Masses in grams of lanthanum and neodymium oxides used in the synthesis of
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9670",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Current Trends in Wheat Research",title:"Current Trends in Wheat Research",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Current Trends in Wheat Research is an interdisciplinary book dealing with diverse topics related to recent developments in wheat research. It discusses the latest research activities in biotic and abiotic stress tolerance in wheat. The book contains chapters containing valuable information on wheat diseases, insect pests, drought stress as well as water use efficiency in wheat crops.",isbn:"978-1-83968-594-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-593-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-595-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87473",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"current-trends-in-wheat-research",numberOfPages:194,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"89d795987f1747a76eee532700d2093d",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9670.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1647,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:8,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 26th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 23rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 22nd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 10th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 11th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185476/images/system/185476.jpg",biography:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor of Molecular Biology at the Department of Bioinformatics and Biotechnology, GC University – Faisalabad, Pakistan. He received his BSc (Hons) in Plant Breeding and Genetics from the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, in 2003. He obtained an MPhil and Ph.D. in Molecular Biology from the National Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology, Lahore, Pakistan, in 2006 and 2011, respectively. He has published more than eighty papers in international peer-reviewed journals in the fields of molecular biology, biotechnology, and bioinformatics. He has also published more than fifteen book chapters and edited four books. His research interest is to understand the molecular mechanisms of stress tolerance in plants. He has been involved in the genetic modification of rice and cotton, their greenhouse and field testing, as well as biosafety studies. He is a member of various national and international professional societies.",institutionString:"Government College University, Faisalabad",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"29",title:"Agronomy",slug:"agronomy"}],chapters:[{id:"81199",title:"Introductory Chapter: Current Trends in Wheat Research",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103763",slug:"introductory-chapter-current-trends-in-wheat-research",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Nazia Nahid, Parwsha Zaib, Tayyaba Shaheen, Kanval Shaukat, Akmaral U. Issayeva and Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81199",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81199",authors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman",surname:"Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari"},{id:"185474",title:"Prof.",name:"Tayyaba",surname:"Shaheen",slug:"tayyaba-shaheen",fullName:"Tayyaba Shaheen"},{id:"309845",title:"Dr.",name:"Parwsha",surname:"Zaib",slug:"parwsha-zaib",fullName:"Parwsha Zaib"},{id:"455332",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazia",surname:"Naheed",slug:"nazia-naheed",fullName:"Nazia Naheed"},{id:"455333",title:"Dr.",name:"Kanval",surname:"Shaukat",slug:"kanval-shaukat",fullName:"Kanval Shaukat"},{id:"455334",title:"Prof.",name:"Akmaral",surname:"U. Issayeva",slug:"akmaral-u.-issayeva",fullName:"Akmaral U. Issayeva"}],corrections:null},{id:"76290",title:"Breeding Wheat for Biotic Stress Resistance: Achievements, Challenges and Prospects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97359",slug:"breeding-wheat-for-biotic-stress-resistance-achievements-challenges-and-prospects",totalDownloads:283,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Wheat (T. aestivum) is one of the key food grain crops and is a prominent source of calories and proteins globally. In addition to mushrooming population and rising abiotic stresses in this ongoing climate change era, biotic stresses pose a great threat to wheat production over the globe. Fungal diseases such as rusts, mildew, along with pests like aphid, hinder the potential yield performance of the elite wheat cultivars to a huge extent. The complex nature of plant-parasite interactions is shown to be the decisive factor for the ultimate resistance expression in wheat. However, the advancement of molecular genetics and biotechnology enabled the replacement of the tedious, time and resource consuming cytogenetic analyses of locating APR and ASR genes using molecular mapping techniques. Continuous efforts have been made to mine resistance genes from diverse genetic resources such as wild relatives for combating these diseases and pests, which are repositories of R genes. Additionally, they offer a promising source of genetic variation to be introgressed and exploited for imparting biotic stress tolerance in cultivated wheat. Though just a handful of R-genes are cloned and molecularly characterized in wheat so far, more than 350 resistance genes for various diseases have been identified and successfully introgressed into elite varieties around the globe. Modern genomics and phenomic approaches coupled with next-generation sequencing techniques have facilitated the fine-mapping as well as marker aided selection of resistance genes for biotic stress resistance wheat breeding.",signatures:"Harmeet Singh Bakala, Kamalpreet Singh Mandahal, Ankita, Loveleen Kaur Sarao and Puja Srivastava",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76290",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76290",authors:[{id:"245999",title:"Dr.",name:"Loveleen",surname:"Kaur Sarao",slug:"loveleen-kaur-sarao",fullName:"Loveleen Kaur Sarao"},{id:"285325",title:"Dr.",name:"Puja",surname:"Srivastava",slug:"puja-srivastava",fullName:"Puja Srivastava"},{id:"327160",title:"Mr.",name:"Harmeet",surname:"Singh Bakala",slug:"harmeet-singh-bakala",fullName:"Harmeet Singh Bakala"},{id:"331896",title:"Dr.",name:"Ankita",surname:null,slug:"ankita",fullName:"Ankita null"},{id:"350483",title:"MSc.",name:"Kamalpreet Singh",surname:"Mandahal",slug:"kamalpreet-singh-mandahal",fullName:"Kamalpreet Singh Mandahal"}],corrections:null},{id:"76195",title:"Insect Pest Complex of Wheat Crop",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95786",slug:"insect-pest-complex-of-wheat-crop",totalDownloads:225,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Wheat Triticum aestivum L. is grown on broad range of climatic conditions because of edible grains, cereal crop and stable food of about 2 Billion peoples worldwide. Additionally, it is the rich source of carbohydrates (55–60%), vegetable proteins and contributed 50–60% daily dietary requirement in Pakistan. Globally, wheat crops is grown over 90% area of total cultivated area; facing devastating biotic and abiotic factors. The estimated economic losses in wheat quantity and quality are about 4 thousands per tonne per year including physical crop losses and handling. Economic losses of about 80–90 million USD in Pakistan are recorded due to inadequate production and handling losses. Wheat agro-ecosystem of the world colonizes many herbivore insects which are abundant and causing significant losses. The feeding style of the insects made them dispersive from one habitat to another imposing significant crop loss. Areas of maximum wheat production are encountered with either insect which chew the vegetative as well as reproductive part or stem and root feeders. This chapter provides the pest’s taxonomic rank, distribution across the globe, biology and damage of chewing and sucking insect pest of wheat. It is very important to study biology of the pest in accordance with crop cycle to forecast which insect stage is economically important, what the proper time to manage pest is and what type of control is necessary to manage crop pest. The chapter will provide management strategies well suited to pest stage and environment.",signatures:"Mirza Abdul Qayyum, Shafqat Saeed, Unsar Naeem-Ullah, Amar Matloob, Muhammad Wajid, Abou Bakar Siddique, Rumail Shahid, Hafiz Ubaid Ur Rehman Zia, Huda Bilal and Muhammad Ramzan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76195",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76195",authors:[{id:"193327",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirza",surname:"Abdul Qayyum",slug:"mirza-abdul-qayyum",fullName:"Mirza Abdul Qayyum"},{id:"193990",title:"Prof.",name:"Shafqat",surname:"Saeed",slug:"shafqat-saeed",fullName:"Shafqat Saeed"},{id:"331467",title:"Dr.",name:"Unsar",surname:"Naeemullah",slug:"unsar-naeemullah",fullName:"Unsar Naeemullah"},{id:"331469",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Wajid",slug:"muhammad-wajid",fullName:"Muhammad Wajid"},{id:"331470",title:"Mr.",name:"Aboubakar",surname:"Siddique",slug:"aboubakar-siddique",fullName:"Aboubakar Siddique"},{id:"331471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amar",surname:"Matloob",slug:"amar-matloob",fullName:"Amar Matloob"},{id:"469434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rumail",surname:"Shahid",slug:"rumail-shahid",fullName:"Rumail Shahid"},{id:"469435",title:"Dr.",name:"Hafiz Ubaid",surname:"Ur Rehman Zia",slug:"hafiz-ubaid-ur-rehman-zia",fullName:"Hafiz Ubaid Ur Rehman Zia"},{id:"469436",title:"Dr.",name:"Huda",surname:"Bilal",slug:"huda-bilal",fullName:"Huda Bilal"},{id:"469437",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Ramzan",slug:"muhammad-ramzan",fullName:"Muhammad Ramzan"}],corrections:null},{id:"80941",title:"Xanthobacter autotrophicus an Endophytic Beneficial Bacterium for Wheat and Other Plants: A Short Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102066",slug:"-em-xanthobacter-autotrophicus-em-an-endophytic-beneficial-bacterium-for-wheat-and-other-plants-a-sh",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The endophytic genus plant growth promoting bacteria (EPGPB) known as Xanthobacter autrotrophicus is one of the most interesting option to apply on the production of wheat (Triticum aestivum), and other domestic crops lettuce (Lactuca sativa), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) rice (Oriza sativa) maize (Zea mays): under all types of agriculture systems: open field, protecting one or either organic sustainable type. The aims of this review is to analyze the qualities of X. autotrophicus as useful EPGPB for sustainable production of wheat and other crops regarding its capacity as able to fix molecular nitrogen (N2) as well as by transforming plant metabolic compounds in phytohormons, including phosphatase enzyme for solubilizing phosphate to solve different soil problems related with its fertility also some phytopathological like to stop of growing weed as Arabidopsis thaliana which are competing with health growth of domestic plants. Beside the potencial of X. autotrophicus for bioremediation of environmental polluted by chemicals.",signatures:"Juan Manuel Sánchez-Yañez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80941",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80941",authors:[{id:"329840",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Manuel",surname:"Sanchez-Yañez",slug:"juan-manuel-sanchez-yanez",fullName:"Juan Manuel Sanchez-Yañez"}],corrections:null},{id:"75413",title:"Russian Wheat Aphid Distribution in Wheat Production Areas: Consequences of Management Practices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96375",slug:"russian-wheat-aphid-distribution-in-wheat-production-areas-consequences-of-management-practices",totalDownloads:183,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Russian wheat aphid (RWA) is an international pest on wheat and occurs in most countries where large scale wheat cultivation is practiced. Consequently, considerable efforts have been made to manage RWA globally. The two management options used currently are chemical control and breeding for deployment of resistant wheat cultivars. There are however drawbacks to both of these management practices. Chemical control has a negative impact on the environment, especially other insect groups such as predators, pollinators and decomposers. With widespread and continuous use of the same active ingredients, there is the possibility that RWA can build up resistance against these specific active ingredients. The drawback with resistance breeding is that certain RWA populations can overcome the resistance in the wheat, resulting in new biotypes virulent to the resistant wheat cultivars.",signatures:"Astrid Jankielsohn",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75413",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75413",authors:[{id:"198740",title:"Dr.",name:"Astrid",surname:"Jankielsohn",slug:"astrid-jankielsohn",fullName:"Astrid Jankielsohn"}],corrections:null},{id:"74509",title:"Silicon Use in the Integrated Disease Management of Wheat: Current Knowledge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95285",slug:"silicon-use-in-the-integrated-disease-management-of-wheat-current-knowledge",totalDownloads:298,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Silicon (Si) is a benefic element for higher plants such as wheat (Triticum aestivum) in which it is accumulated in the shoot tissues. In this crop, leaf diseases and spike diseases are the cause of yield losses, and therefore several studies had been conducted under field and greenhouse conditions to demonstrate that plants supplied with Si reduced most of the diseases damage due to the amelioration of the plant defenses. However, the benefits of Si depend on its accumulation in the plant’s tissue, which is influenced by the availability of the element in the soil as well as the up-take ability of the wheat cultivar. In this chapter we present the current knowledge about the mechanisms of Si absorption and its accumulation in different tissues of the wheat plant, the most studied options for silicate fertilization, and the benefits of Si on grain yield. We also present some insight of the effect of Si-supply in wheat on the reduction of main leaf and ear diseases, bringing evidence and explanation of the defense mechanisms involved. In addition, we provide an overview of the Si effect on the physiology (gas exchange, chlorophyll a fluorescence and carbohydrate metabolism) of the wheat plant. Finally, questions have been raised about the Si uses as fertilizer that still needs to be answered. We recognized that some studies have enhanced our understanding of Si providing evidence of the Si use as disease management strategy, but further research is needed to make the Si uses a simple task for wheat growers under field condition.",signatures:"Leandro José Dallagnol, Andrea Elizabeth Román Ramos and Keilor da Rosa Dorneles",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74509",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74509",authors:[{id:"332337",title:"Dr.",name:"Leandro",surname:"José Dallagnol",slug:"leandro-jose-dallagnol",fullName:"Leandro José Dallagnol"},{id:"340908",title:"Dr.",name:"Keilor da Rosa",surname:"Dorneles",slug:"keilor-da-rosa-dorneles",fullName:"Keilor da Rosa Dorneles"},{id:"340909",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea Elizabeth Román",surname:"Ramos",slug:"andrea-elizabeth-roman-ramos",fullName:"Andrea Elizabeth Román Ramos"}],corrections:null},{id:"79012",title:"Stresses in Plants: Biotic and Abiotic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100501",slug:"stresses-in-plants-biotic-and-abiotic",totalDownloads:137,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plants are subjected to a variety of environmental stresses, which reduces and limits agricultural crop productivity. Environmental stresses that affect plants are of two types: biotic and abiotic stresses. Abiotic stress includes temperature, ultraviolet radiation, salinity, floods, drought, heavy metals, etc., which results in the loss of important crop plants globally, while biotic stress refers to damage caused by insects, herbivores, nematodes, fungi, bacteria, or weeds. Plants respond to all these environmental factors because the pants are fixed in a particular place. To cope with these stresses, a number of strategies have been developed by plants. They detect that the environmental stresses become activated and then generate the necessary cellular responses. Several investigations have been carried out to determine and understand plant assimilates partitioning and stress-tolerance plant genotype necessary for the understanding of the complexity of the response of a plant to biotic and abiotic stresses.",signatures:"Olayinka Bolaji Umar, Lawal Amudalat Ranti, Abdulbaki Shehu Abdulbaki, Abdulra’uf Lukman Bola, Abdulkareem Khadijat Abdulhamid, Murtadha Ramat Biola and Kayode Oluwagbenga Victor",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79012",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79012",authors:[{id:"417247",title:"Dr.",name:"Olayinka",surname:"Bolaji Umar",slug:"olayinka-bolaji-umar",fullName:"Olayinka Bolaji Umar"},{id:"469439",title:"Dr.",name:"Lawal",surname:"Amudalat Ranti",slug:"lawal-amudalat-ranti",fullName:"Lawal Amudalat Ranti"},{id:"469440",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulra’uf",surname:"Lukman Bola",slug:"abdulra'uf-lukman-bola",fullName:"Abdulra’uf Lukman Bola"},{id:"469441",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulkareem",surname:"Khadijat Abdulhamid",slug:"abdulkareem-khadijat-abdulhamid",fullName:"Abdulkareem Khadijat Abdulhamid"},{id:"469443",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulbaki",surname:"Shehu Abdulbaki",slug:"abdulbaki-shehu-abdulbaki",fullName:"Abdulbaki Shehu Abdulbaki"},{id:"469444",title:"Dr.",name:"Murtadha",surname:"Ramat Biola",slug:"murtadha-ramat-biola",fullName:"Murtadha Ramat Biola"},{id:"469445",title:"Dr.",name:"Kayode",surname:"Oluwagbenga Victor",slug:"kayode-oluwagbenga-victor",fullName:"Kayode Oluwagbenga Victor"}],corrections:null},{id:"74458",title:"Drought Affected Wheat Production in Bangladesh and Breeding Strategies for Drought Tolerance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95283",slug:"drought-affected-wheat-production-in-bangladesh-and-breeding-strategies-for-drought-tolerance",totalDownloads:188,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Wheat is one of the major cereal crops in Bangladesh. Over the last two decades, wheat consumption has passionately amplified in Bangladesh but its production has declined due to various stress environments. Recurrent drought event due to climate change that threatens the country’s food safety has become a serious concern. To safeguard the food security, adopting suitable breeding strategies can add momentum. Developing drought tolerant wheat varieties are the definitive means of protecting the crop against hostile effects of drought. Plant breeders are exploring various breeding strategies to breed for the varieties that can cope with water deficient conditions well. Besides, breeders are consistently looking for new prospects and strategies that can boost genetic gain in yield. To endorse drought tolerance in wheat, understanding the physiological and genetic adaptation mechanisms of wheat cultivars during drought stress would provide the estimated benchmarks to adjust for suitable breeding programs. The efforts of developing drought tolerant wheat genotypes could be supported by different breeding strategies including in vitro haploid and double haploid protocols, polyploidization, development of various types of hybrids and induced mutants by utilizing both classical and molecular breeding techniques. The proposed book chapter shall discuss the pattern of drought-stress in the wheat growing regions, effects of drought stress on wheat production and suitable breeding strategies for developing drought tolerant genotypes in Bangladesh.",signatures:"Afsana Hannan, Md. Najmol Hoque, Lutful Hassan and Arif Hasan Khan Robin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74458",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74458",authors:[{id:"322667",title:"Prof.",name:"Arif Hasan Khan",surname:"Robin",slug:"arif-hasan-khan-robin",fullName:"Arif Hasan Khan Robin"},{id:"322844",title:"Mrs.",name:"Afsana",surname:"Hannan",slug:"afsana-hannan",fullName:"Afsana Hannan"},{id:"329290",title:"Mr.",name:"Md. Najmol",surname:"Hoque",slug:"md.-najmol-hoque",fullName:"Md. Najmol Hoque"},{id:"329291",title:"Prof.",name:"Lutful",surname:"Hassan",slug:"lutful-hassan",fullName:"Lutful Hassan"}],corrections:null},{id:"74465",title:"Energy Use Efficiency in Irrigated and Rainfed Wheat in Pakistan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95284",slug:"energy-use-efficiency-in-irrigated-and-rainfed-wheat-in-pakistan",totalDownloads:280,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Wheat is an important staple food in Pakistan and is grown in both irrigated and rainfed production systems. To meet increased demand, farmers have increased the use of input energy in wheat production. The intensive use of energy has many consequences for energy security and environmental sustainability. In this chapter, we have analyzed the energy use efficiency of wheat crop grown in two different production systems using data collected from wheat farmers of Punjab province of Pakistan through face-to-face interviews. Energy input–output analysis revealed that 49,079 MJ/ha input energy is used in irrigated wheat and 31,421 MJ/ha in rainfed wheat. The main difference between both production systems is because of irrigation water. Fertilizer has the highest share in total energy consumption followed by diesel fuel. Energy consumed per kilogram of wheat produced is less in rainfed wheat compared to irrigated. Similarly, energy efficiency values of rainfed wheat are better than irrigated wheat. Results of data envelopment analysis reveal that 38% of wheat farmers in rainfed systems and 62% in the irrigated system are using energy efficiently. The substantial difference between the energy use of inefficient and efficient indicates that there’s a significant potential to improve energy use efficiency in both systems.",signatures:"Muhammad Imran and Orhan Özçatalbaş",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74465",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74465",authors:[{id:"170206",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Orhan",surname:"Özçatalbaş",slug:"dr.-orhan-ozcatalbas",fullName:"Dr. Orhan Özçatalbaş"},{id:"332065",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Imran",slug:"muhammad-imran",fullName:"Muhammad Imran"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6635",title:"Protein-Protein Interaction Assays",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1bed553d74f0565c89758a7159647634",slug:"protein-protein-interaction-assays",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman 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On the other hand, optical solitons in both 1D and 2D PT-symmetric (parity-time symmetric) complex lattices and solitons and multi-humped structures (dipoles and vortices) in lattices with irregularities such as edge dislocation and vacancy defect are also shown to exist. Moreover, triangular and rectangular similariton generations are recently reported in photonic lattices.
\r\n\tHowever, many questions concerning the shape and stability properties of lattice solitons remain open. For instance, do other types of lattice solitons in different geometrical structures exist as well? How does the lattice shape effect the solitons’ shape and soliton stability?
\r\n\tIn this book, we aim to present the recent developments in optical lattice soliton theory and applications.
\r\n\tTopics that will be included, but are not limited to:
\r\n\tOne-dimensional and two-dimensional lattice solitons in Kerr and saturable media
\r\n\tSolitons in Bose-Einstein condensates (BEC’s)
\r\n\tLinear, nonlinear and mixed linear-nonlinear optical lattice solitons
\r\n\tNonlocal nonlinear lattices
\r\n\tLattices with defects
\r\n\tSolitons in lattices with quadratic nonlinearities
\r\n\tSolitons in photonic-crystals and photonic-crystal fibers
\r\n\tSimilariton generation in optical lattices
\r\n\tPulse shaping in mode-locked lasers
\r\n\tLattice soliton interactions
Wearable technologies are becoming increasingly popular as personal health system, enabling continuous real-time monitoring of human health on a daily basis and outside clinical environments [1, 2, 3]. The wearable device market is currently having a worldwide profit of around $34 billion and is expected to reach above $50 billion by 2022 owing to wearables’ ease of use, flexibility, and convenience [4]. Real-time monitoring, operational efficiency, and fitness tracking are reported as main factors supporting the market growth of health wearable devices such as smart watches, smart glasses, and other wellness gadgets, with expected $12.1 billion world market by 2021 [5].
\nIn the past decade, the recent progress in developing wearable devices was more focused on monitoring physical parameters, such as motion, respiration rate, etc. [3, 6, 7]. Today, there is a great interest in evolving wearable sensors capable of detecting chemical markers relevant to the status of health. Different approaches have been applied by researchers to design and fabricate wearable biosensors for remote monitoring of metabolites and electrolytes in body fluids including tear, sweat, and saliva [3, 8, 9, 10]. A great example would be the development of small and reliable sensors that would allow continuous glucose monitoring in diabetic patients [11, 12]. Diabetes is a chronic disease that can significantly impact on quality of life and reduce life expectancy. However, diabetics can stay one step ahead of the disease by monitoring their blood glucose level to minimize the complication of the disease by proper administration of insulin. Currently, blood analysis is the gold standard method for measuring the level of glucose in patient’s blood. However, this technique cannot be applied without penetrating the skin, which can be painful and inconvenient, and requires user obedience. Therefore, current research focuses on the development of portable and wearable devices capable of continuous glucose sensing through noninvasive detection techniques.
\nA majority of the recent studies in this field have targeted the area of personalized medicine, endeavoring to develop miniaturized wearable devices featuring real-time glucose monitoring in diabetic patients [12, 13, 14, 15]. One great example is contact lens which is an ideal wearable device that can be worn for hours without any pain or discomfort [16]. Integration of glucose biosensors into contact lenses has recently been demonstrated by several research groups [9, 17, 18]. However, the level of glucose in tear fluid is very low (0.1–0.6 mM), requiring a high sensitivity of the sensor for picking up the signal from expected chemical reaction [3, 19]. Yao et al. [16] have fabricated a contact lens with integrated sensor for continuous tear glucose monitoring with wireless communication system over a distance of several centimeters. The sensor demonstrated a fast response of 20 s with a minimum detection of less than 0.01 mM glucose, which is 10–60 times lower than glucose level in human tear [16].
\nIn addition to glucose, lactate is an important metabolite in the human body, which gets converted into l-lactate under hypoxic condition [20]. l-Lactate levels in tear fluid is about 1–5 mmol L−1, which might increase significantly due to some heath conditions including ischemia, inadequate tissue oxygenation, stroke, and different types of cancer [21]. Thomas et al. [22] demonstrated an invasive detection of lactate in human tear by integrating an amperometric lactate sensor with Pt working (WE) and reference (RE) electrodes as well as a counter electrode (CE) as current drain, on a polymer-based contact lens, measuring lactate in situ in human tears without any need for physical sampling [22].
\nVery recently, Park et al. [17] reported a novel approach for fabricating fully transparent and stretchable smart contact lens capable of wirelessly monitoring the level of glucose in the tears of diabetic patients. Figure 1 shows the layout of fabricated devices made of glucose sensors, wireless circuit, and display pixel on soft and transparent contact lens substrate (Figure 1a and b). The circuit diagram of the device is illustrated in Figure 1a, with radio frequency antenna receiving signals from a transmitter and a rectifier converting the signals to DC (Figure 1a and c). A continuous network of ultralong Ag nanofibers was used as stretchable electrodes for the antenna and interconnects (Figure 1d). In the case of any change in the concentration of glucose in tear, the sensor resistance changes resulting in the light-emitting diode (LED) pixel turning on or off. The device was tested in vitro using a live rabbit, providing substantial finding for smart contact lenses as one of the promising wearable devices in healthcare system [17].
\n(a) (i) Schematic illustration and (ii) operation of the soft, smart contact lens and (iii) the circuit diagram of the smart contact lens system. The soft, smart contact lens is composed of (b) a hybrid substrate; (c) functional devices including rectifier, LED, and glucose sensor; and (d) a transparent, stretchable conductor for antenna and interconnects [
In addition to tear, sweat electrolyte concentrations and blood serum are related [2, 8]. As one of the most readily accessible human biofluids, a great deal of information about the human body and its physical performance could be obtained via monitoring sweat electrolyte concentrations [23, 24]. Several groups have reported the key biomarkers in human sweat (e.g., sodium level, pH change, lactate concentration) relevant to human health and well-being, for monitoring athletic performance during sporting activities [25]. Jia et al. fabricated a skin-worn tattoo-based sensor for real-time monitoring of lactate in human sweat, offering substantial benefits for biomedical as well as sport applications [25]. In another approach, Curto et al. [26] fabricated a wearable and flexible microfluidic platform capable of monitoring changes in the sweat pH in real time. Anastasova et al. [27] developed a flexible microfluidic device for real-time monitoring of metabolite such as lactate as well as electrolytes such as pH and sodium in human sweat. Recently, Gao et al. [28] developed a flexible and wearable device (Figure 2) made of arrays of sensors for real-time monitoring of heavy metals, such as Zn, Cu, and Hg in human sweat. The device fabrication method is presented in Figure 2a, showing the deposition and stripping steps on microelectrodes. The sensing mechanism was based on an electrochemical detection of targeted heavy metals through four microelectrodes, including Au and Bi working electrodes, Ag reference electrode, and an Au counter electrode (Figure 2b and c). The fabricated device demonstrated high stability and selectivity toward heavy metals, providing a great platform to advancing the field of wearable biosensors for healthcare application, via monitoring the level of some heavy metals in human sweat [28]. A balanced level of Zn is necessary in the human body as a low and high Zn concentration can lead to pneumonia and liver damages, respectively [29, 30]. High level of Cu in the human body can lead to several diseases including Wilson’s disease and heart, kidney, and liver failures as well as brain diseases [31, 32]. The fabricated device demonstrated high stability and selectivity toward heavy metals, providing a great platform to advancing the field of wearable biosensors for healthcare application [28].
\n(a) A schematic showing the concept of deposition and stripping on microelectrodes. (b) A schematic showing the composition of the microsensor array. (c) Optical image of a flexible sensor array interfacing with a flexible printed circuit connector [
Saliva, as a great diagnostic fluid, can be used in personal health devices for real-time monitoring of chemical markers including salivary lactate analysis [33]. Chai et al. developed a saliva nanosensor with a radio-frequency identification tag, integrated into dental implants for detecting cardiac biomarkers in saliva and predicting close heart attack in patients suffering from cardiovascular diseases [34]. In another approach, an instrumented mouthguard was designed and fabricated by Kim et al. [35] for measuring salivary uric acid levels which could be a biomarker for several diseases including hyperuricemia, gout, physical stress, and renal syndrome. The fabricated device showed high selectivity and sensitivity to low level of uric acid as well as great stability during a 4-h operation period [35]. Mannoor et al. [36] developed a hybrid biosensor made of graphene layers printed onto water-soluble silk, for noninvasive detection of bacteria through body fluids including sweat and saliva. This graphene/silk hybrid device illustrated an extremely high sensitivity to bacteria in body fluid with detection limits down to a single bacterium [36]. In addition, the fabricated device provided the potential users with battery-free operation and wireless communication system via radio frequency [36]. Arakawa et al. [37] designed and fabricated a salivary sensor equipped with a wireless measurement system, embedded onto a mouthguard support, featuring a high sensitivity toward detection of glucose over a range of 5–1000 μmol L−1. The device demonstrated a great stability during a 5-h real-time glucose monitoring period in an artificial saliva with a phantom jaw [37]. In a similar approach, de Castro et al. [38] developed a microfluidic paper-based device integrated into a mouthguard, for continues monitoring of glucose and nitrite in human saliva. The saliva samples were collected from periodontitis and/or diabetes patients as well as healthy individuals. The fabricated device featured a low detection limit of 27 and 7 μmol L−1 for glucose and nitrite, respectively [38].
\nIn summary, there is a great potential for micro- and nanosensors’ integration into healthcare monitoring devices, developing new technologies for noninvasive detection of diseases in the human body. Flexible wearable devices offer promising capabilities in real-time monitoring of body fluids including tear, sweat, and saliva. However, more research is required to expand the use of wearable platforms in continuous analysis of body fluids, providing reliable real-time detection of targeting ions and proteins, among other complex analytes.
\nThe phosphosilicate apatites containing a coupled substitution of the divalent cation by a trivalent lanthanide or a tetravalent actinide ion and the trivalent groupment PO4 by a tetravalent SiO4 groupment in the general formula Me(XO4)6Y2 (Me: divalent cation; XO4: anionic groupment and Y: monovalent anion) allow to obtain materials called britholite [1, 2, 3, 4]. Such materials were found in the natural nuclear reactors Alko of Gabon which demonstrated that they are storing some radionuclides such as uranium U, thorium Th, plutonium Pu and minor actinides like neptinium Np, americium Am and curium Cm [5, 6, 7, 8]. Moreover, silicate based apatite samples were found to contain up to 50 wt% of lanthanides (La, Ce, Nd) and actinides (U, Th) in Ouzzal site of Algeria [9]. Hence, britholites were considered as natural nuclear waste disposal and allowing the confinement of radionuclides and some fission byproducts produced by the nuclear industry [10, 11, 12]. In fact, many studies indicated that britholites are able to confine radionuclides with continuous irradiation for millions of years with conserved structure and thermal and chemical stability [13, 14]. Indeed, due to the stability and flexibility of their structure, apatites offer many possibilities for substitutions. Moreover, britholite materials favored many cationic and anionic substitutions in their crystallographic structure. These later might be in a total or limited range [15, 16, 17]. Therefore, these substitutions are governed by the ionic sizes, the valence, the electronegativity and the polarizability [18]. In this context, several processes have been developed for the preparation of these materials containing various elements such as actinides and lanthanides via solid state reaction or mechanical synthesis [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
On the other hand, many investigations have revealed that britholites might be a good ionic conductor for their use in fuel cells. The conductivity was proved as a thermal process at intermediate temperature range 400–900°C [28, 29, 30, 31, 32]. Therefore, the electrical properties allow using the materials as a solid electrolyte in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) [33, 34].
Like-apatite, phosphosilicate apatites have a hexagonal structure and a space group P63/m [15, 35]. Their framework is built on the sixth XO4 groups and the Me is divided between two crystallographic sites: four are located in the site Me(1), coordination 9, and six other are located in the site Me(2), coordination 7. Hence, in order to highlight the capacity of these materials to store non radioactive elements similar to radionuclides as well as their potentialities as ionic conductors, the sintered materials series Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 were investigated.
A solid state method was adopted to prepare strontium fluorobritholites compounds Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 [36]. The starting reagents: strontium fluoride SrF2 (99.99%. Merck)), strontium carbonate SrCO3 (≥99.00% Fluka), silica SiO2 (Prolabo), lanthanum and neodymium oxide (La2O3·Nd2O3) (99.99% Merck) and strontium diphosphate (Sr2P2O7) were used. The reaction equation (1) is the following:
Sr2P2O7 was synthesized by the following reaction at 900°C:
SrCO3 (>96% Riedel de Haen), Gd2O3 (>99.5% Prolabo), Nd2O3 (>99.5% Prolabo) SiO2 (>99.5% Alfa), SrF2 (>99.5% Prolabo) and (NH4)2HPO4 (>99% Acros Organics) were used as raw materials. For each composition the molar ratio (Sr + La + Nd)/(P + Si) and the obtained quantity of each composition should be respectively 1.67 and 1.5 × 10−3 moles. Before synthesis, each quantity of lanthanum and neodymium oxides given in Table 1 was furnaced at 1000°C for 12 h to avoid the formation of Ln-hydroxide. Then, the solid mixture was milled and homogenized in an agate mortar for about 30 min, and then cold pressed under 100 MPa into pellets (30 and 3 mm). During sintering, the pellets were sintered in the temperature range 1250–1450°C in a carbolyte type furnace with controlled argon atmosphere. The temperature varied with 50°C for each value of x. The sintering cycle is shown in Figure 1. The heating and cooling rate was of 10°C min−1. In the following sections, the samples will be named SrLa2−xNdxF where x is the substituted Nd rate.
Thermal cycle used for strontium fluorobritholite sintering.
Reactants | SrLa2F | SrLa1.5Nd0.5F | SrLa1Nd1F | SrLa0.5Nd1.5F | SrNd2F |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
La2O3 | 0.4887 | 0.3665 | 0.2443 | 0.1221 | — |
Nd2O3 | — | 0.1261 | 0.2523 | 0.3785 | 0.5047 |
Masses in grams of lanthanum and neodymium oxides used in the synthesis of
A PANalytical X’pert Pro diffractometer with a KαCu anode (λ = 1.54 Å) operating 40 kV and 40 mA was the apparatus used for the XRD patterns recording. The scans range was between 10 and 70° (2θ) with a step size of 0.02°. The crystallite size of the powder Dhkl was calculated using the (300) and (002) reflections following Debye Sheerer equation [37]:
Needs to remember that λ is the X-ray wavelength of the monochromatic X-ray beam. For the apatitic crystallites K is a constant equal to 0.9. β1/2 is the full width at half maximum of the selected reflection and θ is the Bragg’s diffraction angle.
The Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR)-attenuated total reflection (ATR) spectra were performed at room temperature on a Perkin Elmer spectrometer in the spectral range 4000–400 cm−1.
The chemical analysis of Sr., P, Si, La and Nd ions in the synthesized samples was determined via an inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) (JY-Horiba Ultima-C spectrometer). The samples were thus previously mixed with 99.9% lithium metaborate, fused at 1000°C for 25 min and dissolved in HCl (0.6 M). The fluoride content in the synthesized samples was measured by a specific ion-selective electrode.
The complex impedance measurements were performed on pellets sintered at between 1250 and 1450°C for 24 h. Their densities varied from 72 to 83% of the theoretical density as a function the sintering temperature. The two faces of the pellets were coated with a silver paint and then two platinum wires electrodes linked them to a Hewlett-Packard 4192-A impedance analyzer. The measurements were recorded with the temperatures variation from 450 to 780°C and frequencies from 10 Hz to 13 MHz.
The samples’ quantitative chemical analyses are shown in Table 2. As observed there is a satisfactory agreement between the elements amount determined from the analyses and those introduced in the starting. As a consequence, the experimental formula was close to the theoretical ones. The
Samples | Sr | La | Nd | P | Si | F | Molar ratio |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SrLa2F | 7.96 | 1.97 | — | 3.98 | 1.97 | 1.99 | 1.668 |
SrLa1.5Nd0.5F | 7.96 | 1.47 | 0.47 | 3.98 | 1.96 | 1.98 | 1.666 |
SrLa1Nd1F | 7.97 | 0.98 | 0.97 | 3.99 | 1.96 | 1.96 | 1.667 |
SrLa0.5Nd1.5F | 7.99 | 0.47 | 1.48 | 3.99 | 1.98 | 1.97 | 1.664 |
SrNd2F | 7.98 | — | 1.97 | 3.98 | 1.98 | 1.97 | 1.669 |
Number of atoms per unit cell of Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
Figure 2 showed the XRD patterns of all compositions. It is evident that the samples were single apatite phase. By comparaison to the JCPDS 17-0609 file data for the strontium fluorapatite, the samples are characteristic of the hexagonal symmetry and the P63/m space group. No additional diffraction lines relative to supplementary phases were detected in any of the patterns. However, the presence of very small quantities of impurities was not excluded. The XRD patterns of the Figure 3 indicated that when the substitution level increased, the peaks slightly shift towards the high 2θ angles indicating a contraction of the unit cell. This contraction, which agrees with the Nd3+ radius (VI
DRX spectra of strontium fluorbritholites Sr8La2Ndx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
Radiation (300) of fluorbritholites Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
As shown in Figure 4 and Table 3, the cristallographic parameters calculated using the Fullprof program without any structural refinement of the all compositions depended on the substitution level. In fact, if Nd content rose,
Lattice parameters as a function neodymium level in the Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
Sample | a (Å) | c (Å) | V (Å3) | D300 (Å) | D300 (Å) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
SrLa2F | 9.735(2) | 7.281(2) | 597.55(2) | 304(3) | 387(4) |
SrLa1.5Nd0.5F | 9.730(3) | 7.278(3) | 596.69(2) | 278(2) | 362(3) |
SrLa1Nd1F | 9.725(2) | 7.271(2) | 595.43(2) | 254(3) | 347(2) |
SrLa0.5Nd1.5F | 9.720(3) | 7.267(2) | 594.57(3) | 237(3) | 326(3) |
SrNd2F | 9.717(3) | 7.263(2) | 593.87(3) | 223(4) | 307(4) |
Crystallographic parameters of strontium fluorbritholites Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
indicates the existence of a continuous solid solution in the explored substitution domain.
The rational parameters that govern the site occupation are the nature, the electronegativities, the valences and the polarizabilities of the ions. The bibliography studies’ results indicated that like those observed in natural phosphosilicate apatites, the substituted cations in the apatite structure had preferential occupation for Me(2) sites [42, 43, 44, 45]. Thus, it could be concluded that La3+ and Nd3+ ions substituting Sr2+ with 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 in our studied samples were subsequently preferentially localized in Me(2) sites.
The FTIR spectra of the samples were given in Figure 5. The identification of all the bands was done by comparison with un- and substituted strontium fluorapatite the previously reported in the literature [40, 41]. The characteristic absorption bands of SiO4 and PO4 were observed [41].
Infrared spectra of Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
The PO4characteristic bands observed at 1072–1024 cm −1 coincide with to the asymmetric stretching mode (
In the Figure 6 are represented the 31P NMR-MAS spectra. A single isotropic signal was observed for all the spectra. It indicated also that a unique crystallographic site for the PO4 tetrahedron in the apatite structure was present. However a slight chemical shift towards the lower values was observed as well as a broadening of the peaks was attributed to the Nd substitution. This fact was related to a disorder induced in the apatite network caused by the substitution of La by Nd. This was previously seen with doped with rare earth apatite’s [46, 47, 48].
31P NMR-MAS spectra of fluorbritholites Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
Materials densification optimization has been performed by sintering the synthesized samples in the temperatures range 1250–1500°C with a fixed holding time of 6 h. Relative density
where the theoretical density ρthe was calculated using the equation:
(Z: number of molecules/unit cell, M: molecular weight Na: Avogadro number and V: volume of the unit cell) and experimental density determined from the mass and the dimension of sintered pellets by means of the equation
Figure 7 shows that relative density of the sintered samples strictly depends on sintering temperatures as well as on Nd content. An irregular trend was noted and the highest relative density 89% was obtained with x = 2 Nd content when sintered only at 1250°C. The remaining samples presents lower than densifications ratios obtained at higher temperatures. From these data, it can be deduced that the grains morphology and size modification strongly depends on Nd content and sintering temperature. The Nd doping should improve the materials densification by reducing the porosity. This was confirmed by the percentage porosity of the higher densified samples calculated by the following equation:
Relative density versus sintering temperature of Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
As plotted on Figure 8, the porosity of the samples decreased as Nd content increased. This result muched the evolution of the relative density suggested to increase when crystallite size is reduced (i.e. grain size). This should promotes the materials densifications by eliminating the intergranular porosity.
Porosity versus Nd content of maximum densified samples.
The microstructure of the samples given on Figure 9 is closely coherent with the densification rates as well as porosity. Indeed, the micrographs show a progressive removal of the porosity when the Nd rate rises. Thus with x = 0 the microstructure is of intergranular aspect revealing the presence of abundant porosity. With x = 0.5, although some pores persist on the surface the porosity was reduced,. When x = 1 the open porosity has almost disappeared and only the closed porosity remains, reflecting the 89% densification.
Micrographs of sintered samples Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 (a) x = 0.0; (b) x = 0.5; (c) x = 1.0.
The ionic conductivity of the samples was determined between 400 and 800°C with a step of 20°C by complex impedance plots. Thus, for each sample, 20 complex impedance plots (plane, Z″ vs Z′) were plotted. The intercept of the semicircular arcs with the real axis allow obtaining the bulk resistance R. The ionic conductivity of the sintered samples was calculated from the equation:
The thickness and the area of the sample were e and S, respectively. Figure 10 reprinted the ionic conductivity σ versus the neodymium substitution. The first deduction is that σ depends on this substitution and particularly at higher temperatures. The curves obtained at 604 (877 K) and 482°C (755 K) indcated that the measured conductivity was about 4.4 × 10−7 S cm−1. By contrary with the increase of Nd content, σ rose up to 1.73 × 10−6 S cm−1 at 779°C (1052 K). Hence, the electric conductivity of the samples depend onthe Nd substituted level.
Ionic conductivity versus neodymium content.
The total activation energy of the samples was obtained from the Arrhenius equation:
The parameters to define are the pre-exponential factor A, activation energy Ea, Boltzmann constant k and absolute temperature T, respectively. Figure 11 shows an Arrhenius-type plot indicating that the electrical conduction of the materials is activated by heating. The σ values were slightly different from those found in the literature [49, 50]. The difference might have resulted from the preparation and sintering methods reflected by the difference in densification ratios (range 72–83%). The slope in the Arrhenius plots versus temperatures gives the activation energy. This later parameter increased when Nd level rose reaching a maximum of 1.1 eV when x = 1 then decreased to 0.91 eV (Table 4). Moreover a slight break in slope for x ≥ 1 was detected in the Arrhenius plots. This was related to the Sr/Nd▬F bond likely to the work of Njema and al [49]. In fact, in Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with (0 ≤ x ≤ 2) samples, the mobility of F− along the
Plots of LnσT versus 1000/T of fluorbritholites Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
x | 0 | 0.5 | 1 | 1.5 | 2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ea (eV) | 0.87 | 0.95 | 1.1 | 1.03 | 0.91 |
Activation energy of Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
Strontium fluorbritholites Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with (0 ≤ x ≤ 2) were successfully prepared by reaction in the solid state. Characterization by several techniques revealed that all the powders were composed of a single apatite phase. The lattice parameters
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