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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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\r\n\tThe rise of robotic technology continues in the new century, taking firm steps towards becoming a part of humanity day by day. Robots have become a part of both industrial production and human life, increasingly taking their place in factories, hospitals, schools, the military system, streets, and homes. As a result of this rapid involvement of robotic structures in modern life, scientists are accelerating both theoretical and applied studies on robotic manipulators. This book focuses on the latest developments in kinematics, dynamics, control, simulation tools, optimization, and structural design of serial, parallel, and hybrid robot manipulators. I would like to thank all the authors who will contribute to the book with their novel ideas in advance. During the last years, there was intense research on Ankylosing Spondylitis (AS) and related disorders, which were found to have a strong association with the HLA-B27 allele. Further studies showed that 92% of the population variance is due to genetic factors, and only a fraction of AS genetics can be explained by the influence of HLA-B27. Updated information on the genomic and auto-immune knowledge on AS is an important component of this book, calling attention to markers of disease activity, possible pathways, and the interaction with the gut microbiome, which are a step forward in the knowledge of the pathophysiology of AS, providing markers which are targets for the more recent biologic therapies.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tAn update on clinical manifestations, their assessment, monitoring, and imagiology, including peripheral arthritis, enthesopathy, and extra-articular findings, and, the differential diagnosis with other diseases which evolves with axial and peripheral calcifications will be provided.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tAn important component of this book must be dedicated to the more recent treatments namely with biologic therapies but focusing also on new small molecule inhibitors and experimental therapies.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), known as the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, have been adopted by 193 countries since 2015 [1]. Reducing air pollution, development of sustainable cities, and combating climate change are some of the main goals of this plan of action, and, within that context, the reduction of pollutant emissions from vehicles is an important activity to be faced.
\nIn order to minimize greenhouse gas emissions, vehicle emissions for passenger cars have been regulated worldwide by means of several standards, such as the Euro emission standards in Europe or the Tier standards in the USA [2, 3, 4]. These successive standards, which define more stringent acceptable limits for polluting emission and fuel economy, push car manufacturers to use the best technology available for vehicle emission control, and this is one of the biggest technical challenges that the automotive industry faces.
\nThe public concern about diseases derived from air pollution and recent emissions scandals, like
The EGR system, whose main components are the EGR pipe, the EGR valve, and the EGR cooler, is a technique in which a portion of exhaust gas is returned to the intake manifold, reducing the oxygen content inside the cylinder—oxygen-poor environment [10]. Since the NOx formation is increased in an exponential function with a temperature increase, lower oxygen content of the diluted fresh charge leads to a cooler combustion process that drastically reduces the NOx formation [11]. To increase its effectiveness, the EGR cooler—a compact heat exchanger that uses engine coolant—is in charge of reducing the exhaust gas temperature prior to entering the combustion chamber [12]. The quantity of EGR is regulated by controlling the EGR valve, which manages the EGR rate required under the different work conditions of the engine.
\nOne of the problems encountered in EGR systems is the fouling of the heat exchanger walls. The carbonaceous soot particles and condensable hydrocarbons derived from the combustion process lead to the formation of a highly porous deposit with low thermal conductivity that can cause the degradation in heat transfer performance in the range of 20–30% [13], as \nFigure 1\n shows. The accumulation of this unwanted material also causes the increase of the pressure drop along the heat exchanger, adversely affecting the control of the EGR rate and decreasing the fuel efficiency due to the increased pumping work [14]. Under significant fouling conditions, the massive increase of the thickness of the deposit can clog some tubes of the heat exchanger, as \nFigure 2\n shows, hampering the full normal functioning of the device [15].
\nThermal efficiency evolution of an EGR cooler [
Photographs of different fouling layers: (a) and (b) show deposits generated by diesel particulate matter inside shell-and-tube heat exchangers, (c) depicts the fouling layer generated on a cylindrical probe which is positioned transverse to the diesel exhaust, and (d) shows the deposit formed by dry soot particles on a tube-and-fin heat exchanger.
In the last few decades, numerous investigations have been focused on the study of the fouling process that takes place on the heat exchanger walls of the EGR system. Numerous attempts in analysis, measurement, and prediction of the deposit have contributed to increase the knowledge of the deposit formation, and many of them have pointed out the complexity of the dynamics of this phenomenon. These studies fall into two broad categories: one group intends to determine and analyze the deposit growth using in situ measurements, i.e., employing experimental procedures to quantify the morphology and characteristics of the fouling layer [17, 18], whereas the second intends to reproduce and recreate the fouling formation employing numerical approaches. The studies of this second category encompass the analysis of the EGR deposit using different numerical models like zero-dimensional (0-D) models, one-dimensional (1-D) models, or advanced computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations, which have been created to simulate and reproduce the behavior of the fouling layer that appears inside the EGR technology.
\nIn the following sections, specific features of the different types of numerical approaches used to study the fouling in the EGR system are presented in detail. The functions offered by the several numerical models are examined, and their implementation and results are thoroughly analyzed. In this context, both the composition and characteristics of the particulate matter and the fouling mechanisms involved in this process are briefly presented in advance.
\nThe exhaust gas flow emitted from internal combustion engines has been categorized as dilute flow, where the low concentration of particulate matter (PM) makes negligible the effect of particles on gas flow [19]. Several factors, such as the air-fuel ratio, the EGR rate, the engine load, or the cylinder temperature, can alter the particulate loading in the exhaust flow, and, in the same way, they can influence the formation, agglomeration, and growth of the particles [20].
\nAccording to the size of the particulate matter, the nanoparticles emitted from internal combustion engines can be classified into three modes: nucleation, accumulation, and coarse. Nucleation mode is formed by particles that are less than 50 nm in diameter, and, according to the number distribution, most of the particles reside in this mode, as \nFigure 3\n reports. In the accumulation mode, the agglomerates consist of a collection of much smaller particles, and the size of these aggregates ranges from 50 nm to 1 μm, and particle mass distribution highlights that accumulation mode accounts the largest portion. The biggest particles—diameters between 1 μm and 10 μm—represent only a small fraction of the number of particles, and they belong to the coarse mode [21, 22, 23].
\nGeneralized size distribution for typical particles emitted by internal combustion engines.
Analyzing the composition of the PM of the exhaust gas, the particles are a product of a mix of volatile and nonvolatile species. Volatile faction is composed by sulfates (SO4\n2− + metal sulfate), nitrates (NO3\n− + metal nitrate), and organic elements (▬CH2 + N, O and S). Nonvolatile fraction is composed by carbonaceous particles, commonly referred to as soot, and ash, formed by metals (Fe, Cr, Cu, Zn, Ca) and nonmetals (Si, P, S, Cl) [24]. Several factors, such as fuel and lubricant characteristics or engine work conditions, can influence the composition and proportion of these species, however, in most cases, elemental carbon accounts for around 90% of PM mass [25]. The primary particles—sizes typically between 15 and 30 nm—are composed by carbon and traces of metallic ash, and they aggregate forming complex irregular clusters together with adsorbed and condensed hydrocarbons (HC) [26, 27]. As \nFigure 4\n shows, the agglomeration of the primary particles causes the formation of clusters with a complex structure with nonuniform shape and compactness [28].
\nAgglomerate diesel particle.
When this particulate matter is deposited on the heat exchanger walls, it forms a fouling layer which coats the heat exchanger surface. The interaction between the particles and the metal surface during the early stages of the deposit formation, and the particle-particle interaction during fouling layer growth, leads to the accumulation of amorphous aggregates on the heat exchanger walls, causing a highly porous deposit (around 98% [18]). This fouling layer, with a complex nanostructure with multiple pores between the deposited aggregates, functions as an insulator between the gas flow and the heat transfer surface. According to the experimental measurements of Lance et al. [18], the fouling layer generated from the deposition of diesel particulate matter has a density around 0.035 g/cm3 and a low thermal conductivity that is around 0.041 W/mK. However, in some cases, different phenomena, such as the condensation of hydrocarbons and water or the spallation of the deposit, can collapse the nanostructure of the fouling layer, slightly modifying its thermal properties [20, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33]. It is no easy task to determine and quantify the deposit’s chemical and physical characteristics due to the fragile nature of the structure, but it is an essential step to provide accurate inputs to the numerical models.
\nThe gas-particle multiphase flow and the formation of fouling layer inside the EGR system are complex phenomena in which several mechanisms are involved. Thermophoresis, diffusion, inertial impact, hydrocarbon condensation, gravitational settling, removal due to shear force, water vapor condensation, or turbulent burst are the main mechanisms that engage in the fouling process.
\nExcluding the thermal effects, other parameters, such as the particle diffusion, the gravitational settling, the inertial impact of the turbophoresis, play an important role in the EGR fouling formation. The particle diffusion is the dominant mechanism for the small particles, particles with dimensionless relaxation times (\n
Inside the EGR cooler, thermophoresis—induced by the temperature gradient—drives the nanoparticles from the bulk gas flow to the near cool walls, causing the deposition of the soot particles over the heat exchanger surfaces. It has been reported by several authors that under non-isothermal conditions, thermophoresis is the primary mechanism of soot deposition in the particle size typically encountered in exhaust gas, 10 nm to 1 μm, and some correlations from literature, such as Brock-Talbot or Cha-McCoy-Wood, have been used to determine the thermophoretic velocity as a function of the particle diameter [13, 35, 36, 37, 38].
\nThe condensation of HC and acids, which are part of the exhaust flow, is significant on a mass basis compared to soot deposition, and it is an important issue in the deposit formation [39]. As exhaust gas is diluted and cooled, the condensation of hydrocarbons is particularly important inside the EGR system. Condensate, which is mixed with soot particles inside the fouling layer, modifies the microstructure of the soot deposit and changes the characteristics of the deposit, leading to an increase of the density and the thermal conductivity of the fouling layer [40].
\nThe effect of shear force of the gas flow over the deposited particles, the turbulent burst, or the water vapor condensation have been identified as potential mechanisms that cause the removal of particles from the fouling layer [41, 42]. When the drag force over the particle is larger than the adhesion force, removal occurs. In the same way, the condensed water droplets can interact with the deposited particles, causing a washout of the dry soot deposit [43].
\nIt has been extensively reported in literature that the formation of the fouling deposits depends on two simultaneous phenomena: the deposition and the removal of particles [13, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48]. Such categorization usually selects thermophoresis, particle diffusion, gravitational drift, inertial impact, or hydrocarbon condensation as deposition mechanisms. On the contrary, water vapor condensation, the shear force, or the turbulent burst are usually classified as removal mechanisms.
\nIn the study of the fouling process of the EGR system, both experimental and numerical investigations have been carried out in order to analyze the effects of the deposit that grows on the heat exchanger walls. Although the amount of experimental studies have been larger and more frequent, the numerical models have become relevant since 2009, as \nFigure 5\n depicts, due to the increase in NOx emission regulation requirements.
\nMain numerical models published from 1997 to 2020.
The numerical approaches intend to reproduce and simulate the formation and evolution of the deposit inside the EGR system recreating the different mechanisms involved in the fouling process. Because of their significance in the prediction of the deposit, the deposition mechanisms have been implemented in 76.9% of the main numerical models that analyze the deposit formation inside the EGR system. By contrast, the numerical approaches that recreate removal mechanisms are slightly lower (50.0%), and only the 30.8% of the models are focused on the study of the condensation of volatile species. In many cases, several kinds of mechanisms are implemented and coupled in one single numerical approach, in order to achieve more complete simulation frameworks.
\nAccording to the complexity of the formulation of the models, they can be divided into three principal categories: the zero-dimensional (0-D), the one-dimensional (1-D), and the multidimensional models.
\nThe zero-dimensional models are focused on an overall heat and material balance of the system, and they do not include any analysis of the fluid dynamics. Following several assumptions and simplifications, they evaluate the overall fouling effects, and, although these numerical approaches avoid any spatial resolution of the variables involved in the process, they can give a fair indication about the fouling phenomenon.
\nThe one-dimensional approach is the next level of complexity. In these models, only one spatial dimension is considered, dividing the fluid zone in different regions and analyzing the properties of the system in each region separately. Although this approach simplifies the number of equations, it can give a detailed evolution of the spatial changes of the fouling parameters.
\nThe multidimensional models require the spatial discretization of the volume of the region and can provide a thorough analysis of the variables of the process. In this field, the use of computational fluid dynamics simulations has been increasing steadily since the 1990s, due to the availability of high-performance computing hardware and the development of user-friendly interfaces. The computer-based simulations make it possible to obtain a detailed solution of the fluid flow, both in two-dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) domains, and they can reproduce the evolution and formation of fouling layers.
\n\n\nTable 1\n summarizes the 0-D models that have been proposed to analyze the fouling layer effect in the EGR system.
\nAuthors | \nMechanisms modeled | \nMain fouling equations | \nParameters analyzed | \nModel—experiment | \nRemarks | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abarham et al. [49] | \nThermophoresis | \n\n\n | \n\n
| \nIn reasonable agreement | \nAn analytical solution for thermophoretic deposition of submicron particles | \n
Garrido et al. [50] | \n\n
| \n\n\n | \n\n
| \nGeneral tendencies validated | \nTheoretical analysis of the thermodynamics of gasoline engine exhaust condensation | \n
0-D model.
Abarham et al. [49] proposed an analytical model for thermophoretic particle deposition that solves the mass conservation of particles and the energy equation of the gas flow for a single turbulent pipe flow. This approach considers the submicron particle deposition due to the thermophoretic effect, neglecting the diffusion and other deposition mechanisms. The model takes into consideration the pipe diameter reduction due to the growth of the fouling layer and considers different boundary conditions, such as the inlet temperature and mass flow rate of the gas, the inlet particle concentration, or the wall temperature. In this study, the properties of the soot layer, i.e., density, porosity, and thermal conductivity, have been taken from the experimental measurements of Lance et al. [18], and the soot particle diameter has been set at 57 nm, based on the study of Maricq and Harris [51]. This model computes the total mass deposited on the tube and evaluates the degradation of the heat transfer effectiveness over time. To verify the results of this numerical approach, the data were compared with the experimental measurements obtained by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and an acceptable agreement was achieved between both methods.
\nGarrido et al. [50] presented a theoretical analysis of the thermodynamics of exhaust gas condensation. They analyzed the condensation of different species that are part of the exhaust gas produced by gasoline engines, such as water vapor, ammonium, and sulfuric, nitrous, nitric, and chloric acids. The examination of the chemical reactions that takes place along the exhaust line and the analysis of the vapor-liquid equilibrium of the condensable species under different temperatures allow the study of their behavior and the calculation of their dew point. The experimental validation of the model showed that, although the collected condensate amount was slightly lower than the model predicted results, the general tendencies were verified.
\nSince the 0-D models do not provide any spatial resolution of the fouling parameters, their scope is deliberately more concise. Nevertheless, they can be used as essential tools in guiding the study of the fouling phenomenon.
\nAccording to the mechanisms considered by the 1-D models, they can be categorized in five groups, as \nTable 2\n summarizes. The first group covers those models that only analyze the condensation of water or hydrocarbons. The second group is formed by those studies that investigate the fouling layer formation solely by considering the effect of particle deposition mechanisms. The third group, which combines the characteristic of the two previous groups, contains those models that take into account both the prediction of the HC condensation and the deposition of particulate matter. The fourth group includes those models that, in addition to simulating the particulate matter deposition, also discuss the removal mechanisms. And the fifth group is composed of those investigations that take into consideration all of the mechanisms mentioned above: deposition of particulate matter, removal of particles from the deposit, and condensation of hydrocarbons.
\nAuthors | \nMechanisms modeled | \nMain fouling equations | \nParameters analyzed | \nModel—experiment | \nRemarks | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
McKinley [52] | \nAcid condensation | \n\n\n | \n\n
| \n— | \nPrediction of condensation rate and condensate composition to minimize EGR cooler corrosion | \n
Sharma et al. [53] | \nWater vapor condensation | \n\n\n \n\n | \nCondensation evaporation fluxes | \nClose agreement observed | \nSimulation of temperature profiles inside after-treatment devices considering water condensation and evaporation | \n
B. Ismail [54] | \n\n
| \n\n\n | \n\n
| \n— | \nCalculation of the coupling between the gas and particle phases to compute the soot deposition in diesel EGR cooling devices | \n
Abarham et al. [55] | \nThermophoresis | \n\n\n | \n\n
| \nSignificant differences observed | \nPrediction of EGR cooler fouling amount and distribution across a concentric tube heat exchanger with a constant wall temperature | \n
Abarham et al. [56] | \n\n
| \n\n\n \n\n | \n\n
| \nSignificant differences observed | \nSimulation of soot and HC deposition on a concentric tube EGR cooler with a constant wall temperature | \n
Teng and Regner [57] | \n\n
| \n\n\n \n\n | \nCooler effectiveness degradation | \nGood agreement observed | \nPrediction of the cooler effectiveness deterioration considering the characteristics of the soot deposit | \n
Teng and Regner [58] | \n\n
| \n\n\n \n\n | \nCooler effectiveness degradation | \nGood agreement observed | \nCalculation of soot particle accumulation employing heat, mass, and momentum transfer theories for the particle-gas system | \n
Teng [59] | \n\n
| \n\n\n \n\n | \n\n
| \nGood agreement observed | \nSemiempirical model that predicts cooler effectiveness degradation and pressure drop over fouled EGR coolers | \n
Mehravaran and Brereton [60] | \n\n
| \n\n\n \n\n \n\n | \nDeposit thickness | \nGood conformity with literature results | \nPrediction of soot layer formation based on existing experimental and numerical observations | \n
Reza Razmavar and Reza Malayeri [61] | \n\n
| \n\n\n \n\n | \n\n
| \nGood agreement observed | \nAnalysis of soot particle deposition and three potential removal mechanisms | \n
Sul et al. [62] | \n\n
| \n\n\n \n\n | \n\n
| \nGood correspondence | \nSimulation of EGR cooler fouling considering thermophoretic equation and an empirically derived removal function | \n
Kuan et al. [63] | \n\n
| \n\n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n | \n\n
| \nClose agreement observed | \nPrediction of the long-term fouling behavior of EGR coolers on a medium-duty diesel engine for steady-state conditions | \n
Warey et al. [64] | \n\n
| \n\n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n | \n\n
| \nReasonably good agreement | \nCalculation of soot deposition, soot removal, and condensation of several HC species in a circular tube with turbulent gas flow at constant wall temperature | \n
1-D models.
The 1-D models included in the first group are exclusively focused on the analysis of the condensation mechanisms that occur inside the exhaust system. When the temperature of the EGR line drops below the dew point of the condensable species, the condensate—made up of water, HC, and acids—appears. This condensate interacts with the soot-deposited particles, modifying the physical structure of the fouling, and it may corrode the walls of the heat exchanger when the acid amount is high enough.
\nOn the one hand, when the fuel sulfur content is rather high, the detection of the sulfuric acid condensation becomes relevant, and, in this field, McKinley et al. [52] proposed a 1-D model that predicts the condensation of the acid. This numerical approach allows to compute the sulfuric acid dew point considering the coolant temperature, the concentration of the acid, and the engine operating point. The acid condensation rate is calculated assuming that condensate is formed due to direct condensation on the wall and due to formation in a portion of the boundary layer. In addition, the model estimates the condensate composition inside the EGR cooler, taking into account the sulfuric acid and water vapor condensation fluxes. All of these parameters allow the analysis and detection of the sulfuric acid condensation inside the EGR cooler, and, although this is an unvalidated model, it represents an essential step in understanding the effects of the acid condensation on the fouling process.
\nOn the other hand, during the starting of a cold engine—in the first few hundred seconds—the water condensation and evaporation can interact with the existing deposit on the EGR cooler walls and can alter the normal functioning of other exhaust after-treatment devices, such as the catalyst. Although it is a process that occurs mainly during the first few seconds of an engine service, it can cause a severe effect on the deposit evolution. Within this framework, Sharma et al. [53] proposed a 1-D model that simulates the condensation and evaporation of water inside the exhaust line. This is a mathematical model that computes the condensation and evaporation rate of water and that calculates the gas flow temperature considering the heat transfer due to phase change processes. The model provides more accurate simulations of the evolution of the temperature of the gas flow than previous models that do not consider the effect of water condensation and evaporation, and it was validated with experimental results, achieving a high level of agreement.
\nThe second group is formed by the 1-D models that investigate the fouling layer formation solely by considering the effect of soot particle deposition mechanisms. For the sake of simplicity, these numerical approaches intend to compute the fouling buildup taking into account only the effect of particulate matter deposition mechanisms, neglecting both the removal mechanisms and the presence of hydrocarbon and water condensates. These simplified models are based on the assumption that thermophoretic effect is three to four orders of magnitude bigger than other deposition mechanisms, and during the first stages of the deposit growth, the removal of particles does not take place [65].
\nThe investigations of B. Ismail [54] and Abarham et al. [55], which proposed 1-D models that investigate the soot deposit evolution considering only the effect of particulate matter deposition mechanisms, are included in this category.
\nIsmail [54] developed a simplified model, based on two-phase gas-particle conservation equations, which simulates the heat transfer, pressure drop, and soot deposition in EGR cooling devices. This model takes into consideration the particle transport due to the effect of diffusion and thermophoresis and employs a quasi-steady-state formulation that computes the incremental deposited layer thickness along the heat exchanger. It allows the prediction of the change in soot layer thickness, the evolution of the temperature at the outlet of the heat exchanger, and the increase in pressure drop across the EGR cooling device. The weak point of this simplified model is that, although it allows the prediction of the main effects of the soot deposit on the cooler performance, its results were not validated with experimental data.
\nIn the same way, the model presented by Abarham et al. [55] permits to simulate the cooler effectiveness degradation and pressure drop along the EGR cooler, taking into account the particulate matter deposition caused by the thermophoretic effect. This numerical approach allows the calculation of the reduction of the cross sectional area of the tube and estimates the evolution of the temperature of the soot layer interface. In this case, the results of this 1-D model were verified using the experimental measurements of a controlled EGR cooler fouling test, and, although the predicted values for the EGR cooler effectiveness were in agreement with experimental data, the values expected in pressure drop differed significantly from the experimental measurements.
\nThe analysis of the performance of the models of the second group shows that the simulation of the fouling process solely by considering the deposition mechanisms does not bring about the expected results regarding the evolution of the pressure drop along the EGR cooler. As Abarham et al. [55] detailed, although these simplified 1-D models reproduce the fouling growth yielding positive results, it should be expected that the addition of removal mechanisms may improve the predictive capabilities of these models.
\nIn order to complete the features of the abovementioned numerical approach, Abraham et al. [56] added to their model the simulation of the HC condensation, and this new model belongs to the third group, i.e., the category of 1-D models that take into account both the prediction of the HC condensation and the deposition of soot particles. This numerical approach incorporates, coupling with the soot particle deposition equations, the calculation of the dew point and the total mass flux of HC that condenses and becomes part of the deposit. As their other model, it allows to compute the cooler efficiency degradation and the pressure drop evolution neglecting the changes in the physical structure and the chemical reactions that occur in the fouling layer due to the presence of condensate.
\nDespite the fact that another mechanism was added to the model, the comparison between experimental data and the results of the new model showed a certain mismatch. Although the predicted cooler effectiveness degradation was in agreement with the experimental measurements, the calculated pressure drop continued to display certain differences with the experimental data, and no improvements were seen in this field.
\nThe fourth category comprises the higher number of 1-D numerical approaches, and it covers those models that, in addition to simulating the particulate matter deposition, also discuss the removal mechanisms. Following the assumption of Kern and Seaton [66], which determined that the net growth of the fouling layer depends on two opposing simultaneous processes of deposition and removal, the models of this category recreate the effects of the fouling deposit on the EGR cooler performance.
\nThe models proposed by Teng and Regner [57, 58], Teng [59], Mehravaran and Brereton [60], Reza Razmavar and Reza Malayeri [61], Sul et al. [62], and Kuan et al. [63] belong to this fourth category. These models compute the deterioration of the heat exchanger effectiveness caused by the fouling layer growth and calculate the increase in pressure drop along the device.
\nOn the one hand, with regard to the particle deposition process, thermophoresis is, in the majority of cases, the only referred deposition mechanism. Although some of these numerical approaches take into consideration the deposition of particulate matter due both to diffusion and thermophoretic effect, such as the model of Mehravaran and Brereton [60], the simulation of the deposition phenomenon of the remaining models is, on an exclusive basis, the calculation of the thermophoretic coefficient.
\nOn the other hand, the removal of soot particles from the deposit is computed using different methodologies. One of these is based on the simulation of the different mechanisms that produce the erosion of the particles, i.e., calculating the physical phenomena that is potentially responsible for the removal of deposited particles. This physical approach, as used by Reza Razmavar and Reza Malayeri [61], simulates removal mechanisms such as the shear force, the effect of incident particle impact, or the particle rolling, allowing to estimate the gas maximum critical velocity to compute the particle removal flux. The other removal approach is quite different, and it is based on empirically derived removal functions that allow the estimation of the removal trend. In this removal approach, as the one proposed by Sul et al. [62], the equation that computes the removal rate is a function of different parameters, such as the deposit thickness, the temperature, or the pressure drop, and it was derived from the data of experimental tests that cover a wide range of fouling conditions.
\nAll numerical models of this fourth category were validated with experimental data. The evolution of the overall parameters of the EGR cooler undergoing a fouling process was compared with the models’ results, and, in general, they were in agreement. Although the lack of detailed information prevents a full appraisal of the performance of each mechanism involved in the process, it may be concluded that the combination of deposition and removal mechanisms is expected to provide accurate simulations of the fouling process caused by soot particles.
\nFinally, the fifth category of 1-D models covers the numerical approaches that take into consideration the deposition mechanisms, the removal mechanisms, and the condensation of hydrocarbons. In addition to the features of the models of the previous group, the approaches of this category include the simulation of the hydrocarbon condensation, implementing the three phenomena in a comprehensive model.
\nIt is worth stressing that, following the methodology of the previous models, the numerical implementations of this category also assume that the deposit, which is formed by soot particles and condensates, has uniform properties. Although, as has been mentioned, the presence of condensate can alter the physical structure of the deposit changing its properties, the density and thermal conductivity of the modeled fouling layer do not change over time, regardless of the amount of condensate expected.
\nThe model proposed by Warey et al. [64] belongs to this fifth category, and it is able to compute the total mass deposited and the fouling layer resistance over time. The model predictions were validated, and they were in reasonably good agreement with experimental data.
\nAccording to the methodology used to study the fouling process, the multidimensional models can be categorized in five groups, as \nTable 3\n summarizes. The first category covers those numerical studies that analyze the exhaust gas flow and its effects on the deposit formation, neglecting the simulation of any fouling layer inside the heat exchanger. The second group is formed by those models that, using Eulerian–Lagrangian approach, determine the soot particle deposition on the walls of the EGR system. The third group contains those models that, using a species transport modeling approach, compute the condensation of different hydrocarbons. The fourth category includes those models that intend to reproduce the effects of the deposit, modifying the heat exchange properties of the EGR cooler surface. And the fifth group is composed of those investigations that recreate the real growth of the deposit on the walls of the EGR cooler.
\nAuthors | \nMechanisms modeled | \nMain fouling equations | \nParameters analyzed | \nModel—experiment | \nRemarks | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lee and Min [31] | \n— | \n— | \n\n
| \n— | \nAnalysis of the gas phase | \n
Mohammadi and Malayeri [67] | \n— | \n— | \nWall shear stress | \n— | \nStudy of various tube structures that encourage the deposit suppression | \n
Xu et al. [68] | \n\n
| \n\n\n | \n\n
| \nGood conformity with literature results | \nSimulation of soot particle deposition inside a plate-fin heat exchanger | \n
Nagendra et al. [69] | \n\n
| \n\n\n | \n\n
| \nGood conformity with literature results | \nCalculation of soot particle deposition on wavy-fin EGR coolers | \n
Yang et al. [70] | \n\n
| \n\n\n | \n\n
| \nClose agreement observed with literature results | \nPrediction of condensation of water vapor, sulfuric acid, and nitric acid formed in the exhaust gases of diesel engines | \n
Gonçalves Guedes [71] | \n\n
| \n\n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n | \n\n
| \nDifferences observed with data from literature | \nEvaluation of temperature evolution inside a cooler, changing the dependence of the deposit thermal conductivity | \n
Paz et al. [72] | \n\n
| \n\n\n \n\n \n\n | \n\n
| \nGood agreement observed | \nSimulation of the real depth of the fouling layer and its effects on the hydrodynamic of the flow | \n
Abarham et al. [73] | \n\n
| \n\n\n | \n\n
| \nGood agreement observed | \n2-D axisymmetric model that computes the growth of the deposit using dynamic grids | \n
Paz et al. [74] | \n\n
| \n\n\n | \nDeposit thickness | \n— | \n3-D model that computes the fouling layer evolution, considering the movement of the fouling-gas interface | \n
Paz et al. [75] | \n\n
| \n\n\n \n\n | \n\n
| \nGood agreement observed | \nDetailed experimental validation of the local fouling thickness | \n
Paz et al. [76] | \n\n
| \n\n\n \n\n | \n\n
| \nGood conformity with literature results | \nCalculation of the HC condensation process considering local scale effects | \n
Multidimensional models.
The multidimensional models included in the first category are focused on the analysis of the exhaust gas flow to assess how changes in heat exchanger shape characteristics can reduce or minimize the fouling layer formation. Knowing that, in most cases, the removal process is caused by shear force, these numerical simulations intend on determining which EGR surface structures increase the shear stress and, thus, lead to an effective deposit suppression. Analyzing different parameters, such as the wall shear stress, the velocity field, or the temperature profile along the EGR cooler, these models intend to determine the fouling propensity of several heat exchanger configurations, as Lee and Min [31] and Mohammadi and Malayeri [67] shown.
\nSince, in the majority of cases, these models are single-phase numerical simulations, where only the gas flow is taken into consideration, the simplicity of these models allow a detailed examination of all the gas parameters involved in the fouling process. Therefore, they provide an exhaustive examination of the gas variables that can be induced or reduce the fouling layer growth. By contrast, these numerical approaches do not bring any information about the fouling mechanisms. They do not provide the estimation of deposited particulate matter, the number of removed particles, or the amount of condensate that will be generated. For this reason, although these models give an initial estimation of the fouling phenomenon, they have a limited scope of application.
\nThe second category is formed by those models that reproduce the soot particle deposition using an Eulerian-Lagrangian approach. Employing the Lagrangian framework, these models track the trajectory of each soot particle in order to determine the regions where they can be deposited. Computing the particle transport equation, which takes into consideration the forces of the gas flow acting on a single particle, these numerical approaches determine the movement of the particulate matter inside the EGR cooler. Considering different soot particle diameters, these models offer an in-depth analysis of the particle deposition and allow the computing of the deposition efficiency inside different EGR cooler configurations.
\nJust like the models of the previous group, which only analyze the gas phase, the numerical approaches of this category do not provide any information about the growth and evolution of the fouling deposit, and, although they give relevant data about the regions where deposition will occur, they do not reproduce the interaction between the soot deposit and the exhaust gas flow.
\nThe models proposed by Xu et al. [68] and Nagendra et al. [69] use this technique in order to compute the submicron particle deposition inside plate-and-fin heat exchangers. They evaluated the particle deposition under different boundary conditions and validated their results, achieving a good agreement with the experimental measurements taken from literature.
\nThe third category includes the multidimensional models that use the species transport modeling approach to compute the condensation of different condensable species. Considering convection, diffusion, or even the chemical reactions that take place in the exhaust gas mixture, these numerical approaches compute the partial pressure of each species to determine their dew temperature. The corresponding condensation flux is calculated in the presence of non-condensable gases, and the thin liquid film of condensate that appears on the walls of the heat exchanger is simulated.
\nAn example that uses this modeling approach is the study proposed by Yang et al. [70]. In order to estimate the corrosion inside the EGR system of heavy-duty trucks, they developed a numerical technique that determines the condensation of nitric and sulfuric acid. The model allows the carrying out of three-dimensional simulations, computes the heat and mass transfer processes, and calculates the amount of condensate formed on the heat exchanger walls. Using the Ansys Fluent CFD code, it computes the condensation flux of water vapor, sulfuric acid, and nitric acid, providing results under different operating conditions. Results of this numerical approach were validated, and they were in close agreement with the data from literature.
\nThese kinds of models are based solely on the study of the condensation of acid and hydrocarbon species, generating detailed reports about the condensation process and neglecting the study of the particulate matter deposition and removal processes that occur along the EGR system. For this reason, they are suitable means to find the regions where acid condensation takes place and to detect the zones of the EGR system where corrosion problems may occur.
\nThe fourth category is formed by the numerical models that reproduce the effects of the fouling layer, modifying the heat exchange properties of the wall. Computing the fouling thermal resistance that opposes the cooling of the flow, these numerical approaches allow the simulation of the evolution of the temperature of the gas flow inside the EGR cooler. After resolving the exhaust gas flow inside the EGR cooler, the model calculates the thickness of a virtual fouling layer and adjusts the thermal resistance of the heat exchanger surface, achieving a steady-state solution of the temperature field.
\nChanging the properties of the virtual fouling layer according to the computed deposit thickness, these models, as the evaluated in the study of Gonçalves Guedes [66], allow the simulation of the evolution of the exhaust gas temperature. However, their main disadvantage is that they provide poor results in the calculation of different parameters, such as the pressure drop along the heat exchanger, because they avoid the simulation of the real growth of the fouling layer inside the tube. That is why employing these models, the simulation of the changes in the hydrodynamics of the exhaust gas flow caused by the fouling layer and the local parameters of the deposit cannot be estimated reliably.
\nFinally, the models of the fifth category intend to recreate the real growth of the deposit on the walls of the EGR cooler. To that end, they simulate the movement of the fouling-gas interface, after computing the nonuniform thickness of the deposit. Thus, taking into consideration the local-scale effects involved in the fouling phenomenon, these numerical approaches reproduce the real formation of the fouling deposit on the heat exchanger walls, causing the reduction of the cross-sectional area of the tube.
\nAccording to the methodology used, the numerical models of this fifth group can be divided into two subcategories: those that convert fluid cells into solid cells and those that use the dynamic mesh methodology to recreate the growth of the fouling layer.
\nOn the one hand, the first subcategory includes those models that, to simulate the growth of the deposit, transform the fluid cells of the domain into fouling cells, as \nFigure 6a\n illustrates. When the thickness of the fouling layer is larger than the height of the fluid cell, this is converted into a solid cell, and it becomes part of the fouling layer domain. These numerical approaches, as the proposed by Paz et al. [72], couple the gas flow solution and the fouling layer growth and provide a local final thickness of the deposit considering the hydrodynamics of the flow.
\nScheme of the fouling growth: (a) converting fluid cells into solid cells and (b) using the dynamic mesh methodology.
On the other hand, to recreate the fouling layer growth, the models of the second subcategory employ the dynamic mesh methodology, as the 2-D axisymmetric model proposed by Abarham et al. [73] or the 3-D model proposed by Paz et al. [74, 75, 76]. After the fouling thickness calculation, these numerical approaches adjust the thickness of the deposit moving the fouling-fluid interface, as \nFigure 6b\n shows. At every time-step of the simulation, they estimate the position of the nodes of the mesh and update the fouling layer domain, allowing the possibility to determine the deposit growth evolution.
\nAs \nFigure 7\n shows, the main advantage of these numerical approaches is that they simulate the evolution of the fouling layer in a local manner. Considering the local properties of the exhaust gas flow and taking into account the mechanisms involved in the fouling process, they provide a comprehensive solution of the fouling layer and recreate its real growth inside the heat exchanger. In contrast, these kinds of models have higher computational costs than other multidimensional models, and, although they provide detailed information about the fouling phenomenon, they demand more computational resources.
\nFouling thickness computed using dynamic mesh methodology.
This chapter compiles and analyzes the main numerical approaches that have been proposed to predict and reproduce the fouling phenomenon that takes place inside the EGR system. Features of each option, its range of applicability, as well as their main strengths and weaknesses have been highlighted. The fouling prediction capabilities of each numerical approach have been analyzed in detail with the aim of reviewing the most relevant numerical approaches used in the study of the fouling process that occurs in the EGR system.
\nThe stringent construction requirements of new EGR technologies and the development of new numerical techniques, and more particularly the use of computational fluid dynamics codes, have contributed to the creation of more sophisticated models that allow the simulation of the fouling phenomenon considering a large number of parameters and mechanisms. Nevertheless, the simulation of the deposit formation and evolution involves intricate matters, such as the particle-fluid interaction, agglomerate formation, or the physicochemical reactions that take place inside the deposit, which make the fouling process a complex phenomenon that needs to be addressed coherently across all its parameters.
\nThe information and knowledge about the numerical modeling of the fouling process in the EGR system collected in this study may help EGR designers and manufactures to improve and develop new vehicle emissions control techniques, which contribute to meet the Sustainable Development Goals.
\nThe authors are grateful for the financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness through the ENE2017-87855-R project.
\n\n zero-dimensional one-dimensional two-dimensional three-dimensional surface area Antoine coefficient Antoine coefficient Antoine coefficient soot concentration constant coefficients computational fluid dynamics Stokes-Cunningham slip correction factor drag coefficient thermophoretic constant thermophoretic constant thermophoretic constant molecular diffusivity tube diameter particle diameter mean effect of velocity and concentration fluctuations diesel oxidation catalyst exhaust gas recirculation Brownian force drag force Saffman lift force thermophoretic force gravitational acceleration dimensional thermophoretic parameter mass transfer coefficient hydrocarbon mass flux mass condensation flux of the ith species proportionality constant cooler structure-related parameter parameter characterizing the dispersion of the soot particles removed from the deposit condensation rate constant evaporation rate constant overall pressure loss factor fouling layer thermal conductivity mass transfer coefficient gas thermal conductivity Knudsen number particulate matter thermal conductivity thermophoretic coefficient lean NOx trap mass mass flow molecular weight nitrogen oxides pressure of the gas flow vapor pressure of the ith species saturation pressure vapor pressure particulate matter condensation rate evaporation rate fouling resistance particles’ Reynolds number selective catalytic reduction sustainable development goals particle sticking probability gas temperature surface temperature mean velocity critical velocity friction velocity isothermal deposition velocity dimensionless isothermal deposition velocity thermophoretic deposition velocity dimensionless thermophoretic deposition velocity dimensionless removal velocity gas velocity particle velocity time average velocity vector drift velocity due to diffusion gravitational drift velocity drift velocity due to inertial impaction thermophoretic drift velocity particle mass fraction mole fraction of the ith species mole fraction of vapor at interface mole fraction of vapor in bulk mixture mass fraction of the ith species deposit thickness liquid film thickness deposition efficiency fractional surface coverage of water gas dynamic viscosity gas kinematic viscosity kinematic viscosity of the liquid film fouling density gas density liquid-gas interface shear stress particle relaxation time dimensionless particle relaxation time wall shear stress normalized wall shear stress surface bonding force strength of deposit
Chronic fatigue syndrome is a condition of unknown aetiology that commonly follows an infective process in young people. There is a new onset of fatigue for at least 3–6 months that is not relieved by rest and not explained by other medical conditions. Post-exertional malaise, cognitive difficulties and unrefreshing sleep are present. In addition, a variety of somatic symptoms are commonly present such as headache, abdominal or muscle pain, as well as flu-like symptoms without fever, and symptoms associated with orthostatic intolerance [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. The key features and symptom patterns in young people have remained consistent [6, 7, 8, 9]. Anxiety and depression may also be present but when compared with population levels, were only mildly increased in prevalence, and generally did not precede the illness. They were understandably associated with diagnosis delay, not being believed or social isolation [8, 10].
There is currently no defined treatment, as the underlying pathology is not well understood [11]. Similarly, there are no known predictors for recovery [10]. When this illness occurs during childhood and adolescence, it is at a period of significant developmental changes. In those that report recovery, the duration of illness has mean of 5 years and range 1–16 years [10]. With long-term follow-up, there is a significant proportion that does not report recovery [10, 12, 13]. There is disruption to their educational, social and physical activities, which create huge challenges for the young people and their families [14, 15]. It is the commonest cause of reduced time at school [16, 17], and has a significant impact on educational functioning [18]. Hence, in addition to managing symptoms, strategies for coping with this chronic illness and its impact on the young person and the family have been central to its management in this clinic [10]. Although there are other chronic illnesses during childhood and adolescence that have physical, emotional, cognitive or educational impacts [19, 20, 21, 22, 23], this illness does affect all these areas. Neglecting these aspects can compound the effect of the illness, and impact on the developmental tasks of adolescence or the transition to or from adolescence. Parents have a role in helping navigate these tasks, as well as trying to manage a child who is unwell [19, 20].
This chapter will outline the management strategies that have been employed in an outpatient setting that have been guided by feedback from young people over a period of more than 25 years; a description of the development since 2012 of an intensive self-management program for those who need additional assistance; and observations about characteristics of participants in the program and their reasons for referral.
The Royal Children’s Hospital is a specialised secondary and tertiary referral paediatric and adolescent hospital that services metropolitan Melbourne and all rural areas for the state of Victoria including bordering areas in neighbouring states. Furthest distances require 4–5 h of car travel. Referrals are received from family doctors or from specialist paediatricians. Victoria has a population of 6.3 million and is multicultural. There is a universal health system that ensures citizens can access health care free of charge to the family. There is also a private health system that can provide partially subsidised health and allied health care.
The CFS clinic has been functioning since 1989. In the early years of the clinic the Holmes definition and Fukuda criteria for CFS were available [2, 3, 21]. However, acceptance of the diagnosis in young people was uncommon in the medical fraternity. It was well recognised that Epstein Barr Virus (EBV) infection (or glandular fever) could run a prolonged course during adolescence. Irrespective of whether EBV was confirmed, it was assumed in some cases, that this was the cause of these symptoms. Alternative explanations that were entertained were depression, stress, school refusal or somatisation disorder or the possibility of undisclosed family difficulties. Parents who were anxious due to concern about the unexplained change in the young person were often considered to be contributing to their illness. Hence many who attended the clinic had experienced unsatisfying encounters with the medical profession.
The reported symptoms were very consistent among the young people attending. The presence of post-exertional malaise (PEM), unrefreshing sleep, cognitive difficulties, persistent fatigue and pain (headache, muscle, abdominal) were all almost universally reported. Sore throats and lymph nodes, feeling hot and cold and symptoms later recognised as associated with orthostatic intolerance were very common. These symptoms were consistently reported even though at the time there was no access to this information in the public arena.
Although the intravenous immunoglobulin trial in young people appeared a promising treatment [22], trials in adults were inconclusive [23, 24, 25], and approval was not granted for its use. Thus options for treatment reverted to general management strategies for chronic illness. We relied on feedback from young people to inform us regarding what was helpful in their management. The service has since expanded to several paediatricians and access to a 4-week self-management program run by the Victorian Paediatric Rehabilitation Service at the hospital.
A diagnosis of CFS is made following an extensive history, to confirm the presence of key symptoms, examination and routine investigations to exclude alternative diagnoses. These symptoms include PEM, unrefreshing sleep and cognitive symptoms as well as additional somatic symptoms [15]. Other conditions including school refusal, somatisation disorder, eating disorders, isolated significant depression or anxiety, connective tissue disorders, coeliac disease or endocrine disorders are specifically checked. An adolescent psychosocial (HEADSS) screen is also conducted where appropriate [26]. Passive standing test was not routinely performed initially. However, upon recognition of the association of orthostatic intolerance with ME/CFS this assessment was included [1].
Routine screening investigations included coeliac screen, thyroid function and antinuclear antibody. Serology for EBV or cytomegalovirus (CMV) is routinely assessed or if there was any likelihood of overseas or tropical infections or if the young person had been in areas where Ross River Virus, Q fever (Coxiella burnetti), Barmah forest virus were endemic, serology for exposure is also checked.
Following diagnosis, the young person is asked to: rate the most troublesome symptom/s that he/she would like help with; outline his/her aspirations prior to illness; describe current school attendance, interests, and previous participation in sport, the family situation and supports including parental work schedule, and means of transport to school or activities. The young person is provided with a brief explanation of our current knowledge, a plan for managing the most severe symptoms, and an outline of a management plan that the young person would devise.
The rationale for the management plan is to minimise the impact of chronic illness while accommodating the specific issues associated with CFS. As CFS affects the educational, physical, social and emotional aspects of their life, it is considered important to not neglect any of these areas. This should include some proactive social contact, academic input, physical activity and a commitment to attend something enjoyable outside of home on a regular basis. None of these activities is to be neglected but the proportion does not have to be equal. The plan needs to be sustainable for at least a month before it is reviewed. For example, some physical activity is required to prevent becoming so de-conditioned that they are unsure whether they are weak and fatigued because they are unwell or because muscles are not being used. Social contact is important to ensure that the social learning that occurs during adolescence (how to respond in different situations, what behaviour is acceptable and how to interpret different social situations and how to understand one’s peers) is not neglected. It can be very daunting later when it is expected that these skills have been acquired. Academic engagement is important so that they feel that their life chances have not been destroyed. The regular enjoyable activity outside of home is something that they have chosen to attend because it is ‘worth it’ and will not result in a prolonged recovery. It removes any prevarication regarding whether they feel well enough, whether they would cope or whether it would be easier not to go. Only if they are unable to move out of bed do they not attend. This hopefully prevents the reluctance to make decisions, to be adventurous or to be reliable.
In addition, young people generally have not had to learn to prioritise their activities during their teenage years but it is needed as developing adults. It is explained that they need to learn this much earlier than most and it is a very useful skill to acquire. Some activities, for example, attending school for an enjoyable subject could fulfil social, academic and enjoyable activities and also require some physical activity. If their important social network was outside of school then there needed to be an effort to engage with that group for a period of time that was manageable. If some young people felt that ‘life was not worth living’ if they could not play sport, as this was their main social connection, then adjustments could be made. They could be part of the team by ‘coming off the bench’ for a few minutes or not being required to actively train. They could be moved to a team position that did not require a lot of stamina. On the other hand, for some, physical activity may be a few activities of daily living spaced over the day, or once they are able to do some activity and have increased their strength, they often chose a variety of activities that they enjoy.
Their aspirations (prior to becoming unwell) play a key role in the decisions regarding their education. Attending school for set hours, rather than for specific subjects is difficult to sustain. Reduction in the school subject load to include subjects and teachers they liked, as well as subjects that are pre-requisites for what they want to do as a career is crucial. Trying to keep up with all subjects when only given minimal information is a source of unnecessary stress, and this rarely succeeds. A planned timetable ensures that the arrangements provide some consistency and predictability for the family (and for the teaching staff) and be manageable for the young person. If the symptoms are severe, the extent of ‘academic input’ may be reduced to reading about a hobby or reading a story that they are already familiar with.
It is explained to the young person that these consequences of illness can be more damaging than the illness itself and can occur with any chronic illness. Neglecting these areas creates significant hurdles to recovery such as: navigating social anxiety and social learning; entering the workforce without a potentially enjoyable, satisfying or more lucrative, less physically demanding job; needing to increase strength, or not having the confidence or resilience to know how they are able to manage their life. The young person is asked to estimate how they can balance these tasks within the bounds of the amount of energy available over the period of a week. The young people make those decisions over the subsequent few weeks and discuss their plan with their parents.
Only the most severe one or two symptoms are treated initially. Often treating one symptom such as sleep disturbance, and allowing them to take control of their life with the management plan reduces the severity of some of the other troublesome symptoms. Despite the prominent fatigue, malaise and concentration difficulties, the complaints of headache and sleep disturbance or dizziness and nausea due to orthostatic intolerance, can often be managed effectively.
Difficulties with sleep initiation, sleep phase shift, frequent waking and disturbing nightmares are actively managed with sleep hygiene techniques and melatonin or low dose tricyclic medications such as dothiepin or amitriptyline. Simple migraine prophylactic medications such as pizotifen or periactin are anecdotally effective in reducing the severity of headache. Simple measures such as increasing salt and fluid intake, including electrolyte drinks, and encouraging lower limb exercises and gentle exercise can assist with orthostatic intolerance. Similarly, muscle pain and fibromyalgia can be helped by reducing sleep disturbance and encouraging gentle exercise or physical therapy.
Residual difficulties with concentration, recognition of depression, persistent severe dysmenorrhoea associated with exacerbation of CFS symptoms, ongoing nausea, abdominal discomfort or persistent orthostatic symptoms are usually addressed after review and the implementation of the management plan.
A 6-week follow up appointment is usually scheduled for review of their plan and whether the logistics are sustainable. Residual symptoms are checked including whether the symptom management is appropriate. Any further queries from the young person are addressed. Once a decision had been made regarding the schedule for education, appropriate explanation, documentation, advocacy, extra support, special provision or special consideration is provided or requested. A specific education program to ensure maximum possible opportunity to participate is therefore implemented. Sometimes this requires a combination of Distance Education and school attendance for 1–2 subjects, or attendance for a few classes with visiting teacher assistance. If necessary, the minimum requirements are negotiated to ensure the year level is passed so that they can progress with their peers. Additional details regarding educational strategies used by the Visiting Teacher Service have been documented [27]. If adjustments to sport schedules are required, these are provided and coaches and staff are usually very accommodating once they understand the reasons for the requests.
Generally 3-monthly reviews are arranged to assess progress, educational issues, symptom management and review of goals. Young people are seen more frequently if necessary. Occasionally young people are followed up by a local paediatrician.
In addition, parents often need help navigating the difficult adolescent period and uncertainties regarding assisting with the tasks of adolescent development in the context a chronic illness that is generally not well understood. The developmental tasks (19) of adolescence may fail to progress during the illness and may need to be addressed during management, or time allowed for some catch up when the young person is well enough. Such tasks can be difficult for any parent to navigate but even more difficult when the young person is clearly unwell and not able to manage some simple activities of daily living.
These tasks include increasing sense of independence and responsibility for their actions, peer relationships, sexual identity and development, assessment of risk, sense of self-worth and hope for the future. Persistent dependence, uncertainty about what is required, social anxiety and withdrawal, extreme caution in making decisions, poor self-esteem and depression regarding the future can be the consequence of the limitations imposed by chronic illness. Parents are not sure if they should be defending, protecting and trusting the young person’s judgement or cajoling, setting limits and allowing the young person to make mistakes. Many parents put their life ‘on hold’ to care for the young person with the attendant complications for the whole family, and this often adds significant stressors. For many young people, doing some small chores that do not require much effort is important in order to be part of the family and reduce tensions with siblings.
For younger patients, there are concerns regarding persistent dependence on parents, and anxiety regarding the illness, such as concerns about what was actually wrong and whether there would be recovery. They worry about managing at school, as well as social anxiety when they are absent from their social network for some time. There may also be depression and a sense of helplessness and powerlessness, especially if some family members, the medical profession or teachers do not understand. In addition, the transition into adolescence and secondary school is exacerbated when they are not able to attend frequently enough to engage socially.
Feedback from young people regarding their management was sought on many occasions over the years and has been reported in detail [28]. This feedback modified management. Feedback affirmed that being believed by the clinician, family and school staff and feeling as if they had an advocate to help them navigate the education system were central to their overall ability to cope and their general well-being. Having a management framework within which they could organise their priorities was seen as key to feeling as if they could have some control over their life again. Of note, assistance with being able to continue with education was valued as important as their medical management. Continuing social engagement as part of their self-management was crucial for continuing social learning. For those where outpatient support has not been sufficient, there is now access to a 4-week intensive self-management program.
In 2012, the Victorian Paediatric Rehabilitation Service (VPRS) at the RCH in Melbourne commenced multidisciplinary management of adolescents with CFS. This followed a state government review of services available for young people with CFS, and the recognition that outpatient services required additional support and a more coordinated approach. A systematic review by Knight et al. [29], of the limited literature available on paediatric interventions, indicated some support for cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) and limited support for multidisciplinary intervention. However, the quality of these studies, did not allow firm conclusions to be drawn.
Thus it was decided that the new program would have a CBT framework, be goal-focused and strongly encourage self-management. Following ongoing evaluation and feedback, it was noted that some aspects continued to work well, while others needed modification. With the implication that there is no known ‘cure’, there needed to be a change in approach from the typical rehabilitation aim of assisting with the reduction of suffering as the sole focus. Feedback from families and participants found this approach to be disempowering. This ensured that, rather than being viewed as an illness to be endured it could be a more hopeful, dynamic and positive process. Recovery was possible and at the very least, there could be an improvement in functioning and some participation in important stages of adolescent development.
In the early years of the program, there was minimal involvement of families in program sessions, with the focus solely on the young person and engaging them in self-management. There was some inflexibility and a more rigid approach where all participants were encouraged to engage in activity on non-program days with little individualization of the program. Often participants were too exhausted at the end of relatively long therapy days to convey to parents what they were keen to practise and how they needed to be supported at home. This resulted in confusion within families about plans and expectations on non-program days, repetition of the same information to multiple people and reduced understanding by parents of the clinical reasoning behind the program. This was an unfortunate approach and much was learnt from patients and families at this time. More flexible, individualised guidance in setting up a management plan was preferred. It allowed for flexibility, review and adjustment when progress occurred. It was noted that family involvement was required to improve participant engagement and successful carryover of effects after the program.
In addition, increasing recognition of the association of postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS) in the referrals required a change in the focus of exercise therapy within the program. Cardiologists became an important part of the medical management alongside the CFS medical team.
The aim is to encourage ongoing, self-directed learning and management of the illness, so that participants and families have the strategies and confidence to reduce the chaos, uncertainty and loss that underpins living with CFS during adolescence. They are encouraged to re-engage in key areas of life that have been neglected or problematic.
The VPRS CFS Self-Management Program runs for 3 days per week, for a 4-week period and is located in an outpatient setting within the hospital. Four staff, an occupational therapist, a physiotherapist, an education consultant and a clinical psychologist provide interdisciplinary care. Each therapist covers 2 days of the 3-day program. They also meet weekly with referring doctors to discuss participant progress.
A typical day is runs from 9.30 am to 3 pm. Each participant identifies his or her own goals and these are used to establish a framework to work within over the 4 weeks. They continue to work with this framework after the program.
The program is structured around individual and group sessions. The structure of the sessions allows for key content to be explored and built on over the weeks. During the non-program days (two weekdays and the weekend) they are encouraged to practise and to implement what they have learned. Participants are encouraged to be open-minded and to consider new ways of looking at and living their life.
For many participants and families it is an enormous undertaking to attend the program. It varies how feasible it is to practise new skills on non-program days. For most, the opportunity to try out new activities and routines in a considered, modified way is attainable. For some, however, the goal is to engage during program days, learn the theory and skills within the three-day structure and have quiet days in between. Much of the practising then occurs post-program when they can spread their energy availability over a week at a less intense pace. This approach is flexible, individualised and sustainable as they learn self-management tools that continue well beyond the four-week program.
Participant inclusion criteria used by referring doctors from the CFS Outpatient Clinic is as follows:
10–18 years of age.
CFS is the primary diagnosis and the patient accepts this.
Display motivation to engage in the intensive nature of the program.
Enrolment in education.
Physically able to manage 3 days per week of engagement for 4 weeks without significantly worsening their symptoms as a typical program day requires participants to walk approximately 700 m to access the treatment areas from the hospital entrance.
Tried doctor-led outpatient guidance in the first instance.
Stable mental health
This assessment consists of a 45-min psychology assessment, 45-min education assessment and a combined 90-min occupational therapy and physiotherapy assessment. The patient attends the assessment with at least one parent or guardian present. In addition to detailed assessment about CFS, there is exploration of the young person’s motivation to participate in a group program setting and their attitudes and beliefs about CFS are recorded. This is to ensure a group program is a suitable ‘fit’ for the young person. The philosophy and structure of the intervention is explained and goal setting is completed.
We have also noted that if any of the above criteria are not met, the likelihood of positive engagement is poor. In particular, where motivation to participate is parent rather than patient led or if CFS is not the primary diagnosis, the group dynamic is affected.
It is clear that the intensive program is not suitable for all young people with CFS. Those who are unable to attend the program in person for all the required days without significant worsening of symptoms are not appropriate. These patients are encouraged to continue with the doctor-led outpatient guidance in conjunction with a physical therapist that can provide therapy in time frames and intensities that are a better fit for the patient.
Currently the program is moving towards offering pre-program conditioning and guidance to streamline the process of starting a program so that many months are not spent with the young person in limbo.
Outcome measures are completed at initial assessment, 6 weeks post-program and 6 months post-program. The current outcome measures are:
Canadian Occupational Performance Measure (COPM) [30]
Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) [31]
Physical measures—Day 1 sub maximal treadmill test and plank hold
School attendance
From 2012 to 2018, the psychological measure was the Beck Youth Inventories measure [32].
The VPRS therapy team meet post-assessment to discuss findings. Provided the patient meets inclusion criteria and the family are keen to participate, an offer is made to participate in an upcoming program. The wait list is usually 2–4 months. If either the family or the VPRS therapists do not feel the 4-week intensive program is an appropriate match for the family, alternatives in the community are explored. We have found that these alternative options are particularly appropriate in cases where families find it too difficult to be at the hospital for the required time due to work, sibling needs or their own health issues.
In addition, as several participants are in each program, every effort is made to match participants based on age, educational stage and likely group dynamic and, to a lesser extent, current function and engagement in life.
Program information is emailed to families soon after an offer is made. This information includes logistics as well as a proposed timetable so that families can forward plan. A blank activity record is also sent to be completed the week prior to the program so that the therapy team have a current record of how the participant is spending each day with regard to sleep, activity, social contact and study.
To give participants the smoothest transition to the program and ultimately an effective intervention, a VPRS therapist via telephone, or in person, conducts a pre-program readiness interview, in the 2 weeks prior to the program. The previously identified program goals are clarified and changed if requested. It has been noted that without adequate time to prepare mentally and physically for the program, it takes longer for participants to settle in and co-operate with the program’s agreed expectations.
Participants work as a group to learn and implement core functional activities of daily living into their weekly schedules. Topics covered include sleep hygiene, balancing activity, leisure, memory and concentration, diet, pacing and energy conservation and setback planning. Participants learn to formulate a weekly planner, where they plan a balanced week of both ‘need to do’ activities and ‘want to do’ activities. This is to ensure that they plan a manageable week in line with their current baselines of their CFS physical and mental capabilities. During the program, participants embark on an outing as a group in order to practise these concepts and strategies, as also planning and cooking a meal to do the same.
Goal setting sets the framework for the program. Goals are revisited regularly and progress tracked. Weekly individual goal review and progression sessions occur with the Physiotherapist and Occupational Therapist. Weekend planning and weekend review sessions, help to build skills of incorporating structure into to daily routines. These are group sessions and peer feedback is encouraged. In the planning sessions participants generate ideas and suggestions of what is helpful to include in weekends. A key feature of weekend planning is to include leisure activities that the young person has previously enjoyed or is keen to participate in. Weekends are also used for practising independence, perhaps in driving lessons with a parent, taking public transport or helping cook a meal. They are also important opportunities for achieving sleep routine consistency and pacing activity. They also provide an opportunity to practise challenging thoughts and to practise mindfulness and clear communication with family and friends.
Educational engagement is once again identified as the most significant part of life affected by CFS. The effects in a young person’s life when school attendance is limited or absent are devastating, affecting self-esteem and mood from social isolation and compromised learning outcomes. Prior to the program the education consultant liaises with participants’ school contacts to establish communication. It has been noted that the variability in school engagement prior to the program improves afterwards with schools taking a much greater interest in learning about CFS and how they can assist the young person to engage in school.
During the 4-week program, eight supervised group-learning sessions occur in the Education Institute Learning Space at the hospital where participants undertake private study and complete activities set by their school. They also apply memory and concentration techniques learnt during the program to assist with concentration, pacing, homework and study management. Four individual consultations provide strategies and recommendations for support upon returning to school. These are discussed with the student, family and school personnel. The education consultant continues to support participants and schools well beyond the program to assist with challenges that inevitably arise.
The participants receive group psychology sessions weekly wherein they learn the following: (1) understanding how CBT can help; (2) monitoring and challenging thoughts; (3) understanding emotions, stress, anxiety and mood; (4) relaxation strategies for stress and anxiety; (5) coping strategies for low mood; (6) building motivation and (7) engaging in assertive communication skills and family conflict management. In addition to this, they receive individual psychological reviews each week. This builds on the group session work and focuses on assisting with interventions for the interaction between CFS symptoms and mental health.
The physical therapy component of the program consists of individualised goal setting and program planning based on the initial assessment. It is refined and revised as the program progresses. There is a group theory component as part of some sessions, covering topics such as chronic pain, Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS) and progressing movement and exercise safely in order to minimise the likelihood of post-exertional malaise.
Post-exertional malaise (exhaustion and malaise after activities, either physical or mental, that previously were tolerated well) is a hallmark feature of CFS. It greatly reduces young people’s ability to participate in physical activity as previously enjoyed.
Early in the program, participants begin an individualised movement program, delivered in either an individual or small group setting. This starts with gentle stretching and strengthening and for those where it is appropriate, short duration cardio activity. Participants and families are actively involved in all decisions regarding types of reconditioning and pathways of progression.
Participants are given a choice of a range of approaches to movement and re-conditioning. They are encouraged to choose activities they have previously enjoyed and would like to incorporate such as shooting goals in basketball outside for a set time with another participant, or completing movements on the pilates reformer machine. Movement tasks are incorporated into weekly plans and are aimed at being meaningful in the young person’s life such as walking 5 min to the local shops to buy ingredients to bake or taking the family pet for a walk around the block. Some participants much prefer this approach while others are more aligned with an athlete rehabilitation approach with more conventional exercise. Careful consideration and monitoring is applied to all patients.
In recent years, a high number of participants have a diagnosis of POTS alongside CFS. These patients need very specific management in physical therapy sessions. POTS symptoms come on with standing and are relieved when becoming supine. Heart rate increases by 40 beats per minute or more and there can be a blood pressure change. Associated autonomic symptoms include sweating and blueness/swelling in the feet. There are often palpitations, fatigue, exercise intolerance, nausea, near syncope, syncope, ‘brain fog’ and chronic pain. Doctors may prescribe medications and the exercise component of treatment is critical.
The physical therapy for these patients has four components:
Psychology support in POTS patients appears to be very helpful, in particular assisting patients coping with the significant heart rate increases and adrenaline released on upright standing. These physical symptoms mimicking anxiety can be confusing for patients, particularly those where anxiety has not previously been present.
Pain is a common symptom in CFS. This can be headaches, joint pain or abdominal pain. Very often these pains do not respond to medication. Sometimes pain is present due to long periods of physical inactivity. For other patients the protective function of pain is no longer serving that purpose and patients may develop a central sensitisation.
The approach taken in the program in the first instance is to ascertain a patient’s concept of pain. Once this has been established, using questioning and simple quizzes, a pain curriculum is developed. While some initial pain theory is covered in the group setting, further exploration of possible contributing factors to the young person’s pain is explored on an individual basis in both physiotherapy and clinical psychology sessions. The treatment approach is based on the work of Lorimer Moseley and David Butler of the Neuro Orthopaedic Institute Australasia [33]. Its focus is on understanding chronic pain as one of many outputs of the brain in response to a range of inputs. It seeks to establish the interactions between the mind, the body and the environment and the complex interaction with the nervous system that occurs.
Patients are reviewed at 6 weeks and 6 months post-program. There is weekly email or telephone contact in the first 6 weeks post-program with a face-to-face review at 6 weeks. Patients and families are able to access ongoing support from the team for advice and direction. There is limited scope to offer therapist face to face sessions beyond the program outside of the scheduled reviews. All patients return to the care of their referring paediatrician post-program.
Feedback is regularly sought from participants—both informally during the program and at follow-up reviews as well as written. More formal feedback has been obtained intermittently. While patients describe learning about pacing, thought challenging and educational tips as being helpful, they overwhelmingly describe meeting other young people in a similar position and feeling like they belong and are supported, as being the most valued part of the program. This often results in participants forming close bonds with each other and many friendships have continued over the years.
As the program is resource intense, and many young people are successfully managed in outpatients, it has been important to attempt to identify which ones need the more concentrated input and access to the multidisciplinary team and when the ideal time is to refer. Approximately 25 complete the program each year. It has been noted that the proportion of males (26%) to females referred to the program reflects the proportion noted over many years of close to 1:3 [10, 15]. However, there was a higher proportion than expected from rural areas. In Victoria, 23% of the population live in the non-metropolitan area, but 42% of participants came from non-metropolitan areas (chi-square 9.19, p < 0.005). Rural regions have less access to local paediatricians, additional educational services such as visiting teachers and specialised allied health support is scarce. There were higher proportions of young people participating in the program during year 9 (28%) and year 11 (24%) compared with the other years between grade 6 and year 12. The year 11 students are in their penultimate year of school prior to university entrance exams and year 9 is recognised as a turbulent year in adolescent social development, and the year after which some decisions on subject choices for future careers need to be made. Hence educational issues were a significant stimulus for the referral.
Of note, 44% admitted to >4 h of screen time (phone, computer, television) per day. This would generally be considered excessive but did reflect those who had been unable to increase their school attendance and who had become more socially isolated. It did also become an increasing problem when gaming was involved as this tended to occur late at night and contribute to day/night reversal of sleep cycle and increasing loss of time from school. A higher proportion of males than females saw this as their only social outlet.
POTS was diagnosed in 78% [1, 15] either coinciding with the onset of CFS following an infection, occurring associated with hyperflexibility and having associated CFS symptoms, or apparently developing after the prolonged bed rest or limited activity associated with their CFS. During recent years this has become better recognised, documented and managed but its management has occupied an increasing proportion of referrals. It has generally been poorly recognised by paediatricians and many allied health providers are unfamiliar with how to help especially in the context of the limited stamina of CFS.
From outpatients, it was noted that early referrals to the program were often not appropriate. Young people and their families needed time to understand the illness, develop some confidence that they could plan an appropriate schedule and sustain it, and have an opportunity to improve some of the more troublesome symptoms, such as sleep disturbance and headache. Frequently simple measures for managing POTS or if these were not sufficient, referral to an appropriate cardiologist was important to improve control. Crucially, having a sustainable school program with understanding from school staff and their peers was central to management. Families also needed time to adjust their schedules to a more balanced and sustainable form to assist the young person.
Hence, those who, although they were attending school, struggled with their weekly schedule and balancing their daily activities such as exercise, sleep, school work and social activities needed additional help. Occasionally the family social circumstances made it difficult to attend school regularly. Teachers who were unsympathetic or peers who did not understand contributed to difficulties at school.
Those who were not attending or managing school work, were often very anxious and increasing screen time contributed to further reduction in school attendance. Many found adjusting to avoiding a boom/bust cycle where they would do too much and then take a long time to recover and be very despondent or angry at these restrictions was a significant problem. They felt they needed more support in planning and adapting.
Only a small proportion of the patients seen in the outpatient clinic are referred to the program. As per the feedback over many years, ability to construct a self-management program and guidance to adapt and sustain progress was highly valued. In addition, assistance with planning sustainable education with school liaison was cited as helpful in allowing them to remain socially engaged and hope that their aspirations were achievable. In essence those referred and reporting benefit from the program where those who needed more support in planning their self-management, more intensive assistance for their POTS but most importantly assistance with their education.
It is clear that as the staff have become more familiar with the illness, and have received feedback that they have incorporated into the program, that the key features that are valued are identical to the feedback the outpatient program has received over the years [10, 28]. Access to physiotherapy especially for the specific management of POTS would make outpatient management easier. An education consultant to liaise with schools is often more acceptable for the school than being approached by a paediatrician, although usually medical documentation and recommendations are required by educational authorities. In addition, the input from a psychologist who has an understanding of the illness and the feelings of anxiety that occurs with POTS as well as the impact chronic illness and disrupted education has on the social and emotional development of a young person can be very helpful. Crucially it is the feeling that they are understood and believed and that they are not the only ones with the illness. Regaining some control over their lives by how they can manage the illness is highly valued.
The majority of young people can be managed in an outpatient setting and availability of some of the expertise such as physiotherapy and an educational consultant would greatly assist in management in that setting. This would then free the more intensive self-management program for young people who could not access allied health, needed more guidance for planning or who needed help for family understanding, cooperation with school or help to understand the mental health issues that may accompany chronic illness and social isolation. The acceptance and linking with other young people with an illness that is poorly understood and accepted, has been invaluable.
The program at RCH will continue in its current form of individualised patient plans within a group setting. Involvement of families in key sessions alongside participants has shown to be the most effective way to encourage carryover of improved engagement in life post-program.
Ongoing feedback from young people and their families as well as research findings continue to inform both the outpatient management and the intensive VPRS program. Increasing interest and understanding from paediatricians and allied health staff can only help by reducing the frustration, delay, misunderstanding and access to services for these young people. Assisting them with symptom management, guidance in devising and implementing a self-management plan and assistance in navigating the education system has reportedly been highly valued. Having the added assistance of a multidisciplinary team and intensive program when aspects of this management were not sufficient has been highly valued.
The frank feedback from the young people regarding their management has been greatly appreciated. The input and support from the team members in the VPRS and the support of A/Prof Adam Scheinberg in setting up and maintaining the program is gratefully acknowledged. There was no external funding for this report.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
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Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Applications of Calorimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c87f7e2199db33b5dd7181f56973a97",slug:"applications-of-calorimetry",bookSignature:"José Luis Rivera Armenta and Cynthia Graciela Flores Hernández",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"677",title:"Soil Fertility",slug:"soil-fertility",parent:{id:"108",title:"Soil Science",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences-soil-science"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:80,numberOfWosCitations:155,numberOfCrossrefCitations:129,numberOfDimensionsCitations:307,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"677",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8017",title:"Organic Fertilizers",subtitle:"History, Production and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c139030955f06869c7b1c5f1ef9a492b",slug:"organic-fertilizers-history-production-and-applications",bookSignature:"Marcelo Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8017.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7305",title:"Biochar",subtitle:"An Imperative Amendment for Soil and the Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b74c8692349d3c499dfe906a9ed7678d",slug:"biochar-an-imperative-amendment-for-soil-and-the-environment",bookSignature:"Vikas Abrol and Peeyush Sharma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7305.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"136230",title:"Dr.",name:"Vikas",middleName:null,surname:"Abrol",slug:"vikas-abrol",fullName:"Vikas Abrol"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7216",title:"Soil Productivity Enhancement",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d752e78a3330dd94f4b1b396c84f57b",slug:"soil-productivity-enhancement",bookSignature:"Roland Nuhu Issaka and Mohammed Moro Buri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7216.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70771",title:"Dr.",name:"Roland Nuhu",middleName:null,surname:"Issaka",slug:"roland-nuhu-issaka",fullName:"Roland Nuhu Issaka"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3405",title:"Soil Fertility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"973d5ff19ea577b90efd08f053948f51",slug:"soil-fertility",bookSignature:"Roland Nuhu Issaka",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3405.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70771",title:"Dr.",name:"Roland Nuhu",middleName:null,surname:"Issaka",slug:"roland-nuhu-issaka",fullName:"Roland Nuhu Issaka"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"893",title:"Soil Fertility Improvement and Integrated Nutrient Management",subtitle:"A Global Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bd5c6e28161b78dd739c3cd2a979092a",slug:"soil-fertility-improvement-and-integrated-nutrient-management-a-global-perspective",bookSignature:"Joann K. Whalen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/893.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"69734",title:"Dr.",name:"Joann",middleName:null,surname:"Whalen",slug:"joann-whalen",fullName:"Joann Whalen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"65070",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82151",title:"Biochar: A Sustainable Approach for Improving Plant Growth and Soil Properties",slug:"biochar-a-sustainable-approach-for-improving-plant-growth-and-soil-properties",totalDownloads:6880,totalCrossrefCites:55,totalDimensionsCites:92,abstract:"Soil is the most important source and an abode for many nutrients and microflora. Due to rapid depletion of agricultural areas and soil quality by means of ever-increasing population and an excessive addition of chemical fertilizers, a rehabilitated attention is a need of the hour to maintain sustainable approaches in agricultural crop production. Biochar is the solid, carbon-rich material obtained by pyrolysis using different biomasses. It has been widely documented in previous studies that, the crop growth and yield can be increased by using biochar. This chapter exclusively summarizes the properties of biochar, its interaction with soil microflora, and its role in plant growth promotion when added to the soil.",book:{id:"7305",slug:"biochar-an-imperative-amendment-for-soil-and-the-environment",title:"Biochar",fullTitle:"Biochar - An Imperative Amendment for Soil and the Environment"},signatures:"Jyoti Rawat, Jyoti Saxena and Pankaj Sanwal",authors:null},{id:"41378",doi:"10.5772/53343",title:"Nutrient balance as paradigm of plant and soil chemometricsNutrient Balance as Paradigm of Soil and Plant Chemometrics",slug:"nutrient-balance-as-paradigm-of-plant-and-soil-chemometricsnutrient-balance-as-paradigm-of-soil-and-",totalDownloads:3460,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"3405",slug:"soil-fertility",title:"Soil Fertility",fullTitle:"Soil Fertility"},signatures:"S.É. Parent, L.E. Parent, D.E. Rozanne, A. Hernandes and W. Natale",authors:[{id:"160864",title:"Prof.",name:"William",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"william-natale",fullName:"William Natale"},{id:"161215",title:"Prof.",name:"Léon Etienne",middleName:null,surname:"Parent",slug:"leon-etienne-parent",fullName:"Léon Etienne Parent"},{id:"161219",title:"Dr.",name:"Serge-Etienne",middleName:null,surname:"Parent",slug:"serge-etienne-parent",fullName:"Serge-Etienne Parent"},{id:"161220",title:"Prof.",name:"Danilo",middleName:null,surname:"Rozane",slug:"danilo-rozane",fullName:"Danilo Rozane"},{id:"161221",title:"Dr.",name:"Amanda",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandes",slug:"amanda-hernandes",fullName:"Amanda Hernandes"},{id:"161223",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel Angelucci",middleName:null,surname:"Amorim",slug:"daniel-angelucci-amorim",fullName:"Daniel Angelucci Amorim"},{id:"161224",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique Antunes",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",slug:"henrique-antunes-souza",fullName:"Henrique Antunes Souza"}]},{id:"26949",doi:"10.5772/28728",title:"The Potential of Organic and Inorganic Nutrient Sources in Sub-Saharan African Crop Farming Systems",slug:"the-potential-of-organic-and-inorganic-nutrient-sources-in-sub-saharan-african-crop-farming-systems",totalDownloads:6515,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:null,book:{id:"893",slug:"soil-fertility-improvement-and-integrated-nutrient-management-a-global-perspective",title:"Soil Fertility Improvement and Integrated Nutrient Management",fullTitle:"Soil Fertility Improvement and Integrated Nutrient Management - A Global Perspective"},signatures:"Felix K. Ngetich, Chris A. Shisanya, Jayne Mugwe,Monicah Mucheru-Muna and Daniel Mugendi",authors:[{id:"75158",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:"Kipchirchir",surname:"Ngetich",slug:"felix-ngetich",fullName:"Felix Ngetich"},{id:"149578",title:"Dr.",name:"Jayne",middleName:null,surname:"Mugwe",slug:"jayne-mugwe",fullName:"Jayne Mugwe"},{id:"149579",title:"Dr.",name:"Monicah",middleName:null,surname:"Mucheru-Muna",slug:"monicah-mucheru-muna",fullName:"Monicah Mucheru-Muna"},{id:"149580",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Mugendi",slug:"daniel-mugendi",fullName:"Daniel Mugendi"},{id:"200734",title:"Prof.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Shisanya",slug:"chris-shisanya",fullName:"Chris Shisanya"}]},{id:"26954",doi:"10.5772/29151",title:"Integrated Soil Fertility Management in Bean-Based Cropping Systems of Eastern, Central and Southern Africa",slug:"integrated-soil-fertility-management-in-bean-based-cropping-systems-of-eastern-central-and-southern-",totalDownloads:5765,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:null,book:{id:"893",slug:"soil-fertility-improvement-and-integrated-nutrient-management-a-global-perspective",title:"Soil Fertility Improvement and Integrated Nutrient Management",fullTitle:"Soil Fertility Improvement and Integrated Nutrient Management - A Global Perspective"},signatures:"Lubanga Lunze, Mathew M. Abang, Robin Buruchara, Michael A. Ugen, Nsharwasi Léon Nabahungu, Gideon O. Rachier, Mulangwa Ngongo and Idupulapati Rao",authors:[{id:"76686",title:"Dr.",name:"Mathew",middleName:null,surname:"Abang",slug:"mathew-abang",fullName:"Mathew Abang"},{id:"80421",title:"MSc.",name:"Lubanga",middleName:"D.",surname:"Lunze",slug:"lubanga-lunze",fullName:"Lubanga Lunze"},{id:"86492",title:"Dr.",name:"Idupulapati",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"idupulapati-rao",fullName:"Idupulapati Rao"},{id:"120278",title:"Prof.",name:"Robin",middleName:null,surname:"Buruchara",slug:"robin-buruchara",fullName:"Robin Buruchara"},{id:"120279",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:"A.",surname:"Ugen",slug:"michael-ugen",fullName:"Michael Ugen"},{id:"120280",title:"Prof.",name:"Nsharwasi Léon",middleName:null,surname:"Nabahungu",slug:"nsharwasi-leon-nabahungu",fullName:"Nsharwasi Léon Nabahungu"},{id:"120281",title:"Prof.",name:"Gideon",middleName:"O.",surname:"Rachier",slug:"gideon-rachier",fullName:"Gideon Rachier"},{id:"120282",title:"Prof.",name:"Mulangwa",middleName:null,surname:"Ngongo",slug:"mulangwa-ngongo",fullName:"Mulangwa Ngongo"}]},{id:"26948",doi:"10.5772/27601",title:"Indigenous Fertilizing Materials to Enhance Soil Productivity in Ghana",slug:"indigenous-fertilizing-materials-to-enhance-soil-productivity-in-ghana",totalDownloads:2917,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:null,book:{id:"893",slug:"soil-fertility-improvement-and-integrated-nutrient-management-a-global-perspective",title:"Soil Fertility Improvement and Integrated Nutrient Management",fullTitle:"Soil Fertility Improvement and Integrated Nutrient Management - A Global Perspective"},signatures:"Roland Nuhu Issaka, Moro Mohammed Buri, Satoshi Tobita, Satoshi Nakamura and Eric Owusu-Adjei",authors:[{id:"70771",title:"Dr.",name:"Roland Nuhu",middleName:null,surname:"Issaka",slug:"roland-nuhu-issaka",fullName:"Roland Nuhu Issaka"},{id:"71628",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed Moro",middleName:null,surname:"Buri",slug:"mohammed-moro-buri",fullName:"Mohammed Moro Buri"},{id:"81814",title:"Dr.",name:"Satoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tobita",slug:"satoshi-tobita",fullName:"Satoshi Tobita"},{id:"81815",title:"Dr.",name:"Satoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Nakamura",slug:"satoshi-nakamura",fullName:"Satoshi Nakamura"},{id:"81822",title:"Mr.",name:"Eric Owusu",middleName:null,surname:"Adjei",slug:"eric-owusu-adjei",fullName:"Eric Owusu Adjei"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65070",title:"Biochar: A Sustainable Approach for Improving Plant Growth and Soil Properties",slug:"biochar-a-sustainable-approach-for-improving-plant-growth-and-soil-properties",totalDownloads:6880,totalCrossrefCites:55,totalDimensionsCites:92,abstract:"Soil is the most important source and an abode for many nutrients and microflora. Due to rapid depletion of agricultural areas and soil quality by means of ever-increasing population and an excessive addition of chemical fertilizers, a rehabilitated attention is a need of the hour to maintain sustainable approaches in agricultural crop production. Biochar is the solid, carbon-rich material obtained by pyrolysis using different biomasses. It has been widely documented in previous studies that, the crop growth and yield can be increased by using biochar. This chapter exclusively summarizes the properties of biochar, its interaction with soil microflora, and its role in plant growth promotion when added to the soil.",book:{id:"7305",slug:"biochar-an-imperative-amendment-for-soil-and-the-environment",title:"Biochar",fullTitle:"Biochar - An Imperative Amendment for Soil and the Environment"},signatures:"Jyoti Rawat, Jyoti Saxena and Pankaj Sanwal",authors:null},{id:"67917",title:"Organic Fertilizer Production and Application in Vietnam",slug:"organic-fertilizer-production-and-application-in-vietnam",totalDownloads:1275,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Crop production is an important subsector of Vietnam’s agriculture, has an impressive achievement in last 30 years and based on the intensive production with increasing use of chemical fertilizer and pesticide. Consequences are the negative effects on environment and human health and food safety. Organic agriculture has become a trend worldwide and is developing rapidly in the world. In Vietnam the certified organic farming area has expanded since 2012. Organic market revenue in Vietnam is estimated to be at $132.15 million a year. Most Vietnamese certified organic products are exported to international markets. Organic agriculture using organic fertilizer is one of Vietnam government’s priorities. Vietnam already produced organic fertilizer from different materials by using different production technologies, but the production capacity is small and does not meet the demand for organic agriculture. Vietnam government encourages, promotes the organic fertilizer production, application and has the policy to develop the organic fertilizer in Vietnam.",book:{id:"8017",slug:"organic-fertilizers-history-production-and-applications",title:"Organic Fertilizers",fullTitle:"Organic Fertilizers - History, Production and Applications"},signatures:"Pham Van Toan, Ngo Duc Minh and Dao Van Thong",authors:null},{id:"62186",title:"Olive-Pressed Solid Residues as a Medium for Growing Mushrooms and Increasing Soil Fertility",slug:"olive-pressed-solid-residues-as-a-medium-for-growing-mushrooms-and-increasing-soil-fertility",totalDownloads:1093,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Organic fertilizer is the core of organic farming, which represents the most important way to provide crops and agricultural products that are safe and free of any chemical components and pesticides. From this point of view, the purpose of this study is to provide a source of organic fertilizers which was formerly an environmental problem. The northwestern region of Saudi Arabia is flourishing with olive production, leaving huge amounts of residues called olive press cake (OPC). These wastes are a major environmental pollution despite their good content of carbohydrates, protein, oil and cellulose alongside phenols and lignin. We tested the cultivation of Gliocladium roseum, Pythium oligandrum and Trichoderma harzianum and the mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus on OPC in order to reduce the high percentage of phenols that impede the germination of some plant seeds. Gliocladium roseum, Pythium oligandrum and Pleurotus ostreatus were able to reduce the percentage of phenols to more than 40% and thus support germination of seeds of Eruca sativa. This study gave than one benefit: firstly, reducing phenols that impede the germination of seeds. Secondly, Gliocladium roseum and Pythium oligandrum work against some plant diseases and also produce plant-like hormones that increase growth of plants.",book:{id:"7216",slug:"soil-productivity-enhancement",title:"Soil Productivity Enhancement",fullTitle:"Soil Productivity Enhancement"},signatures:"Hani Mohamed Awad Abdelzaher, Haifa Abdulaziz S. Alhaithloul\nand Shaima Mohamed Nabil Moustafa",authors:[{id:"238130",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaima",middleName:"Mohamed Nabil",surname:"Moustafa",slug:"shaima-moustafa",fullName:"Shaima Moustafa"},{id:"242818",title:"Prof.",name:"Hani",middleName:"Mohamed Awad",surname:"Abdelzaher",slug:"hani-abdelzaher",fullName:"Hani Abdelzaher"},{id:"245646",title:"Dr.",name:"Haifa",middleName:null,surname:"Alhaithloul",slug:"haifa-alhaithloul",fullName:"Haifa Alhaithloul"}]},{id:"68604",title:"Composting",slug:"composting",totalDownloads:1098,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Decomposition followed by stabilization of organic substances by biological actions has been taking place in nature from the very beginning of life appeared on our planet. Anthropogenic control and utilization of the process for sanitary disposal and reclamation of organic waste material have been termed composting and the final product is named compost. Microbial community leads the processes of both aerobic and anaerobic composting and converts wastes to a stable form of nutrients. The C/N ratio is the most important factor for decomposition, especially aerobic decomposition. Microorganisms respire two-third of carbon as CO2, and one-third combines with nitrogen in living cell, and huge amount of heat energy is released as end product of aerobic decomposition as compared to anaerobic process. In agricultural world, utilization of human and animal wastes has great importance. Extensive studies on composting were initiated in India. Different composting methods like pit method, heap method, ADCO method, vermicomposting, etc. presently exist in the world. Humus is the end product of composting, and different organic wastes contain macro, micro, and trace elements, which reflect valuable properties for growing vegetation and to the soil itself.",book:{id:"8017",slug:"organic-fertilizers-history-production-and-applications",title:"Organic Fertilizers",fullTitle:"Organic Fertilizers - History, Production and Applications"},signatures:"Niladri Paul, Utpal Giri and Gourab Roy",authors:null},{id:"67957",title:"Efficacy of Different Substrates on Vermicompost Production: A Biochemical Analysis",slug:"efficacy-of-different-substrates-on-vermicompost-production-a-biochemical-analysis",totalDownloads:1036,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The rapid increase in the volume of waste is one aspect of the environment crisis, accompanying global development. Earthworms play an important role in the decomposition of organic matter and soil metabolism through feeding, fragmentation, aeration, turnover and dispersion. The type of substrates used and species of earthworms introduced plays a significant role in plant growth and yield. The waste to be stabilized should support an adequate biomass needed for effective processing. In the present study the vermicompost produced from banana as a substrate did not show a significant increase in NPK content from that of the control. On the other hand poultry waste and vegetable waste with goat dung showed significant increase in the NPK content. The enhancement of the vermicompost was probably due to mineralization of the organic matter containing proteins and conversion of ammonium nitrogen into nitrite. Mineralization and consequent mobilization of phosphorous by enhanced bacterial and phosphatase activities during vermicomposting leads to increase in Phosphorus. The earthworm processed waste materials contain high concentration of exchangeable potassium, due to enhanced microbial activity during the vermicomposting process, which accordingly enhanced the rate of mineralization. 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