Private, club, common and public goodsSource: Shaw, 2004.
\r\n\tThis book chapter’s main theme will be focused on transmission dynamics, pathogenesis, mechanisms of host interaction and response, epigenetics and markers, molecular diagnosis, RNA interacting proteins, RNA binding proteins, advanced development of tools for diagnosis, possible development of concepts for vaccines and anti drugs for RNA viruses, immunological mechanisms, treatment, prevention and control.
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Everyday, the importance of global public goods (GPGs) is increasing in the globalization process. GPGs are public goods with benefits or costs (peace, crime, terrorism, disease etc.) that extend across countries and regions, across rich and poor population groups, and even across generations. GPGs comprehensively cover global issues such as peace and security, health, global warming, market efficiency, global financial stability, human rights, knowledge etc.
GPGs affect many aspects of our lives. Many GPGs have existed outside of human intervention, such as the oceans, the ozone layer, and the atmosphere. As globalization has advanced other GPGs have come to our attention, and this has increased the capacity of cross-border influences, both in a positive and negative manner. However, the concept of GPGs is new and an agreed-upon definition is unfortunately missing. As a result, it is a priority to define and structure the growing phenomenon of GPGs.
The growing force of GPGs has shown that policy decisions involving the public have been extremely positive in response to the challenges they pose (Gardiner, R. & Le Goulven K., 2001b). C.P. Kindleberger first mentioned GPGs in his article on “International Public Goods without International Government” in 1986, although, GPGs did not achieve prominence until a publication by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 1999. I. Kaul uses the term GPG to mean a public good which is non-rival and non-excludable throughout the whole world, as opposed to a public good which exists in just one national area. Knowledge is a canonical example of a GPG for him. The term GPG has also become associated with the concept of a common heritage of mankind in some academic literature.
Nowadays, many crises threaten the globalization process of the world, including global conflicts, global warming, international financial stability, and growing poverty. With the globalization process, peace and security are also conceived as GPGs. During recent wars, millions of people died, and the costs incurred by the global community contained military costs, refugee costs, economic costs, instability costs, and international peace operations (Yılmaz, 2010). At the beginning of the 21st century, technological accomplishments have also given rise to fresh and unique patterns of communication, cooperation and mobilization, and discoveries in the fields of medicine and science allow the potential to make it possible for humans to lead longer, more productive and healthier lives. These benefits have been accompanied, on the other hand, by a parallel rise in threats to human security, ranging from international terrorism and global climate change, to increased poverty and the spread of new diseases, often resulting in the explosion of conflict (Smith, 2006).
In a minimal way, GPGs for health contain the control of diseases and epidemic surveillance, disease eradication, disease research, and pollution emissions. It can be further enlarged to cover poverty reduction and disaster relief, expertise in development and technical assistance in health (Sandler & Arce, 2002).
The first objective of this study is to scrutinize the concept of GPGs and to show some concrete examples, and to suggest some solutions for solving the GPGs’ problems. The second purpose of the study is to provide a contribution to the discussion of GPGs’ theory, which is still at the development stage.
This chapter is organized as follows: The first part presents a literature review and the definition as well as the classification of GPGs. The second part examines in more detail, peace and security, and health GPGs. The final part resumes arguments on suggestions for solutions regarding GPGs.
A growing literature stresses the raising awareness that the benefits or harm of some public policies, programs, and services extend beyond the boundaries of independent nation-states (for more details, see Stiglitz (1995); Sandler (1997); Kaul et al. (1999); Kaul et al. (2003)). For example, Jayaraman & Kanbur (1999), Cook & Sachs (1999), Ferroni (2000) investigate the role of foreign aid in the provision of GPGs while Stansfield et al. (2002) suggest that the development assistance community should become more clearly concerned with identifying different strategies for the prioritization and financing of GPGs. According to Ferguson (2004) and Lal (2004), stability needs the provision of GPGs in the form of a stable world monetary order, clear and enforced rules regarding international trade and finance, and the defence against state failure and rogue states. Kaul & Conceicao (2006) highlight globalization and increasing porosity of national borders which have been key driving forces that have led to growing interdependence and interlocking of the public domains –and therefore, public policy concerns – of countries, governments, private businesses, civil society, and people at large. Levaggi (2009) discusses optimal conditions for GPGs in his study, while Kammas & Philippopoulos (2010) provide a quantitative assessment of the welfare cost of tax competition or, equivalently, the welfare benefit of international tax policy cooperation. The GPG concept has also been proposed to address a possible poor match between global problems and institutions to handle them (Fidler, 1998; Cornes & Sandler, 1996; Sandler 1997; Chen et al. 1999).
Regarding peace and security, Mendez (1999) denotes peace as a state of relations among people and nations that everyone dreams to protect. He discusses the importance of UN peacekeeping forces in providing the GPG of peace and claims that a system of collective security, in contrast to a balance or concert of powers or predominance, is best suited to provide peace, exactly because it reflects the security management structure that exists at the national level. Moller (2004) concludes that there are therefore numerous ways of preventing, managing and resolving violent conflicts, all with a view to reducing the public evil represented by war, and thereby promoting peace as a GPG. Kocks (2005) sums up significant UN internal reform processes connected to their use and offers policy suggestions for a more integrated and innovative financing approach to UN peace operations as GPGs. Mitchener & Weidenmier (2005) and Ferguson & Schularick (2006) stress the resulting GPGs generated by military intervention and the declared willingness to use military force under certain conditions (Coyne & Ryan, 2008). Similarly, Collier (2008) infers that properly timed foreign military interventions can generate global stability through the prevention of military coups.
On the other hand, regarding health, Sandler (1998) implements new concepts from the theory of public goods to point out why progress has been made with regards to some global and regional public goods but not with respect to others. Bradley (2001) stresses a crucial feature of preventing cross-border transmission of communicable diseases: the benefits of global control efforts will be greatest for countries that have already reduced disease prevalence rates within their borders to relatively low levels. Sandler & Arce (2002) identify the need for international cooperation in some areas regarding the provision of such health-promoting activities. Smith et al. (2003a) discuss health issues as a GPG in their comprehensive book. Smith et al. (2004a) consider the implementation of the GPG concept regarding communicable disease control. Smith et al. (2004b) investigate the effect of the recent patent system regarding genomics knowledge of different economic powers. Wildasin (2008) highlights health care, health promotion and education regarding the GPG concept. Szlezak et al., (2010) define the global health system as the constellation of actors “whose initial aim is to promote, restore or maintain health”, and “the persistent and linked sets of rules, that prescribe behavioral roles, constrain activity, and form expectations” among them.
Globalization means broadened access to knowledge, communications, trade, and together with these, new possibilities for human development. This unheard-of mutual connection and mutual dependence among human societies also presents recently shared risks. (Stansfield et al., 2002). Many problems related to globalization involve the provision of GPGs. For instance, when environmentalists ask for the easing of pollution pressures on the atmosphere, they are asking that a GPG as a social choice should not be over-used (Desai, 2003).
The term “global public good” has rapidly become an often used term in policy circles. Other terms that are also used to express this comprehensive concept are “international public goods” or “global common goods” or “global collective goods”. While there is a fast growing literature on the globalization implications for public policy, not much consideration has been paid to the concept of GPGs. The main issue is to explain what criteria should be used to identify a GPG but for this, first the concept of public good should be defined.
Samuelson (1954) described a public good as follows :
“...[goods] which all enjoy in common in the sense that each individual\'s consumption of such a good leads to no subtractions from any other individual\'s consumption of that good...”
Another definition of a public good, states that public goods are “commodities for which the cost of extending the service to an additional person is zero and for which it is impossible or too costly to exclude individuals who do not pay for the good from enjoying” (Nordhaus, 2005; Stiglitz, 2000). In other words, a public good is a good that is non-rival and non-excludable. These are two important properties of a traditional public good. We use the word “non-rivalry” which means that consumption of the good by one individual does not diminish obtainability of the good for consumption by others, and non-excludability that no one can be excluded from using the good (Cornes & Sandler, 1996). Examples are air or moonlight, security, or global positioning systems. If both requirements are completely satisfied, a public good is said to be pure (Kocks, 2005). Public goods provide “consumption externalities” as well: when public goods are being consumed by people, benefits or harms are provided to others (Atkinson & Stiglitz, 1980; Varian, 1992). It is also the occasion that many private goods show some degree of externalities. Smoking, a seemingly private activity, is now known to harm the health of others (second-hand smoke), giving rise to a series of public policy responses to curb this negative side effect (WHO, 2002).
For traditional public goods, three main questions have to be answered (Heal, 1999). The first one concerns the amount of provision, the second the question of financing it, and the third, linked to the free-rider problem, the access to information by the state to answer these questions. For privately produced public goods, another question can be asked. Given a desirable target level of production, how do we reach it, and how is this target production to be apportioned among all the potential producers? For instance, regarding greenhouse gas emissions, the important questions are which countries should cut back emissions, and by how much? Similarly, within the country, which sectors should cut back emissions? Of course, it is also possible to ask these questions within organizations and firms.
The second way of looking at a public good problem is from a public bad, whose negative utility nobody can be excluded. Due to their two crucial properties, pure public goods are subject to free-riding and hence correspond to a case of market failure creating a rationale for their public provision (for more details, see Morrissey et al., 2002). The market will not supply public goods or will supply too little. Once in the public domain, their sufficient provision is limited by collective action problems such as the prisoner’s dilemma. Because of the free-rider problem and the prisoner’s dilemma, public goods are generally undersupplied.
food, clothing, cars | HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_good_(economics)" \\o "Common good (economics)" | |
swimming pool or golf clubs, cinemas, private parks, satellite tv |
Private, club, common and public goodsSource: Shaw, 2004.
Table 1 and figure 1 show that the theory distinguishes between different kinds of goods, in terms of their two fundamental characteristics: rivalry and excludability (Shaw, 2004). But this distinction is not really certain. For instance, lighthouses were before seen as a public good but it is now realized that they are not (Shaw, 2004).
Private, club, common and public goods,Source:
In reality, just few goods are purely public. They are mostly mixed public and private, also known as impure public goods, and these goods only partially satisfy the requirements of non-excludability and non-rivalry (Kocks, 2005). Common pool goods and club goods are two apparent samples of impure public goods that can take their origin from relaxing one of the two technical criteria of a pure public good while holding the other constant (WHO, 2002).
A common pool good generally is rivalrous but non-excludable. The common goods problem is known as the tragedy of the commons. This is a dilemma that appears in situations in which a large number of actors driven by their self-interest might harm a shared limited resource while being conscious that this is not in their long run interests (Hardin, 1968).
On the other hand, a club good is excludable but non rivalrous. For example, once a golf club is set up, allowing an extra member to use it does not cost anything further. People can be easily excluded from using the facilities (Shaw, 2004).
A private good is the opposite of a public good. Private goods are excludable and rivalrous. For example, a cup of coffee is a private good, and the coffee’s owner can exclude other users from using it, and when it has been used, it cannot be consumed again.
On the contrary of private goods, there is no so much qualitatively difference between GPGs and other public goods (Nordhaus, 2005). Examples of GPGs include information, environmental sustainability, disease prevention, political, economic and social stability, and transportation networks, and international communication. As these examples point out, GPGs can be both tangible (e.g., infrastructure or the environment) and intangible (e.g., social, economic or political stability).
The concept of GPGs is not as understandably defined as one would wish. While there is general consensus regarding what is at risk and what is being discussed, the nuances of writers differ. Many of the differences are basically semantic, and should be dispelled at the outset. Some questions should be asked regarding each of the three words it includes. The first question is “does ‘global’ have to mean that the benefits are entirely global?” While the answer is yes in a broad sense, the answer is no in a narrow sense. In this point of view, when the risk of contracting the disease is removed, the benefit can be available to all. The second question is “what is the exact meaning of ‘public’ in the context of public goods?” In this context there are benefits that are not private in nature, and public benefits do not hint that every member of the public practically derives a measurable benefit. Finally, the third question is related to the word ‘good’. In this respect, a public good is a benefit that is useful to the public. So to get rid of a public bad (disutility) is itself a public good. For instance, a disease or pollution can be a public bad (Morrissey et al., 2002).
Like pure public goods, GPGs are characterized by the nature of non-rivalry and non-excludability. From the other point of view, GPGs have the additional spatial characteristic of extending (Kaul et al., 1999). This means GPGs are public goods that do not “obey” national borders, and some of them are naturally global (Kaul et. al., 2003). In other words, GPGs are goods of this kind whose benefits cross borders and are global in scope (Smith et al., 2003b).
Many of the previous national borders have been taken away or released in recent decades. Generally, market integration has been the strengths of it, and enhanced transportation and communication technologies made it easer. These new facilities assisted networking opportunities for civil life as well (Kaul, 2010), but national boundaries still have an important role. In fact, the “Westphalian Peace Treaties” in (1648) laid down the principles of inviolable national borders. These peace treaties turned into the founding principles of the world order, and countries still largely accept and abide it. For an extended period of time, it was common for politicians to insist on absolute policy making sovereignty, using national borders as a shield behind which they followed specific policies that sometimes violated the most fundamental human rights (Kaul, 2010).
In the case of GPGs, if states explain their national self-interest from a purely national standpoint and pursue it powerfully, international negotiations tend to collapse. International cooperation has to be willing and has to be useful to all concerned groups. Delayed inaction on global challenges mostly increases cost compared to immediate corrective action based on mutually beneficial international negotiations regarding underprovided GPGs. The best way of seeking national self-interests is by way of international cooperation based on equitably win-win strategies (Kaul, 2010).
As it was mentioned before in the context of figure 1, public goods can be local, national, regional or global. If a public good has influence upon one geographic region or one nation, it would be a regional public good or national public good. A GPG should cover more than one group of countries. GPGs’ benefit must also reach both an extensive spectrum of countries and an extensive spectrum of the global population. Intergenerational spillovers should be counted in the general definition of a GPG as well. GPGs satisfy the needs of present generations without putting into question the needs of future generations (Kaul et al., 1999).
On the other hand, there are three basic weaknesses in the common plans for providing GPGs. The jurisdictional gap is the first weaknesses of GPGs, i.e., the conflict between a globalized world and national, separate units of policy-making. There is no clear strategy for linked national policy aims with international diplomacy. The second one is the participation gap. This gap includes voiceless and marginal groups, in spite of the spread of democracy. The third one is the incentive gap. Nowadays, international cooperation is broader in scope. Initially, it concerned between-country and at-the-border issues, i.e., international traffic rules, now it is about behind-the-border issues. As a consequence, the implementation of international agreements becomes even more important. However, the operational follow-up to these agreements relies solely on the aid mechanism. Many other useful policy options are neglected, despite the fact that they could make cooperation a privileged strategy for both developing and developed countries (Kaul et al., 1999).
We can define public goods in many several ways, e.g., referring to consumption, the scale of their impact, production, provision, and political properties. One can also see concrete examples of every type of GPGs for better understanding of the concept from tables 2 to 6.
Street signs or Street safety | National electoral system | Early-warning systems for tsunamis | Global warming |
Law and order | National health system | The management of river basins | Peace and security |
The scale of impact of public goodsSource: Kaul, 2010.
While local public goods benefit mainly people living in a particular community, national public goods may serve pure national purposes or form the building blocks of GPGs. Similarly, while regional public goods have positive effects on some countries within a geographical region, GPGs influence people globally.
Financial and economic stability | The atmosphere | International communication and transport networks | Patented knowledge |
Peace and security | The ozone layer | Respect for human rights | The World Wide Web |
Moonlight | Fresh air | Multilateral trade agreements | International markets |
Communicable diseases control | Respect for national sovereignty | ||
The warming rays of the sun | Globalization of policy approaches | ||
The oceans | |||
Integrated markets | |||
Knowledge-related goods, e.g., inventions | Medical, financial and other technologies | ||
* Pure GPGs are non-excludable and non-rival. ** Impure GPGs are either non-excludable or non-rival. Non-excludable or difficult to exclude, but rival. ***De facto GPGs are non-rival goods that are kept or made non-exclusive on a global scale. |
The consumption properties of GPGsSource: Kaul, 2010.
Peace and security is one of the important examples of pure GPGs. It is non-excludable and non-rival. If well provided, everyone can benefit from them. On the other hand, an example of an impure public good is clean, fresh air. It is basically non-excludable, but from a certain level on, rival in consumption (Bieckmann, 2010).
The sunlight and the moonlight | Global norms, standards, rules and policy regime | Inventions and discoveries | Mitigation of climate change |
The atmosphere | Global infrastructure and communication networks | Destruction of an asteroid moving towards the earth | Financial stability |
The oceans | Global knowledge networks | ||
Polioplus or malaria eradication | Security provision by NATO | Controlled communicable diseases | Pharmaceutical knowledge |
Civil aviation safety – airport security screening | Airport lounges for select groups of frequent flyers | Financial stability Peace | International agreement on banking regulation |
The production properties of GPGs (The origins of public goods)Source: Kaul, 2010.
GPGs can distinguish eight types regarding the origins of public goods. Natural GPGs have existed with regard to history outside of human intervention, such as the atmosphere or ozone layer. Another type, i.e., Club goods, stay between public and private goods with the characteristic of being excludable in consumption, and the optimal size of the club is mostly larger than one person.
Typically consensual GPGs: | |
Communication & transport networks | Globalizing norms about gender equity |
Scientific knowledge | Globalizing views about what ought to be public and what private |
The norms of sovereignty and collective security | The international financial architecture |
Several basic human rights | The multilateral trade regime |
The political properties of GPGsSource: Kaul, 2010.
There is no absolute consensus on every GPG. While the right to basic education or abolition of slavery is the consensual GPGs, the multilateral trade regime or gender equity are the examples of contested GPGs.
Peace and security | The ozone layer | An international migration regime | Communication and transport networks |
Health and health care | The atmosphere | A knowledge and technology framework | The World Wide Web |
Financial stability | Straddling fish stocks | The universalization of human rights norms | |
Environmental sustainability | Globalizing markets | ||
Norms and standards for traded goods |
The current provision status of GPGsSource: Kaul, 2010.
GPGs are usually underprovided. The reason lies in their publicness which generates collective action problems (for more details, see Kaul et al., 1999). An underused GPG exists, but some actors, countries, or people are unable to consume it, either in full or in part while an underprovided good does not exist or is not fully or adequately provided (Conceição, 2003).
Benefits Non excludable | |||
Ozone layer | Yes | No | Overuse |
Atmosphere (climate) | Yes | No | Overuse |
Partly | Yes | Underuse (repression) | |
Knowledge | Partly | Yes | Underuse |
Internet (infrastructure) | Partly | Yes | Underuse |
Peace | Yes | Yes | Underprovision |
Health | Yes | Yes | Underprovision |
Financial stability | Partly | Yes | Underprovision |
Free trade | Partly | Yes | Underprovision |
Freedom from poverty | No | No | Underprovision |
Environmental Sustainability | Yes | Yes | Underprovision |
Equity and justice | Partly | Yes | Underprovision |
Global concerns as GPGs: A selective typologySource: Kaul et al., 1999.
One can see provision or use problems of GPGs from table 7. GPGs have been also defined as goods that are methodically underprovided by private market forces and for which such underprovision has significant international externality effects (Blackden, 2009).
As we mentioned before, peace and security is itself understood as a GPG and supporting activities of peace and security are defined as promoting this GPG (Yılmaz, 2010). Even in the work of Adam Smith, security is accepted as a pure public good at the national level. This is also true at the global level, (for more details, see Hamburg & Holl, 1999; Mendez, 1999). Mendez (1999) declares that, unlike defense, peace fulfils substantive public goods criteria. In fact, defense may also have nationally or globally negative externalities. Moreover, Hamburg & Holl (1999) mention “just peace” as the true public good. Specific conflicts may have only regional effects in the short term. But preventing fatal conflict has worldwide externalities because it acts on any probable source of violence, whilst potentially protects anyone from cruelty and death (Mendez, 1999). A person’s security mainly depends on the lottery of where they were born. But we have passed into a period of transnational terrorism where even rich governments cannot provide the level of security that their citizens enjoyed (Addison, 2004).
Peace unarguably provides public goods’ criteria from both a substantive (welfare) and formal perspective as a GPG. When one country or countries are at peace, no person can be excluded from profit by its benefits that are extended themselves to all people at the regional, national and international level. Peace is indivisible and non-rivalrous as well. Indeed, individuals and groups can also profit from these benefits without taking away the ability for others to realize the returns on peace. Hereby they have equal access to peace and are able to receive the rewards of peace equally (Smith, 2006). So everyone everywhere can enjoy the profits of peace, the enjoyment of one not detracting from that of another (Mendez, 1992). For instance, peace in Cyprus enhances peace in Turkey, Greece and the Mediterranean, and it helps peace in the world and the overall peace process. While the private profits are the strongest, a regional peace thus has positive externalities that give it public goods’ properties (Mendez, 1995).
Galtung (1975) distinguishes between “positive” and “negative peace”. While positive peace signifies an absence of not only direct violence, but also “structural violence”, negative peace generally means a simple absence of “direct violence” (e.g., war) (Moller, 2004).
Without peace, people cannot enjoy the comforts of their life. It is a prior condition for the pursuit of happiness and welfare (Mendez, 1999). Without peace and security, countries are constantly considered as being in some way breaking off from the global economy as well. It seriously affects themselves, and also the stability of their neighbors, and global security more generally. The many points that link to the global economy include financial flows involved in the stealing and plundering of national properties and the following transmission of offshore money, the flow of illegally produced and internationally traded minerals and narcotics, flows of people as warriors, refugees, and human resource, and the use of technologies of global information and communications for organizing war economies (Addison, 2004). From this point of view, achieving peace should be a top priority within international forums (Smith, 2006).
The difficulty of providing peace as a GPG, however, lies in the quickly changing nature of the international environment, and also global crises, because of the processes of globalization. A rise of spillover effects of the present time conflicts, such as massive amounts of flows of refugees, a rise in the number of diasporic groups, and the resulting poverty and loss of infrastructure in regions affected by conflicts can act as catalysts, provoking new violence to erupt out of the suffering and inequality caused by war (Smith, 2006).
One can see the knowledge summary of peace and security GPGs from table 8.
Indicators: Ratio of people with secure land tenure, Ratio below minimum level of dietary consumption, Democratic elections etc. |
Knowledge: The Human Development Report (UNDP), UN Security Council, Regional institutions etc. |
Management: UN Security Council, Human Rights Commission, UNHCR – refugee council, International Court of Justice, Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, Convention of the Rights of the Child, The International Criminal Court etc. |
Participation: UN Security Council, Human rights campaigners, Humanitarian groups, Food, medical and development charities etc. |
Finance: Enhancing ODA (Official Development Assistance), Reorientation of defense expenditures towards long-term security provision and peace building, Application of regulatory tools, for instance The International Convention on the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism provides a legal method of prosecuting those responsible for raising funds for terrorist activities, Global tax. |
Policy Options for Peace and Security GPGsSource: Gardiner & Le Goulven, 2001b.
There are some important relations between health GPGs and other GPGs. Health GPGs will benefit from other GPGs, e.g., pollution control, education, while health betterments have positive effects on educational performance, productivity and economic performance (Smith & Woodward, 2003).
Health has a clear role regarding externalities given that health is probably an important dimension for the benefits of other GPGs and other sectors. For instance, reductions in CO2 emissions help slow down global warming. None of the countries can be excluded from benefiting from this, and from which all countries will benefit without detriment to others. Following the same reasoning, the eradication of infectious diseases of global scope, e.g. polioplus or smallpox or HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) / AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) provides a benefit from which no country is excluded, and each country can benefit without preventing another from doing so (Smith et al. (2003a). Health improvements may also have positive effects on productivity, education and economic growth (Smith & Woodward, 2003).
Smith et al. (2003a) mention that the GPG concept may possibly be most functional when applied to two aspects of health. These are research and development (R&D) and communicable disease control. Health R&D certainly has GPG aspects, and there is not sufficent of it in areas that would profit low income countries. With regard to history, the public and the “not-for profit sectors” have carried out research resulting in new drugs and treatments, but the private for-profit sector now plays an important role. The important thing is to encourage private sector companies to get involved with research benefiting low-income countries and poor people. Indeed, 90% of global R&D spending in health is targeted at diseases affecting just 10% of the world\'s population (Smith & MacKellar, 2007).
Regarding the second aspects of health, the GPG outlook assists collective action in the field of epidemic disease control when reduction in disease pervasiveness in one country has also a benefit for other countries. For example, the eradication of highly transmissible diseases around the world, like polioplus, SARS, HIV, West Nile Virus, avian influenza etc. is important for every country.
Control of infectious diseases innately includes cross-border matters due to the fact that migrant workers characteristically create routes for the spread of disease. This is true for the most important epidemic now hitting Africa — HIV/AIDS. This also applies for more traditional and destroying diseases such as malaria. Important migratory populations in East Africa, West Africa, Southern Africa, South-East Asia, and the Middle East are a reason that national health systems are overwhelmed by demands from non-nationals. A problem is that cross-country financial or administrative arrangements do not often correspond to the health needs of migratory populations. Basic research on diseases frequent to a particular region, e.g., onchocerciasis, also known as river blindness and Robles\' Disease in West Africa, raises matters of regional cooperation, due to the lack of ability and incentive for any single country to bear the costs of effective R&D on its own.
To show the importance of international actors for health GPGs, Rotary International has been helpful in both the financing and the implementation of polioplus eradication. Rotary and its partners are about eradicating this tenacious disease, after 20 years of much effort. The leadership of WHO and Rotary have elicited wide cooperation among developing countries, bilateral donors, multilateral agencies, non-governmental organizations and foundations (Stansfield et. al., 2002).
One can find knowledge summary of Health GPGs from table 9.
Infants, Under 5s and maternal mortality rates, HIV, TB, and malarial prevalence rates, Proportion of population with access to affordable essential drugs on a sustainable basis. |
Knowledge: Global Health Research Council’s independent R&D advice to the WHO and other bodies to identify and prioritize key global health issues. |
Management: Each disease can be seen as a separate GPG; therefore a disease “manager” or “task master” may be necessary to deal with a specific disease according to its specific characteristics. Due to the wide socio-economic linkages to communicable diseases, the manager should adopt a multi-pronged approach across sectors and policy tools, i.e., finance, education, industry, trade, knowledge and management. |
The contribution of stakeholders and governments at national and local levels is vital to ensure a better interface between global and local medical policy and programs. |
Finance: Donor governments contribute to the WHO from their national health budgets. This national health contribution should be extended to include investment in R&D for key global diseases. In the longer term, developing countries could also contribute a proportion of their national health budgets. Static and dynamic provision of medicinal knowledge would be encouraged through purchase guarantees and protection of traditional knowledge. Global Tax |
Policy Options for Health GPGSource: Gardiner & Le Goulven, 2001b.
With the acceleration of globalization, the number of public goods increases and expands, creating an effect on both regional and international levels, sometimes even when they have characteristics of semi-public goods, club goods etc. (Mutlu, 2006). The GPGs lens is intended to shed new light on how globalization could be better managed in the mutual interest of all (Kaul et. al., 2003).
Communities have generally been willing to spend money on national public goods but they should be equally willing to pay for GPGs that serve common interests, be they shared or not. Moreover, we should be prepared to finance such goods (systems of environmental controls, the destruction of nuclear weapons, the control of transmittable diseases, the avoidance of ethnic conflicts or refugee flows) through innovative mechanisms based on the principles of mutuality and collective responsibility, principles that go beyond the concept of ODA (Speth, 1999). In this sense, global tax proposals can be considered, although they are not new, and several plans have already been discussed in academic circles and think-tanks for decades. Maybe, a global tax on banks in all over the world could be a solution for poverty, climate change or other kinds of global problems as the IMF suggests and some celebrities also support, e.g., Robin Hood Tax.
Similarly, as national policy-makers are probably not taking into account the well-being of foreign citizens in preparing their own policies concerning public goods, GPGs need some form of global coordination. The reason is the existence of international spillover effects; however, confidence on national provision fails to meet global requirements efficiently or fairly (Blackden, 2009). Globalization has led to an interconnection of national public domains. Nowadays national level public policy requires more and more to be complemented by international collaboration operation efforts in order for GPGs to be accessible to local communities (Kaul et. al, 2003).
The term “shared global priorities” has gained refreshed momentum after the recent food, fuel, and financial crises, which, by the side persistent conflict, state fragility, HIV/ AIDS, and emerging global health problems (avian flu, swine flu), have brought into sharper focus the need for global responses, and suitable global mechanisms, to tackle these challenges (Blackden, 2009). Using a GPGs’ approach should not be a means of “repackaging” international preferences. This approach emphasizes the crucial requirement for global collective action and recommends fundamental principles by which the global public can provide and manage more effectively these important global preferences (Gardiner & Le Goulven, 2001a).
The general characteristics of common property resources cause several problems: Open access, free riders, anonymity, extreme poverty, and a lack of hope, and the larger the population, the larger the problem. These characteristics create problems because it is difficult to keep people away from taking advantage of an open resource. Similarly, you can take all the benefits from the common resources as a free rider, and you probably will not be caught. On the other hand, if you are hungry today, you cannot save some of the sources for tomorrow or for the next generations.
There are three types of control for GPGs. Hardin showed first two solutions. The first one said that resources can be privatized (grant ownership), and the second one, that government can control and use enforcement. Elinor Ostrom (for more details, see Ostrom, 1990; Ostrom et al., 1994) felt that Hardin was too pessimistic, and they suggested a third one, which is collective action like community pressure or control. They believe that if members have a sense of community, there will be less anonymity and greater peer pressure to obey. Similarly, rules are more likely to work if those who are affected can participate in making them. The best is if monitoring is undertaken by community members themselves and not by external authorities. A graduated system of punishments works also very well. Without any of them, there will be a “tragedy of the commons”.
After all these issues, although there is a large development gap between developing and developed countries, for the long-term solution, the important suggestion should be related to the topic of education. People have to understand for instance, what radio activity is, why it is dangerous, what measure they can take. Similarly, people have to be aware of diseases like AIDS, to protect themselves from it, or they have to see environmental problems without warning from anyone else, or they have to become sensitive regarding birth control. These subjects are as important as learning mathematics lessons for elementary school students. If we can give correct education at the elementary school level, people will be more rational, more aware of their world when they mature, and they can act rationally, which means of course not just being part of a consuming community, but aware of their planet, their future and other people and animals, and they also act for this, about the environment, protect themselves from diseases, being aware of human rights etc. So, in the short term, international institutions can take the responsibility but in the long-term, with a rational education system, people could start to largely solve all the global problems locally. By this process, reward can be used for the correct behavior, and complementary punishment systems can also be applied for wrong actions.
First, educated and rational people can show their preferences to their governments, and finally, we can reduce pollution, control epidemic diseases and prevent the tragedy of the commons with the consensus of all nations. As mentioned before, rational education systems should expand to both developed and developing countries. For this, international cooperation support is vital.
If we ask how we can provide this rational education system, international cooperation could arrange the general framework of the education system, and the global tax would be useful for financing it. This subject should be investigated in any future research.
An injury that occurs in a quick manner, which often leaves the skin torn, cut, or punctured, or wherein the skin or any other tissues of the body undergoes acute trauma resulting in a contusion, is defined as a ‘wound’. This is when the body’s repair mechanism works to repair the damage by replacing the damaged tissue with newly synthesized tissue. This is characterized by a cascade of highly coordinated reactions that occur at the tissue damage region, working to restore normal tissue, which is called wound healing mechanism. This process requires nutrients and amino acids in adequate amounts to ensure the smooth repair of damaged cells, the supplementation of which has been viewed as a possible solution to augment the process and provide better strength and elasticity to the newly developing tissue [1].
It is known that collagen, being an integral part of most tissues in the body, plays an important role in the structural stability, elasticity, and tensile strength. It is therefore unsurprising that collagen is vital for restoring the structural integrity of the wounded tissue. It has been observed that, formation of scar tissue is an integral part of wound healing in most cases, with epidermal wounds being the exception. This scar tissue is composed primarily of collagen. This makes collagen synthesis an extremely crucial part of the wound healing process [2]. It is therefore practical to employ collagen supplements to augment and speed up the process of hound healing, and even enhance the tensile strength and other innate properties of the tissue. Through a study conducted by Felician et al., it was proven that collagen obtained from a species of jelly fish was indeed effective in escalating the pace of wound healing, making it a potential product that could be used in treating major wounds [3]. There is growing interest in the applications of collagen powder derived from marine sources to treat wounds effectively and reducing the possibility of a scar on the skin along with many other biomedical applications [4]. However, it must be understood that collagen powder is not the only form of collagen supplement for treatment of wounds and other tissue replacement procedures. There are a variety of forms, in which collagen is used as a biomaterial, for wound treatment [5].
Collagen derived from various sources is fabricated into various scaffolds, which can be implanted or grafted into the region of tissue damage, to act as an effective substrate for the attachment of precursor cells and allow their proliferation, thereby increasing the chances of tissue repair effectively. These precursor cells are multipotent adult stem cells which have the ability to differentiate to form various cells depending on the environment they are in, or the stimuli they receive for differentiation. These scaffolds can also be in the form of hydrogels, or fibers, and not just solid in nature. The use of collagen has proven to be effective for wound healing, due to the fact that it is an integral part of the extracellular matrix (ECM) on which most tissues are constructed [6]. Nanotechnology is a field of science that has been explored for its possible applications in the biomedical sector. Many nanomaterials such as nanoparticles and fibers are known to possess antimicrobial activities, which could be effective in the wound healing mechanism for the prevention of further infection. It is thereby prudent that the nanomaterials should be tried and tested along with those of collagen in order to come up with innovative methods to treat major wounds effectively. This chapter aims to summarize the importance of collagen and nanoparticles, synthesis of nano collagen in order to benefit from the wound healing properties of both nanoparticles and collagen, along with the areas of wound healing in which nano collagen is currently being used.
Nanotechnology is the branch of science and engineering that involves design, construction, and characterization of materials by restructuring the atoms and molecules with the size range of 1–100 nm in one or more dimensions [7, 8]. The engineered materials are nanomaterials that show distinct chemical and physical properties compared to the bulk materials due to the synthesis and assembly at the molecular level that can be exploited for commercial use [9]. Nanomaterials can be of different shapes mainly based on their dimensions i.e., nanoparticles of zero dimension, nanorods of one dimension, and nanosheets of two dimensions [10]. Nanoparticles, due to their small size have the ability to penetrate the bacterial cell wall, and though the cells metabolic pathway cause changes to the cell structure and function. Nanoparticles are also known to interact various components of the bacterial cell, such as lysosomes, enzymes, and ribosomes, thereby leading to oxidative stress, altered permeability of the cell membrane, protein deactivation, and altered gene expression, eventually causing cell death among the bacteria. Thus, it can be said that the Nanoparticles have antibacterial properties, which can be exploited for sterilization of larger wounds, thereby preventing infections from occurring during the wound healing process. When compared to the conventional wound healing drugs certain nanoparticles exhibit greater penetration of cell membrane [9]. Nanoparticles, nanocomposites, coatings, and scaffolds are the main nanomaterials used for wound healing (as shown in Figure 1). Nanoparticles can be (i) inorganic metal or non-metal (ii) organic non-polymeric or polymeric. Nanocomposites are made of porous materials, colloids, copolymers, or gels. Coating and scaffolds include hydrogels, nanofibers, films, and coatings [11]. Different classes of nanoparticles are involved for the treatment of wounds. They are discussed below:
Types of nanomaterials used for treatment of wounds. The figure is reproduced with permission from [
The antimicrobial property of metallic nanoparticles is exploited in wound management and can be used as a nanocarrier. The surface area to volume ratio of metallic nanoparticles is high. The small size enables them to cross barriers and penetrate the underlying layers of thick tissues like skin. These features make them ideal for drug delivery and to treat wounds. Some of the widely used metallic nanoparticles includes—silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs), gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs), iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs), and titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) [12].
Polymeric nanoparticles include polymer nanospheres and polymer nano capsules. Biologically active molecules such as drugs, genes, and fluorophores are absorbed on the surface of polymer nanospheres forming antibiotic incorporated nanoparticles (NPs). Griseofluvin (GF), one such NP, is known to function as an effective carrier of biologically active entities [12, 13]. The polymer nano capsules are vesicles where the core contains bioactive agents surrounded by polymeric shell. The polymers used in the preparation can be natural polymers like starch, polypeptides, albumin, sodium alginate, chitin, cellulose, gelatin, polyhydroxy alkanoates (PHAs) or artificial polymers like polyethylene glycol (PEG), poly lactic acid co-glycolic acid (PLGA), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP), polyethylene etc. They show higher encapsulation efficiency and high stability of encapsulated active substance that helps them in the effective delivery of drugs to targeted sites [13].
Nano emulsions shows small droplet size and high surface area that makes them a suitable vehicle for drug delivery to treat wounds. A unique feature of these nano emulsions is their ability to deliver hydrophobic drugs [14]. They also have long shelf life, and are easily formulated [12]. The components of nano emulsions include different oil types, emulsifying agents like sodium deoxycholate, sodium dodecyl sulphate, antioxidants, chelating agents, preservatives etc. [15].
Solid-lipid nanoparticles are used as drug vehicles in case of inflamed or damaged skin. They are efficient and non-toxic carriers of both lipophilic and hydrophilic drugs. The structure is made up of long-fatty acid chains of palmitic acid, stearic acid or arachidic acid taurocholate, emulsifiers, and water.
Nanofiber scaffolds/mats, considered as a substitute to damaged ECM, are mainly used in the wound dressing due to its healing power and unique structure. As the scaffolds are applied on the wound there will be attachment of fibroblasts and formation of matrix that acts as ground substrate and aid in faster wound recovery. Manufacturing of nanofibrous scaffolds involves electrospinning that produces uniform nanofibers [16].
Hydrogels are used as delivery vehicles for wound treatment due to their properties such as high porosity which keeps the wound environment moist, and the presence of 3D polymeric matrix that absorbs the wound exudates allowing for proper permeation of oxygen [12]. While nanogels demonstrates some advanced features compared to those of hydrogels such as stability, ease of synthesis, quick response to stimulus, an adjustable size that can be exploited for drug delivery, controlled release of drugs, and tumor imaging. Nanogels are made up of chemical polymers and biomolecules. The nanogels of amino acids and polypeptides are easy to synthesize and modify and show higher biocompatibility [17].
The word ‘collagen’ is derived from a Greek term ‘kolla’, which means ‘Glue’. Collagen is essentially a matrix, which holds the connective tissue together, making it a major component of the ECM, and connective tissues, and is rightfully called the most abundant protein in the animal kingdom [18]. Collagen is a major component of the ECM, which provides mechanical support for cell growth and their integrity. Collagen represents an entire superfamily of glycoproteins, having, a polypeptide sequence signature with [Gly-X-Y]n as the repeating amino acid unit, wherein X and Y are proline and hydroxyproline respectively. Another salient feature of these glycoproteins is their noteworthy quaternary structure with the right-handed triple helix structure composed of three left-handed polyproline chains of uniform length. The chains in the triple helix can either be identical, forming homotrimers as seen in collagen II, or be different from each other, forming heterotrimers, as seen in collagen IX. Presence of glycine is invariant in collagen and is known to stabilize the collagen structure. It has been found that the absence of glycine or any mutations to the same is known to cause disruption in the hydrogen bonds formed in collagen and distort the structure [19].
The presence of collagen and collagenous structures throughout the animal kingdom indicates its importance in biological structures. Collagen is expressed in all life forms classified under the animal kingdom. Right from sponges, the simplest multicellular animal which expresses genes for the formation of at least two types of collagens, to the various vertebrates, in which collagen is a major component of various connective tissues, thereby accounting for roughly a quarter of the whole-body protein in humans [20]. The basic triple helical pattern has been partially carried over into the architectures of other complex molecules in higher organisms, with complex physiologies. Evolutionary branching which was partially driven by chromosomal duplication has resulted in a plethora of collagen types, which are genetically distinct. There are 29 types of collagens that have been identified so far [21]. Although the exact function of many types of collagens is yet to be confirmed, the role and presence of collagen throughout the body is unmistakable. However, it is known that collagen types I, II and III represent the majority (approx. 80–90%) of the total body collagen. They are known to provide mechanical and tensile strength to the skin and various other organs. The ability of fully developed collagen to integrate hydroxyapatites and undergo mineralization to amalgamate with solid structures such as bones and teeth, combined with its nature of elasticity and strength makes it a very desirable candidate to be used as a primary component of biomaterials with various applications [22]. Biomaterials are defined as synthetic components that may be transplanted into body tissue as a part of a medical device. Biomaterials can also be employed to replace an organ or a part of it, thereby aiding it in its physiological and mechanical functions [23].
Despite the wide range in the types of collagens, only a handful of them are actually utilized for the production of collagen-based biomaterials. Fibril forming collagens, such as type I, which also happens to be the most abundant collagen in mammals, is often employed for construction of collagen-based biomaterials for various purposes such as wound healing and tissue engineering, and even 3D bioprinting of collagen-based structures or scaffolds [24]. Collagen can be extracted from any animal’s tissue including vertebrate’s skin and tendons, porcine skin, gut, bladder mucosa, rat tails, as well as invertebrates’ sponges and corals. The extracted collagen can show a slight difference in some characteristics, depending on the source of the animal, and the tissue. It has been found that the use of collagen from marine sources [25, 26, 27, 28] has advantages over those obtained from terrestrial organisms, such as being environmentally sustainable, high production of collagen, non-toxicity, and ease of absorption thanks to its lower molecular weight. However, occurrence of allergies and transmission of disease can hamper the use of collagen obtained from animal sources, thereby the application of recombination technology was duly suggested, wherein yeast and
Biomedicine is currently seeing an increase in the use and integration of collagen-based scaffold and biomaterials in its applications. The technology aids the creation of biomaterials which exhibit biomimicry of the complex native tissues and organs. Decellularized collagen and refined scaffolds are the two categories into which collagen-based biomaterials are categorized. While the decellularized collagen structures retain most of the structural and functional properties of the tissue from which it is derived from, refined scaffolds are mostly obtained from the purification and polymerization of collagen. Decellularized collagen exhibits biomimicry the best [30]. Tissue grafts for tissue engineering, self-assembled hydrogels, freeze dried sponges, collagen films and tubes are some commonly used collagen-based biomaterials.
Tissue grafts are one of the most commonly used collagen scaffolds. Due to their resemblance to the native tissues, along with the ability to promote cell attachment and spatiotemporal organization of the cells, tissue grafts have been demonstrated as the most convenient and effective implantable devices [31]. Self-assembled hydrogels are generally used in the form of cell carriers, and injectables. They are often reliable for soft tissue treatment, for they resemble the structures on polymerization to form a fibrillar hydrogel structure, which is held together by ionic and hydrophobic bonds, thus aiding the entrapment of fluids, making it conducive for the exchange of ions and metabolites in the environment created [32]. Collagen type I hydrogels in combination with the appropriate precursor cells have been extensively used for the repair and as a structural and mechanical support for the attachment and stable growth of tissues such as skin to treat burns [33], cardiac myocytes [34], neurons [35], ocular tissues [36], etc. Collagen type I and type II hydrogels have often been used in combination for the treatment and repair of osteochondral tissues, and cartilage [37, 38]. Collagen scaffolds that can be easily used as grafts for various clinical purposes are created by the freeze-drying technique, wherein, collagen on undergoing freezing in a controlled environment, is trapped within the ice crystals formed, and is porous enough to facilitate cell migration, attachment, and growth [39]. So far, a variety of cell populations have been used to improve the bioactivity of the collagen sponge, and the experiments performed have shown encouraging results both
Nano collagen is the term used to describe collagen brought down to the nanoscale range. This substance has the desirable properties of both nanoparticles, such as a high ratio between the surface to volume of the particle, and collagen, with its wound healing properties of biomaterials, and their functions simultaneously. The downscaling of the size of the collagen fibers, is beneficial in terms of the penetration, and wound accessibility to initiate wound healing [44]. Nano collagen is produced through various chemical, physical, and self-assembly methods, such as emulsification, complex coacervation, phase separation, nano spray drying, desolvation and many other techniques. The following section explains briefly the most popular techniques employed. Nano collagen fibers are produced through the following techniques: (a) electrospinning (b) nano emulsion (c) electrospray deposition (d) milling (as shown in Figure 2, Table 1).
(A) Electrospraying—after applying a high voltage to the protein solution, a liquid jet stream is released via a nozzle (coaxial needle), generating an aerosolized droplet. To ensure that the polymer solution comes out of the syringe as NP, a high voltage is provided to it. (B) Electrospinning—at a high voltage and low current in the spinneret, collagen polymer solution added dropwise. The Taylor cone is formed at such conditions. The columbic forces also cause the dehydration of the ejected polymer thereby resulting in thin and dry fibers of nano collagen. (C) Milling—the application of mechanical energy through the spinning of a milling bowl breaks down a polymer substance into finer NPs. Milling balls are used to conduct high-energy mechanical impacts to break down polymers utilizing centrifugal force. (D) Nanoemulsion—the emulsion is formed by the mechanical agitation of two immiscible liquid phases, one of which has the protein, and the other in which the drug is dissolved. Figures A, C, and D are reproduced with permission from [
Preparation method | Principle | Advantage | Limitation | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Electrospraying | Uses electrostatic field to create nano collagen fibers from a polymeric solution of collagen | Can be upscaled for industrial purposes; ease of particle synthesis due to single step process; formation of dry particles | Reduced flow; can degrade some macromolecules | [46] |
Electrospinning | Uses a high voltage difference to generate dispersible nanoparticles from collagen solute | Can produce fine fibers of collagen; Emulates ECM closely; cost effective | Time consuming | [47] |
Milling | Uses mechanical energy to break down a polymeric material of collagen to nanoparticle sizes | Economical; easy experimentation; controllable nanoparticle size | Chamber has to be cooled due to heat release; cannot control nanoparticle shape | [48] |
Nanoemulsion | Uses mechanical agitation to form nanoemulsions by the combination of two immiscible liquids in different phases. | Simple process; easy recovery; high flexibility and selectivity | Requires appropriate surfactant due to unstable thermodynamic nature; the organic solvent needs to be removed, for the residues may be toxic | [49, 50] |
Collagen nanoparticle preparation methods, their principles, advantages and limitations.
Electrospinning is one of the methods used to create nano collagen fibers, wherein nanofibers are created from polymeric solutions in the presence of an electrostatic field. Electrospinning is achieved by charging a spinneret to high voltages and low current, and then adding droplets of the polymeric solution. As a result, the surface becomes highly charged, and elongates to form a conical shape, which is called the Taylor cone. The conical form is a result of the electrostatic repulsion between the charged droplet surface and columbic forces from the spinneret. At a specific threshold of the electric field, the electrostatic forces are strong enough to overcome the surface tension holding the Taylor cone, thus creating the fibers by stretching the cone, whipping it. This process is generally preferred to create nano fibers, because it is cost effective, and can produce nano collagen scaffolds for various purposes including tissues engineering, tissue repair and regeneration [47], and matrices that mimic the native ECM. The fibers produced through electrospinning are dry, and devoid of any solvent molecules, which are then collected in a metallic collector, which also determines the shape [51]. Over a period of time, electrospun collagen nanofibers have been endowed with certain ‘smart’ abilities, to improve their applications. Some smart abilities include response to external stimuli such as change in pH, exposure to light, and magnetic fields, etc., retaining a shape memory, self-cleaning, and some more [46].
As the name suggests, electrospray deposition is a process which involves the spraying of nano collagen solution as a fine mist onto a specific target. This method is mostly used for the applications of nanoparticles in the biomedical field for pharmaceutical application. This is mostly because, in this technique, collagen is used in its particle form. It is then sprayed through a nozzle onto a target with a high negative voltage, in the form of a fine mist. The solvent of the collagen particles generally evaporates on deposition onto the target surface, leaving an even spread of nano collagen particles, making it ideal for drug delivery purposes. This evaporation prevents the aggregation of molecules, and thus reduces the risk of contamination [52].
Milling is a process in which nano collagen is produced by the application of great amounts of mechanical stress onto a polymeric solution of collagen, to form particles of the nano scale range. This process is one of the most inexpensive methods for the large-scale production of nano collagen [53]. The mechanical energy along with the kinetic energy in the milling container also produces large amounts of heat, which can lead to the denaturation of collagen [54]. Therefore, this generation of heat is contained by performing this process at cryogenic temperatures, with the use of liquid nitrogen, thereby preserving the integrity of collagen.
Nanoemulsion is a method used to integrate collagen with nanoparticles in a droplet form. Two immiscible liquids in different phases, i.e., oil-in-water-phase (oil is dispersed in water) and water-in-oil phase (water is dispersed in oil) when combined, form a concoction called an emulsion. Nanoemulsions differ from emulsions in their size ranges. The size of a nanoemulsion droplet ranges from 20 to 200 nm, while a normal emulsion droplet size is around 1 μm [55]. An aqueous phase with collagen, and a hydrophilic surfactant in water, is mixed with an organic phase with a lipophilic surfactant in a solvent that is immiscible in water and is continuously agitated under room temperature conditions to produce a uniform emulsion system. Nano collagen emulsion particles are then obtained by combining this emulsion system with a heated oil in a drop-by-drop manner [56]. Nanoemulsions naturally tend to penetrate deep into the tissue to deposit active compounds. This property has been exploited for purposes such as drug delivery in pharmaceutical, food and cosmetic industries. The same properties can be attributed to the collagen Nanoemulsion droplets to enhance the wound healing mechanism and speed up the process. The production of collagen nanoemulsions has increased greatly along with their application mainly in the field of cosmetics and drug delivery due to the technological advantages it offers for the manufacturers [57].
Collagen is a major component of the bone matrix. Bone formation is facilitated by the osteoblasts, which are involved in the production of collagen type I protein. The ECM supports the collagen fibers (50–500 nm) synthesized by the osteoblasts. The hydroxyapatite crystals are then deposited on these collagen fibers, leading to the hardening and maturation of the bone [58]. This mechanism can be exploited for the purposes of bone remodeling, in the case of a grave bone injury such as a compound fracture. A collagen scaffold can be grafted onto the damaged tissue area, to provide a solid support onto which the apatite crystals can be deposited, to increase the speed and efficiency of new bone formation. It is thus prudent that the collagen scaffold mimics native collagen fibers to achieve successful bone grafting and promote optimal bone regrowth.
It is well known that bone related tissue trauma is difficult to treat and is a time-consuming process, due to the complexity of the bone healing process itself, and the loss of bone from non-sterile wounds, creating a high risk and susceptibility for infections. Cardoso et al., proposed the use of silver nanoparticles stabilized with type I collagen to form nano collagen biomaterials (AgNPcol) for the collagen scaffold to support rapid bone remodeling. This was an optimal solution for the problem of infections caused due to the non-sterility of the bone wounds. The silver nanoparticles in the collagen also showed anti-microbial activity against a number of microorganisms. Thereby proving to be effective in wound healing. The developed cells also showed no signs of cell toxicity [59]. In another study by Sun et al., collagen scaffolds were infused with AgNPs along with BMP2, a bone morphogenic protein to improve the bone healing process effectively. The role of silver nanoparticles in antibacterial property was already established. However, the incorporation of the bone morphogenic protein induced an increase in the expression of runt related transcription factor 2, osteopontin and osteonectin, which are known to accelerate the differentiation of the bone marrow derived mesenchymal stromal cells, thereby proving the therapeutic potential of nano collagen in bone grafting, and healing [60].
Poor development of alveolar ridge after tooth extraction is an issue faced by most dental patients due to the lack of oral hygiene or knowledge about it. Wang et al., in their research, proposed the usage of artificial nano collagen bone implants. This was done to support the alveolar ridge post extraction of tooth. The implantation was followed by a CT scan to track the bone mineral density progressively. It was found that the implanted nano collagen bone has successfully fused with the native alveolar bridge. It also showed an increase in the overall bone mineral density [61].
Treatment of damaged nerve tissues has been a topic of interest for many researchers. This can be attributed to the inability of terminally differentiated neurons to undergo further cell division and also the fact that the nervous system controls and coordinates most of our body’s processes. Damage or injury caused to the nerve tissue can seriously impair many functions of the body. Autografts of the nerve tissue has been performed in some cases. However, this has proven to be more challenging, due to the shortage of the donor sites, or occurrence of deformities. This has fuelled the search for alternative methods or materials to treat nerve damages effectively. The extensive study on collagen and nano collagen has tested the ability of collagen to act as an effective scaffold and promote cell attachment and growth [62]. Collagen has been used in the manufacture of nerve guidance conduits to aid the nerve regeneration in small nerve gaps of 2–3 cm across the peripheral nerve tissue. The use of collagen hydrogels for the treatment of lesions in the central nervous system effectively has been demonstrated by Orive et al. [63]. Further degradation of the nerve tissues can be prevented on injection of collagen nanospheres, which have the potential to deliver therapeutic drugs, and other stem cells for structural support as well [64]. Zhang et al., illustrated the application of collagen—nano size β tricalcium phosphate, together with growth factors of nerves and some collagen fibers, for the treatment of facial nerve repair and regeneration. Improved action potential was seen in the muscles, along with the formation of thicker myelin sheath, making it a highly promising avenue for further innovation and studies in nerve regeneration [65].
Articular cartilage covers the edge of a bone, and it is a connective tissue which forms a synovial joint that provides low frictional surface and enables the smooth movement of the joint. So, any damage to the articular cartilage results in acute pain during the movement of the joint. However, unlike most tissues in the body, articular cartilage lacks the potential to heal itself by replacing damaged areas in the tissue with new cells. This is mainly due to its avascular nature, i.e., there is no direct blood supply to the cartilage, thereby making it a difficult to heal by targeting therapeutic drugs. Treatment for articular cartilage necessitates surgical intervention techniques such as chondrocytes implantation and osteochondral transplant. However, the high cost and numerous other risk factors of patients has given rise to much needed research in the field of cartilage tissue engineering [66].
Cartilage tissue engineering employs the use of 3D bioprinting for the creation of collagen 3D scaffolds, which are then treated
The process of wound healing involves four steps viz., hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling which occur in a sequential order [69]. Disruption of any of these steps will make the process lengthy. The main issue involved in wound healing is infection by pathogens that results in inflammation, interrupting the healing process [45]. Schimek et al., developed full-thickness skin equivalents (ftSEs) to hold the 96-well cell culture [70]. Collagen powder can be used as the dermal substitute as they are part of the ECM that shows slow biodegradation and accelerates wound healing [45]. Collagen with nanoparticles is widely used in therapy. Munish et al., used collagen granules for the diabetic foot ulcer treatment and the results were compared with the saline dressing. The study demonstrated that the wound, when treated with collagen showed a speedy recovery [71]. In another study, Akturk et al., developed gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) based collagen scaffold, and they were incorporated into the cross- linked collagen scaffolds. It was found that it helps in enhancing the stability against enzymatic degradation and increases the tensile strength [72]. The main advantage includes the absence of rejection and the fact that they can reduce the inflammation in and around the wound. Apart from gold nanoparticles, the use of silver as an antimicrobial agent has also been of great interest recently. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are usually used in the treatment of burns and infection as they are known to demonstrate antibacterial property. There is sufficient evidence to prove that the bacterial resistance against AgNPs may not be a matter of concern, for AgNPs are known to hinder quorum sensing mechanisms in bacteria [45].
Collagen-based dermal scaffolds are coated with silver nanoparticles that act as antimicrobial dressing without having any toxic side effects. Nano silver reacts with gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, causing damage to the intracellular structure. The positively charged silver nanoparticles react with negatively charged bacterial surfaces leading to the disruption of the inner membrane. During electrospinning, the synthesized silver nano particles are incorporated into the collagen nano fibers. The
Collagen nanoparticles have shown promise as treatment carriers [73]. The recent trends in nanotechnology research and development aims to create collagen scaffolds that deliver the drug to the specific site and are released in a controlled manner [74]. Gold nanoparticles with different concentrations of gold (Au) was synthesized and coated onto collagen to form an amalgamation of nanoparticles and collagen (Au-Hp-Col). This amalgamation was found to be effective in the delivery of the drug Doxorubicin [70]. Poloxamer 407 (PM) is a polymer soluble in water used in the delivery of ophthalmic drugs like Ketorolac Tromethamine (KT). The PM is incorporated into the cellulose nano collagen particles that showed controlled release of the drug
Cardiovascular disease is the major cause of death worldwide [77]. These disorders are caused by reduced blood flow by blockage of blood vessels [78, 79]. Presently, the saphenous vein, the internal thoracic artery, and autologous vessels are used as grafts which are known to perform better than the synthetic alternative [80]. However, their limited availability and invasive harvest make them unsuitable for use. Tissue-engineered vascular grafts (TEVG) are currently used in order to overcome these limitations [48]. TEVG makes use of modern technology for the construction of vascular medical implants. The collagen along with the other components are used as a scaffold in the preparation of the TEVGs. In a previous study, Park et al., described a poly-epsilon-caprolactone (PCL) vascular graft, and its suitability for healing process. It was observed that the graft undergoes gradual degradation replaced by natural blood vessels. Collagen is also incorporated on to the inner layer and silica (sol-gel-derived ceramic) into the outer layer of PCL to improve the vascular response [49].
This chapter conclusively describes the importance and role of nanoparticles-based collagen biomaterials in the treatment of various wounds. The ECM is mainly comprised of collagen, which provides support and elasticity against mechanical stress. While collagen in itself is useful in the form of various biomaterials like scaffold s and hydrogels, the introduction of nanotechnology to it comes with its own set of challenges as well as advantages. The reduction of collagen to the nano particle’s sizes, giving it a large surface-to-volume ratio, is known to increase its efficiency of dealing with mechanical stress, thereby making it a viable option for treatment of wounds. Multiple research studies are conducted on wound healing using various materials and methods to reduce risk infection and aid in speedy recovery of the patient. The antimicrobial properties of nanoparticles of various elements such as gold and silver has already been proven, which can be further exploited in the effective treatment of wounds and injuries, in combination with collagen. The current challenge lies in the effective incorporation of nanoparticles and collagen in the production of nano collagen biomaterials, upscaling the production of nano collagen and making it affordable to the general public.
NM thank Global Innovation and Technology Alliance (GITA), Department of Science and Technology (DST), India [Project Number-GITA/DST/TWN/P-95/2021], and Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), (Project Number-ITR/Ad-hoc/43/2020-21, ID No. 2020-3286) Government of India, India for financial support.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\nWe currently accept the following payment options:
\\n\\nWhen paying with a credit card, you will be redirected to the PayPal.com online payment portal.
\\n\\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\\n\\nIn accordance with the best security practice, we do not accept card orders via email.
\\n\\nThe combined printing and delivery time for orders vary from 7-15 business days, depending on the printed quantity and destination. This period does not include any customs clearance difficulties that may arise and that are beyond our control. Once your order has been printed and shipped, you will receive a confirmation email that includes your DHL tracking number. You can then track your order at www.dhl.com.
\\n\\nIf you do not receive your order within 30 days from the date your order is shipped, please contact us to inquire about the shipping status at orders@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nTax: Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax Rate based on their country of residence. Institutions and companies, registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing IntechOpen with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\nCustoms: free shipping does not include any duties, taxes or clearing charges levied by the destination country. These charges are the responsibility of the customer and will vary from country to country.
\\n\\nP.O. Boxes cannot be used as a Ship-To Address.
\\n\\nIntechOpen partners do not provide shipping service from Europe to the countries listed below. Please refrain from mailing items addressed to the countries listed below, until further notice.
\\n\\nWhen ordering our books from the countries listed below, please provide an alternative mailing address. For any further assistance, please contact us at orders@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nRestricted Ship-to Countries:
\\n\\nPOD products are non-returnable and non-refundable, except in the event of poor print quality or an error in quantity. If we delivered the item to you in error or the item is faulty, please contact us.
\\n\\nInspect your order carefully when it arrives. Any problems should be immediately reported to orders@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPrint copies of our publications are most often purchased by universities, libraries, institutions and academia personnel, hence increasing the visibility and outreach of our authors' published work among science communities and institutions.
\\n\\nOur books are available at our direct Print Sales Department and through selected representatives throughout the world.
\\n\\nBooks International
\\n\\nRepresentative for: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam (ASEAN)
\\n\\nChina Publishers Services Ltd - CPS
\\n\\nRepresentative for: China, Taiwan, Hong Kong
\\n\\nIndia - CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
\\n\\nRepresentative for: India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives, Iran, Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunis, United Arab Emirates and Yemen
\\n\\nLSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V
\\n\\nRepresentative for Mexico, Chile and Colombia
\\n\\nMissing Link Versandbuchhandlung eG
\\n\\nRepresentative for: Germany, Austria, Switzerland
\\n\\nKuba Libri, s.r.o.
\\n\\nRepresentative for: Czech Republic
\\n\\nFor partnership opportunities, please contact orders@intechopen.com.
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\n\nIntechOpen works with award winning print-houses and we hold to the fact that all of our printed products are of the highest quality.
\n\nIntechOpen books retail price range is:
\n\n100 - 159 GBP ex. VAT (available in USD and EUR)
\n\nDiscounts available:
\n\nBulk discounts are granted for orders of 10 copies and more.
\n\nThere is no minimum or maximum threshold on the quantity of book orders.
\n\nOrders have to be paid in advance and before printing. We accept payment in GBP, EUR and USD.
\n\nWe currently accept the following payment options:
\n\nWhen paying with a credit card, you will be redirected to the PayPal.com online payment portal.
\n\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\n\nIn accordance with the best security practice, we do not accept card orders via email.
\n\nThe combined printing and delivery time for orders vary from 7-15 business days, depending on the printed quantity and destination. This period does not include any customs clearance difficulties that may arise and that are beyond our control. Once your order has been printed and shipped, you will receive a confirmation email that includes your DHL tracking number. You can then track your order at www.dhl.com.
\n\nIf you do not receive your order within 30 days from the date your order is shipped, please contact us to inquire about the shipping status at orders@intechopen.com.
\n\nTax: Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax Rate based on their country of residence. Institutions and companies, registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing IntechOpen with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\nCustoms: free shipping does not include any duties, taxes or clearing charges levied by the destination country. These charges are the responsibility of the customer and will vary from country to country.
\n\nP.O. Boxes cannot be used as a Ship-To Address.
\n\nIntechOpen partners do not provide shipping service from Europe to the countries listed below. Please refrain from mailing items addressed to the countries listed below, until further notice.
\n\nWhen ordering our books from the countries listed below, please provide an alternative mailing address. For any further assistance, please contact us at orders@intechopen.com.
\n\nRestricted Ship-to Countries:
\n\nPOD products are non-returnable and non-refundable, except in the event of poor print quality or an error in quantity. If we delivered the item to you in error or the item is faulty, please contact us.
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\n\nPrint copies of our publications are most often purchased by universities, libraries, institutions and academia personnel, hence increasing the visibility and outreach of our authors' published work among science communities and institutions.
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\n\nRepresentative for Mexico, Chile and Colombia
\n\nMissing Link Versandbuchhandlung eG
\n\nRepresentative for: Germany, Austria, Switzerland
\n\nKuba Libri, s.r.o.
\n\nRepresentative for: Czech Republic
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Piercey-Normore",authors:[{id:"68386",title:"Dr.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Piercey-Normore",slug:"michele-piercey-normore",fullName:"Michele Piercey-Normore"},{id:"68390",title:"BSc.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Deduke",slug:"chris-deduke",fullName:"Chris Deduke"},{id:"102711",title:"Ms.",name:"Brinda",middleName:null,surname:"Timsina",slug:"brinda-timsina",fullName:"Brinda Timsina"}]},{id:"27182",doi:"10.5772/26536",title:"Primary Succession in Glacier Forelands: How Small Animals Conquer New Land Around Melting Glaciers",slug:"primary-succession-in-glacier-forelands-how-small-animals-conquer-new-land-around-melting-glaciers",totalDownloads:4965,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"1011",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",fullTitle:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change"},signatures:"Sigmund Hågvar",authors:[{id:"66992",title:"Prof.",name:"Sigmund",middleName:null,surname:"Hågvar",slug:"sigmund-hagvar",fullName:"Sigmund Hågvar"}]},{id:"27188",doi:"10.5772/26365",title:"Heavy Metals Contamination of a Mediterranean Coastal Ecosystem, Eastern Nile Delta, Egypt",slug:"heavy-metals-contamination-of-a-mediterranean-coastal-ecosystem-eastern-nile-delta-egypt",totalDownloads:3099,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:null,book:{id:"1011",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",fullTitle:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change"},signatures:"M. F. Kaiser, H.A. Aboulela, H. A. El-Serehy and H. Ezz El-Din",authors:[{id:"3900",title:"Dr.",name:"Mona",middleName:null,surname:"Kaiser",slug:"mona-kaiser",fullName:"Mona Kaiser"},{id:"126516",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamdy",middleName:null,surname:"Aboulela",slug:"hamdy-aboulela",fullName:"Hamdy Aboulela"},{id:"150469",title:"Dr.",name:"H.",middleName:null,surname:"El-Serehy",slug:"h.-el-serehy",fullName:"H. El-Serehy"}]},{id:"55867",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69214",title:"The Marine Biodiversity of the Mediterranean Sea in a Changing Climate: The Impact of Biological Invasions",slug:"the-marine-biodiversity-of-the-mediterranean-sea-in-a-changing-climate-the-impact-of-biological-inva",totalDownloads:2317,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"The Mediterranean Sea, one of the most complex marine ecosystems, is inhabited by a rich and diverse biota which is disproportionate to its dimensions. It is currently affected by different pressures, mainly driven by human activities such as climate change and bioinvasions. This Sea, also due to its geographic position (wedged between the temperate climate of central Europe and the arid climate of northern Africa), seems to be one of the regions most susceptible to global climate change. The increased rates of introduction and spread of marine alien species may represent a supplementary stress factor to Mediterranean marine native biota already challenged by climatic abnormalities. The Suez Canal is considered to be the main vector of introduction of non‐indigenous marine species into the Mediterranean Sea. Due to the dramatically accelerating rate of such introductions and due to the sheer magnitude of shipping traffic, the Mediterranean Sea may be considered as a true hotspot of marine bioinvasions. The complexity of interactions between native and invasive species and the associated resulting impacts make environmental management of such an issue particularly difficult. A collaboration between researchers, resource management agencies and policy makers is called for to bolster the effectiveness of invasive species management procedures.",book:{id:"5995",slug:"mediterranean-identities-environment-society-culture",title:"Mediterranean Identities",fullTitle:"Mediterranean Identities - Environment, Society, Culture"},signatures:"Anna M. Mannino, Paolo Balistreri and Alan Deidun",authors:[{id:"202075",title:"Prof.",name:"Alan",middleName:null,surname:"Deidun",slug:"alan-deidun",fullName:"Alan Deidun"},{id:"203773",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Mannino",slug:"anna-maria-mannino",fullName:"Anna Maria Mannino"},{id:"203777",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Balistreri",slug:"paolo-balistreri",fullName:"Paolo Balistreri"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"77362",title:"Role of Eco-Village Initiatives in Mitigating Desertification in Semi-Arid Areas of Tanzania",slug:"role-of-eco-village-initiatives-in-mitigating-desertification-in-semi-arid-areas-of-tanzania",totalDownloads:105,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Climate change adaptation actions for mitigating desertification and improving community livelihood in developing countries have attracted numerous scholarly works. However, there have been insufficient findings on the adaptation regarding the eco-village practices in semi-arid areas in particular. This inspired a study to assess the role of eco-village practices in strengthening climate change adaptive capacity and mitigating desertification in semi-arid areas of Chololo village, Dodoma region in central Tanzania. Data were collected using mixed methods, that is, household survey (92), focus group discussions (21), key informants interviews (6), field observation and documentary review. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and content analysis were used in analyzing quantitative and qualitative data respectively. The study found a relatively high level of community awareness on the eco-village initiative; the initiative rehabilitated village forest reserve; improved land productivity for sorghum and pearl millet; increased number of planted trees; and strengthening communities’ adaptation to climate change through improved households’ nutrition, income and reduced water stress.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Fredy S. Mswima and Abiud L. Kaswamila",authors:[{id:"115390",title:"Prof.",name:"Abiud L.",middleName:"Lucas",surname:"Kaswamila",slug:"abiud-l.-kaswamila",fullName:"Abiud L. Kaswamila"},{id:"415117",title:"Dr.",name:"Fredy S.",middleName:null,surname:"Mswima",slug:"fredy-s.-mswima",fullName:"Fredy S. Mswima"}]},{id:"77741",title:"Characteristic on the Stability of Haloxylon ammodendron Plantation in the Southern Fringe of Gurbantunggut Desert, Northwest China",slug:"characteristic-on-the-stability-of-em-haloxylon-ammodendron-em-plantation-in-the-southern-fringe-of-",totalDownloads:150,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Using chronosequence theory and method, the characteristics of vegetation-soil coupling and structure stability of Haloxylon ammodendron plantations in the southern fringe of Gurbantunggut Desert were analyzed. The results showed, the canopy storey of H. ammodendron plantation experienced three stages, rapid growth (the age of 7 to 20), then slow growth (the age of 20 to 28) and last decline (over the age of 28). The best natural regeneration started from 17-yr-old plantation. Vegetation-soil system coupling degree (C) and coupling coordinative degree (D) of plantations with different age were not one-to-one correspondence. The system of H. ammodendron plantations always stayed in disorder recession, vegetation and soil were prone to loss type during the process of sand-fixation. Five principal components evaluated that the first rank was 42-yr-old plantation. It was inferred that the trend of the vegetation and soil system was from senescence to harmonious development. So the trend of coordinated development between vegetation and soil would be promoted, if the artificial tending and management measures strengthened.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Qinghong Luo, Qimin Chen, Miao He and Na Li",authors:[{id:"340564",title:"Dr.",name:"Qinghong",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"qinghong-luo",fullName:"Qinghong Luo"},{id:"347848",title:"Mr.",name:"Qimin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"qimin-chen",fullName:"Qimin Chen"},{id:"348214",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Miao",middleName:null,surname:"He",slug:"miao-he",fullName:"Miao He"},{id:"348215",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Na",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"na-li",fullName:"Na Li"}]},{id:"77086",title:"Bowing Sand, Dust, and Dunes, Then and Now–A North American Perspective",slug:"bowing-sand-dust-and-dunes-then-and-now-a-north-american-perspective",totalDownloads:83,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Dune fields of the present day, the Dust Bowl disaster of the 1930s U.S. Great Plains, and contemporary efforts to forecast, simulate, and understand dust storms have a striking, uniform commonality. What these apparently diverse phenomena have in common is that they all result from blowing sand and dust. This review paper unifies these three disparate but related phenomena. Its over-arching goal is to clearly explain these manifestations of windblown sand and dust. First, for contemporary dune fields, we offer reviews of two technical papers that explain the eolian formation and the continuing development of two major dune fields in southeastern California and northwestern Sonora, Mexico: the Algodones Dunes and the Gran Desierto de Altar. Second, historical, geological, meteorological, and socioeconomic aspects of the 1930s Great Plains Dust Bowl are discussed. Third, and last, we return to the present day to summarize two lengthy reports on dust storms and to review two technical papers that concern their forecasting and simulation. The intent of this review is to acquaint the interested reader with how eolian transport of sand and dust affects the formation of present-day dune fields, human agricultural enterprises, and efforts to better forecast and simulate dust storms. Implications: Blowing sand and dust have drastically affected the geological landscape and continue to shape the formation of dune fields today. Nearly a century ago the U.S. Great Plains suffered through the Dust Bowl, yet another consequence of blowing sand and dust brought on by drought and mismanagement of agricultural lands. Today, this phenomenon adversely affects landscapes, transportation, and human respiratory health. A more complete understanding of this phenomenon could (and has) led to more effective mitigation of dust sources, as well as to a more accurate predictive system by which the public can be forewarned.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Peter Hyde and Alex Mahalov",authors:[{id:"348247",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Hyde",slug:"peter-hyde",fullName:"Peter Hyde"},{id:"419631",title:"Dr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Mahalov",slug:"alex-mahalov",fullName:"Alex Mahalov"}]},{id:"61738",title:"Assessment of the Riparian Vegetation Changes Downstream of Selected Dams in Vhembe District, Limpopo Province on Based on Historical Aerial Photography",slug:"assessment-of-the-riparian-vegetation-changes-downstream-of-selected-dams-in-vhembe-district-limpopo",totalDownloads:1533,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Dams have been associated with various impacts on downstream river ecosystems, including a decrease in stream flow, species biodiversity, water quality, altered hydrology and colonisation of the area by invasive alien plant species. The impacts normally interfere with the ecosystem functioning of riparian and aquatic environments, thereby leading to decreased biodiversity. This study aims to assess the impacts of dams on downstream river ecosystems, using data from aerial photographs and orthophotos, supplemented by field work. Five dams in Limpopo Province, South Africa, were selected (Albasini, Damani, Mambedi, Nandoni and Vondo), and photographs from different years were used. The area devoid of trees of certain species both downstream and upstream of the dams was calculated using grids of predetermined square sizes on each available photograph. Aerial photographs and orthophoto data were supplemented by field work. The nearest-individual method was used in the field to determine tree density of particular tree species. The environments downstream of the dams show a loss of obligate riparian vegetation and an increase of obligate terrestrial vegetation (Acacia Karroo, Acacia Ataxacantha and Bauhinia galpinii). Treeless area increased in all cases, especially in the case of Mambedi and Vondo dams, indicating lower resilience and higher fragility there.",book:{id:"6706",slug:"environmental-risks",title:"Environmental Risks",fullTitle:"Environmental Risks"},signatures:"John M. Mokgoebo, Tibangayuka A. Kabanda and Jabulani R.\nGumbo",authors:[{id:"224099",title:"Prof.",name:"Jabulani",middleName:null,surname:"Gumbo",slug:"jabulani-gumbo",fullName:"Jabulani Gumbo"},{id:"250766",title:"Mr.",name:"M.J.",middleName:null,surname:"Mokgoebo",slug:"m.j.-mokgoebo",fullName:"M.J. Mokgoebo"},{id:"250767",title:"Prof.",name:"T.A.",middleName:null,surname:"Kabanda",slug:"t.a.-kabanda",fullName:"T.A. Kabanda"}]},{id:"78428",title:"Jojoba - The Gold of Desert",slug:"jojoba-the-gold-of-desert",totalDownloads:218,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Jojoba [Simmondsia chinensis (Link) Schneider] is evergreen, perennial and drought resistant shrub belongs to the family of Simmondsiaceae. It is a multipurpose oil seed crop mainly grown in desert regions of world. This plant has unique oil among plant kingdom which is chemically a liquid-wax. The liquid-wax is made up of an ester of long chain fatty acids and alcohols. The liquid-wax is unique in nature because have no traces of glycerine and easily modified via hydrolysis, hydrogenation, halogenation, sulfurization, phosphosulfurization and ozonization techniques. The main uses of liquid-wax in various industries like cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals and lubricants. It is a potential seed oil crop for desert region so it is well known as the gold of desert. The main purpose of this chapter is to review the complete information about this plant so that it can produce and utilized maximally. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published more than ninety scientific papers and serves as an editorial board member for Plant Methods, Biomolecules, and International Journal of Molecular Sciences.",institutionString:"National University of Kaohsiung",institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"313856",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:"F.E.",surname:"Hano",slug:"christophe-hano",fullName:"Christophe Hano",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313856/images/system/313856.png",institutionString:"University of Orléans",institution:{name:"University of Orléans",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/33993/images/system/33993.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Spanish National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",middleName:null,surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. 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