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Rada",authors:[{id:"114650",title:"Dr",name:"Eugen",middleName:null,surname:"Culea",fullName:"Eugen Culea",slug:"eugen-culea"},{id:"114653",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Rada",fullName:"Simona Rada",slug:"simona-rada"}]},{id:"36169",title:"Water in Rocks and Minerals - Species, Distributions, and Temperature Dependences",slug:"water-in-rocks-and-minerals-species-distributions-and-temperature-dependences",signatures:"Jun-ichi Fukuda",authors:[{id:"105384",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun-Ichi",middleName:null,surname:"Fukuda",fullName:"Jun-Ichi Fukuda",slug:"jun-ichi-fukuda"}]},{id:"36170",title:"Attenuated Total Reflection - Infrared Spectroscopy Applied to the Study of Mineral - Aqueous Electrolyte Solution Interfaces: A General Overview and a Case Study",slug:"attenuated-total-reflection-infrared-spectroscopy-applied-to-the-study-of-mineral-aqueous-el",signatures:"Grégory Lefèvre, Tajana Preočanin and Johannes Lützenkirchen",authors:[{id:"108416",title:"Dr.",name:"Johannes",middleName:null,surname:"Lützenkirchen",fullName:"Johannes Lützenkirchen",slug:"johannes-lutzenkirchen"},{id:"111675",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregory",middleName:null,surname:"Lefevre",fullName:"Gregory Lefevre",slug:"gregory-lefevre"},{id:"111676",title:"Prof.",name:"Tajana",middleName:null,surname:"Preocanin",fullName:"Tajana Preocanin",slug:"tajana-preocanin"}]},{id:"36171",title:"Research of Calcium Phosphates Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"research-of-calcium-phosphates-using-fourier-transformation-infrared-spectroscopy",signatures:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina and Natalija Borodajenko",authors:[{id:"110522",title:"Prof.",name:"Liga",middleName:null,surname:"Berzina-Cimdina",fullName:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina",slug:"liga-berzina-cimdina"},{id:"112181",title:"MSc.",name:"Natalija",middleName:null,surname:"Borodajenko",fullName:"Natalija Borodajenko",slug:"natalija-borodajenko"}]},{id:"36172",title:"FTIR Spectroscopy of Adsorbed Probe Molecules for Analyzing the Surface Properties of Supported Pt (Pd) Catalysts",slug:"ftir-spectroscopy-of-adsorbed-probe-molecules-for-analyzing-the-surface-properties-of-supported-pt-p",signatures:"Olga B. 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Escobar Barrios, José R. Rangel Méndez, Nancy V. Pérez Aguilar, Guillermo Andrade Espinosa and José L. 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Cabanelas",slug:"juan-c.-cabanelas"}]},{id:"36179",title:"Use of FTIR Analysis to Control the Self-Healing Functionality of Epoxy Resins",slug:"use-of-ft-ir-analysis-to-control-the-self-healing-functionality-of-epoxy-resins",signatures:"Liberata Guadagno and Marialuigia Raimondo",authors:[{id:"106836",title:"Prof.",name:"Liberata",middleName:null,surname:"Guadagno",fullName:"Liberata Guadagno",slug:"liberata-guadagno"}]},{id:"36180",title:"Infrared Analysis of Electrostatic Layer-By-Layer Polymer Membranes Having Characteristics of Heavy Metal Ion Desalination",slug:"infrared-analysis-of-electrostatic-layer-by-layer-polymer-membranes-having-characteristics-of-heavy",signatures:"Weimin Zhou, Huitan Fu and Takaomi Kobayashi",authors:[{id:"110384",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaomi",middleName:null,surname:"Kobayashi",fullName:"Takaomi Kobayashi",slug:"takaomi-kobayashi"}]},{id:"36181",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy as a Tool to Monitor Radiation Curing",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-as-a-tool-to-monitor-radiation-curing",signatures:"Marco Sangermano, Patrick Meier and Spiros Tzavalas",authors:[{id:"112286",title:"Dr.",name:"Spiros",middleName:null,surname:"Tzavalas",fullName:"Spiros Tzavalas",slug:"spiros-tzavalas"},{id:"114382",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Sangermano",fullName:"Marco Sangermano",slug:"marco-sangermano"},{id:"114384",title:"Dr",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Meier",fullName:"Patrick Meier",slug:"patrick-meier"}]},{id:"36182",title:"Characterization of Compositional Gradient Structure of Polymeric Materials by FTIR Technology",slug:"characterization-of-compositional-gradient-structure-of-polymeric-materials-by-ft-ir-technology",signatures:"Alata Hexig and Bayar Hexig",authors:[{id:"20867",title:"Dr.",name:"Bayar",middleName:null,surname:"Hexig",fullName:"Bayar Hexig",slug:"bayar-hexig"},{id:"111986",title:"Dr.",name:"Alata",middleName:null,surname:"Hexig",fullName:"Alata Hexig",slug:"alata-hexig"}]},{id:"36183",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy - Useful Analytical Tool for Non-Destructive Analysis",slug:"fourier-trasform-infrared-spectroscopy-useful-analytical-tool-for-non-destructive-analysis",signatures:"Simona-Carmen Litescu, Eugenia D. Teodor, Georgiana-Ileana Truica, Andreia Tache and Gabriel-Lucian Radu",authors:[{id:"24425",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Litescu",fullName:"Simona Carmen Litescu",slug:"simona-carmen-litescu"},{id:"24429",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriel-Lucian",middleName:null,surname:"Radu",fullName:"Gabriel-Lucian Radu",slug:"gabriel-lucian-radu"},{id:"108318",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugenia D.",middleName:null,surname:"Teodor",fullName:"Eugenia D. Teodor",slug:"eugenia-d.-teodor"},{id:"108323",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgiana-Ileana",middleName:null,surname:"Badea",fullName:"Georgiana-Ileana Badea",slug:"georgiana-ileana-badea"},{id:"136337",title:"Ms.",name:"Andreia",middleName:null,surname:"Tache",fullName:"Andreia Tache",slug:"andreia-tache"}]},{id:"36184",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy in the Analysis of Building and Construction Materials",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-cementitious-materials",signatures:"Lucia Fernández-Carrasco, D. Torrens-Martín, L.M. Morales and Sagrario Martínez-Ramírez",authors:[{id:"107401",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia J",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",fullName:"Lucia J Fernández",slug:"lucia-j-fernandez"}]},{id:"36185",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy Techniques in the Characterization of SOFC Functional Ceramics",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-techniques-in-the-characterization-of-sofc-functional-ceramics",signatures:"Daniel A. Macedo, Moisés R. Cesário, Graziele L. Souza, Beatriz Cela, Carlos A. Paskocimas, Antonio E. Martinelli, Dulce M. A. Melo and Rubens M. 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These mud beds are usually exposed to a continuous wave motion and disturbances produced by ship movement [1, 2], human actions such as dredging [3], natural climatic events and bioturbation [4]. The water column can be divided into different layers. In its large upper part, where mud particles are advected by currents and diffused by turbulent motion, mud is found as suspended particulate matter (SPM). Close to the bottom, different mud layers are found with increasing density as function of depth. These layers are defined as fluid mud (FM), pre-consolidated sediment (PS) and consolidated sediment (CS). Besides having different densities, these mud layers are known to have significantly different compositions and rheological fingerprints.
Fluid mud, the most important mud layer from a navigational perspective, is typically identified as a layer with a density of 1030–1300 kg m−3, whereby hindered settling of particles plays a role due to the presence of flocs (i.e., combination of clay particles and organic matter) [5, 6, 7]. All mud layers, but particularly the fluid mud layer, display complex rheological behavior, i.e., combination of thixotropy, shear-thinning, two-step yielding behavior and viscoelasticity [8, 9]. The rheological/cohesive properties of mud are observed to vary as a function of solid fraction (or bulk density), type and concentration of organic matter, type of clay minerals and ionic concentration [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. The thorough understanding of the rheological characteristics of mud, as a function of above-mentioned parameters, can help to estimate the strength, the flow and thickness of (fluid) mud in ports and waterways. The quantification of the rheological properties for fluid mud also facilitates the definition of boundary conditions for sediment transport modeling, which in turn helps optimizing the dredging operations and defining the proper maintenance strategy for navigational channels [18, 19, 20, 21]. However, in order to develop the appropriate in-situ techniques for measuring rheological properties, these characteristics need to be analyzed in laboratory beforehand. Therefore, in this chapter, following research questions are answered: How to efficiently collect the “undisturbed” mud sample? Which sediment properties are important for determining the rheological properties of mud? Which protocols are suitable for measuring rheological characteristics, i.e., yield stress of mud? Which empirical or semi-empirical model is appropriate to fit the rheological experimental data of mud, particularly for two-step yielding? How much comparable is the rheological signature of mud samples from different sources?
In this chapter, two different sampling techniques are presented to collect the “undisturbed” mud samples along with their important physical properties (Section 2). In Section 3, different protocols used to measure the rheological properties particularly yield stresses of mud are detailed and compared. Furthermore, the empirical or semi-empirical models that are commonly used to fit the rheological experimental data of mud are presented in Section 4. The influence of different factors such as density and organic matter content on the rheological behavior of mud is discussed in Section 5. In the end, the rheological properties, i.e., yield stress, of mud samples obtained from different ports are compared. In the present chapter, only laboratory experiments are presented.
In order to determine the physical and rheological characteristics of mud in the laboratory, appropriate sampling method needs to be applied. Two of the most commonly used sampling methods/equipment for mud are: (i) Van Veen grab sampler, and (ii) Frahmlot core sampler (see Figure 1). The criterion for selecting the suitable sampling method is based on the fact that the mud should be obtained in an “undisturbed” state with a naturally occurring density gradient profile, in order to estimate the properties of mud as close as possible to in-situ conditions. Core sampler is considered to meet this criterion well. Apart from collecting in-situ mud layers with different densities, another approach to study the effect of density on the rheological behavior is to dilute a consolidated mud layer, to obtain different samples with varying densities [9, 23]. However, the rheological characteristics of natural and diluted mud layers of same density are found to vary significantly from each other [24].
(a) Van Veen grab sampler and (b) Frahmlot core sampler [
The bulk density (or water content) of the mud samples is usually estimated using the oven-drying method [25, 26, 27, 28]. In short, the weight of the sample is recorded before and after heating at 105°C for 24 h. Using these weights and the density of water and minerals (i.e., 1000 and 2650 kg m−3, respectively), the mean bulk density of the sample is obtained. The particle size distribution (PSD) of mud is typically investigated using (static) light scattering methods [17, 28, 29]. However, this technique also possesses some inherent drawbacks which are the facts that (i) the conversion between raw data and particle size is based on the assumption that the particles are spherical and have a homogeneous composition, (ii) the measurements are possible in a limited range of concentrations, and (iii) there can be a serious overestimation of the amount of large particles due to the mathematical smoothing of the PSD’s by the manufacturer’s software [30]. The total organic carbon (TOC) of mud samples is commonly analyzed by using loss-on-ignition method [31, 32], which is based on weighing the sample before and after heating at 430–500°C for 24 h. The total organic carbon is then estimated by loss in weight. All these sediment properties are known to significantly influence the rheological characteristics of mud samples.
Mud can either behave as a solid-like material (i.e., elastic solid) at small stresses or as a liquid-like material above a critical value of stress, defined as yield stress. The nautical bottom for ports and waterways is typically defined on the basis of mud density [33], which does not account for the solid/liquid transition defined by the yield stress. Measurement of the yield stress of mud is, therefore, quite useful in defining the navigability of mud layers [15, 21]. The determination of yield stress is highly dependent on the selected rheological geometry and experimental method, as significantly different yield stress values can be obtained due to (i) the history of samples before analysis, (ii) differences in experimental methods, (iii) the use of different criteria for defining the yield point, (iv) different experimental timescales [34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39].
Several rheological geometries are available to perform the rheological analysis of mud including concentric cylinder (Couette), cone & plate (CP), parallel plate (PP) and vane. Cone & plate geometry has been observed to produce scattered rheological responses for mud samples due to the presence of large particles within the narrow gap between cone and plate and, hence, is not recommended for this kind of samples [40]. The remaining geometries can be used for analyzing mud samples but with certain benefits and limitations for each one. The differences between the geometries is illustrated in Figure 2a which shows the response of a FM mud layer in terms of elastic stress (
(a) Elastic stress as a function of amplitude at 1 Hz using different geometries for FM layer obtained from Port of Hamburg. Solid line is just a guide for the eye. Bars represent standard deviation. Circles with dashed lines represent the static yield points (SYS) and circles with solid lines represent the fluidic yield points (FYS). (b) Static and fluidic yield stress values obtained from elastic stress method for different mud layers collected from Port of Hamburg using Couette, parallel plate and vane geometries. Reprinted from Ref. [
Figure 2b presents the yield stress values of different mud layers obtained by using the elastic stress method for different geometries. The results show that the highest yield stress values are obtained for parallel plate geometry, which may be attributed to the fact that this geometry induces the lowest disturbance in the sample while the plates are approached to confine the sample. However, this geometry is not very appropriate for analyzing the rheology of liquid-like samples, as the sample can flow out of the holder during shearing. Couette geometry is most suitable to analyze the rheological characteristics of mud ranging from very fluid to paste-like. For consolidated samples, however, it is preferable to use vane geometry, as the bob used in Couette geometry usually gets stuck during analysis of (very) dense mud samples.
In addition to different geometries, several rheological protocols have been reported in literature to determine the yield stress of mud. These protocols include shear rate ramp-up [29, 44], shear stress ramp-up [15, 17], and Claeys et al. protocol [45]. Shear rate/shear stress ramp-up methods are quite fast and easy to perform. On the other hand, Claeys et al. protocol is based on several cycles of selected shear rates (applying a shear, stop shearing, applying a shear…) along with high shear rate steps in-between these cycles, with a total experimental time of about 15–20 min. Figure 3 shows the pictorial representation of different experimental protocols that can be used to measure the yield stresses of mud.
Pictorial representation of the protocols (a) stress ramp-up, (b) Claeys et al. protocol, (c) increasing equilibrium flow curve (EFC), (d) decreasing equilibrium flow curve (EFC), (e) shear rate ramp up and ramp down (CSRT) and (f) pre-shear test. Reprinted from Ref. [
The outcome of the different protocols in terms of shear stress as a function of shear rate or apparent viscosity as a function of shear stress for Port of Hamburg mud is shown in Figure 4. The values of yield stresses (static and fluidic) obtained from the viscosity declines of these curves (see Figure 4b) are presented in Table 1. It can be seen from Table 1 that higher yield stress values are obtained from stress ramp-up test, ramp-up step of shear rate ramp up and ramp down (CSRT) test and increasing equilibrium flow curve (EFC) test. This is linked to the fact that these methods deform mud samples from an almost undisturbed state to an almost fully disturbed state. These methods are, therefore, suitable to measure the yield stresses of mud close to in-situ conditions. However, the determination of a static yield point is somehow difficult in case of ramp-up step of CSRT test (due to the scattering of the initial apparent viscosity as function of stress points, see black curve in Figure 4b) and increasing EFC test is a somehow lengthy test (
(a) Shear stress as a function of shear rate and (b) apparent viscosity as a function of shear stress for mud sample collected from port of Hamburg using Couette geometry; solid symbols in CSRT protocol represent the ramp-up and the empty symbols represent the ramp-down; solid lines are just the guide for the eye. Reprinted from Ref. [
Method | Static Yield Stress (Pa) | Fluidic Yield Stress (Pa) |
---|---|---|
Claeys protocol | 3.1–4.4 | 26 |
CSRT-ramp up | 9.0–12.3 | 40 |
CSRT-ramp down | 7.6 | 29 |
EFC-decreasing | 5.2 | 26 |
EFC-increasing | 7.1 | 38 |
Pre-shear | 7.1 | 27 |
Stress ramp-up | 11 | 40 |
Static and fluidic yield stress values of mud sample from port of Hamburg obtained from viscosity declines with Couette geometry for different protocols.
In literature, several terminologies have been used to represent the two yield points for mud. The correspondence between these terminologies is presented in Table 2.
Shakeel et al. [17] | Toorman [47] | Toorman [48] | Wurpts & Torn [15] | Claeys et al. [45] |
---|---|---|---|---|
Fluidic yield stress | Static yield stress | Criterion for navigation | Undrained shear strength | |
ΔYS = (Fluidic ̶ Static) | Bingham yield stress | Dynamic yield stress | Bingham yield stress | |
Static yield stress | (True) yield stress | Yield stress |
Correspondence between different yield stress terminologies reported in literature for mud.
Thixotropy, a commonly observed rheological fingerprint of suspensions, is defined as a phenomenon in which the viscosity of the system is both shear rate and time dependent. Therefore, a thixotropic material shows a time dependent viscosity (decreasing as a function of time; when the viscosity is increasing as a function of time the material is said to be rheopectic) after applying/stopping shear rate [49]. Typically, the thixotropic behavior of mud is determined by performing a shear rate ramp-up followed by a constant high shear step and then a shear rate ramp-down step [17, 44]. The area of the hysteresis loop formed between the upward and downward curve quantifies the thixotropic behavior of the material [50]. Multiple thixotropic loops can also be produced for the same sample without allowing for any delay between each loop, in order to understand the thixotropic behavior of mud after extensive structural breakdown [17].
In addition to thixotropy, the structural recovery of mud after extensive shearing is also interesting to analyze by using small amplitude oscillatory rheological measurements. A three step experimental protocol has been reported in literature to quantify the structural recovery of mud after steady pre-shearing [51]. In short, the first step of the protocol involves the application of an oscillatory amplitude within the linear viscoelastic (LVE) regime and recording the moduli as a function of time (i.e., resting step). This step provides the initial moduli values before the pre-shearing step and also eliminates the disturbances created by the geometry. In a second step, a constant high shear rate is applied for a time interval which is enough to completely destroy the structure of the sample (i.e., pre-shear step). The last step provides the key information about the structural recovery of mud after pre-shearing, again by applying the oscillatory amplitude within LVE regime and recording the moduli as a function of time (i.e., structural recovery step). The schematic representation of the experimental protocol is shown in Figure 5.
Schematics of the experimental protocol employed for the structural breakup and recovery in mud samples. Reprinted from Ref. [
Apart from above mentioned rheological properties of mud, the estimation of moduli (storage and loss) within LVE regime (i.e., without significantly affecting the structure of the material) as a function of frequency provides useful information about the strength of the material. Preliminary oscillatory amplitude sweep experiments are usually performed to determine the LVE regime (where the response of material is independent of applied stress/strain). The frequency sweep tests are then performed by selecting the appropriate amplitude of oscillation within LVE regime and the desired frequency range [17, 29]. The results can either be plotted as moduli (storage and loss) vs. frequency or complex modulus and phase angle as a function of frequency. In addition to small amplitude oscillatory experiments, large amplitude oscillatory tests have also been reported in literature to analyze the nonlinear response of mud in terms of stress waveform and Lissajous pattern [41].
In literature, the rheological behavior (i.e., flow curve) of mud has been fitted with numerous empirical or semi-empirical models including Bingham [52], Herschel-Bulkley [53], Worrall-Tuliani [54], and Toorman model [48], given as follows:
Bingham model:
Herschel-Bulkley model:
Worrall-Tuliani model:
Toorman model:
where
It has been reported in literature that mud samples usually exhibit a two-step yielding phenomenon [17, 41, 51], which is associated with two yield stresses. These two yield points depict the transition between a fully structured sample (i.e., interconnected network of flocs), partially structured sample (i.e., mobile flocs) and almost fully disturbed sample (i.e., smaller flocs or particles). Therefore, the shear stress as a function of shear rate for the whole investigated range can be written as a sum of two functions, which represent the two yield regions, given as:
where
where
The shear stress
The shear stress
Shear stress as a function of shear rate for mud sample from port of Hamburg obtained by performing stress ramp-up test using Couette geometry. The solid line represents the two-step yielding model fitting
The experimental data of structural recovery tests (i.e., storage modulus as a function of time) can be easily fitted with the stretched exponential function [51] given as follows:
where
Density (i.e., solid content and water content) is an important characteristic of mud which can significantly affect their rheological behavior, such as yield stress, thixotropy and moduli. In natural environment, the density gradient in mud is usually created by wave motion or human activities along with settling of particles. In literature, several researchers have reported the rheological characteristics of mud as a function of solid content or density [9, 17, 23, 26, 27, 29, 55]. For instance, the mud obtained from Lianyungang, China showed an exponential increase in yield stress as a function of volume concentration of particles [29]. Likewise, the similar exponential relation between yield stress and solid content or water content of mud has also been reported by other researchers for samples obtained from different ports [17, 26, 27, 55].
However, this correlation between yield stress and density is highly dependent on the mud composition. For example, the (fluidic) yield stress values as a function of density for mud samples collected from different locations of port of Hamburg is shown in Figure 7a. It can be seen that the dependence of yield stress on mud density is significantly different for the samples collected at different locations. In order to further quantify this difference, both the fitting parameter ‘a’ for the power law relation given in the caption of Figure 7a and the total organic carbon (TOC) are plotted as function of different locations (Figure 7b). There is clearly a correlation between the TOC content and the fitting parameter ‘a’. This behavior suggests that the yield stress of mud is strongly dependent both on TOC and mud density, as already reported in literature [15, 16].
(a) Fluidic yield stress (
Several researchers have reported the rheological characteristics of mud as a function of density either by collecting natural mud layers with varying density [17] or by diluting dense mud samples [9, 23]. However, it has been observed that the natural and diluted mud layers display significantly different rheological properties [24] (see Figure 8), which may again be linked to the composition of each mud layer, procedure of dilution, etc.
Fluidic yield stress values vs. bulk density for natural and diluted mud layers from Port of Hamburg. Solid lines represent the power law fitting. Reprinted from Ref. [
Apart from yield stress, other rheological properties including moduli, thixotropy, structural recovery, etc. are also strongly dependent on the density of mud samples [24, 51]. For instance, the structural recovery, observed by using above mentioned protocol (Section 3.2), for mud samples collected from different locations and different depths is shown in Figure 9a and b, respectively. From the figure, it is found that the structural recovery (i.e., moduli values) of mud is highly dependent on the mud layer, and position in the harbor [51]. Hence, density of mud is a critical parameter particularly for describing their rheological characteristics, however, for defining nautical bottom in ports only density is not enough and other parameters also need attention from the researchers.
(a) Normalized storage modulus (
The presence of organic matter in mud usually hinders the settling of particles and can help to form fluid mud layers, in addition to the natural wave motion or human activities which are also responsible for the existence of these layers. This organic matter can or cannot be mineral-associated organic matter (i.e., organic matter adsorbed at the mineral surface or trapped inside the particle) [56]. There are two common sources of organic matter in mud: (i) natural and (ii) anthropogenic. The natural sources include erosion of terrestrial topsoils, plant litter, planktonic and pelagic biomass while surface runoff and sewage waste contribute to the anthropogenic source of organic matter [32].
The existence of organic matter in mud is also known to significantly influence the rheological and cohesive properties of mud [10, 14, 15]. For instance, the rheological characteristics of mud have been investigated in literature by varying organic matter content and keeping density constant [16]. The results showed an increase in yield stresses and moduli of mud with increasing organic matter content, for a similar density value (see Figure 10a). However, further research is required to investigate the effect of type of organic matter/biopolymer at different pH or ionic concentrations on the rheological behavior of mud.
(a) Yield stress values and complex modulus at 1 Hz for mud samples having similar density (1210 kg. M−3) and different organic matter content obtained from port of Hamburg, adapted from ref. [
In addition to organic matter content, its extent of degradation can also significantly affect the rheological properties of mud. Aerobic degradation (in the presence of oxygen) of organic matter usually results in the production of carbon dioxide while anaerobic degradation produces methane in addition to carbon dioxide [32]. For a detailed information about the aerobic and anaerobic degradation of mud, see ref. [32]. The entrapped gas bubbles of methane can significantly decrease the density and strength of mud, due to the poor solubility of methane in water. The outcome of stress ramp-up tests for fresh and anaerobically degraded mud samples, collected from port of Hamburg, is shown in Figure 10b. It can be seen that the values of the two yield stresses (static and fluidic) for degraded sample are significantly lower than the fresh ones. However, further quantification of organic matter content before and after degradation is required, in order to correlate the organic matter degradation with rheological characteristics of mud.
The yield stress dependency on mud density is observed to vary for the samples collected from different parts of the world. As an example, fluidic yield stress values are plotted as a function of density for the samples collected from different ports (see Figure 11). One observes that the mud samples obtained from different ports exhibit considerably different yield stress values for a particular density. This difference may be attributed to the composition of mud, particle size distribution, type and content of TOC, ionic strength, etc. This behavior highlights the needs for a systematic investigation of the rheological properties of mud, as function of relevant parameters, for different ports.
Fluidic yield stress as a function of excess density (
Furthermore, the values of the rheological characteristics including yield stress and storage modulus of mud samples collected from different parts of the world are compared in Table 3. It can be seen that the mud from the Port of Santos [27], the Hangzhou Bay, China [23], the Port of Rotterdam [9], and the Port of Hamburg [16] display similar values of rheological properties for similar densities. However, the mud samples obtained from Mouth of Yangtze River, Shoal of Hangzhou Bay, and Yangcheng Lake, China [44] possess higher values of rheological parameters, which may be attributed to the their higher densities. Moreover, the mud from Eckernförde Bay, Germany show considerably lower yield stress values for the comparable densities, which may be linked to the organic matter content or measuring protocol.
Location | Bulk Density (kg/m3) | Fluidic Yield Stress (Pa) | Storage Modulus @ 1 Hz (Pa) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Port of Rotterdam, the Netherlands | 1168 | 7 | 45 | [9] |
Eckernförde Bay, Germany | 1038–1280 | 1.07–20.50 | — | [31] |
Hangzhou Bay, China | 1145–1634 | 0.55–40 | 0.02–15 | [23] |
Mouth of Yangtze River, China | 1650–1700 | 910–2810 | — | [44] |
Shoal of Hangzhou Bay, China | 1705–1741 | 772–2140 | — | [44] |
Yangcheng Lake, China | 1651–1691 | 2070–3960 | — | [44] |
Lianyungang Port, China | 1098–1305 | 0.098–28.029 | 2–1050 | [29] |
Port of Santos, Brazil | 1085–1206 | 5–334 | — | [27] |
Port of Rio Grande, Brazil | 1132–1308 | 5–350 | — | [27] |
Port of Itajaí, Brazil | 1138–1360 | 5–299 | — | [27] |
Amazon South Channel | 1293–1512 | 5–379 | [27] | |
Port of Hamburg, Germany | 1087–1210 | 2.44–312 | 0.47–7915 | [16] |
Comparison of rheological properties (i.e., yield stress and storage modulus) of mud samples obtained from different sources.
As already mentioned that the yield stress can be used as a criterion to define navigable fluid mud layers, Port of Emden, Germany is reported to use the yield stress of 100 Pa as a criterion for nautical bottom [15]. However, this critical value of yield stress for defining nautical bottom is significantly dependent on the spatial variation of the sediment characteristics (i.e., sand content, organic matter content, etc.). For instance, the rheological properties of mud samples from Port of Hamburg, Germany are significantly different for different locations within the port, due to the different organic matter content [46]. Therefore, using a single value of yield stress as a criterion for defining nautical bottom for the whole port can be quite tricky and instead, different boundaries of yield stress as a function of density can be used for different locations, in order to define the nautical bottom.
In this chapter the rheological behavior of mud as found in harbors, is discussed. Different mud layers, formed as a result of either natural or human activities, were defined. These mud layers exhibit a complex rheological fingerprint, by displaying a combination of thixotropy, two-step yielding behavior and viscoelasticity, which is conventionally associated to the existence of clay flocs (aggregated clay particles with organic matter). The analysis of the rheological properties of the top layer (fluid mud layer) is crucial for navigational purposes, optimizing dredging operations and the proper maintenance of dredged navigational channels.
In order to study the rheology of mud in laboratory, it was found that core sampling is the best sampling technique as it allows to collect mud samples without much disturbance. In contrast to what some authors do, it is not recommended to dilute a specific sample to predict its rheological behavior as function of density. It is shown that the rheological properties of natural mud layers of different densities found on top of each other at a specific location in the harbor do not match the properties of samples obtained from diluting the densest (deepest) mud layer sample. The reason lays in the differences in mud composition and structure at different depths.
The determination of yield stress of mud is highly dependent on the selected rheological geometry and experimental method. A detailed analysis shows that the Couette geometry along with stress ramp-up test is the most suitable combination to analyze the yield stress of mud for ports and waterways applications. The optimization of this stress ramp-up test enables to reduce the experimental time for different mud layers (∼ 10–200 s). Several empirical or semi-empirical models are available in literature to fit the experimental data of mud displaying a single-step yielding. However, the mud samples are observed to exhibit a two-step yielding and, therefore, the behavior of shear stress as a function of shear rate (i.e., flow curve) can be represented as a sum of two functions, which capture the two yield regions. The model captures the two-step yielding phenomenon in mud samples quite well, within the density range of 1050–1200 kg. m−3.
Several factors are known to influence the rheological characteristics of mud such as density and organic matter content. An exponential relation between yield stress and density (i.e., solid content) is usually observed in literature for mud from different sources. However, this correlation between yield stress and density is highly dependent on the mud composition. Apart from yield stress, other rheological properties including moduli, thixotropy, structural recovery, etc. are also strongly dependent on the density and composition of mud samples. For instance, the fluidic yield stress of mud from Port of Hamburg, Germany is observed to increase from 79 Pa to 312 Pa by increasing the organic matter content from 2.8% to 4.3%. The degradation of organic matter in mud, which can occur over time for different layers is found to significantly influence the rheological and cohesive properties of mud. Further research is required to investigate the effect of type of organic matter at different pH or ion type and concentrations on the rheological fingerprint of mud.
This study is funded by the Hamburg Port Authority and carried out within the framework of the MUDNET academic network: https://www.tudelft.nl/mudnet/
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\n\n1. RETRACTIONS
\n\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n3. CORRECTIONS
\n\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n3.1. ERRATUM
\n\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\n\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\n\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. 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For well-characterized products, the desired level of quality should be monitored and controlled during the manufacturing processes. A series of workflow for analytical characterization should be applied for product quality throughout those processes. In this chapter, several analytical techniques are introduced for assessing characteristics of biopharmaceuticals focusing on monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). Analytical characterization for primary structure was performed by mass spectrometry (MS), and assessment of post-translational modifications (PTMs) was done by conventional approaches. The analytical assessments were also done by multi-attribute method (MAM) approach using mass spectrometer (MS), and the performance of MAM was compared to conventional approaches.",book:{id:"6787",slug:"biopharmaceuticals",title:"Biopharmaceuticals",fullTitle:"Biopharmaceuticals"},signatures:"Woojeong Kim, Kui Hyun Kang and Jung-Keun Suh",authors:[{id:"241304",title:"Prof.",name:"Jung-Keun",middleName:null,surname:"Suh",slug:"jung-keun-suh",fullName:"Jung-Keun Suh"},{id:"258673",title:"MSc.",name:"Woojeong",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"woojeong-kim",fullName:"Woojeong Kim"},{id:"258674",title:"Dr.",name:"Kui Hyun",middleName:null,surname:"Kang",slug:"kui-hyun-kang",fullName:"Kui Hyun Kang"}]},{id:"62647",title:"Indomethacin from Anti-Inflammatory to Anticancer Agent",slug:"indomethacin-from-anti-inflammatory-to-anticancer-agent",totalDownloads:1313,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The chapter “Indomethacin from Anti-inflammatory to Anticancer Agent” covers the recent reports regarding the implication of COX-2/PGE2 in multiple cancer cell proliferation to emphasize the anticancer potential of COX-inhibitors including indomethacin and to reveal that the reduction of PGE2 production interferes with the cancer cell proliferation belongs to multiple cancer cell types. Impressively, indomethacin is involved in antiproliferative and apoptotic actions against cancer cell types via COX-2-independent mechanisms to highlight indomethacin as promising anticancer agent with dual actions to control the cancer cell proliferation. The cardiovascular complications result from diaryl heterocycle sulfonamide/methylsulfone selective COX-2 inhibitors upon reduction in PGE2 and PGI2 production that affects the vascular tone limits the use of Celecoxib as chemopreventive agent against recurrence of colorectal carcinoma cells. Kinetic profile of indomethacin against COX-2 showed obvious difference from that of selective COX-2 inhibitors in which it recovered completely from the enzyme after long time of incubation while COX-2 inhibitors did not recover to impress that this might be implicated in the cardiovascular toxicity of the selective inhibitors. This raised the concern to develop the indomethacin from nonselective COX- to selective COX-2-inhibitors and to assert whether the cardiac complications are from pharmacological class effect or chemical class effect.",book:{id:"7518",slug:"medicinal-chemistry",title:"Medicinal Chemistry",fullTitle:"Medicinal Chemistry"},signatures:"Shaymaa Emam Kassab",authors:[{id:"251335",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Kassab",slug:"shaymaa-kassab",fullName:"Shaymaa Kassab"}]},{id:"63789",title:"Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Clavulanic Acid, a Novel β- Lactamase Isolated from Streptomyces clavuligerus and Its Variability",slug:"clinical-pharmacokinetics-of-clavulanic-acid-a-novel-lactamase-isolated-from-streptomyces-clavuliger",totalDownloads:1099,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The clavulanic acid derived by fermentation of Streptomyces clavuligerus and possessed the capability to inactivate a broad range of β-lactamase enzymes. A complex physicochemical process involves the binding of clavulanic acid to β-lactamases in which clavulanic acid itself deplete irreversibly along with β-lactamase enzyme rendering amoxicillin spared which otherwise would hydrolyze by an enzyme. It is therefore termed as ‘suicide ‘inhibitor for β-lactamases. We discussed here pharmacokinetic parameters and identified factors responsible for the variability of absorption of clavulanic acid. The results based on individual plasma concentration-time curve of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid in an open, randomized, two-way crossover study involving 10 healthy male subjects administered with two amoxiclav formulations.",book:{id:"7518",slug:"medicinal-chemistry",title:"Medicinal Chemistry",fullTitle:"Medicinal Chemistry"},signatures:"Anab Fatima, Mohammad Jiyad Shaikh, Hina Zahid, Ishart Younus,\nSheikh Abdul Khaliq and Farah Khalid",authors:[{id:"225358",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Jiyad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-jiyad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Jiyad Shaikh"},{id:"231412",title:"Dr.",name:"Anab",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"anab-fatima",fullName:"Anab Fatima"},{id:"243371",title:"Dr.",name:"Hina",middleName:null,surname:"Zahid",slug:"hina-zahid",fullName:"Hina Zahid"},{id:"243372",title:"Dr.",name:"Ishart",middleName:null,surname:"Younus",slug:"ishart-younus",fullName:"Ishart Younus"},{id:"243373",title:"Dr.",name:"Sheikh Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Khaliq",slug:"sheikh-abdul-khaliq",fullName:"Sheikh Abdul Khaliq"},{id:"243374",title:"Dr.",name:"Farah",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"farah-khalid",fullName:"Farah Khalid"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"218",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. 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Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:17,paginationItems:[{id:"81751",title:"NanoBioSensors: From Electrochemical Sensors Improvement to Theranostic Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102552",signatures:"Anielle C.A. Silva, Eliete A. Alvin, Lais S. de Jesus, Caio C.L. de França, Marílya P.G. da Silva, Samaysa L. Lins, Diógenes Meneses, Marcela R. Lemes, Rhanoica O. Guerra, Marcos V. da Silva, Carlo J.F. de Oliveira, Virmondes Rodrigues Junior, Renata M. Etchebehere, Fabiane C. de Abreu, Bruno G. Lucca, Sanívia A.L. Pereira, Rodrigo C. Rosa and Noelio O. 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Paul",slug:"organoids-and-commercialization",totalDownloads:33,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Organoids",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11430.jpg",subseries:null}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6692",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6692.jpg",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",publishedDate:"July 4th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Robert Koprowski",hash:"e75f234a0fc1988d9816a94e4c724deb",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",editors:[{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"OCT - Applications in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",biography:"Michele Lanza is Associate Professor of Ophthalmology at Università della Campania, Luigi Vanvitelli, Napoli, Italy. His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. He has also edited two international books and authored more than 150 communications or posters for the most important international and Italian ophthalmology conferences.",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. 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