Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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1. Introduction
The wall of the eye globe is composed of the cornea and the sclera. The latter covers the posterior four-fifths of the globe with anterior and posterior openings for the cornea and the optic nerve, respectively. The cornea is the most anterior part of the globe and is normally optically clear. A healthy overlying tear film is important for the optimal function of the cornea and the esthetic wellness of the ocular surface.
The cornea is a complex structure that is responsible for protection and about three-quarters of the optical power of the natural eye with the remainder coming from the crystalline lens. The normal cornea is devoid of blood vessels to insure optimal transmission of light rays. Oxygen and nutrients are supplied, and metabolic products are eliminated primarily through the tear film anteriorly and aqueous humor posteriorly. The cornea is one of the most densely innervated tissues in the body. Thus, traumatic corneal abrasions, bacterial keratitis, and bullous keratopathy are associated with severe pain, tearing, and photophobia. The corneal nerve plexuses are supplied by the first division (ophthalmic nerve) of the fifth cranial nerve (trigeminal nerve) [1].
Corneal dystrophies are defined as a group of slowly progressive, usually inherited, bilateral, and symmetric corneal opacifying disorders that might be associated with variable degrees of decreased vision and discomfort. Typically, they are not linked to environmental or systemic factors. Nevertheless, there are exceptions to each portion of the corneal dystrophies’ definition, as some dystrophies are unilateral and asymmetric and have no recognizable heredity and have associated systemic findings [2]. Based on the cellular origin of corneal dystrophy, a modified anatomic classification is proposed consisting of epithelial and subepithelial, epithelial-stromal, stromal, and endothelial dystrophies [3].
Degenerations generally result from steady deterioration of the tissues that was previously normal with subsequent loss of their functional activity. Corneal degenerations are characterized by the deposition of a specific material, stromal thinning, and vascularization. They are not hereditary and can be unilateral. The cornea may undergo changes associated with ultraviolet light stimulation and oxidative stress that are thought to be responsible for the progression of degenerative processes [4, 5].
Corneal ectasia refers to a group of noninflammatory conditions characterized by bilateral loss of corneal biomechanical strength leading to progressive thinning and bulging of the cornea with resultant irregular astigmatism and decreased visual acuity. Examples include keratoconus, post laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) ectasia, pellucid marginal degeneration, and keratoglobus [1].
We will start this chapter by describing the basic sciences of the normal human cornea including embryological, anatomical, histologic, and physiological features of the cornea with mentioning selected related functional aspects. Later, we will discuss the most important corneal dystrophies, degenerations, and ectasia from clinical, histopathologic, and management points of view.
2. The basic sciences of the cornea
2.1 Corneal embryology
Corneal development and differentiation are the last in the well-organized series of ocular tissue formation. Thus, normal corneal development depends on normal development of the lens and optic cup. The corneal epithelium is derived from the surface ectoderm, while the corneal stroma, including Bowman’s layer, and endothelium are derived from the neural crest cells. The Descemet’s membrane is synthesized by endothelial cells and acts as the basement membrane of the corneal endothelium [6, 7].
The corneal development begins on the 22nd day of gestation as the surface ectoderm, the primordium of the corneal epithelium, and can be identified at the start of the 6th week of intrauterine age [8]. The neural crest cells come in three distinct waves. The first wave, in the 7th week, migrates between the primitive corneal epithelium and the lens epithelium to form the corneal endothelium. The second wave migrates to the area situated between the future corneal endothelium and the corneal epithelium and gives rise to keratocytes, the cells of the corneal stroma. The third wave of neural crest cells is located in the primitive anterior chamber to form the iris stroma [9, 10, 11, 12].
Keratan sulfate is a proteoglycan that is produced by keratocytes and can be demonstrated at the 8th week of gestation. It is present in keratocytes and endothelial cells but not the epithelial cells [13, 14, 15]. The early corneal epithelium is composed of two layers, apical and basal layers. The outer (apical) cells are cuboidal without microvilli and are joined together by junctional complexes: zonula occludens and zonula adherens. They are connected to the basal cell by desmosomes [16]. The epithelium increases to three cell layers at 10-day postpartum and continues to thicken until reaching the adult thickness of about six layers by the 4th week of life [17].
2.2 Corneal anatomy, histology, and physiology
2.2.1 Corneoscleral limbus
The corneal limbus is simply described as the transition zone between the peripheral corneal margin and the anterior sclera. Its width is approximately 1–1.5 mm. One of the important characteristics of the limbus is that it contains the corneal stem cells detected in the basal cell layer. The limbus can be defined from histological, pathological, and surgical points of view.
From histological aspects, the anterior margin of the limbus is bounded by a line connecting the peripheral termination of Bowman’s layer from the corneal epithelial side and the peripheral termination of Descemet’s membrane, known as Schwalbe line, from the endothelial side. The peripheral margin is bordered by the scleral spur. From pathologists’ point of view, a vertical line that is perpendicular to the scleral spur was added to define the peripheral margin [18]. Surgeons divide the limbus into two zones: a central blue zone and a peripheral concentric white zone. The area containing Bowman’ layer and Descemet’s membrane is seen as blue. The trabecular meshwork is located under the white zone [19].
2.2.2 Corneal anatomy
The cornea is the round transparent portion of the eyeball. It is the strongest refractive component of the optical system of the eye. To maintain its transparency, the normal cornea is avascular, relatively acellular, and relatively dehydrated with extraordinary organization of the stromal collagen lamellae. The diameter of the cornea measures 11–12 mm in horizontal meridian and 10–11 in vertical meridian. The average central thickness of the cornea is 520 and 650 μm peripherally. The corneal stroma is 78% water. This percentage is controlled by an intact epithelium and a normally functioning endothelial pump. The refractive index of the cornea is 1.376 [18].
In the following subsections, we will describe the histology and physiology of different layers of the cornea from the front to the back: epithelium, Bowman’s layer, stroma, Descemet’s membrane, and endothelium.
2.2.3 Corneal epithelium
As previously mentioned, the corneal epithelium is derived from the embryonic surface ectoderm and lies on the outer surface of the cornea. The epithelium is composed of 5–6 layers of nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium overlying a single layer of basal cells. It is 50 μm thick. Complete renewal of the epithelial cells occurs in 7–10 days. Three distinct layers of epithelial cells are identified: superficial flattened cells, middle wing cells, and deep basal cells [18].
The superficial and the wing cells differentiate from the basal cells. There are approximately 6000 basal cells/mm2 in a normal cornea. They are derived from the corneal limbal stem cells. The new cells migrate from the limbus in a centripetal fashion at a speed of approximately 120 μm/week. Gab junctions serve to provide communication channels between basal cells. A basal lamina that is 50 nm thick, and is composed of type IV collagen, is actively secreted by the basal cells. The cells are attached to the underlying basal lamina via hemidesmosomes. Recurrent epithelial erosions, seen in patients with epithelial basement membrane dystrophy (EBMD), are caused by alteration of hemidesmosomes [18].
On the top of basal cells are 2–3 cell layers of wing cells. They resemble wings in cross section. Wing cells are joined together by zonulae occludentes forming a semipermeable membrane preventing components of the tear film from gaining entry to the corneal stroma. The superficial layer is composed of 2–3 rows of flattened cells. They shed in the tear film and are replenished by other cells. Microplicae and microvilli are observed on the apical surface of the superficial cells. Epithelial cells are attached to each other by desmosomes. Topical anesthetic abuse causes a decline in the number of desmosomes with resultant impaired healing [20].
2.2.4 Bowman’s layer
Bowman’s layer represents the most anterior part of the stroma and lies directly posterior to the basal lamina of the corneal epithelium. Bowman’s layer is not considered a true membrane and does not stain with periodic acid-Schiff (PAS). It is 8–12 μm thick and composed of type I and type V collagen. After injury, Bowman’s layer does not regenerate and, thus, a scar will form. In contrast to the stroma, the collagen lamellae are smaller and randomly organized [18].
Bowman’s layer is critical in supporting the corneal biomechanics through its stiff and strong nature. Weakening of this layer can result in ectatic corneal disorders, such as keratoconus, due to loss of the biomechanical support [21].
2.2.5 Corneal stroma
The corneal stroma is derived from the neural crest cells. It constitutes around 90–95% of the corneal thickness. Numerically, the central corneal thickness measures about 0.52 mm and thickens to 0.65 mm in the periphery. It has corneal stromal collagen lamellae, 200–250 lamellae that are arranged parallel to the surface of the cornea. They are predominantly made from type I and type V collagens. Keratan sulfate and dermatan sulfate are the primary proteoglycans of the stroma. These proteoglycans are located between the lamellae maintaining a constant interlamellar distance, an important factor in eliminating light scatter and, thus, a clear cornea [18]. In 2013, an acellular layer measuring approximately 10 μm in the posterior stroma, named the pre-Descemet’s layer (or Dua’s layer), was introduced [22].
There are approximately 2.4 million keratocytes in the corneal stroma scattered in between the lamellae. They synthesize collagen and proteoglycans. Keratocytes are abundant in mitochondria, rough endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatuses. The plasma membranes are fenestrated, and they communicate via gab junctions. There is a documented decline in the cell density associated with age [18].
The anterior part of the stroma is typically drier than the posterior part. This is caused by the drying effect of the atmosphere anteriorly and the wetting effect of the aqueous humor posteriorly. An enlarged spacing between the lamellae, as in cases of corneal stromal edema from endothelial injury, will result in hazy cornea and decreased visual acuity [18].
2.2.6 Descemet’s membrane (DM)
Descemet’s membrane is a true basement membrane, for corneal endothelium, that is PAS positive. The thickness of DM varies according to the age of the individual. It is continuously secreted by the endothelium through life. In newborns, it measures about 2–4 μm in thickness and reaches to 10–12 μm in adults [18].
Histologically, DM has two layers: an anterior banded layer produced during fetal life and a posterior non-banded layer produced after birth. It is made of type IV collagen, laminin, and fibronectin [18].
DM provides support and adhesion to endothelial cells. Under pathologic conditions, it works as a biologic barrier to the phagocytic, toxic, and enzymatic degradation. Notably, DM is weakly attached to the overlying stroma, or pre-Descemet’s layer, and can be surgically dissected as one piece (Descemetorrhexis) [18].
2.2.7 Corneal endothelium
The corneal endothelium is the innermost layer of the cornea. It is about 4–6 μm thick. As mentioned earlier, the endothelium originates from neural crest cells. The cells cannot be replenished if lost. There are about 500,000 endothelial cells covering the posterior surface of the cornea with a density of 3000 cells/mm2. There is approximately 0.6% endothelial cell loss per year, and this rate increases significantly after traumatic, iatrogenic, inflammatory, or infectious conditions affecting the endothelium. The most common normal cell shape is hexagonal with minimal polymegathism and pleomorphism [18].
To maintain the corneal clarity, the endothelium works as a barrier and as a metabolic pump. Endothelial cells are linked together by interdigitations and focal tight junctions. They communicate via gab junctions. Some nutrients are allowed to pass paracellularly to the remaining corneal layers indicating a semipermeable nature of the endothelial cell layer [18].
The corneal endothelium is a highly active tissue. This is evident by the presence of numerous mitochondria, the prominent endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, and Golgi apparatus. The fluid is pumped out of the corneal stroma into the anterior chamber via pinocytic vesicles [18].
Hassall-Henle bodies, or peripheral cornea guttae, are considered a natural aging process in which small excrescences are observed in the peripheral part of Descemet’s membrane. They denote focal areas of thickening of Descemet’s membrane. On the other hand, central cornea guttae are pathologic in nature and are associated with progressive corneal stromal and epithelial edema as in patients with Fuchs’ endothelial dystrophy [18].
3. Corneal dystrophies
Generally, corneal dystrophies are defined as a group of progressive, inherited, mostly bilateral, and symmetric, variable corneal opacifying disorders, which are usually not related to environmental or systemic conditions. The can be associated with blurred vision and ocular discomfort. Their onset is usually early in life but they manifest later clinically. They are slowly progressive and become more prominent with age. There are exceptions to the corneal dystrophies definition: some dystrophies are unilateral or bilateral asymmetric, some have no obvious heredity, and some have related systemic abnormalities [1, 2].
In 2015, the International Committee on the Classification of Corneal Dystrophies (IC3D) proposed a modified anatomic classification on the basis of the cellular origin of the corneal dystrophies consisting of [3]:
An evidence-based category system was suggested to indicate the level of evidence that supports the existence of a given corneal dystrophy. In this system, each dystrophy is organized according to the clinical phenotype, with a template summarizing genetic, clinical, and pathologic information. The system is upgradable and can be retrieved at www.corneasociety.org. The categories are as follows [23]:
Category 1 (C1): a well-defined corneal dystrophy in which the gene has been mapped and identified and the specific mutations are known.
Category 2 (C2): a well-defined corneal dystrophy that has been mapped to one or more specific chromosomal loci, but the gene(s) remains to be identified.
Category 3 (C3): a well-defined corneal dystrophy in which the disorder has not yet been mapped to a chromosomal locus.
Category 4 (C4): this category is reserved for a suspected, new, or previously documented corneal dystrophy, although the evidence for it, being a distinct entity, is not yet convincing.
In the following subsections, we will describe the clinical, genetic, and histopathologic characteristics of the common corneal dystrophies from anterior to posterior: epithelial and subepithelial, epithelial-stromal (TGFBI), stromal, and endothelial dystrophies.
3.1 Epithelial and subepithelial corneal dystrophies
EBMD, also known as map-dot-fingerprint dystrophy [24], Cogan’s microcystic epithelial dystrophy [25], and anterior basement membrane dystrophy, is the most common anterior corneal dystrophy. It can reach up to 70% in individuals above the age of 50 years and is found to be infrequent in the pediatric population [26]. It was found to be more common in females [27].
Inheritance: mostly sporadic with familial cases have been reported. Thus, they are thought to be degenerative or caused by previous trauma.
Genetic locus and gene: 5q31. One report has identified TGFBI in two families.
Category: most cases are sporadic. C1 in rare cases.
Onset: usually in the second decade.
Symptoms: it maybe asymptomatic or associated with recurrent epithelial erosions in 10% of patients due to poor adhesion of basal epithelial cells to the basal laminar material. Irregular astigmatism might cause decreased vision and monocular diplopia. The severity of pathology can fluctuate with time.
Signs: can be isolated or combined and unilateral or bilateral.
Maps: central or paracentral thickened, scalloped, circumscribed borders resembling coastlines, associated with faint haze.
Fingerprints: paracentral, hair-like, curvilinear concentric lines, best visualized with retro-illumination.
Dots: central, round or oval, non-staining, intraepithelial opacities. These lesions contain debris of degenerated epithelial cells.
Bleb pattern: subepithelial bleb or cobble stone-like pattern, best seen by retro-illumination.
Bleb pattern: subepithelial fibrillo-granular material accumulation.
Bowman’s layer is not affected.
Management: in asymptomatic cases no intervention is required. When symptoms occur, the frequent use of lubricants is recommended (preferably preservative-free lubricants). Hypertonic drops (i.e., sodium chloride 3–5%) during the daytime and an ointment at night can be helpful. Topical antibiotics are needed in cases where there are erosions. Cautious wear of a bandage contact lens may help in providing comfort and healing. In severe cases, debridement of the epithelial surface might be needed, and, in some cases, a phototherapeutic keratectomy (PTK) might be helpful.
Symptoms: recurrent epithelial erosion attacks that start in childhood and continue in adulthood. The attacks are usually nocturnal. Corneal opacification, which may be visually significant if located centrally, occurs in about half of the cases. Painful erosive episodes usually decrease with age.
Signs: repeated epithelial erosions lasting up to 7 days in duration. Typically, no signs can be detected after healing of the attack. However, central subepithelial opacities, subepithelial fibrosis, or corneal keloids may develop later in life.
Histopathology: the basal epithelial cells are irregular with distended intercellular spaces. Intracellular and intercellular Alcian blue-positive deposits are present. Bowman’s layer is partial or completely destructed. Avascular pannus is between the basal epithelium and the Bowman layer [3].
Management: in asymptomatic patients, treatment is not required. Recurrent erosive episodes are treated as for recurrent epithelial erosions. Epithelial debridement may be necessary in patient with irregular astigmatism.
Symptoms: painful epithelial erosions that might decrease in frequency with age. The vision tends to deteriorate with time.
Signs: subepithelial haze denser in the center.
Histopathology: subepithelial band of eosinophilic, periodic acid-Schiff (PAS)-positive, Alcian blue-positive, hyaluronidase-sensitive material is present anterior to the Bowman layer [3].
Management: recurrent erosive episodes are treated as for recurrent epithelial erosions.
3.1.4 Meesmann corneal dystrophy (MECD)
MECD is also known as Meesmann-Wilke syndrome and Meesmann’s juvenile epithelial corneal dystrophy [28, 29].
Inheritance: mostly autosomal dominant.
Variant: stocker-Holt variant.
Genetic locus and gene: 2 loci and 2 genes.
Locus 12q13 (KRT3 gene)
Locus 17q12 (KRT12 gene) in Stocker-Holt variant
Category: C1.
Onset: usually in the first decade.
Symptoms: most patients are asymptomatic. Glare, photophobia, decreased vision, or recurrent epithelial erosions may occur. It is slowly progressive or even nonprogressive. Patients affected with Stocker-Holt variant show more severe signs and symptoms with earlier onset.
Signs: bilateral and symmetric numerous central and peripheral intraepithelial vesicles most dense in the interpalpebral area. Gray opacities usually having a distinct border with some areas being spared. Microcysts are seen in about 80% of corneas and are more evident with retro-illumination. These cysts coalesce resulting in refractile linear opacities. Mild corneal thinning or reduced sensation may occur. In patients with Stocker-Holt variant, diffuse grayish punctate superficial opacities that stain with fluorescein are observed.
Histopathology: the epithelium is thickened and disorganized exhibiting intraepithelial cysts filled with PAS-positive cellular debris. There is a multilaminar, thickened basement membrane extending into the basal epithelium. Bowman’s layer and corneal stroma that remain are not affected [3].
Management: in symptomatic cases, strategies for relief of the epithelial erosions include topical antibiotics to protect against infection, heavy lubrication, and contact lens application. In more severe cases, epithelial debridement and corneal keratoplasty are considered [30].
3.1.5 Lisch epithelial corneal dystrophy (LECD)
History: Lisch epithelial corneal dystrophy (LECD) was first described in 1992 in five family members and three unrelated individuals who presented with unilateral or bilateral bands of grayish granular opacifications on the cornea [31].
Inheritance: X-chromosomal dominant.
Genetic locus and gene: Xp22.3, the gene is unknown.
Category: C2.
Onset: childhood.
Symptoms: asymptomatic if the dystrophy is not involving the pupillary axis. Slowly progressive with decreased visual acuity if the corneal center is involved.
Signs: gray opacities that come in different patterns including band-shaped, radial, feathery, and whorl-like. Multiple clear cysts are seen with indirect illumination resembling MECD. However, the difference is in the molecular genetics.
Histopathology: PAS-positive vacuolated cells are present in the epithelial surface [3].
Management: treatment only if the individual is symptomatic with heavy lubrication. In some cases, debridement might be helpful. Phototherapeutic keratectomy (PTK) can be beneficial in some cases [32].
GDLD was first described by Nakaizumi (1914) [33]. It was found to be more common in Japan.
Inheritance: autosomal recessive.
Genetic locus and gene: 1p32, tumor-associated calcium signal transducer 2 (TACSTD2).
Category: C1.
Onset: during the first 2 decades.
Symptoms: blurred vision, photophobia, foreign body sensation, and tearing.
Signs: subepithelial lesions may look like band keratopathy initially. Mulberry configuration of nodules that stain with fluorescein can occur. This configuration indicates epithelial hyperpermeability. Vascularization and stromal scarring are seen later in the course of the disease.
Histopathology: amyloid deposits in the subepithelial and stromal [3].
Management: treatment for symptomatic cases includes heavy lubrication. Superficial keratectomy or keratoplasty can be helpful when there is visual impairment. Recurrence is common following superficial keratectomy, lamellar keratoplasty, and penetrating keratoplasty [34].
3.2 Epithelial-stromal TGFBI dystrophies
The included dystrophies are:
Reis-Bücklers corneal dystrophy (RBCD)
Thiel-Behnke corneal dystrophy (TBCD)
Lattice corneal dystrophy, type 1 (LCD1)
Granular corneal dystrophy, type 1 (GCD1)
Granular corneal dystrophy, type 2 (GCD2)
3.2.1 Reis-Bucklers corneal dystrophy (RBCD)
RBCD was first described in 1917. It is also known as geographic corneal dystrophy of Weidle, superficial granular corneal dystrophy, atypical granular corneal dystrophy, granular corneal dystrophy type 3, and anterior limiting membrane dystrophy type 1 [35].
Inheritance: autosomal dominant.
Genetic locus and gene: 5q31, transforming growth factor β-induced gene (TGFBI).
Category: C1.
Onset: during the first decade of life.
Symptoms: blurred vision and recurrent corneal epithelial erosions. It is slowly progressive. The frequency of recurrent corneal erosions tends to decline with age. It has a more aggressive course than Thiel-Behnke corneal dystrophy (TBCD). In addition, the diagnosis can be confused between RBCD and TBCD.
Signs: early in the course of the disease, there are varying densities of bilateral irregular geographic-like opacities with clear interruptions at the level of Bowman’s layer and anterior stroma. They are discrete in early stages and become diffuse with deeper involvement. As the disease progresses, these fine reticular lesions coalesce to form a confluent gray whitish opacity that might affect vision as the surface becomes more irregular. At later stages, the corneal sensation is reduced, and ring-shaped (sometimes crescent-shaped) opacifications cover the central cornea and can extend to the mid-periphery. The most peripheral cornea remains clear.
Histopathology: granular sheet-like deposits replace Bowman’s layer. These deposits stain red with Masson trichrome. The anterior, middle, and even posterior stroma can be involved in advanced cases. Electron microscopy is required to distinguish RBCD from TBCD. In RBCD, rod-shaped subepithelial bodies are seen, while curly fibers are characteristic for TBCD [3].
Management: treatment of corneal erosions is similar to that of other dystrophies. Phototherapeutic keratectomy (PTK) can be beneficial in some cases. In advanced corneal involvement, keratoplasty might be helpful.
3.2.2 Thiel-Behnke corneal dystrophy (TBCD)
TBCD is also known as corneal dystrophy of Bowman’s layer type II, curly fibers corneal dystrophy, Waardenburg-Jonkers corneal dystrophy, and, most commonly, “honeycomb dystrophy.” It was first described in 1967 [36, 37, 38].
Inheritance: autosomal dominant.
Genetic locus and gene: 5q31, TGFBI.
Category: C1.
Onset: during the first decade of life.
Symptoms: visual deterioration occurs later, and recurrent corneal epithelial erosions are less frequent than in RBCD. Slowly progressive corneal scarring is the main cause of decreased vision. The recurrence of corneal erosions decreases with time.
Signs: irregularly shaped scattered opacities and solitary flecks at the level of the Bowman’s layer are present in the initial stages. Then, central honeycomb opacities are observed in the subepithelial area. As in patients with RBCD, corneal opacities can progress peripherally and to deeper stromal layers. Prominent corneal nerves can be seen. The corneal periphery remains clear even as the lesions progress. Corneal sensation might be affected. Reis-Buckler’s dystrophy and Thiel-Behnke can be clinically distinguished by the minimal loss of corneal sensation and honeycomb opacity that occurs with Thiel-Behnke dystrophy [37, 39].
Histopathology: irregular thickening and thinning of the epithelial layer due to irregular underlying stroma with focal absence of the epithelial basement membrane. Wavy saw-toothed superficial fibro-cellular pannus replaces the Bowman’s layer [3].
Management: treatment is indicated only in symptomatic cases. The episodes of recurrent erosion are treated like the previous dystrophies. Hypertonic drops and ointment may be beneficial. In some cases, debridement of the corneal epithelium may be necessary. Phototherapeutic keratectomy (PTK) can also help with recurrent erosions or superficial opacifications [37, 39]. Keratoplasty is reserved for deeper lesions, but the dystrophy may recur in the donor graft.
3.2.3 Lattice corneal dystrophy, type 1 (LCD1) and variants
Inheritance: autosomal dominant.
Variants: LCD (III, IIIA, I/IIIA, IV). Lattice corneal dystrophy type 2 (LCD2) is a misnomer and should be termed familial amyloidosis, Finnish type, or gelsolin type as suggested by the IC3D. LCD2 is also known as Meretoja syndrome.
Genetic locus and gene: 5q31, TGFBI.
Category: C1.
Onset: during the first two decades of life.
Symptoms: visual deterioration, discomfort, and pain. Recurrent attacks of corneal erosions occur early in the course of LCD1. Patients with progressive visual impairment are seen within the fourth decade.
Signs: central superficial fleck-like opacities are seen initially. By using retro-illumination technique, sparse peripheral lattice lines are visible initially in the superficial stroma (Figure 1A). Centrally located, superficial branching refractile lines resembling tree branches and round/ovoid whitish dots are also detected in the first decade (Figure 1B). Central and paracentral diffuse subepithelial haze develops alongside the lattice lines. They typically spare the limbus, Descemet’s membrane, and endothelium. The average depth in the stroma is about 79 μm [40]. Reduction of visual acuity is caused by the progression of the stromal haze (Figure 1C). LCD1 may be asymmetric or even unilateral. Central thicker lattice lines are seen in variant LCD type IIIA, while LCD type IV is characterized by deeper deposits without epithelial erosion.
Figure 1.
(A) The appearance of the lattice deposits with retro-illumination, (B) slit lamp appearance of the lattice configuration of the stromal deposits in this type of dystrophy, and (C) clinical appearance of an advanced case of lattice dystrophy.
Histopathology: the corneal epithelium is atrophic with degenerative changes of basal epithelial cells. The Bowman’s layer is disrupted or even absent. Subepithelial accumulation and stromal accumulation of amyloid deposits alter the architecture of corneal collagen lamellae (Figure 2). These deposits stain positive with Congo red and show birefringence with polarizing light (Figure 3) [41]. Metachromasia and fluorescence are demonstrated with crystal violet and thioflavin T staining, respectively. Descemet’s membrane and the endothelium are normal [3].
Figure 2.
The amyloid deposits within the stroma in lattice dystrophy (original magnification 200× hematoxylin & eosin).
Figure 3.
The same amyloid deposits staining with Congo red stain (original magnification 400× Congo red).
Management: treatment is based on the symptoms and the depth of the deposits. Options might include phototherapeutic keratectomy (PTK) with anterior lesions and where there are recurrent corneal erosions, lamellar keratoplasty (LKP) and penetrating keratoplasty (PKP) for deeper lesions. Reports on recurrence after DLKP that was associated with incomplete removal of corneal stroma [42]. Overall, recurrence was reported to be earlier compared to macular and granular corneal dystrophies [43].
3.2.4 Granular corneal dystrophy, type 1 (classic) (GCD1)
Inheritance: autosomal dominant.
Genetic locus and gene: 5q31, TGFBI.
Category: C1.
Onset: early childhood.
Symptoms: patients usually complain of glare, photophobia, and recurrent erosions. Visual deterioration occurs as corneal opacification progresses with time as the opacities become more confluent.
Signs: initially, subepithelial verticillate-like opacities are evident by retro- and direct illumination. Later, there will be white well-defined granules with clear intervening stroma (Figure 4). Typically, opacities do not extend to the limbus. With age, granules extend deeper into the corneal stroma close to Descemet’s membrane.
Figure 4.
The clinical appearance of granular dystrophy (courtesy of Dr. Hatem Kalantan, associate professor, Department of Ophthalmology, King Saud University, Riyadh, SA).
Histopathology: multiple stromal deposits may extend from deep epithelium to Descemet’s membrane. Hyaline opacities stain with Masson trichrome (Figure 5A and B) [3, 41].
Figure 5.
(A) The histopathological appearance of the hyaline deposits in granular dystrophy (original magnification 200× periodic acid-Schiff) and (B) the same deposits highlighted using special stain (original magnification 200× Masson Trichrome).
Management: treatment options if symptomatic include lubrication, hypertonic solution, and bandage contact lenses. Phototherapeutic keratectomy (PTK) and keratoplasty for deeper lesions. Recurrence occurred in all grafts within 4 years [44].
3.2.5 Granular corneal dystrophy, type 2 (GCD2)
Nomenclature: also called combined granular-lattice corneal dystrophy or Avellino corneal dystrophy. It was named after the Avellino region in Italy, where first cases have been reported.
Inheritance: autosomal dominant.
Genetic locus and gene: 5q31, TGFBI.
Category: C1.
Onset: in homozygous patients, the onset is in early childhood. Heterozygous patients present in late childhood.
Symptoms: recurrent erosive attacks. Visual deterioration occurs when visual axis is involved. Homozygotes are having a more rapid course.
Signs: initially, very small superficial stromal tiny whitish dots with small spokes that are usually arranged linearly like a string of pearls. With time, the center of the opacity fades resembling a ring. The anterior stromal deposits take the shape of spiky stars, icicles, or spider. The posterior corneal stroma may demonstrate linear or dot-like branching stromal opacities. The lines or dashes in GCD2 can be differentiated from LCD in that in GCD2 the lines are whiter, compared to the refractile nature of lattice lines in LCD. In addition, in GCD2, typically, the lines do not cross, while lattice lines in LCD characteristically intersect resulting in the lattice configuration. Compared to GCD1, patients with GCD2 have fewer stromal opacities (Figure 6). Homozygote patients present earlier with frequent superficial small dots and larger, dense superficial opacities in stroma that become deeper with age.
Figure 6.
The clinical appearance of Avellino dystrophy with classic combined spiky opacities as well as the granular deposits (courtesy of Dr. Majed Alkharashi, FRCS C, assistant professor, Department of Ophthalmology, King Saud University, Riyadh, SA).
Histopathology: the abnormal corneal deposits extend from the basal epithelium to the deep stroma. Hyaline and amyloid materials are deposited and stain with Masson trichrome and/or Congo red (Figure 7). More severe histopathological findings are seen in homozygotes [3].
Figure 7.
The histopathological appearance of the two kinds of deposits: superficial hyaline deposits (black arrow) and the amyloid deposits (labeled as #2 with red arrow) deeper in the stroma (original magnification 100× periodic acid-Schiff).
Management: treatment is usually not required. Refractive surgery is contraindicated.
3.3 Stromal dystrophies
The included dystrophies are:
Macular corneal dystrophy (MCD)
Schnyder corneal dystrophy (SCD)
Congenital stromal corneal dystrophy (CSCD)
Fleck corneal dystrophy (FCD)
Posterior amorphous corneal dystrophy (PACD)
Central cloudy dystrophy of François (CCDF)
Pre-Descemet corneal dystrophy (PDCD)
3.3.1 Macular corneal dystrophy (MCD)
Nomenclature: macular corneal dystrophy (MCD) is also known as Groenouw corneal dystrophy type II and Fehr spotted dystrophy [45, 46].
Inheritance: autosomal recessive.
Variants: Three variants that are clinically indistinguishable but on the basis of immunoreactivity of specific sulfated epitopes of antigenic keratan sulfates (AgKS) in the cornea and the serum:
MCD type I: no AgKS reactivity in the cornea and in the serum.
MCD type IA: keratocytes demonstrate AgKS reactivity, but not the extracellular tissue. No AgKS in the serum.
MCD type II: all deposits react with AgKS. Serum has normal or low levels of AgKS.
Genetic locus and gene: 16q22, carbohydrate sulfotransferase 6 gene—CHST6.
Category: C1.
Onset: during the first decade of life.
Symptoms: slowly progressive visual deterioration which becomes severe during the second and third decades. Light sensitivity and recurrent epithelial erosions can rarely be seen. Corneal sensation is reduced.
Signs: early in the course of the disease, central superficial whitish fleck-like opacities develop. Compared to GCD, these opacities extend peripherally to the limbus and the deep stroma down to Descemet’s membrane. The intervening corneal stroma develops a progressive and diffuse haze (Figure 8). The epithelium is typically intact and, thus, corneal epithelial erosions are rare. The corneal thickness is reduced. Later in the course of the disease, corneal guttata and, rarely, endothelial decompensation occur.
Figure 8.
The clinical appearance of macular dystrophy.
Histopathology: glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) accumulate intracellularly and in the extracellular space and are better demonstrated with Alcian blue stain (Figure 9A and B). Breaks in the Bowman layer are observed. Stromal thinning and an overlying epithelial hyperplasia. Descemet’s membrane and endothelium are involved. Descemet’s membrane thickening and guttata are seen infrequently [3, 41]. Ultrastructural imaging and three-dimensional imaging of corneas with MCD demonstrate a clear organization of proteoglycans around the collagen fibrils. The collagen fibril diameter is significantly smaller than those of the normal cornea [47].
Figure 9.
(A) The histopathological appearance of the deposits in a case of macular dystrophy involving the full stromal thickness and the endothelium with secondary guttata (original magnification 200× periodic acid-Schiff) and (B) the glycosaminoglycan deposits in this dystrophy are demonstrated using Alcian blue stain (original magnification 200×).
Management: the treatment depends on the symptoms. Photophobia may be treated with lubrication and tinted contact lens. Superficial opacities can be treated with PTK and keratoplasty with deeper lesions. Recurrence may appear on the donor grafts [48].
3.3.2 Schnyder corneal dystrophy (SCD)
Inheritance: autosomal dominant.
Genetic locus and gene: 1p36, UbiA prenyltransferase domain containing 1—UBIAD1.
Category: C1.
Onset: the diagnosis is usually made during the second or third decade although onset may be in childhood. In patients with the crystalline form, diagnosis may be further delayed.
Symptoms: slowly progressive visual loss and glare. Scotopic vision is better than photopic vision. Corneal sensation decreases with age. It may be associated with hyperlipoproteinemia (type IIa, III, or IV). Significant visual deterioration usually occurs during the sixth decade.
Signs: clinical findings largely depend on the age of the patient. In patients who are 23 years or younger, a central round ring-like opacity or central comma-shaped subepithelial crystals are seen. Arcus lipoides usually develops in patients between 23 and 38 years of age. Diffuse stromal haze also develops after the age of 38. Almost 50% of patients demonstrate corneal crystals, which may be unilateral, and can occur late in the disease course.
Histopathology: intracellular and extracellular esterified and unesterified phospholipids and cholesterol are deposited in basal epithelial cells, Bowman’s layer, and stroma. Fresh tissue stains positive with Oil Red O or Sudan black. Moreover, secondary amyloid and GAG depositions in cases with SCD were published [3].
Management: treatment is by excimer keratectomy or corneal transplantation procedures.
3.3.3 Congenital stromal corneal dystrophy (CSCD)
Inheritance: autosomal dominant.
Genetic locus and gene: 12q21.33, decorin, DCN.
Category: C1.
Onset: at birth.
Symptoms: variable degree of visual deterioration and less commonly photophobia. It is slowly progressive or even stationary.
Signs: diffuse, bilateral corneal clouding with whitish pan-stromal opacities. The corneal epithelium is intact. The corneal stroma is thicker than in normal individuals.
Histopathology: irregular separation of the corneal stromal lamellae that might contain amorphous material [3].
Management: spectacles or contact lenses for refractive errors, penetrating keratoplasty.
3.3.4 Fleck corneal dystrophy (FCD)
Inheritance: autosomal dominant.
Genetic locus and gene: 2q34, phosphoinositide kinase, FYVE finger containing— PIKFYVE.
Category: C1.
Onset: at birth or during the first years of life.
Symptoms: FCD is typically asymptomatic or associated with photophobia. It is a stationary dystrophy.
Signs: small, discrete, translucent, dandruff-like opacities scattered at any level of the corneal stroma and may extend to the limbus. The epithelium, Bowman’s layer, Descemet’s membrane, and endothelium are usually normal. The involvement can be asymmetric or unilateral.
Histopathology: the keratocytes are swollen and vacuolated and contain GAGs and complex lipids [3].
Genetic locus and gene: 12q21.33, deletion of keratocan (KERA), lumican (LUM), decorin (DCN), and epiphycan (EPYC).
Category: C1.
Onset: it is usually in the first decade of life.
Symptoms: mild slowly progressive, or nonprogressive, reduction of visual acuity.
Signs: diffuse gray sheet-like stromal opacities most prominent posteriorly. Corneal thinning is noted. Characteristic corneal flattening to less than 41 diopters with hyperopia. Descemet’s membrane may be indented by the opacities. Endothelial abnormalities have been reported. Other ocular associations include prominent Schwalbe’s line, fine iris processes, pupillary remnants, iridocorneal adhesions, and iris hypoplasia. Notably, there is no associated glaucoma.
Histopathology: irregular posterior stromal lamellae. Positive staining with colloidal iron anterior to the Descemet’s membrane. Localized attenuation of endothelial cells [3].
Management: if visual impairment is significant, penetrating keratoplasty is indicated.
3.3.6 Central cloudy dystrophy of Francois
Inheritance: mostly unknown. Autosomal dominant inheritance has been reported.
Genetic locus and gene: none.
Category: C4.
Onset: it usually presents in the first decade of life.
Symptoms: typically, asymptomatic.
Signs: nonprogressive central cloudy or rounded stromal opacities that are surrounded by clear tissue. It is clinically indistinguishable from posterior crocodile shagreen, a corneal degeneration. It has been associated with pseudoxanthoma elasticum, pre-Descemet’s dystrophy, glaucoma, polymorphic amyloid degeneration, and keratoglobus.
Histopathology: no description has been reported in familial cases. Positive staining for GAGs [3].
Management: if visual impairment is significant, penetrating keratoplasty is indicated.
3.3.7 Pre-Descemet corneal dystrophy (PDCD)
Inheritance: there is no clear pattern of inheritance. It can be isolated although it has been described in certain families up to four generations. Autosomal dominant in inheritance in 1 pedigree has been reported in the punctiform and polychromatic PDCD. Deep corneal stromal opacities are frequently seen in X-linked ichthyosis.
Genetic locus and gene: isolated PDCD—unknown genetic locus and gene. PDCD associated with X-linked ichthyosis—Xp22.31, steroid sulfatase (STS).
Category: C1 in PDCD associated with X-linked ichthyosis. C4 in isolated PDCD.
Onset: usually during the fourth. However, it has been reported in children as young as 3 years.
Symptoms: typically, asymptomatic. Punctiform and polychromatic PDCD are stationary. Other forms are progressive.
Signs: the specific signs depend on the PDCD subgroups. Notably, many of the subgroups may represent sporadic or age-related degenerative changes. Deep stromal focal, fine opacities that may be central, annular, or diffuse. The changes are more uniform and polychromatic in an otherwise normal cornea in the punctiform and polychromatic subtypes.
Histopathology: enlarged keratocytes in the posterior corneal stroma containing vacuoles and intracytoplasmic inclusions of lipid-like material [3].
FECD was first described in 1910 [49]. It is a noninflammatory, slowly progressive degeneration of endothelial cells which leads to corneal decompensation edema.
Inheritance: the genetic basis of FECD is complex and heterogeneous. Most cases are without a known inheritance pattern. Some autosomal dominant cases were reported.
Genetic locus and gene:
Early-onset FECD: 1p34.3-p32 (FECD1), collagen type VIII, alpha-2, COL8A2.
Late-onset FECD: reported genetic loci include 13pter-q12.13 (FECD2), 18q21.2-q21.3 (FECD3), 20p13-p12 (FECD4), 5q33.1-q35.2 (FECD5), 10p11.2 (FECD6), 9p24.1-p22.1 (FECD7), and 15q25 (FECD8). The gene is not identified.
Category: C1 in early-onset FECD, C2 in patients with identified genetic loci, and C3 in patients without known inheritance.
Onset: the patients are usually in the fourth decade or older. Early-onset FECD starts in the first decade. There is a female predominance at a ratio of 2.5:1 to 3:1.
Symptoms: progressive intermittent reduction in vision worse in the morning from epithelial/stromal edema caused by overnight eye closure. Epithelial erosions resulting from ruptured epithelial bullae typically cause pain, photophobia, and tearing. Patients also complain of progressive visual deterioration.
Signs: the signs of FECD can be reflected in four stages:
Stage 1: central cornea guttata that spreads peripherally. Some never progress to later stages. Corneal guttae in late-onset FECD are larger than those seen in early-onset FECD.
Stage 2: endothelial decompensation and stromal edema. Corneal endothelium has a beaten metal-like appearance with a thickened Descemet’s membrane.
Stage 3: intraepithelial and interepithelial edema with epithelial bullae (bullous keratopathy).
Stage 4: subepithelial fibrosis, scarring, and peripheral superficial vascularization occurring in long-standing cases.
Histopathology: thickening and multilaminar Descemet’s membrane with hyaline excrescences and atrophic endothelial cells that are reduced in number (Figure 10). There is an increasing waviness of the stromal collagen lamellae [3].
Figure 10.
Descemet’s membrane appearance in a case of Fuchs’ endothelial dystrophy with typical excrescences (original magnification 400× periodic acid-Schiff).
Management: treatment in early stages can be done by conservative measure. Hypertonic sodium chloride drops or ointment can be helpful [50]. Bandage contact lenses may alleviate pain from ruptured epithelial bullae. In advance cases a Descemet stripping endothelial keratoplasty (DSEK) procedure might be required either combined with cataract extraction or alone. In cases where there is opacification of the stroma, a full penetrating keratoplasty might be necessary [51].
Inheritance: autosomal dominant. Isolated nonhereditary unilateral cases have been reported.
Genetic locus and gene: there are three known loci as follows:
PPCD 1: 20p11.2-q11.2, unknown gene
PPCD 2: 1p34.3-p32.3, collagen, type VIII, alpha-2 (COL8A2)
PPCD 3: 10p11.22, zinc finger E box–binding homeobox 1 (ZEB1)
Category: C2 in PPCD 1, C1 in PPCD 2 and PPCD 3.
Onset: during the first decade of life.
Symptoms: initially asymptomatic. Gradual visual loss occurs secondary to corneal edema. Endothelial changes often are possibly slowly progressive over years. Those changes may eventually lead to corneal decompensation.
Signs: asymmetric geographic gray opacities, vesicular lesions that can be single or grouped, usually in the inferior paracentral cornea. Gray-white endothelial bands with white flaky material along the bands. Diffuse opacification of Descemet’s membrane and large vesicular endothelial opacities are seen in some cases. Guttata can be rarely seen. Corneal steepening has been reported, especially in PPCD 3, with corneal keratometry power of more than 48.0 diopters. Visually significant corneal edema, peripheral iridocorneal adhesions, and glaucoma are well-documented manifestations of PPCD.
Histopathology: focal fusiform or nodular excrescences formed by multiple layers of collagen on the posterior surface of Descemet’s membrane. In addition, reduplication of the endothelial cell layer, blebs, or discontinuities is observed [3].
Management: treatment in the majority of patients is not indicated unless the patient is symptomatic; then treatment steps are similar to that of Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy.
Genetic locus and gene: 20p13, solute carrier family 4, sodium borate transporter, member 11—(SLC4A11) gene mutations.
Category: C1, C3 in cases without SLC4A11 mutations.
Onset: at birth.
Symptoms: nonprogressive congenital corneal clouding associated with blurred vision and nystagmus. Usually no tearing or photophobia.
Signs: bilateral variable limbus-to-limbus corneal clouding with occasional focal gray spots. Extensive corneal thickening (double or triple the normal corneal thickness). Rarely, secondary band keratopathy and elevated intraocular pressure. Significantly lower than normal endothelial cell count.
Histopathology: diffuse epithelial and pan-stromal edema associated with defects in the Bowman’s layer. Degenerative and atrophic endothelial cells and a thickened laminated Descemet’s membrane (Figure 11) [3]. Subepithelial amyloid deposition was found in 6.6% (Figure 12) [52].
Figure 11.
The appearance of thick Descemet’s membrane with attenuated endothelium in CHED (original magnification 400× periodic acid-Schiff).
Figure 12.
Subepithelial amyloid deposits (black arrow head) in another case of CHED (original magnification 100× hematoxylin & eosin).
Management: most CHED patients require corneal transplantation for visual rehabilitation. Better outcomes were seen with patients with delayed onset of the disease. Descemet stripping endothelial keratoplasty (DSEK) is an alternative to full-thickness keratoplasty for CHED with promising results [53, 54, 55].
Symptoms: asymptomatic and nonprogressive in females, minimally progressive decrease in vision in males.
Signs: in males, congenital corneal clouding that can range from diffuse haze to ground-glass and milky appearance of the cornea with possible nystagmus. It can present only with moon crater-like endothelial changes with or without secondary band keratopathy. In females, moon crater-like endothelial changes are observed.
Histopathology: irregularity and thinning of the epithelium and Bowman’s layer. Moon crater-like endothelial changes and subepithelial keratopathy. Irregularly arranged stromal collagen lamellae. Irregular thickening of Descemet’s membrane with atypically appearance or loss of endothelial cells [3].
Management: a penetrating keratoplasty may be indicated in males in which corneal opacification significantly impairs vision.
4. Corneal degenerations
Corneal degenerations represent physiological decomposition or alteration of tissue elements and/or functions. They usually occur later in life with variable rate of progression and can be asymmetrical.
4.1 Epithelial and subepithelial degenerations
4.1.1 Pterygium
It is similar to pinguecula histopathologically where the substantia propria shows pseudo-elastotic changes, numerous blood vessels, and curly fibers but invades the cornea resulting in loss of Bowman’s layer and epithelial changes (Figure 13A and B). They can cause astigmatism, interfere with contact lens fitting, and may cause ocular motility restriction. Advanced pterygia are treated surgically with the use of antimetabolites or conjunctival graft [56].
Figure 13.
(A) The clinical appearance of a nasal pterygium and (B) pterygium showing pseudo-elastotic degeneration with an area of limbal stroma and climatic droplet keratopathy (CDK) deposits (original magnification 200× hematoxylin & eosin).
Previously known as “spheroidal degeneration” or “climatic droplet keratopathy.” It is characterized by the presence of yellowish aggregates that accumulate near the limbus and then progressively extend toward the central part of the cornea within the palpebral fissure. The globular amorphous material is primarily deposited in the area of Bowman’s layer and can be demonstrated using an elastic stain (Figure 14). It can be primary or secondary, affecting males, and is related to cornea microtrauma caused by wind, dust, and ultraviolet radiation [57, 58].
Figure 14.
An early case of CDK with the deposits at Bowman’s layer level (original magnification 200× elastic stain).
4.2 Stromal (central)
Central stromal degenerations include:
Mosaic (crocodile) shagreen
Cornea farinata
Polymorphic amyloid degeneration
4.3 Peripheral stromal
Peripheral stromal degenerations include:
White limbal girdle of Vogt: types I and II
Corneal arcus
Senile furrow degeneration
Terrien’s marginal degeneration
4.4 Post-inflammatory corneal degenerations
4.4.1 Band-shaped keratopathy
Occurs as dense calcium deposits in the form of whitish calcium hydroxyapatite or yellowish hydroxyl apatite and phosphate within the superficial cornea and Bowman’s layer across the interpalpebral fissure (Figure 15). Common causes include hypercalcemia of variable etiology, chronic ocular diseases such as uveitis, and gout, and it can be idiopathic. It can be safely treated by calcium chelation using warm neutral disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) [59].
Initially described in 1925 as a nodular post-inflammatory keratopathy resulting in disruption of Bowman’s layer, subepithelial fibrosis and vascularization [60]. It appears to affect middle-aged women and to have good prognosis if properly treated medically using lubrication and surgically by superficial keratectomy [61].
The electron microscopy of these nodules shows irregular lamellae, and keratocytes that are covered by an interrupted basement membrane Bowman’s layer is replaced by collagenous material, which shows positive vimentin straining [57].
It is a more recently recognized uncommon corneal degeneration, which is typically peri-limbal, slowly progressive, and bilateral. It tends to occur in white women with unknown etiology and, however, resembles Salzmann’s nodular degeneration in appearance (Figure 16A and B) [62, 63]. Ultraviolet radiation and limbal insufficiency have been proposed in the pathogenesis [64].
Figure 16.
(A) Clinical case of peripheral hypertrophic subepithelial corneal degeneration (PHSD) and (B) epithelial thickening, absence of Bowman’s layer and subepithelial fibrosis in a similar case of PHSD (original magnification X400 periodic acid-Schiff).
The fibrotic process has been linked to low-grade inflammation with low TGF F-B1 concentrations [62]. Surgical excision might be required for treatment of symptomatic cases, and the recurrence is not common [63].
4.4.4 Others
Amyloid degeneration and lipid keratopathy.
4.5 Endothelial
Hassall-Henle bodies.
4.6 Corneal pigmentations
Iron lines: there are multiple theories behind the formation of such lines with iron deposits typically within the corneal epithelium at various levels [57]. They include:
Hudson-Stahli line: in aging cornea
Stocker’s line: at the edge of chronic pterygium
Fleischer’s ring: at the base of the corneal protruding cone in keratoconus
Ferry’s line: in front of a filtering bleb
5. Ectatic corneal disorders
5.1 Keratoconus
Dudell in 1729 described a patient with protruding cornea and deteriorating vision; this was the earliest references to keratoconus [65]. Initial classification of the disease was dependent on the clinical pattern of the ectatic cone and included round or nipple cones with a central or oval protrusion and oval cones (Figure 17A). Amsler contributed to the disease detection by using a Placido’s disk to determine early cases [66]. In the 1980s, the first color-coded Placido map of corneal curvature was published and led to multiple commercially available computerized video-keratoscopes [67, 68]. Then the more detailed elevation-based topographic devices and pachymetric mapping were developed and enabled more through assessment of the condition.
Figure 17.
(A) The clinical thinning of the ectatic cornea in keratoconus (KC) and (B) a Fleischer ring indicating iron deposition around the cone in a case of keratoconus.
The onset of keratoconus typically begins at puberty but might begin during childhood and undergoes variable progression until the third or fourth decade [69, 70, 71]. It is a bilateral condition that is highly asymmetrical that can be associated with atopy, Down’s syndrome, Leber’s congenital amaurosis, retinitis pigmentosa, Marfan’s syndrome, and mitral valve prolapse [65, 72].
It can present as a sporadic condition; a positive family history has been documented not infrequently. It is suggested that that there is an autosomal dominant form of the disorder with variable phenotypic expression in 90% of those with familial keratoconus [65, 73].
The symptoms may vary widely depending on the degree of astigmatism, degree of irregularity, and presence of scarring. Slit lamp findings may include the presence of a Fleischer’s ring, which is iron epithelial deposits (described earlier), and can be seen better with the use of the cobalt blue filter (Figure 17B) [72]. Reticular scarring at the level of bowman’s lay can be seen as well as striations in Descemet’s membrane and the deep stroma (Vogt’s striae). These striations represent corneal stress lines that parallel the axis of the cone [65, 74]. In advanced cases of keratoconus, Munson’s sign and Rizzuti’s sign can also be seen on gross inspection [75]. Ophthalmoscopy can show the outline of the early cone as an oil droplet against the background red reflex of the fundus. Retinoscopy on a patient with early keratoconus may show scissoring of the retinoscopic reflex. In cases of severe keratoconus, individuals might develop an acute onset of pain, blurred vision, and photophobia. Examination reveals diffuse corneal edema that results from a break in Descemet’s membrane.
The ability to detect early and subclinical (forme fruste) keratoconus might be difficult depending on clinical examination alone. The use of corneal topographies has improved our ability to distinguish very early cases. Many indices were proposed and artificial intelligence methods such as the KISA% index and the Rabinowitz-McDonnell test have all been developed to help diagnose keratoconus in different stages of the disease and most importantly in early cases. Recent efforts looking at the relational thickness of the central and peripheral cornea have been helpful in the early detection of disease [76]. Modern elevation-based corneal topography provides three-dimensional reconstruction of the cornea enabling evaluation of the anterior and posterior corneal surfaces and assessing the thickness maps (Figure 18).
Figure 18.
Topography showing steep keratometry maps with irregular astigmatism mirroring the area of thinning with high reading on anterior and posterior elevation maps.
Histopathological studies of corneas with keratoconus demonstrated breaks in Bowman’s layer or the complete absence of the layer, stromal collagen disorganization, scarring, and generalized central thinning of the stroma (Figure 19A).
Figure 19.
(A) The evident stromal thinning with compensatory thickening of the epithelium and breaks in Bowman’s layer in KC (original magnification 100× periodic acid-Schiff) and (B) the postoperative appearance of lamellar keratoplasty done for a patient with keratoconus.
Treatment options start with spectacle correction, toric soft contact lens, and hard contact lens wear. In some cases, the use of intrastromal corneal implants might be helpful. Keratoplasty (lamellar or penetrating) is reserved for more advanced cases with an overall good success rate (Figure 19B).
5.2 Pellucid marginal degeneration
Pellucid marginal degeneration (PMD) is an ectatic corneal disease that is progressive, bilateral noninflammatory, with thinning involving the inferior cornea in a crescentic pattern [65]. Typically, this thinning occurs inferiorly 1–3 mm from the limbus (Figure 20A and B). A band of normal cornea is found inferior to the ectatic area. This configuration causes the superior cornea to protrude over the ectasia causing a “beer belly” configuration [77]. PMD affecting the superior cornea is documented in the literature [78, 79, 80, 81]. There might be an association with vernal keratoconjunctivitis, atopy, and frequent rubbing of the ocular surface [65].
Figure 20.
(A) Slit lamp lit appearance of peripheral corneal thinning in a case of pellucid marginal degeneration (PMD) and (B) side view of the inferior corneal bulge in PMD.
It can be managed by hard contact lenses or soft toric contact lens. Surgical treatment options are technically difficult and have lower success rates than in keratoconus. Crescentic lamellar keratoplasty, epikeratoplasty, and corneal wedge/resection all have been attempted with variable results.
5.3 Keratoglobus
Keratoglobus is a rare, noninflammatory ectatic disorder characterized by bilateral corneal from limbus to limbus. The corneal diameter is typically normal, and the cornea is clear, except in cases of hydrops. It can be associated with two autosomal recessive diseases, Ehlers-Danlos and Blue-Sclera syndrome. Acquired keratoglobus may appear de novo or may be associated with other ocular diseases, such as vernal keratoconjunctivitis, blepharitis, Leber’s congenital amaurosis, and thyroid ophthalmopathy [82].
Penetrating keratoplasty, while the classical surgical treatment for other corneal diseases, is not appropriate in keratoglobus patients. Other procedures, such as inlay lamellar keratoplasty and limbus-to-limbus epikeratoplasty, have been attempted with variable results [83, 84, 85]. Preferably a spectacle correction as this also provides protection from rupture. Contact lenses can also be used.
Conflict of interest
We do not have any financial interests in any of the listed items in this manuscript.
\n',keywords:"cornea, physiology, embryology, anatomy, histopathology, genetic, classification, epidemiology, clinical, topography, dystrophy, degeneration, ectasia, keratoconus, keratopathy, keratoplasty",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66746.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/66746.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66746",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66746",totalDownloads:1293,totalViews:141,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:36,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"July 21st 2018",dateReviewed:"January 15th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 15th 2019",datePublished:"June 12th 2019",dateFinished:"April 15th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The cornea is a complex structure with complex functions aiming to protect the internal ocular tissues and transmit and refract the coming light rays. Corneal dystrophies are a group of relatively infrequent genetic corneal disorders in which an abnormal material accumulates in the cornea causing variable loss of its clarity. On the other hand, corneal degenerations are more common and usually result from physiologic changes related to aging, particular disease, or long-standing environmental insults to the cornea. Ectatic corneal disorders are usually characterized by bilateral loss of corneal biomechanical strength leading to progressive thinning and bulging of the cornea with resultant astigmatism and decreased visual acuity. In this chapter, we will describe the basic embryological, anatomical, histologic, and physiological features of the cornea. Then, we will go over the clinical, histopathologic, medical, and surgical aspects of dystrophic, degenerative, and ectatic corneal disorders.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66746",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66746",book:{id:"7446",slug:"frontiers-in-ophthalmology-and-ocular-imaging"},signatures:"Hind Alkatan, Norah Alkheraiji and Tariq Alzahem",authors:[{id:"223782",title:"Dr.",name:"Hind",middleName:"Manaa",surname:"Alkatan",fullName:"Hind Alkatan",slug:"hind-alkatan",email:"hindkatan@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223782/images/8837_n.jpg",institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"262049",title:"Dr.",name:"Tariq",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Zahem",fullName:"Tariq Al-Zahem",slug:"tariq-al-zahem",email:"t.alzahem@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"284385",title:"Dr.",name:"Norah",middleName:null,surname:"Alkheraiji",fullName:"Norah Alkheraiji",slug:"norah-alkheraiji",email:"nalkheraiji@ksu.edu.sa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The basic sciences of the cornea",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Corneal embryology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Corneal anatomy, histology, and physiology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1 Corneoscleral limbus",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2 Corneal anatomy",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.3 Corneal epithelium",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.4 Bowman’s layer",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.5 Corneal stroma",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.6 Descemet’s membrane (DM)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.7 Corneal endothelium",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12",title:"3. Corneal dystrophies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.1 Epithelial and subepithelial corneal dystrophies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.1.1 Epithelial basement membrane dystrophy (EBMD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"3.1.2 Epithelial recurrent erosion dystrophies (EREDs)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"3.1.3 Subepithelial mucinous corneal dystrophy (SMCD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"3.1.4 Meesmann corneal dystrophy (MECD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"3.1.5 Lisch epithelial corneal dystrophy (LECD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"3.1.6 Gelatinous drop-like corneal dystrophy (GDLD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"3.2 Epithelial-stromal TGFBI dystrophies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"3.2.1 Reis-Bucklers corneal dystrophy (RBCD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"3.2.2 Thiel-Behnke corneal dystrophy (TBCD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"3.2.3 Lattice corneal dystrophy, type 1 (LCD1) and variants",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"3.2.4 Granular corneal dystrophy, type 1 (classic) (GCD1)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"3.2.5 Granular corneal dystrophy, type 2 (GCD2)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"3.3 Stromal dystrophies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"3.3.1 Macular corneal dystrophy (MCD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_26_3",title:"3.3.2 Schnyder corneal dystrophy (SCD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_27_3",title:"3.3.3 Congenital stromal corneal dystrophy (CSCD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_28_3",title:"3.3.4 Fleck corneal dystrophy (FCD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_29_3",title:"3.3.5 Posterior amorphous corneal dystrophy (PACD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_30_3",title:"3.3.6 Central cloudy dystrophy of Francois",level:"3"},{id:"sec_31_3",title:"3.3.7 Pre-Descemet corneal dystrophy (PDCD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_33_2",title:"3.4 Endothelial dystrophies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_33_3",title:"3.4.1 Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy (FECD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_34_3",title:"3.4.2 Posterior polymorphous corneal dystrophy (PPCD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_35_3",title:"3.4.3 Congenital hereditary endothelial dystrophy (CHED)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_36_3",title:"3.4.4 X-linked endothelial corneal dystrophy (XECD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_39",title:"4. Corneal degenerations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_39_2",title:"4.1 Epithelial and subepithelial degenerations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_39_3",title:"4.1.1 Pterygium",level:"3"},{id:"sec_40_3",title:"4.1.2 Environmental proteinaceous corneal degeneration (EPCD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_42_2",title:"4.2 Stromal (central)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_43_2",title:"4.3 Peripheral stromal",level:"2"},{id:"sec_44_2",title:"4.4 Post-inflammatory corneal degenerations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_44_3",title:"4.4.1 Band-shaped keratopathy",level:"3"},{id:"sec_45_3",title:"4.4.2 Salzmann’s nodular degeneration",level:"3"},{id:"sec_46_3",title:"4.4.3 Peripheral hypertrophic subepithelial corneal degeneration",level:"3"},{id:"sec_47_3",title:"4.4.4 Others",level:"3"},{id:"sec_49_2",title:"4.5 Endothelial",level:"2"},{id:"sec_50_2",title:"4.6 Corneal pigmentations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_52",title:"5. Ectatic corneal disorders",level:"1"},{id:"sec_52_2",title:"5.1 Keratoconus",level:"2"},{id:"sec_53_2",title:"5.2 Pellucid marginal degeneration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_54_2",title:"5.3 Keratoglobus",level:"2"},{id:"sec_59",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Kanski JJ, Bowling B, Nischal KK, Pearson A. Cornea. Clinical Ophthalmology: A Systematic Approach. 8th ed. Edinburgh, New York: Elsevier/Saunders; 2016. pp. 168-237'},{id:"B2",body:'AAo O. Basic and Clinical Science Course Section 8: External Disease and Cornea. San Francisco, CA: American Academy of Ophthalmology; 2015. pp. 253-287'},{id:"B3",body:'Weiss JS, Moller HU, Aldave AJ, Seitz B, Bredrup C, Kivela T, et al. IC3D classification of corneal dystrophies—Edition 2. Cornea. 2015;34(2):117-159'},{id:"B4",body:'Friedlaender MH, Smolin G. Corneal degenerations. Annals of Ophthalmology. 1979;11(10):1485-1495'},{id:"B5",body:'Sacca SC, Roszkowska AM, Izzotti A. 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Biomicroscopic signsand disease severity in keratoconus. Collaborative longitudinal evaluation of Keratoconus (CLEK) study group. Cornea. 1996;15:139-146'},{id:"B75",body:'Ihalainen A. Clinical and epidemiological features of keratoconus genetic and external factors in the pathogenesis of the disease. Acta Ophthalmologica. Supplement. 1986;178:1-64'},{id:"B76",body:'Ambrosio R, Alonso RS, Luz A, et al. Corneal-thickness spatial profile and corneal-volume distribution: Tomographic indices to detect keratoconus. Journal of Cataract and Refractive Surgery. 2006;32:1851-1859'},{id:"B77",body:'Tzelikis PF, Cohen EJ, Rapuano CJ, et al. Management of pellucid marginal corneal degeneration. Cornea. 2005;24:555-560'},{id:"B78",body:'Wagenhorst BB. Unilateral pellucid marginal degeneration in an elderly patient. The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1996;80:927-928'},{id:"B79",body:'Ertan A, Bahadir M. Management of superior pellucid marginal degeneration with a single intracorneal ring segment using femtosecond laser. Journal of Refractive Surgery. 2007;23:205-208'},{id:"B80",body:'Sridhar MS, Mahesh S, Bansal AK, et al. Superior pellucid marginal corneal degeneration. Eye. 2004;18:393-399'},{id:"B81",body:'Bower KS, Dhaliwal DK, Barnhorst DA, et al. Pellucid marginal degeneration with superior thinning. Cornea. 1997;16:483-485'},{id:"B82",body:'Gonzalez V, McDonnell PJ. Computer-assisted corneal topography in parents of patients with keratoconus. Archives of Ophthalmology. 1992;110:1413-1414'},{id:"B83",body:'Jones D, Kirkness C. A new surgical technique for keratoglobus—tectonic lamellar keratoplasty followed by secondary penetrating keratoplasty (case reports). Cornea. 2001;20:885-887'},{id:"B84",body:'Kanellopoulos J, Lawrence H. An alternative surgical procedure for the management of keratoglobus. Cornea. 2005;24:1024-1026'},{id:"B85",body:'Vajpayee R, Bhartiya P, Sharma N. Central lamellar keratoplasty with peripheral intralamellar tuck: A new surgical technique for keratoglobus. Cornea. 2002;21:657-660'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Hind Alkatan",address:"hindkatan@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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1. Introduction
To improve the quality and quantity of an organism, both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, it can be approached by molecular character enhancement through the insertion of interest genes or superior genes into the cells of the desired organism. The process of genetic transformation of an organism involves the isolation and identification of the gene of interest, the technique of cloning the gene on a plasmid vector until the process of transferring the gene to the target organism’s cell. One of the important genes in the growth of organisms is the homeobox gene, which is a gene that regulates the growth and development of organisms in a very early stage. Homeobox genes were first discovered in the Drosophila melanogaster. These homeobox genes have been also found in all multicellular organisms from fungi to plants, and vertebrate animals [1].
In plants, overexpression of the homeobox gene at an early stage of growth will activate the formation of apical buds from apical meristems that will produce shoots. The addition of exogenous cytokinin and auxin growth regulators will activate the homeobox genes to induce cell division genes that in turn will produce somatic embryos. Theoretically, each somatic cell can grow and transform itself into somatic embryos, therefore it can produce plant seeds in large quantities and uniform phenotypic characters. This is very profitable for agriculture and industry, especially for the mass production of identical plant seeds using tissue culture techniques.
In the model plant, Arabidopsis thaliana, it has been reported that the homeobox genes always maintain the growth of meristem cells in Shoot Apical Meristem (SAM) [2]. Overexpression of the homeobox gene in Arabidopsis has shown that the cells can convert from a determinate state to the meristematic indeterminate state, depending on the levels of expression of the gene (s) (Table 1) [23].
Gene
Function
Organism
Ref
OSH1
Homologous with Kn1 (Zea mays). Altered morphology of transgenic plants
Play a role in the embryo protoderm identity specification, organize of the primary root primordium or the L1 cell layer maintenance in the shoot apical meristem
2. Transformation for transient expression in onion, tobacco leaves, and protoplast
Transient expression become a powerful tool in functional genomics study for detecting gene expression in a short time and the inserted gene do not integrate into the plant genome. A transient expression system has been developed in planta using different cells or tissues, including protoplast, onion cells, and tobacco (Nicotiana benthamiana) leaves (Table 2). A transient expression system using protoplasts has proven to be a good experimental tool in molecular biology. This approach is an efficient technique to study subcellular protein localization, protein complexes, in vivo gene silencing, and promotor activity [24, 25].
Transient expression system and its purposes in planta.
The advantages of the transient expression system compared to stable expression are that it does not require regeneration of transformed cells, does not affect the stability of the host genome, and is independent of the effect of T-DNA integration site position [28]. Protoplast transfection can be performed using a variety of procedures commonly used for the transfection of animal cell cultures. The procedures that are often used to insert DNA into protoplasts are polyethylene glycol (PEG) and electroporation [29].
Polyethylene glycol (PEG)-mediated transformation plant cells can be transformed through certain chemicals, namely PEG (polyethylene glycol). PEG is an oligomer or hydrophilic polymer synthesized from ethylene oxide, containing repeating units of -(O-CH2-CH2)-. Polyethylene oxide (PEO) is another name for PEG. Typically, ethylene oxide macromolecules with a molecular weight of less than 20,000 g/mol are called PEGs, while macromolecules with values above 20,000 g/molar are called PEOs [29]. PEG is soluble in acetonitrile, benzene, water, ethanol, and dichloromethane, while it is insoluble in diethyl ether and hexane (Figures 1 and 2).
Figure 1.
Agroinfiltration in tobacco (Nicotiana benthamiana) leaves for protein-protein analysis.
Figure 2.
Transient expression in onion cell and protoplast for determining the subcellular localization of the protein. (a) Subcellular localization of OsKAN1-GFP fusion protein in the nucleus of onion cell transformed using particle bombardment [30]. (b) Transient expression of GFP-GF14c and Hd3a-mCherry in rice protoplast was driven by the 35S promoter of cauliflower mosaic virus and ubiquitin promoter, respectively, Bar = 10 μm.
PEG is available in various structures, such as branched, stellar, and comb-like macromolecules. PEG can bind various reactive functional groups to the PEG polymer site. Homo and heterobifunctional PEG derivatives are particularly suitable as agents or spacers of two chemical entities, whereas mono-functional PEGs prevent linking reactions that can affect the PEGylation of certain compounds with bifunctional PEGs. PEGylation is an interesting process in which PEG is bound to other molecules [31, 32].
PEG was used to increase DNA uptake into the protoplast during transfection. Very high concentrations of PEG can reduce transfection efficiency because it is toxic to protoplasts [33]. PEG-mediated DNA uptake is a direct gene transfer method that utilizes the interaction between PEG, naked DNA, salts, and protoplast membranes to influence the transport of DNA into the cytoplasm. The advantage of PEG-mediated transformation is that it does not require special equipment and can be carried out in the laboratory under sterile conditions [34]. Compared to Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation, PEG-mediated transformation was not species-specific. In addition, PEG-mediated transformation is also useful for functional analysis of genes through transient expression, a technique that is often used for promoter analysis [35].
Particle bombardment particles are coated in DNA and can penetrate plant cells without killing the plant cells themselves. Previous experiments have shown that particle bombardment has been successfully used to insert DNA into rice callus and seedlings grown in dark conditions but has the disadvantage of low efficiency and reliance on expensive equipment [36].
3. Expression of recombinant psychrophilic RNase III in Escherichia coli
To understand the mechanism of how the transformation and expression of recombinant protein in a prokaryotic system, Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) have been used as host and recombinant RNaseIII as a model protein. Ribonuclease III is an enzyme that specifically cleaves the double-stranded RNA molecules. It functions for ribosomal RNA maturation; therefore, RNase III is indispensable for the survival of cells. Here, the production of recombinant psychrophilic RNase III from Shewanella sp. SIB1 in the Escherichia coli system was reported. As a psychrophilic enzyme, recombinant RNase III was produced in the form of inclusion bodies. To produce the soluble recombinant psychrophilic RNase III, co-expression with FKBP22 from the same bacteria was carried out. The result showed that FKBP22 significantly improved the solubility of recombinant psychrophilic RNase III. It strongly suggested that FKBP22 assists the proper folding of recombinant psychrophilic RNase III when it was overproduced in the Escherichia coli system.
Ribonuclease III (RNase III) is an enzyme that specifically cleaves double-stranded RNA [30, 37, 38, 39, 40]. RNase III has an important role in both the RNA transcript maturation and decay of diverse cellular and viral RNA. A primary function of RNase III, however, is the maturation of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) [30, 37, 38, 40, 41]. RNase III has been known to be widely distributed across the living kingdom of life, from bacteria to higher eukaryotes. RNase III family has common features in their molecular organization, by which it consists of catalytic domain with the common feature of HNERLFGDS located at the N-terminus and double-stranded binding domain (dsRBD) that located on their C-terminus [39]. RNase III exhibited enzymatically active in homodimeric form, by which each monomer has its catalytic mechanism and therefore the cleavage product of the RNase III exhibits a very regular length of short double-stranded RNA [39]. By such properties, RNase III can be manipulated to produce short dsRNA that can be implemented for the RNA interference technology in combination with Argonaute, Drosha, and Dicer [42]. Therefore, the production of recombinant RNase III is necessary from the scientific and technological point of view.
Production of recombinant proteins could be done in either bacterial or mammalian cells as a host. The choice of the host to produce recombinant protein may be the subject of proteins of interest. It depends on whether further processing of the proteins of interest is necessary or not. However, the bacterial cell is the most prominent host for recombinant protein production. Escherichia coli is the most common bacterial cell that is generally used as a host organism because of the following advantages—(a) it has unparalleled fast growth kinetics, (b) high cell density cultures are easily achieved, (c) the growth media are easily prepared and inexpensive, and (d) transformation with exogenous DNA is fast and easy [43]. There are several commercially available Escherichia coli appropriate for the expression host of recombinant proteins, such as Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) and its derivatives. Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) is carrying the T7gene1 from the lysogens DE3, a derivative of bacteriophage lambda, that encodes for T7 RNA polymerase under the control of lacUV5 promoter [44]. T7 RNA polymerase is a polymerase that can recognize T7 promoter, a strong promoter appropriate for the high-level expression of proteins. Such promoter is commonly used in several commercially available expression vectors, such as pET series, pRSET, and pACYC-Duet. These vectors contain a regulatory system in the form of lacI in which the gene product suppresses the expression of recombinant proteins.
This report will discuss the production of recombinant RNase III from a psychrotrophic bacterium, Shewanella sp. SIB1. Shewanella sp. SIB1 is a psychrotrophic bacterium that grows most rapidly at 20°C [45]. This strain can grow even at 0° but cannot grow higher than 30°C. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that Shewanella sp. SIB1 is closely related to the Shewanella sp. AC10 isolated from the Antarctic ocean [44]. Interestingly, protein from psychrotrophic bacterium exhibits distinct properties compared to the mesophilic counterparts by their ability to adapt to cold temperatures [45].
Protein adaptation in such low temperatures requires a strategy that is not commonly found in mesophilic, for example, psychrophilic proteins must be flexible enough to avoid the problem in protein folding and to perform the optimum catalytic activity if it is an enzyme. Therefore, the production of psychrophilic protein would be interesting due to their properties to adapt to such low temperatures. Although the production of recombinant protein in bacterial host seems to be straightforward, several difficulties that arise and how to solve the problems during the production of recombinant psychrophilic protein will be discussed.
3.1 Localization of Shewanella sp. SIB1 RNase III encoding gene (Sh-rnc)
To localize the Sh-rnc gene from the Shewanella sp. SIB1 genome, as well as to obtain the full length of the RNase III open reading frame, the inverse PCR was carried out in this work. Previously, the partial Sh-rnc gene was amplified by using a pair of primers constructed based on the sequence of open reading frames of the rnc gene from Shewanella oneidensis MR1. Once the fragment of the Sh-rnc gene was amplified then it was used to construct new primers for the inverse PCR. For the inverse PCR, the SIB1 genome was digested by the DraI restriction enzyme and then the digestion product was then allowed to perform self-ligation to form small circular products. Since the orf of the Sh-rnc gene contains a recognition site for DraI, therefore, the PCR was conducted by using two pairs of primers. By such a strategy, the two PCR products were obtained and were then cloned into pUC18 for sequencing. The sequencing results indicated that the two fragments corresponded to the lepB and era genes, which means that the rnc gene was flanked by the lepB and era genes at the upstream and downstream regions, respectively (Figure 3) [46]. It seems that the three genes are organized in one operon, since there was no promoter detected in the upstream of every orf of lepB, rnc, and era genes. The gene organization was similar to that of Rhodobacter capsulatus [41]. Based on the information of rnc gene organization in Shewanella sp. SIB1 genome, the full length of orf of rnc gene could be isolated and then used for the expression of recombinant psychrophilic RNase III. The length of the orf of the rnc gene was determined to be 678 bp, which produced the recombinant RNase III with a molecular weight of ±24.8 kDa.
Figure 3.
Molecular organization of rnc gene in Shewanella sp. SIB1 genome. The rnc gene is flanked by lepB and era genes at the upstream and downstream regions. It seems that lepB-rnc-era is organized in one operon since there was no promoter sequence was found at the upstream of each gene. Moreover, the rnc-era sequence overlaps with each other (hatched area), while lepB-era (white area) is separated only by one base. Arrows indicate the expression direction [46].
3.2 Expression of recombinant psychrophilic RNase III
To overexpress the recombinant psychrophilic RNase III from Shewanella sp. SIB1, the pET28a expression vector, and Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) as a host were used in this work. Insertion of the orf of rnc gene into the multiple cloning sites of pET28a produces the recombinant protein that is fused with the hexahistidine tag. The resultant plasmid, pET-rnc, was then used to transform Escherichia coli BL21(DE3). Expression of the recombinant psychrophilic RNase III was induced by isopropyl thio-b-D-galactopyranoside (IPTG).
The result showed that the recombinant psychrophilic RNase III was accumulated in inclusion body form, although the overproduction was shifted at 20°C (Figure 4). Several attempts have been implemented to improve the solubility of recombinant psychrophilic RNase III in the E. coli system. Shifting of the expression temperatures to 15 and 10°C and adjustment of pH of growing media also did not significantly improve the solubility of recombinant proteins (data not shown).
Figure 4.
SDS-PAGE of recombinant psychrophilic RNase III overproduced in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3). Samples were subjected to 15% SDS-PAGE and stained with Coomassie brilliant blue (CBB). Low molecular weight kit (GE Healthcare) (lane M); cell pellet of cell harboring pET-rnc without co-expression with FKBP22 (lane 1); soluble part of cell harboring pET-rnc without co-expression with FKBP (lane 2); cell pellet of cell harboring pET-rnc and FKBP22 (lane 3); and soluble part of cell harboring pET-rnc and FKBP22 (lane 4). Recombinant psychrophilic RNase III was indicated by arrow [46].
Another strategy that has been carried out to improve the recombinant psychrophilic RNase III was by co-expression with the chaperone or chaperone-like proteins. Chaperon is a protein that functions for assisting another protein folding. Two types of assisting folding proteins used were GroEL-ES from Escherichia coli and FKBP22 from Shewanella sp. SIB1 [47]. Among them, co-expression with FKBPP22 successfully improved the solubility of recombinant psychrophilic RNase III (Figure 2). FKBP22 belongs to the group of peptidyl-prolyl isomerase (PPIase) that functions for switching cis- to trans-configuration of proline during polypeptide biosynthesis [47]. This result indicated that strong induction to produce recombinant psychrophilic RNase III might cause the misfolding of the protein. Therefore, during co-expression with FKBP22, it helps to assist the proper folding of the psychrophilic RNase III. Although co-expression with FKBP22 only partly solubilizes the recombinant psychrophilic RNase III, it is sufficient for the biochemical characterization of the recombinant proteins.
Psychrophilic enzymes have unique properties in their folding and activity. Expression of such recombinant psychrophilic enzymes in mesophilic host generally produces misfolding recombinant protein represented by the inclusion bodies formation. Overexpression of recombinant psychrophilic RNase III in Escherichia coli has been improved when it was expressed with chaperone-like protein, FKBP22. It is apparently that FKBP22 assists the proper folding of recombinant psychrophilic RNase III.
4. Eukaryote model organism and animal gene transformation Yeast genetics
The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is an essential option for expanding breakthrough research in gene cloning in E. coli, including eukaryotes. It can be manipulated and cultured using standard techniques applied to unicellular microorganisms. Yeast is a eukaryotes cell whose genetic material is packed into the chromosomes of the membrane-enclosed cell nucleus. In addition, extensive knowledge has been accumulated over the years that yeast has been used as a model system for genetic and biochemical studies. A comprehensive map showing the 17 chromosomes and more than 400 genes is available. The discovery first drove research in this area that yeast genes can be reliably expressed in E. coli. Yeast DNA fragments, when cloned into E. coli can restore histidine-independent growth of the mutant strain. In another case, a fragment of the yeast chromosome carries the gene for the enzyme that corresponds to the defect in the bacterial strain. Therefore, the yeast HIS3 gene can be expressed in bacterial cells and produce the yeast gene. Usually, wild-type alleles are specified in uppercase, and mutant ones are set in lowercase. Therefore, HIS3 is a wild-type allele, and his3 is a mutant allele that causes histidine dependence. Other yeast genes isolated and used as markers include TRP1, LEU2, URA3, and ARG4. In general, eukaryotic genes have more complex functions than bacterial genes due to introns. Due to the lack of introns, yeast genes may develop easier than other animal cells. An important marker of wild-type yeast attempts to insert exogenous DNA into yeast cells.
4.1 Yeast transformation
Yeast cells are protected by a thick cell wall, a potential barrier to DNA invasion. Removing the cell wall to create protoplasts or spheroplasts increases the chances of genetic transformation. Reseachers adopted this method was adopted and widespread used by these researchers, but some changes have since been have been reported to improve efficiency. This method is based on the technique described initially for protoplast fusion yeast. Yeast cells are recovered in the late stage of growth, the cell wall is weakened with a reducing agent such as mercaptoethanol, and the wall is removed by incubation with an enzyme such as glucanase. Various formulations, such as glucanase enzyme and actinomycete extract have been successfully used. Spheroplasts were then carefully washed with an osmotically equivalent solution of the free buffer and suspended in a solution-containing polyethylene glycol (PEG) and CaCl2 [48]. DNA was added at this stage. For cells to divide, the walls need to be rebuilt. This case requires the cells to be placed in osmotically stabilized agar.
4.2 Gene recognition and gene number regulation
Both plasmid vectors and chromosomal integration are widely used to introduce genes and control copy numbers into S. cerevisiae. Each has an important role, and the choice depends on the overall goal (overexpression, tight control of gene number, etc.) [49]. The plasmids used in yeast are far more limited than the E. coli. However, plasmids with little copy number control and isolation stability can be a significant problem even in selective media. Homologous recombination is so efficient in S. cerevisiae that integrating genes into the genome provides an alternative and simple mechanism for introducing genes. Chromosomal integration also allows the insertion of several identical or different genes. It is critical for the gene expression of regulated metabolic pathways. There are classes of plasmids that replicate independently in yeast: YIp, YAC, YRp, Yep, and YCp [50, 51, 52, 53]. S. Sacevisiae has a multi-cloning site (MCS) for inserting expression cassettes. The YRp vector originates from replication such as Autonomously Replicating Sequence (ARS) without partition control. However, this plasmid is extremely unstable and is not widely used in metabolic engineering applications. In contrast, the widely used YCp and YEp vectors have been demonstrated in many applications. The YCp vector (centromere/CEN) has an origin of replication; the centromere sequence is maintained at 12 copies per cell and exhibits high isolation stability in selective media. Strong constitutive promoter expression can significantly affect plasmid stability, reduce average copy counts, and overwhelm intracellular metabolic pathways [54]. In extreme cases, the CEN/ARS vector provides overproduction. Due to the general lack of yeast plasmids, very high copy counts were maintained. On the other hand, defective marker promoters lead to increased copy counts [55]. Hundreds of copies have been reported on selective media, but this high copy count is not essential for survival [54]. Generally, such vectors help with the overexpression of product genes rather than metabolic engineering applications [49]. There are 11 classes of animals’ homeobox that share homology and function among yeast and animal (Table 3). Today, the use of model organisms to replace animal cells is increasing more rapidly due to animal-free thinking in social development. However, cloning and transformation in mammals remain important [51].
Class
Sub Class
Gene
Function
Organism
Ref
ANTP
EuHox
Hox1, Hox2, Hox3, Hox4, Hox5, Hox6–8, Hox9–15
Essential for normal T lymphocyte and activated natural killer cell function
Encoding gene regulation during the pituitary gland, eye, and pancreas, organs assembly that was presumably not present in the common ancestor of vertebrates.
Specification of individual anterior neural precursors and promotes the expression of tph and synaptotagminB, required for the differentiation of serotonergic neurons.
The inducible protective mechanism that inhibits LPS-induced ROS production and inflammation in EA.hy926 cells by the subsequent inhibition of redox-sensitive NF-κB and MAPK activation.
Expressed in the developing CNS, lens-secreting cone cells of the eye, and midgut. In the mouse, Prox 1 is expressed in many of the same tissues. Young neurons of the subventricular region of the CNS, developing eye lens, and pancreas. Expression is also detected in the developing liver and heart, as well as transiently in the skeletal muscles
The development of a vector system for gene transformation in animal cells is under consideration [71]. These vectors are required in biotechnology to synthesize recombinant proteins from genes that are not correctly expressed when cloned in E. coli or yeast. Human cloning techniques are sought after by clinical molecular biologists seeking to develop gene therapy techniques: Diseases are treated by introducing the cloned genes into patients [71]. The clinical aspect means that the most excellent attention is paid to the mammalian cloning system, but significant advances have also been made in insects. Cloning insects is fascinating because it uses a new type of vector that we have never encountered.
4.4 Cloning in mammals
Currently, gene cloning in mammals is performed for one of three reasons: (1) To produce recombinant proteins in mammalian cell culture and related farming techniques. Milk. (2) In gene therapy, human cells are manipulated to treat diseases. (3) Achieve gene knockout, an important technique used to determine the function of unknown genes. These experiments are usually performed on rodents, such as mice. Viruses as a mammalian clone vector have been known to be the key to cloning mammals for many years. The first cloning experiment with mammalian cells was performed in 1970 using a vector-based on Simian virus 40 (SV40) [72, 73]. The virus can infect several mammalian species following a lysogenic cycle in some hosts and others. SV40 has the same problem as e and has a calicivirus embedded in it. This is because packaging restrictions limit the amount of new DNA inserted into the genome. Therefore, cloning with the SV40 requires replacing one or more of the existing genes with DNA to clone. The original experiment replaced the late gene region segment, but early gene replacement was also an option [73]. However, the discovery of CRISPR/Cas which is based on cloning technology is one of the essential techniques in gene therapy [74].
5. Conclusions
Genes are the universal language that controls the nature of all living things, shared homology among organisms. It is always interesting to reveal the evolution of cloning and gene expression in plant, bacteria, and animal cells. Therefore, with the discovery of genetic engineering, possible to exchange good genetic traits which beneficial for human life. In conclusion, genetic transformation is a genetic engineering technique that can be used to understand the function of a gene or several genes in various events in the life of an organism, both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, so that genetic transformation is carried out for two kinds of purposes, namely scientific purposes to determine the function of certain genes in an organism, and economic goals to improve the quality and productivity of an organism to increase the economic value of an organism. In the future, genetic engineering on prokaryotes and eukaryotes perspective can be used for various purposes in the fields of medicine, agriculture, horticulture, forestry, and food.
Acknowledgments
We thank Badan Penerbit dan Publikasi Universitas Gadjah Mada (BPP UGM) for supporting this publication.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appendices and nomenclature
35S
Cauliflower Mozaic Virus 35S promoter
Argonaute
a part of RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), plays a central role in RNA silencing processes
BIP116b
brassinosteroid Interacting protein 116b
Dicer
human RNase III
Drosha
a class III of RNase III
dsRBD
double-strand binding domain
dsRNA
double-strand RNA
era
era protein-encoding gene
FKBP22
peptidyl-prolyl isomerase protein, a chaperone-like protein from psychrophilic bacterium Shewanella sp. SIB1
GFP
green fluorescent protein
GroEL-ES
chaperonin
Hd3a
heading date 3a
IPTG
isopropyl thio-b-D-galactopyranoside
lepB
signal peptidase encoding gene
OsKANADI
Oryza sativa KANADI
P19
RNA silencing suppressor p19
pACYC-Duet
bacterial expression vector
pET
bacterial expression vector
pRSET
bacterial expression vector
RNase III
ribonuclease III
Rnc
ribonuclease III encoding gene
SDS-PAGE
sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
Sh-rnc
riboniclease III encoding gene from Shewanella sp. SIB1
T-DNA
transfer DNA
ANTP
antennapedia
ARG4
argininosuccinate lyase
Arx
aristaless related homeobox
Alx
aristaless-like homeobox
Hbn
homeobrain
Rax
retina and anterior neural fold homeobox
Otp
orthopedia homeobox
Gsc
goosecoid homeobox
Otx
orthodenticle homolog
Pitx
paired-like homeodomain
CaCl2
calcium chloride
CERS
ceramide synthase
Cmp
collagen-mimetic peptide
Cux
cut-like homeobox
Onecut
one cut homeobox
CUT
cut homeobox
Emx
empty spiracles homeobox
Hlx
H2.0-like homeobox
Dbx
developing brain homeobox
Barh1
BarH-like 1 homeobox protein
\n',keywords:"eukaryotic cells, genetic transformation, molecular character enhancement, prokaryotic cells, transient expression",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81720.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81720.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81720",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81720",totalDownloads:44,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 11th 2022",dateReviewed:"February 21st 2022",datePrePublished:"May 11th 2022",datePublished:"July 27th 2022",dateFinished:"May 11th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Improving the quality and quantity of an organism and its products can be approached by molecular characters enhancement through the insertion of a gene of interest into cells of the desired organism. Genetic transformation of an organism involves isolation, identification, cloning a gene of interest into a vector, and transferring the gene to the target organism. This chapter reviews the process of genetic transformation into the organism’s cell from bacterial (Escherichia coli), yeast, plant (Onion, Tobacco, and Orchids), and mammalian. The discussion will be focused on the introduction of DNA molecules into plant cells and protoplast mediated by polyethylene glycol (PEG), electroporation, and gene gun using particle bombardment. Further discussion on the transient protein expression system of plant-based on protoplast, onion cell, and tobacco will also be covered in this chapter as well. The systems have been proven as a powerful tool for determining subcellular protein localization, protein-protein interactions, identifying gene function, and regulation. Finally, it can be clearly seen, the differences and similarities in the mechanism of genetic transformation both in prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81720",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81720",signatures:"Endang Semiarti, Yekti Asih Purwestri, Saifur Rohman and Wahyu Aristyaning Putri",book:{id:"11356",type:"book",title:"Molecular Cloning",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Molecular Cloning",slug:"molecular-cloning",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",bookSignature:"Sadık Dincer, Hatice Aysun Mercimek Takcı and Melis Sumengen Ozdenef",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-80355-451-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-450-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-452-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"188141",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadik",middleName:null,surname:"Dincer",slug:"sadik-dincer",fullName:"Sadik Dincer"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"127787",title:"Prof.",name:"Endang",middleName:null,surname:"Semiarti",fullName:"Endang Semiarti",slug:"endang-semiarti",email:"endsemi@ugm.ac.id",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Gadjah Mada University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"197859",title:"Dr.",name:"Yekti",middleName:"Asih",surname:"Asih Purwestri",fullName:"Yekti Asih Purwestri",slug:"yekti-asih-purwestri",email:"yekti@ugm.ac.id",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Gadjah Mada University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441327",title:"Dr.",name:"Saifur",middleName:null,surname:"Rohman",fullName:"Saifur Rohman",slug:"saifur-rohman",email:"saifur@ugm.ac.id",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Gadjah Mada University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441328",title:"Dr.",name:"Wahyu",middleName:null,surname:"Aristyaning Putri",fullName:"Wahyu Aristyaning Putri",slug:"wahyu-aristyaning-putri",email:"wahyuaristyaningputri@ugm.ac.id",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Gadjah Mada University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Transformation for transient expression in onion, tobacco leaves, and protoplast",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Expression of recombinant psychrophilic RNase III in Escherichia coli",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Localization of Shewanella sp. SIB1 RNase III encoding gene (Sh-rnc)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Expression of recombinant psychrophilic RNase III",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Eukaryote model organism and animal gene transformation Yeast genetics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1 Yeast transformation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2 Gene recognition and gene number regulation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.3 Cloning in animal cells",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.4 Cloning in mammals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. 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The epidemiology of MRSA has been evolving since its initial outbreak which necessitates a comprehensive medical approach to tackle this pathogen. Vancomycin has been the drug of choice for years but its utility was challenged by the emergence of resistance. In the last 10 years or so, newer anti-MRSA antibiotics were approved for clinical use. 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To overcome some of the major limitations of chemical control methods such as rising resistance, environmental and health risks, and the adverse effect on non‐target organisms, biological control (biocontrol) is now at the forefront of parasite (pests) control. Biocontrol is now a core component of the integrated pest management. Biocontrol is defined as “the study and uses of parasites, predators and pathogens for the regulation of host (pest) densities”. Considerable successes have been achieved in the implementation of biocontrol strategies in the past. This chapter presents a review of the history of biocontrol, its advantages and disadvantages; the different types of biological control agents (BCAs) including predators, parasites (parasitoids) and pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses and virus‐like particles, protozoa and nematodes); the effect of biocontrol on native biodiversity; a few case studies of the successful implementation of biocontrol methods and the challenges encountered with the implementation of biocontrol and future perspectives.",book:{id:"5527",slug:"natural-remedies-in-the-fight-against-parasites",title:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites",fullTitle:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites"},signatures:"Tebit Emmanuel Kwenti",authors:[{id:"191763",title:"Dr.",name:"Tebit Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Kwenti",slug:"tebit-emmanuel-kwenti",fullName:"Tebit Emmanuel Kwenti"}]},{id:"70336",title:"Plastics Polymers Degradation by Fungi",slug:"plastics-polymers-degradation-by-fungi",totalDownloads:1462,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The studies on plastic degradation are very important for the development of biodegradable plastics, and for reduction of pollution, since plastic waste can remain in the environment for decades or centuries. We have showed the degradation of oxo-biodegradable plastic bags and green polyethylene by Pleurotus ostreatus. This fungus can also produce mushrooms using these plastics. The plastic degradation was possibly by three reasons: (a) presence of pro-oxidant ions or plant polymer, (b) low specificity of the lignocellulolytic enzymes, and (c) the presence of endomycotic nitrogen-fixing microorganisms. In this chapter, the plastic bags’ degradation by abiotic and microbial process using the exposure to sunlight and the use of a white-rot fungus will described. The physical, chemical, and biological alterations of plastic were analyzed after each process of degradation. The degradation of plastic bags was more effective when the abiotic and biotic degradations were combined.",book:{id:"8997",slug:"microorganisms",title:"Microorganisms",fullTitle:"Microorganisms"},signatures:"José Maria Rodrigues da Luz, Marliane de Cássia Soares da Silva, Leonardo Ferreira dos Santos and Maria Catarina Megumi Kasuya",authors:[{id:"217699",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Da Luz",slug:"jose-maria-da-luz",fullName:"Jose Maria Da Luz"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"151",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 8th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",slug:"j.-kevin-summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:61,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7723",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Applications in Medicine and Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7723.jpg",slug:"artificial-intelligence-applications-in-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 31st 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"a3852659e727f95c98c740ed98146011",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Artificial Intelligence - Applications in Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. Asimeng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:18,paginationItems:[{id:"83041",title:"Responses of Endoplasmic Reticulum to Plant Stress",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106590",signatures:"Vishwa Jyoti Baruah, Bhaswati Sarmah, Manny Saluja and Elizabeth H. 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\r\n\tThe era of antibiotics led us to the illusion that the problem of bacterial infection is over. However, bacterial flexibility and adaptation mechanisms allow them to survive and grow in extreme conditions. The best example is the formation of a sophisticated society of bacteria defined as a biofilm. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilm formation has changed our perception of the development of bacterial infection but successfully eradicating biofilm remains a challenge. Considering the above, it is not surprising that bacteria remain a major public health threat despite the development of many groups of antibiotics. Additionally, increasing prevalence of acquired antibiotic resistance forces us to realize that we are far from controlling the development of bacterial infections. On the other hand, many infections are endogenous and result from an unbalanced relationship between the host and the microorganism. The increasing use of immunosuppressants, such as chemotherapy or organ transplantation, increases the incidence of patients highly susceptible to bacterial infections in the population.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
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Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. 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Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. 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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},subseries:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"
\r\n\tThe era of antibiotics led us to the illusion that the problem of bacterial infection is over. However, bacterial flexibility and adaptation mechanisms allow them to survive and grow in extreme conditions. The best example is the formation of a sophisticated society of bacteria defined as a biofilm. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilm formation has changed our perception of the development of bacterial infection but successfully eradicating biofilm remains a challenge. Considering the above, it is not surprising that bacteria remain a major public health threat despite the development of many groups of antibiotics. Additionally, increasing prevalence of acquired antibiotic resistance forces us to realize that we are far from controlling the development of bacterial infections. On the other hand, many infections are endogenous and result from an unbalanced relationship between the host and the microorganism. The increasing use of immunosuppressants, such as chemotherapy or organ transplantation, increases the incidence of patients highly susceptible to bacterial infections in the population.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
",annualVolume:11399,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"190041",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Gutierrez Fernandez",fullName:"Jose Gutierrez Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Granada",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"156556",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Mascellino",fullName:"Maria Teresa Mascellino",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/156556/images/system/156556.jpg",institutionString:"Sapienza University",institution:{name:"Sapienza University of Rome",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"164933",title:"Prof.",name:"Mónica Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Sousa Oleastro",fullName:"Mónica Alexandra Sousa Oleastro",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/164933/images/system/164933.jpeg",institutionString:"National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo Jorge",institution:{name:"National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",annualVolume:11400,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",annualVolume:11401,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",annualVolume:11402,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"188219",title:"Prof.",name:"Imran",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid",fullName:"Imran Shahid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188219/images/system/188219.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Umm al-Qura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"214235",title:"Dr.",name:"Lynn",middleName:"S.",surname:"Zijenah",fullName:"Lynn Zijenah",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSEJGQA4/Profile_Picture_1636699126852",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zimbabwe",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"178641",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel Ikwaras",middleName:null,surname:"Okware",fullName:"Samuel Ikwaras Okware",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178641/images/system/178641.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Uganda Christian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/44721",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"44721"},fullPath:"/profiles/44721",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()