient. Yet with long-standing coarctation, significant collaterals may have developed thereby reducing the peak systolic gradient across the site of stenosis. A saw-tooth pattern seen on continuous-wave Doppler reflects the persistent forward flow in diastole because of diastolic run-off. Higher gradient across the coarctation and longer duration of diastolic forward flow in the thoracic aorta suggest more significant coarctation [22].
\nIn the absence of proximal obstruction when the pulse wave doppler is placed in the abdominal aorta, the wave form shows a rapid systolic upstroke, short deceleration time, followed by a brief early diastolic flow reversal and little anterograde flow throughout diastole. In the presence of coarctation there is loss of early diastolic flow reversal, which is highly sensitive for detection of upstream obstruction. The systolic velocity is blunted, there is continuous anterograde flow and increased diastolic flow velocity. If the delay between R wave on ECG and peak velocity of the abdominal aorta is >50 ms it is associated with coarctation [58].
\nMagnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the most comprehensive method of evaluating coarctation of the aorta. MRI does not expose the patients to ionizing radiations, which is an important consideration for young patients who would have to undergo serial imaging. Cardiac MRI (cMRI) has become a valuable noninvasive modality to assess patients with unrepaired and repaired coarctation. In adults with suboptimal echocardiographic imaging window, cMRI can be used to characterize the aortic valve, aortic root, left ventricular size, and function. cMRI, along with gadolinium-enhanced magnetic resonance angiography, provides excellent resolution of cardiac anatomy and vascular structures. Compared with echocardiography, cMRI demonstrates superior visualization of the aortic arch with precise characterization of the location and extent of coarctation, and assessment of the presence and extent of collateral vessels. n the unrepaired patient, the measured minimum aortic cross-sectional area and heart rate–corrected deceleration time in the descending aorta can be used to predict a significant gradient by cardiac catheterization [59] and future need for interventions. cMRI provides exceptional visualization of the aortic arch and detection of post repair complications including arch “kinking” and pseudoaneurysms. Thoracic aortic magnetic resonance angiography also provides assessment of post stenotic dilation or aneurysmal formation at the site of a previous repair. Importantly, the lack of ionizing radiation provides an advantage of cMRI over CT, in the serial evaluation of late complications after repair [22, 59].
\nA stack of half-Fourier acquisition single shot turbo spin-echo (HASTE) images of the mediastinum are acquired in transverse, coronal and oblique sagittal plane parallel to the plane of the aortic arch. These provide dark blood images, which give anatomical overview of the coarctation. Black blood images are less susceptible to artifact from metallic objects. For evaluation of left ventricular function and mass a stack of steady state free precession (SSFP) cine images is acquired in the left ventricular short axis plane. Long axis cine images are acquired in the four, two and three chamber planes. SSFP cine images are then performed through the aortic root in the plane of the aortic valve, the aortic arch and the region of the aortic isthmus. Phase contrast flow imaging is performed to quantify the flow volumes and velocity [60].
\nWith phase contrast imaging the degree of collateral flow can be determined. The flow volume is assessed in the aorta just proximal to the stenosis and then at the level of the diaphragm. Usually there is a 7% decrease in total flow from proximal to distal aorta, if there is increase in flow by 5% or more, it is highly indicative of collateral flow joining the descending aorta [61]. Four-dimensional flow MR imaging is an emerging tool to evaluate hemodynamic significance of collateral blood flow (Figure 3) [62].
\n(A) 2D echo with color flow doppler showing severe narrowing of the proximal descending aorta with significant turbulence and a peak velocity of 4.8 m/s consistent with severe aortic coarctation. (B) Doppler tracing shows delay in return to baseline in diastole (diastolic drag) and blunting of the abdominal aortic doppler pattern consistent with significant aortic coarctation.
Although cMRI is the preferred mode of serial follow-up for patients after coarctation repair, the use of cardiovascular CT may be considered in selected patients. In particular, cMRI in patients with transcatheter stents may have susceptibility artifact precluding accurate assessment of late complications associated with these interventions. With cMRI, metallic artifact can lead to difficulty in the assessment of vessel lumen patency, identifying restenosis, aneurysm, or stent fracture [22]. Use of CT obviates concerns about metallic artifact impairing accurate assessment of stented segments of the aorta. Other advantages of cardiac CT over cMRI include improved image resolution, shorter scan time, and greater availability [22]. CTA is also used to assess concomitant coronary anomalies that may not be well visualized with cMRI. Patients with pacemakers or implantable cardioverter defibrillators that are not cMRI compatible may benefit from surveillance with cardiovascular CTA. Similar to cMRI, cardiovascular CT can be performed to image the coarctation segment, any aneurysmal dilation distal to the coarctation segment, recoarctation post repair, (Figures 4–7), hypoplasia of the aortic arch, follow serial aortic dimensions and can also show associated vascular anomalies such as double superior vena cava or aberrant great vessels. Collateral vessel formation can also be visualized with CTA. The main disadvantage of CTA is radiation exposure, therefore dose-saving algorithms are very important in reducing radiation exposure for patients (Figures 8–11).
\n3D reconstruction (CT angiogram) showing discrete segment of CoA and mild dilatation of the descending thoracic aorta distal to coarctation segment.
CT angiogram sagittal view of discrete coarctation segment distal to the left subclavian artery.
CT angiogram showing recurrent CoA.
CT 3D reconstruction of the aorta postsurgical repair of CoA.
Cardiac MRI of interrupted aortic arch Type A status post a vascular jump graft resulting in a C-shaped appearance of the distal arch and multiple areas of stenosis now with a 20 mm extra-anatomic bypass graft from the mid ascending aorta to the distal descending aorta at the level of the diaphragm. The last picture in this figure shows a three dimensional (3D) reconstructed image of the graft.
Invasive angiogram showing Type A interruption of the aorta.
Angiography demonstrating stent placement in a patient with coarctation of the aorta.
CT angiogram showing Type A interruption of the aortic arch.
In 2008, the American College of Cardiology and American Heart Association (ACC/AHA) guidelines for adults with congenital heart disease recommended intervention for coarctation for the following indications:
Peak to peak coarctation gradient ≥20 mmHg. The peak to peak gradient is a measurement derived from catheterization data in which the peak pressure beyond the coarctation is subtracted from the peak pressure proximal to the coarctation.
Peak to peak coarctation gradient <20 mmHg with anatomic imaging evidence of significant coarctation and radiologic evidence of significant collateral flow [49, 50].
Systemic hypertension, accelerated coronary heart disease, stroke, aortic dissection, and heart failure are common complications in adults who have not undergone correction for their coarctation or were operated on later in life [49]. Coarctation repair after early childhood does not prevent persistence or late recurrence of systemic hypertension. As a result, correction of coarctation should be performed in infancy or early childhood to prevent the development of chronic systemic hypertension [42]. If coarctation escapes early detection, repair should be performed at the time of subsequent diagnosis if clinically indicated. Management with antihypertensive medications is important to prevent long-term complications [2]. According to guidelines, the first line medications in the treatment of hypertension in patients with CoA are angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, angiotensin-receptor blockers (ARB), and beta blockers (BB) [50]. Hypertension can be treated with medical management, but coarctation or recoarctation of the aorta need to be repaired either percutaneously or surgically [47, 63]. Choosing one intervention over another depends on the individual patient and should be done in collaboration with an interdisciplinary team including an adult congenital heart disease (ACHD) cardiologist, interventionalist and surgeon with training in ACHD. For example, patients with a long segment of coarctation of the aorta, complex arch anatomy, or with interruption of the aorta are more likely to need open-heart surgery as opposed to a transcatheter intervention [64, 65].
\nIn the mid-1900s, repair of coarctation of the aorta was entirely surgical. Balloon angioplasty is a percutaneous alternative to surgical repair for older infants and young children (greater than 4 months) with native discrete coarctation. It remains the preferred intervention for all patients with isolated recoarctation regardless of age [49, 66]. However, stent placement has replaced balloon angioplasty as the procedure of choice in older children and adults with native coarctation [66]. Currently, balloon dilatation and stenting remain the transcatheter interventions that can be used for the treatment of CoA [63, 67]. Although balloon angioplasty was the treatment of choice for discrete native coarctation in adults in the past, most centers currently perform stent implantation for older children and adults with native discrete or long-segment coarctation. Through-out the years, continuous advancements in technology and catheter-based techniques have made a variety of percutaneous intervention possibilities available. Improvements in the field have allowed interventions to evolve from balloon angioplasty to endovascular stents to covered stents. The patients who underwent balloon angioplasty were noted to develop residual or recurrent stenosis, aneurysms and dissections or femoral artery complications including occlusion [68]. Stenting, on the other hand, have been shown to be superior to balloon dilatation in relieving the aortic coarctation, with less recurrent narrowing of the aorta, as well as having a smaller amount of complications. Studies have shown that balloon angioplasty and surgical correction are equally effective in reducing the peak systolic pressure gradient early after intervention [69]. The development of covered stents has helped decrease the number of problems associated with injury to the aortic wall and have allowed providers to avoid surgical interventions for aneurysms [2]. Overall, the repair of complex coarctation of the aorta with stents has been shown to be safe with improvements in outcomes [70]. Bare metal stents may be sufficient in many, if not most, patients that undergo stent placement and that further research is needed to determine if there is a subset of patients who truly benefit from the implantation of a covered versus bare stent. Follow-up data will also be important to see if there is a long-term benefit regarding maintaining normal blood pressure using covered stents. Stenting may be less successful in patients with suboptimal anatomy with vessel tortuosity and transverse arch hypoplasia [71]. For these patients, the decision to perform stent placement versus surgical correction must be made on a case-by-case decision by the clinical team.
\nResection and direct end-to-end anastomosis or subclavian flap arterioplasty are the most commonly used techniques for the treatment of CoA in the infantile period because anatomic conditions are more favorable. Subclavian flap arterioplasty and patch graft aortoplasty have been developed as an alternative to resection and direct end-to-end anastomosis in which more than one-half of patients experience late-onset re-coarctation problems [72]. However, CoA in adolescents and adults is often complicated with the occurrence of associated comorbidities like aortic aneurysms, dissections, aortic valve disease, and other cardiovascular diseases. Studies actually show that having a BAV is a risk factor for mortality [73]. This is most likely because BAV have been associated with aortic insufficiency and stenosis in addition to dilatation and dissection of the aorta resulting in a potential need for open heart surgery. In a retrospective study of patients with CoA undergoing surgical interventions, aortic aneurysm or dissection and disease of the aortic valve were the most common comorbidities. Within this cohort, 38% had a BAV [72]. Patients with CoA who have left ventricular dysfunction and a brachial-ankle gradient of 20 mmHg or greater have also shown to be at risk for significant cardiovascular events [47]. Earlier, CoA was evaluated as the localization anomaly of the aorta; however, it is currently considered as part of a broad-spectrum pathology. The main goal of surgical treatment in CoA is the removal of stenosis. The surgical technique is selected according to the length of the coarcted segment, localization with the ductus, status of the collateral circulation in the distal aorta, and atherosclerotic alterations in the aortic wall [72]. The resection and graft interposition were first described by Gross in 1951 [74, 75]. This technique is not suitable for pediatric patients, because it restricts the development of the aorta. However, bypass grafting is an appropriate technique particularly for patients with aneurysms, long-segment coarctation or post-recovery aneurysms, and adult patients with diffuse collateral circulation and coarctations. Therefore, artificial bypass grafting was preferred in these patients to prevent complications (i.e., spinal cord complications, bleeding, and aneurysm development) during and after surgery [76]. Prosthetic patch aortoplasty is avoided whenever possible because of the frequent occurrence of aortic aneurysm or rupture [77]. When surgical repair of the coarctation is done at a later age, the possibility of these cardiovascular comorbidities should be kept in mind. Some of the other risks in surgery to consider are related to spinal ischemic injuries and intraoperative bleeding from extensive amounts of collaterals [2]. In general, repair of the CoA surgically has been shown to have a low mortality rate. However, as these patients continue to follow up with their cardiologists, re-coarctation is often seen in the long-term. Other than additional percutaneous procedures, these patients sometimes need to be evaluated for further surgical interventions [78]. Currently, there are no clinical trials showing a direct comparison between transcatheter approaches are superior to surgical interventions or vice versa. More research is needed in this area to compare the different approaches [64].
\nAll patients with coarctation (repaired or not) should be monitored with lifelong congenital cardiology follow-up and imaging because long-term survival is reduced compared with normative populations and there is potential need for reintervention [79, 80]. The European Society of Cardiology and the American Heart Association recommends continuous life-long follow up of patients with coarctation of the aorta even though they have been repaired [50]. As mentioned previously, even though patients with coarctation are repaired, they are at risk for re-coarctation later in life as well as develop other comorbidities such as hypertension and coronary artery disease. The unoperated mean survival rate of adults with coarctation of the aorta is 35 years of age, with a mortality rate of 75% by 46 years of age [49]. In general, the patients with CoA who are repaired at a later age are more likely to remain hypertensive. This is because in addition to the narrowing of the aorta, they can also develop arterial stiffness and vascular abnormalities asides from alternations in their renin-aldosterone angiotensin system [81]. Investigators have also postulated that the mechanical stress associated with increased pressure load may initiate rapid gene expression for collagen production, leading to re-enforcement and reorganization of the vessel musculo-elastic fascicle, and thereby reducing the degree of pressure-induced aortic dilatation. However, a clear disadvantage of this is that the resultant stiffer vessel will lead to augmented central aortic systolic pressure and systolic hypertension, which is the major cause of longer term morbidity and mortality in these patients, even despite early repair [82].
\nOther than being hypertensive at rest, it is also common for these patients to be hypertensive with exercise. In a prospective study of 74 patients with coarctation, the systolic blood pressure at peak exercise was an indicator for long term hypertension [83]. Exercise stress testing is useful to assess the patients’ hypertensive response, evaluate their need for future interventions and determine prognosis in the long run [84]. Other studies have shown a link between exercise-induced hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) in patients with CoA. LVH has been shown to be associated with a higher incidence of adverse events [85]. Overall, more research is needed in this area to determine the risks and benefits of exercise in patients with CoA and whether there is a need for exercise restrictions. Patients with CoA are also at risk for developing intracranial aneurysms (ICA). With five times the risk of developing ICA, guidelines recommend advanced imaging such as CT or MRI to assess the intracranial vessels. Studies show that screening these patients is reasonable, especially as they get older, since age is one of the main risk factors in the prevalence of ICA [86]. Hypertension will put these patients with aneurysms at risk for cerebrovascular accidents (CVA) and intracranial hemorrhage. In one of the studies comparing patients with congenital heart disease with and without CoA, the patients with CoA (especially adults, men, and the patients without a VSD) have a higher risk of developing hypertension, therefore increasing their risk for CVA [87].
\nEndocarditis prophylaxis is not required for patients with uncomplicated native coarctation or 6 months after successful repair of native or re-coarctation. Antibiotic prophylaxis is indicated in patients with a past history of endocarditis, in those whose repair involved insertion of a conduit, or for 6 months after intervention if prosthetic material or stent was used. The 2015 scientific statement of the AHA/ACC provides competitive athletic participation guidelines for patients with congenital heart disease (CHD), including coarctation [88]. As with any other guidelines, recommendations need to be tailored to the patient and a comprehensive evaluation by an experienced clinician is required. Before a decision is made regarding sports participation, a detailed evaluation should be conducted, which should include a physical examination, electrocardiography (ECG), chest radiograph, exercise testing, and cardiac/aortic imaging (with transthoracic echocardiogram, MRI, and/or computed tomography angiography [CTA]) when appropriate. The time interval for repeating this extensive testing is unclear and should be individualized to the specific patient.
\nIt is known that morbidity and mortality are higher in patients with CoA given their risk of complications. These patients can have aortic aneurysms, chronic hypertension, re-coarctation, and the potential need for additional transcatheter and surgical interventions. However, for patients with coarctation of the aorta that survive into adulthood, studies have shown that their overall long-term survival rate is high. These patients should be followed up in a center specialized in adult congenital heart disease, where these morbidities are recognized and close observation is provided to prevent devastating complications.
\nPatients with CoA who have undergone repair require lifelong surveillance. Because this type of CHD is associated with many long-term complications, collaborative management by cardiologists with expertise in adult CHD is recommended. As patients with CHD are now surviving into adulthood, with 5–8% of these patients having coarctation of the aorta, it is important to understand the anatomy, pathophysiology, and management of these patients. Although echocardiography is a fundamental tool in the assessment of patients after coarctation repair, advanced imaging is often necessary for comprehensive evaluation. cMRI is the preferred imaging modality for repaired and unrepaired CoA. Alternatively, cardiovascular CT is best suited to evaluate patients with endovascular stents or those with contraindications to cMRI. It is not uncommon for this cohort to develop complications or require additional percutaneous or surgical interventions during their lifetime. This chapter emphasizes the importance of long-term follow up care, especially in a center specializing in the care of patients with congenital heart disease.
\nThere is no conflict of interest.
Submarine earthquakes may generate tremendous disasters for human, like what occurred during the Tohoku earthquake in 2011. Even if their seismic waves may damage buildings and structures when they occur close to the coast, the tsunami they generally cause are a massive risk for humans. Indeed, the energy produced by a massive undersea quake is transmitted into the water at high speed and results in a high wave when it arrives on the coast.
\nTo avoid human losses, tsunami’s simulations can help to inform the governments and society about the risks before and after a submarine earthquake. This chapter presents solutions for implementing such simulations. The main objective is to be able to calculate the propagation of the tsunami wave into the ocean and then to simulate efficiently its effects when the wave reaches the coast. These kinds of simulation can be done in two dimensions considering only the profile of the coast or in three dimensions when all the topography is considered. In both cases, the simulation must handle how water is affected by the earthquake wave.
\nViscosity is the measure depicting how a fluid resists deformations. Even water is considered having a non-nil viscosity: so, this parameter must be considered carefully for tsunami simulations. Water simulation relies on Navier-Stokes equations that describe the motion of a viscous fluid. Unfortunately, Navier-Stokes equations cannot be solved directly like it is the case for many differential equations. The only way to obtain a solution at a given time consists of approximating it through simulation. In practice, two family of methods may be used. The first one consists in discretizing the simulation space into small parts and to do the simulation considering fixed cells in this discrete space (mesh approach). Well-known methods are the finite element, the finite difference, and the finite volume. A second alternative approach is the smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH), introduced in astrophysics in 1977 [1, 2], which is applied in computer graphics [3], oceanography, and many other fields. The latter is particularly interesting for tsunami simulation, since the most important part of the simulation is not in the ocean but rather on the ground. This implies that a part of the fluid will cover the coast. This heterogeneity makes the mesh-free SPH approach more adapted.
\nThis chapter is organized as follows. Section 2 presents the basics of SPH, detailing the different involved mathematical expressions and steps and previous implementations proposed in the literature. Section 3 presents a parallel implementation of SPH: it recalls the main parallel patterns and how they are used to obtain a reliable and fast simulation. Before the conclusions, Section 4 presents some results for a simple case of tsunami.
\nSPH is a Lagrangian approach, meaning that particles representing tiny parts of the fluids may move during the simulation. It is based on density estimation applied to moving particles, leading to an approximation of the Navier-Stokes equations. This section recalls these equations and presents the basics of SPH.
\nNavier-Stokes equations model the dynamics of a fluid. They rely on the Newton second law, stating that the sum of the forces applied on a body equals the product of its mass by its acceleration (\n
where \n
where \n
Nevertheless, some methods allow to calculate an approximation of these two equations. Most of them regularly discretize the Euclidean space and calculate an approximation by using the finite difference theorem. The advection term (the left part of the momentum equation) is approximated placing particles into the grid and then computing their displacement. In other words, each grid cell contains a given amount of fluid, and the algorithm calculates the exchanges between adjacent cells. Such a solution is quite difficult to use into environment where some large part (like ocean) and highly detailed parts must be considered together.
\nAnother method to approximate the Navier-Stokes equations is SPH. The Euclidean space is no more discretized. Instead, it considers some moving particles representing the fluid and their interactions. Each particle comes with its specific velocity, pressure, density, and viscosity. Then, the total derivative allows to approach the advection term (those between parentheses on the left part of the momentum equation) by a single derivative term \n
Therefore, the acceleration \n
SPH relies on the kernel density estimation [4]. When we only have some samples of a given function, we can estimate its value at a new location using a kernel function \n
The kernel function \n
We denote \n
where \n
These formulas allow to calculate the density of any particle, the gradient of the pressure, and the Laplacian of the velocity to approximate a solution of the Navier-Stokes equations. For each particle \n
Compute the density \n
\n
Compute the pressure \n
where \n
Compute \n
where \n
Compute the velocity \n
The SPH simulation uses these formulas to compute the positions of the particles for a given time length through an iterative procedure. The particles’ interactions are very important: we use a rather small support (small \n
SPH method presented in Section 2.2 is quite immediate to implement [3]. Using a small kernel support, the calculation of the forces that apply to a given particle is quite fast, since only a few numbers of neighbors have to be considered. Nevertheless, the neighborhood needs to be efficiently computed and stored to accelerate the calculations. This needs to be done for each time step. To do that, a regular grid is the faster solution. The size of a grid cell is set as the radius of the kernel support. Then, to find the neighbors of a given particle, it is enough to consider the cells surrounding the one containing this particle. In dimension 2 this leads to 9 cells (including the cell containing the particle) and 27 in dimension 3.
\nThe SPH method described in Section 2.2 has been extended to solve some accuracy problem with incompressible fluids, for instance, predictive-corrective incompressible SPH (PC-ISPH), incompressible SPH (ISPH), and implicit incompressible SPH (IISPH) [5, 6, 7]. In Ref. [7], comparisons between these three techniques show that IISPH is faster than PC-ISPH and ISPH, mainly since it allows to use bigger time steps. Hence, this chapter focusses on an implementation of IISPH. This evolved method is also more complex than classical SPH, and then each time step uses more calculations (but they are longer, so it is faster still). More precisely, for each particle it calculates the density \n
The IISPH algorithm calculates the advection factor \n
The IISPH algorithm continues with the calculation of pressure’s forces. It is done through at least two corrective loops to enforce the minimization of the difference between the rest density and the sum of the density of all particles. First, this loop calculates the advection density:
\nSecond, it calculates the following term per particle that will be used many times in the next steps:
\nwhere \n
Then, the IISPH corrective loop continues by computing for each particle the pressure force thanks to the following expression:
\nwhere \n
This last term is computed using the displacement factors:
\nAll these calculations should be made in parallel to reduce the computation times, using a tuned implementation, for instance, using message passing interface (MPI) for high-performance computing (HPC) or using the Nvidia common unified device architecture (CUDA) on graphics processing unit (GPU) for simpler computers.
\nAn efficient SPH implementation relies on parallelism at some level. A fully parallel solution may become a very efficient solution, as previous works have shown it. While most of the calculations may be done considering a single particle into a single core, finding the neighboring particles that play a role in the density, the pressure, and the external forces needs collaboration between different cores.
\nUsing the texture mechanism available with GPU, working with the neighbors is quite simple and efficient. Nevertheless, this implies to store all the particles into a regular grid at each time step during the simulation. This part is somewhere the most complicated, and the key step for an efficient implementation.
\nThis section first presents the main parallel patterns (MAP, SORT, SCAN, etc.) and then shows how they can be combined to write a new fast parallel SPH solver.
\nWriting a parallel algorithm is not as simple as writing a sequential algorithm. This truism is based on the necessary consideration of the collaborations between the different processors of a parallel machine: all the processors must work in concert, and not isolated as in a sequential approach. These collaborative aspects are the main difficulty. How to make sure all these processors expect when it’s needed and work to the fullest when no synchronization is required?
\nRather than writing a parallel algorithm based on classical sequential patterns, parallel patterns make it possible to write a parallel algorithm directly, abstracting the underlying machine. These patterns rely on very simple parallel architecture, called the parallel random-access memory (PRAM). It assumes a synchronization between an infinite set of processors and an infinite amount of memory [8].
\nSimple parallel patterns do not need synchronization. This means that, using a GPU or an HPC, they may be run without any difficulties, even with less processors than needed. The simpler one is the MAP, or transform, that consists in applying a given function \n
Figure 1 describes this pattern on small arrays.
\nIllustration of the MAP parallel pattern.
In many occasions, it is necessary to write the result at a new location, another index. When each possible destination index is used once and only once, we obtain a quite simple parallel pattern called SCATTER. It consists of writing the input data from location \n
The SCATTER and GATHER patterns move data using a permutation.
In the same spirit, the GATHER parallel pattern writes at index \n
PRAM model is very useful to write efficient algorithms on theory. Nevertheless, at the end these algorithms run on real computers, with a limited amount of memory and a fixed number of processors. Brent’s theorem links the theoretical computation time on PRAM model with the one obtained using only \n
In many cases, some degree of collaboration is needed between processors. This leads to some more complicated parallel patterns. A very common parallel pattern using such a collaboration is the SORT that sorts data according to a given order. It is used in previous SPH implementation for building the neighbors’ grid. The SORT pattern is based on the PARTITION pattern that moves values with respect to a given predicate. More precisely, for \n
Illustration of the PARTITION pattern for nine input values; the values with predicate 1 are put at the beginning of the output, the others at the end.
These complex patterns are built using a fundamental pattern called SCAN. It corresponds to a prefix sum of values, according to the following expression:
\nThe fundamental pattern exists in two versions: inclusive and exclusive ones. The first corresponds to the expression given above, doing a sum-up to the current output position. The exclusive version omits the current position, doing a sum-up to \n
Figure 4 shows that these two versions of SCAN are almost the same, except the shift between the resulting arrays: the values obtained with inclusive version correspond to the ones obtained with the exclusive version at the same position plus one.
\nDifferences between the inclusive and exclusive SCAN patterns.
Another pattern of interest into this chapter is the REDUCE that allows to calculate a single value from an array of values and using any given associative binary function:
\nFor instance, using \n
These complex patterns have roughly speaking all the same complexity, in \n
The last programming tool this section covers is the atomic operation notion. A load-modify-write operation cannot be handled in parallel program without caution. Let us consider two processors doing a “plus one” in parallel at the same time. The addition is done by the CPU using registers (local memory to the CPU). Hence the variables to add need to be loaded from the main memory, then added, and then stored into the main memory. If the two processors do the load-modify-write operation at the same time exactly on the same variable, then the result is false. If the processors are not exactly synchronized, the result is certainly false also: to be correct, the two operations must be done sequentially. Atomic operations provide this behavior, performing the read-modify-write operation for one and only one processor at a time.
\nObviously, other parallel patterns exist. They are not discussed in this chapter since they are not used in our SPH implementation.
\nPrevious SPH implementations use the SORT pattern to build the neighbors’ grid [7, 9, 10]. The first step consists in calculating the grid index of each particle, using a MAP. Next, the particles are sorted with respect to this index. Then, it is necessary to compute the number of particles per cell and the starting position of each cell. In [9], atomic operations are used for these two operations: the minimum for the first particle into each cell and the addition for the number of particles per cell.
\nIn Ref. [7], authors follow a similar approach with the particle sort with respect to their cell index but using a MAP to mark the start and the end of each cell with respect to the sorted cell indices, considering their unicity.
\nThe main problem is that the sorting algorithm takes a large part of the computation time, near 30% according to [10]. In this chapter, we avoid the full sorting by combining simple parallel patterns and atomic operations. Our grid building algorithm is summarized in Figure 5.
\nOur algorithm to build the neighbors’ grid.
This algorithm uses the Nvidia Thrust API with some freedom to shorten it. First, at line 8 the number of particles per grid cell is set to zero. Next, like with previous methods at line 9, the index of each particle is calculated with a MAP. Using a second MAP at line 10, the particle cell offset is calculated using an atomic addition. More precisely, we use the CUDA
In practice, this algorithm can be optimized in many ways. First, the device vectors can be allocated only once, and not each time the grid is built. Second, the first two transforms (lines 9 and 10) can be mixed into one. This will limit the memory loading into device registers, known as a major performance limitation with GPU. At last, the last transform (line 12) and the scatter (line 13) can be mixed into a single call again to minimize the memory bandwidth usage. Moreover, the particles’ data must be split into multiple arrays for efficiency (one array for position, one for density, one for pressure, etc.) as in [10].
\nThe most difficult part of the implementation of the IISPH method is the construction of the neighbors’ grid, as for any non-mesh density kernel method. The rest of the calculation is rather simple and relies on two parallel models: the MAP for all the loops on particles and the REDUCE to control the termination of the corrective loop in the calculation of the pressure force.
\nIt is noticeable that the IISPH loop to correct the pressure force runs on the CPU, because there is no available global synchronization on the GPU. Then, the REDUCE is used to return a value from the GPU to the CPU, to decide if more corrections are needed or not. Nevertheless, since this just consists of sending one real value, it is not a big bottleneck.
\nMoreover, many calculations use data from the neighbors (pressure, density, position, etc.). L1 GPU’s memory is used to accelerate these calculations, reducing the computation time around a third in our experiment. Notice also that the IISPH corrective loop amortizes the neighbors’ grid building. In our experiments the grid building now represents less than 10 percent of the full computation time.
\nThe IISPH is a valid solution to simulate a tsunami [11]. Its main advantage regarding a discrete method is that it does not need to refine the mesh near the obstacles, like the coast and the buildings. Moreover, the wave can go everywhere, including interfering with the beach, buildings, infrastructure, etc.
\nIn this chapter, we illustrate the tsunami simulation using IISPH algorithm through a rather simple scenario. It contains a short coast ending with a mountain. We put a building just after the beach. The main difficulty, if either, consists of generating the solitary wave. A tsunami, for instance, is generated by an earthquake at long distance. The produced wave runs at 200 meter per second (720 km/h). We do not need to simulate the propagation of the wave since its epicenter, which is quite difficult with long distance: it needs very long simulation time to see the wave reaching the beach, and obviously it needs a huge amount of memory to handle the sea between the two distant locations. Instead, we simulate the wave into a rather small space. We can predict the time of arrival to the beach, assuming we know the exact distance between the beach and the earthquake location.
\nIn [11], authors solve the solitary wave solution of Boussinesq. They calculate the wave paddle displacement using the equation:
\nwhere \n
More precisely, \n
where \n
While this method works on CPU, it is not well-suited for a CUDA implementation of the IISSPH, mainly because the number of iterations of the Newton-Raphson method depends on the input values, and so is not constant per particle.
\nHence, in this chapter we use a different but simple technique. The wave is produced using a piston wave generator. Here, the piston is a huge virtual object that moves the water to reach the speed of the wave. The length and the speed of the piston movement are calibrated to obtain the good height and speed of the tsunami solitary wave.
\nFigure 6 illustrates such a simple wave simulation, before the tsunami wave arrives. Figure 7 shows the wave arriving at the building at \n
Tsunami simulation before the solitary wave arrives.
Tsunami wave reaching the building near the beach.
The tsunami wave engulfed the building and the coast.
The tsunami wave begins to pull off the coast. With flat coasts, this may take some time.
After a longer time, the tsunami wave has almost completely disappeared.
This chapter focusses on the simulation of a tsunami solitary wave. Such a wave is mainly produced by submarine earthquake and may provoke vast disasters for human living near the coasts. Such phenomena also may produce strong degradation on buildings and structures, in turn inducing human loss as what happened after the Tohoku earthquake in 2011. To avoid these disasters, it is important to be able to validate the robustness of structures and buildings near the dangerous coasts and to inform population after an always unpredictable submarine earthquake.
\nTo achieve these goals, it is necessary to produce robust and fast fluid simulator software. To simulate a tsunami wave, a good candidate is the SPH method. Since it does not need the usage of a fix mesh like in discrete techniques, it allows to handle correctly the wave running on the beach and after. Moreover, it correctly handles the contact with buildings and structures, allowing to simulate the forces that they undergo.
\nThis chapter recalls the implicit incompressible SPH method, which is one of the fastest among the SPH ones. The parallel implementation for GPU is detailed in depth, with a fast algorithm to build the neighbors’ grid, avoiding the classical sorting method which is more time-consuming.
\nAt last, this chapter proposes a simple tsunami wave simulation using a piston wave generator, a simple solution for implementing and providing valuable results. It can be used to simulate tsunami generated by submarine earthquake occurring in a pattern of seismic source mechanism when both the location and intensity are estimated.
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Chronic viral suppression alone is not sufficient treatment to prevent HCC development. Therefore, along with NAs, treatment may need to include targeting the cccDNA and inhibiting the viral entry into the newly formed hepatocytes and T-cell vaccine which specifically targets HBV and enhancing innate immunity with Toll-like receptor agonist. With all of these working together, we may achieve the goal of HBV cure.",book:{id:"5394",slug:"updates-in-liver-cancer",title:"Updates in Liver Cancer",fullTitle:"Updates in Liver Cancer"},signatures:"Bolin Niu and Hie-Won Hann",authors:[{id:"188150",title:"Dr.",name:"Hie-Won",middleName:null,surname:"Hann",slug:"hie-won-hann",fullName:"Hie-Won Hann"},{id:"188930",title:"Dr.",name:"Bolin",middleName:null,surname:"Niu",slug:"bolin-niu",fullName:"Bolin Niu"}]},{id:"28020",doi:"10.5772/27158",title:"Modulation of Cell Proliferation Pathways by the Hepatitis B Virus X Protein: A Potential Contributor to the Development of Hepatocellular Carcinoma",slug:"modulation-of-cell-proliferation-pathways-in-hepatocytes-by-the-hepatitis-b-virus-x-protein-a-potent",totalDownloads:1912,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:null,book:{id:"696",slug:"hepatocellular-carcinoma-basic-research",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma",fullTitle:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma - Basic Research"},signatures:"Jessica C. Casciano, Sumedha Bagga, Bei Yang and Michael J. Bouchard",authors:[{id:"68997",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Bouchard",slug:"michael-bouchard",fullName:"Michael Bouchard"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"62719",title:"Pathogenesis of Hepatitis B Virus Associated Chronic Liver Disease",slug:"pathogenesis-of-hepatitis-b-virus-associated-chronic-liver-disease",totalDownloads:1579,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is associated with chronic liver diseases (CLD), which progress from hepatitis to fibrosis, cirrhosis, and finally hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) over 30–50 years. The pathogenesis of CLD is immune mediated, which is characterized by persistent immune responses against virus infected hepatocytes. During bouts of CLD, the virus gene encoding the hepatitis B x antigen (HBx) is increasingly found integrated at multiple sites within the human genome. Many of these integrated templates express HBx, which is a trans-regulatory protein that supports virus gene expression and replication on one hand, but also alters patterns of gene expression in the infected cell. HBx alters gene expression by constitutively activating signal transduction pathways in the cytoplasm and promoting epigenetic mediated changes in the expression of cellular genes. In doing so, HBx contributes to the persistence of virus infected cells and to the pathogenesis of CLD by triggering multiple hallmarks which are characteristic of cancer.",book:{id:"7044",slug:"liver-cancer",title:"Liver Cancer",fullTitle:"Liver Cancer"},signatures:"Mark A. Feitelson",authors:[{id:"252092",title:"Prof.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Feitelson",slug:"mark-feitelson",fullName:"Mark Feitelson"}]},{id:"16466",title:"Lymph Node Dissection in Gastric Carcinoma",slug:"lymph-node-dissection-in-gastric-carcinoma",totalDownloads:22949,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"426",slug:"management-of-gastric-cancer",title:"Management of Gastric Cancer",fullTitle:"Management of Gastric Cancer"},signatures:"Bulent Cavit Yuksel, Okan Murat Akturk and Ilyas Hakan Ozel",authors:[{id:"26491",title:"Prof.",name:"Bulent",middleName:"c",surname:"Yuksel",slug:"bulent-yuksel",fullName:"Bulent Yuksel"},{id:"38429",title:"Prof.",name:"Okan",middleName:null,surname:"Akturk",slug:"okan-akturk",fullName:"Okan Akturk"}]},{id:"64491",title:"Perihilar or (Hilar) Cholangiocarcinoma: Interventional to Surgical Management",slug:"perihilar-or-hilar-cholangiocarcinoma-interventional-to-surgical-management",totalDownloads:1426,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Peri-hilar cholangiocarcinoma (PHC) or hilar cholangiocarcinoma (HCCA) characterizes a critical effort to assess significantly sick patients. The existing scenery and proof to the diagnosis and treatments for hilar cholangiocarcinoma are improving day by day. Patients with HCCA encounter numerous obstacles in acquiring efficient therapies. The condition is uncommon, and the majority patients don’t have any distinct risk factors, doing selection process inadequate. The initial signs and symptoms in many cases are non-specific, and in many patients the tumors are not resectable because of involvement of the perihilar structures. MRI with MRCP offers further information about the extent of biliary involvement. Furthermore, endoscopic stenting and percutaneous drain could be useful for intricate hilar strictures. Surgical resections with negative margins are related to good likelihood of survival for patients representing with HCCA. Regardless of the accessibility of curative treatment strategies such as operative resection and liver transplantation, most sufferers with HCCA shows with repeated, metastases or locally advanced disease with a poor prognosis. Within this chapter, we have tried to elaborate the modalities of treatment from intervention to surgical approach for HCCA.",book:{id:"8230",slug:"bile-duct-cancer",title:"Bile Duct Cancer",fullTitle:"Bile Duct Cancer"},signatures:"Pankaj Prasoon, Kohei Miura, Kizuki Yuza, Yuki Hirose, Jun Sakata and Toshifumi Wakai",authors:[{id:"79381",title:"Dr.",name:"Toshifumi",middleName:null,surname:"Wakai",slug:"toshifumi-wakai",fullName:"Toshifumi Wakai"},{id:"266766",title:"Dr.",name:"Pankaj",middleName:null,surname:"Prasoon",slug:"pankaj-prasoon",fullName:"Pankaj Prasoon"},{id:"266770",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuki",middleName:null,surname:"Hirose",slug:"yuki-hirose",fullName:"Yuki Hirose"},{id:"266772",title:"Prof.",name:"Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Sakata",slug:"jun-sakata",fullName:"Jun Sakata"},{id:"279993",title:"Dr.",name:"Kohei",middleName:null,surname:"Miura",slug:"kohei-miura",fullName:"Kohei Miura"},{id:"279994",title:"Dr.",name:"Kizuki",middleName:null,surname:"Yuza",slug:"kizuki-yuza",fullName:"Kizuki Yuza"}]},{id:"64803",title:"BRAF Mutation and Its Importance in Colorectal Cancer",slug:"braf-mutation-and-its-importance-in-colorectal-cancer",totalDownloads:2496,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"BRAF mutation is seen in nearly one in ten patients with advanced colorectal cancer. Despite major improvements in survival for advanced colorectal cancer overall, patients with BRAF mutation continue to have a very poor prognosis often with median survival of less than 12 months. It is important for clinicians to be aware of this subgroup as the treatment approach should be different. Treatment options beyond standard chemotherapy are crucial to achieve better outcomes and the role of anti-EGFR therapy alone remains controversial. Current trials assessing combinations of molecular targeted agents have seen some promise. This chapter explores the background of BRAF mutation and current treatment strategies.",book:{id:"8118",slug:"advances-in-the-molecular-understanding-of-colorectal-cancer",title:"Advances in the Molecular Understanding of Colorectal Cancer",fullTitle:"Advances in the Molecular Understanding of Colorectal Cancer"},signatures:"Lee-Jen Luu and Timothy J. Price",authors:null},{id:"53476",title:"Assessment and Optimization of the Future Liver Remnant",slug:"assessment-and-optimization-of-the-future-liver-remnant",totalDownloads:2122,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Safe liver resection is a vital element in the management of primary and secondary hepatic malignancies. The indications for resection have evolved Over time, and this has in part been due to the ability to improve the future liver remnant (FLR). This chapter reviews the current and future methods used for assessing the future liver remnant volume and function in order to minimize the risk of post-hepatectomy liver failure (PHLF). Current and evolving methods used in augmenting the future liver remnant are also considered. Since its introduction in the 1990s, portal venous embolization (PVE) has become the most widely used method of augmenting the FLR. The factors that affect hypertrophy following embolization as well as techniques used in portal venous embolization will be reviewed. Other methods of augmentation discussed include portal vein ligation (PVL) and the emerging method of associating liver partition and portal vein ligation for staged hepatectomy (ALPPS). The chapter also considers the various methods in the context of limiting tumour progression in the future liver remnant and attempts to integrate newer techniques such as ALPPS into current treatment algorithms.",book:{id:"5394",slug:"updates-in-liver-cancer",title:"Updates in Liver Cancer",fullTitle:"Updates in Liver Cancer"},signatures:"Mandivavarira Maundura and Jonathan B Koea",authors:[{id:"188727",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:null,surname:"Koea",slug:"jonathan-koea",fullName:"Jonathan Koea"},{id:"188728",title:"Dr.",name:"Mandivavarira",middleName:null,surname:"Maundura",slug:"mandivavarira-maundura",fullName:"Mandivavarira Maundura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1078",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"80990",title:"Laparoscopic Liver Resection for Hepatocellular Carcinoma",slug:"laparoscopic-liver-resection-for-hepatocellular-carcinoma",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102981",abstract:"Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), remains one of the most common causes of cancer-related death globally. HCC typically arises in the setting of chronic liver disease and cirrhosis and as such, treatment must be balanced between the biology of the tumor, underlying liver function and performance status of the patient. Hepatic resection is the procedure of choice in patients with high-performance status who harbor a solitary mass (regardless of size). Before the first laparoscopic hepatectomy (LH) was described as early as 1991, open hepatectomy (OH) was the only choice for surgical treatment of liver tumors. LH indications were initially based solely on tumor location, size, and type and was only used for partial resection of the anterolateral segments. Since then, LH has been shown to share the benefits of other laparoscopic procedures, such as earlier recovery and discharge, and reduced postoperative pain; these are obtained with no differences in oncologic outcomes compared to open resection. Specific to liver resection, LH can limit the volume of intraoperative blood loss, shorten portal clamp time and decrease overall and liver-specific complications. This chapter will offer an overview of standard steps are in pursuing laparoscopic liver resection, be it for a minor segmentectomy or a lobectomy.",book:{id:"10787",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma - Challenges and Opportunities of a Multidisciplinary Approach",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10787.jpg"},signatures:"Melina Vlami, Nikolaos Arkadopoulos and Ioannis Hatzaras"},{id:"79097",title:"Surgical Therapy of Hepatocellular Carcinoma: State of the Art Liver Resection",slug:"surgical-therapy-of-hepatocellular-carcinoma-state-of-the-art-liver-resection",totalDownloads:86,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100231",abstract:"Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) represents the third most common cause of cancer-related death, showing incremental growth rates throughout the last decades. HCC requires multidisciplinary approach in a group of patients suffering from underlying chronic liver disease, usually in the setting of cirrhosis. The mainstay of treatment in resectable cases is surgery, with anatomic and non-anatomic liver resections widely implemented, as well as liver transplantation in well-selected individuals. Nowadays, there is a variety of liver parenchyma transection devices used by hepatobiliary surgeons in specialized centers, which has significantly improved postoperative outcomes in HCC patients. Therefore, hepatectomy is considered safe and feasible and should be the main therapeutic option for HCC patients, candidates for resection. Liver resection utilizing cavitron ultrasonic aspirator in combination with bipolar radiofrequency ablation is safe and effective for the treatment of HCC with favorable clinical and oncological outcomes.",book:{id:"10787",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma - Challenges and Opportunities of a Multidisciplinary Approach",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10787.jpg"},signatures:"Spyridon Davakis, Michail Vailas, Alexandros Kozadinos, Panagiotis Sakarellos, Anastasia Karampa, Dimitrios Korkolis, Georgios Glantzounis, Alexandros Papalampros and Evangelos Felekouras"},{id:"78329",title:"Minimally Invasive Surgery for Hepatocellular Carcinoma; Latest Advances",slug:"minimally-invasive-surgery-for-hepatocellular-carcinoma-latest-advances",totalDownloads:44,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99840",abstract:"Surgical resection is the gold standard for hepatocellular carcinoma management for early stages of the disease. With advances in technology and techniques, minimally invasive surgery provides a great number of advantages for these patients during their surgery and for their post-operative care. The selection of patients following a multi-disciplinary approach is of paramount importance. Adding to this, the developments in laparoscopic instruments and training, as well as the promising advantages of robotic surgery along with other forms of technology, increase the pool of patients that can undergo operation safely and with good results worldwide. We review results from great centres worldwide and delineate the accurate multi-disciplinary approach for this.",book:{id:"10787",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma - Challenges and Opportunities of a Multidisciplinary Approach",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10787.jpg"},signatures:"Alexandros Giakoustidis, Apostolos Koffas, Dimitrios Giakoustidis and Vasileios N. Papadopoulos"},{id:"78741",title:"Histopathological Features of the Steatohepatitic Variant of Hepatocellular Carcinoma and Its Relationship with Fatty Liver Disease",slug:"histopathological-features-of-the-steatohepatitic-variant-of-hepatocellular-carcinoma-and-its-relati",totalDownloads:61,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99842",abstract:"Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary malignant tumor of the liver in adults. Steatohepatitic HCC (SH-HCC) is a recently described, rarer variant of HCC and is associated with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). The relationship between fatty liver disease and/or steatohepatitis and SH-HCC is now known. This subtype can be confused with lipid-containing nodules (such as cirrhotic nodules, regenerative nodules, focal nodular hyperplasia) clinically, radiologically and histopathologically. Here, the histopathological features of SH-HCC, its relationship with fatty liver disease and briefly its clinical features will be discussed. In addition, histopathological features of this specific variant, immunohistochemical staining of the tumor and diagnostic difficulties in tru-cut biopsies will also be discussed. Actually, I think this article will raise clinicopathological awareness about this rare variant.",book:{id:"10787",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma - Challenges and Opportunities of a Multidisciplinary Approach",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10787.jpg"},signatures:"Emine Turkmen Samdanci"},{id:"78669",title:"Systemic Therapy in Hepatocellular Carcinoma",slug:"systemic-therapy-in-hepatocellular-carcinoma",totalDownloads:61,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100257",abstract:"Systemic therapy of advanced stage hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) was limited to the sorafenib in the past decade since 2007. Novel agents including multiple targeting agents, immune checkpoint inhibitors and anti-angiogenesis reported efficacy in treatment. This is the first time, the combination of atezolizumab and bevacizumab as first-line treatment is superior to sorafenib. Standard guideline in advanced HCC was changing. New novel drugs increase in available including multiple targeting agents and immune checkpoint blockade such as Lenvatinib, regorafenib, cabozantinib, ramucirumab and immunotherapy as first line or second line therapy will benefit in term of survival benefit and quality of life in advanced stage or unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma.",book:{id:"10787",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma - Challenges and Opportunities of a Multidisciplinary Approach",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10787.jpg"},signatures:"Chanchai Charonpongsuntorn"},{id:"78357",title:"Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) - Induced Hepatocarcinogenesis, a Founding Framework of Cancer Evolution and Development (Cancer Evo-Dev)",slug:"hepatitis-b-virus-hbv-induced-hepatocarcinogenesis-a-founding-framework-of-cancer-evolution-and-deve",totalDownloads:75,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99838",abstract:"In this chapter, we present the founding framework of a novel theory termed as Cancer Evolution-Development (Cancer Evo-Dev), based on the current understanding of hepatitis B virus (HBV) induced hepatocarcinogenesis. The interactions of genetic predispositions and HBV infection is responsible for the maintenance of chronic non-resolving inflammation. Under the inflammatory microenvironment, pro-inflammatory factors trans-activate the expression of cytidine deaminases and suppress the expression of uracil DNA glycosylase. The imbalance between the mutagenic forces and mutation-correcting forces facilitates the generations of somatic mutations, viral mutations, and viral integrations into the host genomes. The majority of cells with genomic mutations and mutated viruses are eliminated in survival competition. Only a small percentage of the mutated cells adapted to the hostile environment can survive, retro-differentiate, and function as cancer-initiating cells, representing a process of “mutation-selection-adaptation”. Cancer Evo-Dev lays the theoretical foundation for understanding the mechanisms by which chronic infection of HBV promotes hepatocarcinogenesis. This theory also plays an important role in specific prophylaxis, prediction, early diagnosis, and targeted treatment of cancers.",book:{id:"10787",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma - Challenges and Opportunities of a Multidisciplinary Approach",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10787.jpg"},signatures:"Wenbin Liu and Guangwen Cao"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:12},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:290,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization"},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Artificial Intelligence",id:"14"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems.
\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"