These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\n
Initially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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He studied at the Faculty of Mathematics and Mechanics of the University of Warsaw, which he graduated in 1969 with a master's degree in mathematics. On December 1, 1972, he obtained the title of doctor of technical sciences at the Institute of Fundamental Technological Research of the Polish Academy of Sciences. And there, twelve years later, on December 1, 1984, he received the title of habilitated doctor of technical sciences. The title of professor of technical sciences, was given to Witold Kosinski on December 27, 1993. From graduating until 2001, he worked at the Institute of Fundamental Problems of Technology at the Polish Academy of Sciences, and since 1999 also at the Polish-Japanese College of Information Technology in Warsaw and at the Bydgoszcz Academy in 1996-2003 and later since 2005 at the University of Kazimierz the Great in Bydgoszcz. In PJWSTK he held the post of deputy rector for research for six years (1999-2005).\n\nIn the seventies of the last century Witold Kosinski was a scholarship holder of the National Science Foundation at Iowa University, USA. And in the eighties, scholarship holder of the Fundacja im. Alex von Humboldt in the universities of Bonn, Heidelberg and Darmstadt, Germany. In the later period of his professional work, he was invited as a visiting professor to foreign research centers, including in France and the USA.\n\nProfessor Kosiński's research interests included two areas: mathematics used in technical sciences, in particular in the mechanics of continuum and thermodynamics, and the mathematical foundations of computer science with particular emphasis on computational intelligence, fuzzy logic and genetic algorithms. Author of over 120 scientific articles, 2 monographs and co-editor of several volumes of collective works. He promoted 11 doctors. 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Ruhul Amin Sarker",slug:"m.-ruhul-amin-sarker",email:"mrasbrri@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Bangladesh Rice Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"340369",title:"Dr.",name:"Khandakar M.",middleName:null,surname:"Iftekharuddaula",fullName:"Khandakar M. Iftekharuddaula",slug:"khandakar-m.-iftekharuddaula",email:"kiftekhar03@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Bangladesh Rice Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"352116",title:"Mr.",name:"M. Ruhul",middleName:null,surname:"Quddus",fullName:"M. Ruhul Quddus",slug:"m.-ruhul-quddus",email:"rquddus265@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Bangladesh Rice Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"352118",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Shahjahan",middleName:null,surname:"Kabir",fullName:"M. 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\r\n\tHomeostasis is the condition of optimal functioning of the organism and includes many variables, such as body temperature and fluid balance being kept within certain pre-set limits (homeostatic range). Other variables include the pH of extracellular fluid, the concentrations of sodium, potassium, and calcium ions, as well as that of the blood sugar level, and these need to be regulated despite changes in the environment, diet, or level of activity. Each of these variables is controlled by one or more regulators or homeostatic mechanisms, which together maintain life. \r\n\tHomeostasis is brought about by a natural resistance to change when already in the optimal conditions, and equilibrium is maintained by many regulatory mechanisms. All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three interdependent components for the variable to be regulated: a receptor, a control center, and an effector. The receptor is the sensing component that monitors and responds to changes in the environment, either external or internal. Receptors include thermoreceptors and mechanoreceptors. Control centers include the respiratory center and the renin-angiotensin system. An effector is a target acted on to bring about the change back to the normal state. At the cellular level, receptors include nuclear receptors that bring about changes in gene expression through up-regulation or down-regulation and act in negative feedback mechanisms. An example of this is in the control of bile acids in the liver. \r\n\tSome centers, such as the renin-angiotensin system, control more than one variable. When the receptor senses a stimulus, it reacts by sending action potentials to a control center. The control center sets the maintenance range—the acceptable upper and lower limits—for the particular variable, such as temperature. The control center responds to the signal by determining an appropriate response and sending signals to an effector, which can be one or more muscles, an organ, or a gland. When the signal is received and acted on, negative feedback is provided to the receptor that stops the need for further signaling.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1), located at the presynaptic neuron, is a receptor that can stop stressful neurotransmitter release to the postsynaptic neuron; it is activated by endocannabinoids (ECs) such as anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamide; AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) via a retrograde signaling process in which these compounds are synthesized by and released from postsynaptic neurons, and travel back to the presynaptic terminal to bind to the CB1 receptor for modulation of neurotransmitter release to obtain homeostasis. \r\n\tThe polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are lipid derivatives of omega-3 (docosahexaenoic acid, DHA, and eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA) or of omega-6 (arachidonic acid, ARA) and are synthesized from membrane phospholipids and used as a precursor for endocannabinoids (ECs) mediate significant effects in the fine-tuning adjustment of body homeostasis.
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tThe aim of this book is to discuss further various aspects of homeostasis, information that we hope to be useful to scientists, clinicians, and the wider public alike.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-478-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-477-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-479-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"63eb775115bf2d6d88530b234a1cc4c2",bookSignature:"Dr. Gaffar Sarwar Zaman",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11676.jpg",keywords:"Optimal Functioning, Body Temperature, Fluid Balance, Core Temperature, Blood Glucose, Iron Levels, Malfunction, Inherited Defect, Respiratory Center, Arterial Blood, Insulin, Baroreceptors",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 13th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 10th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 9th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 28th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 27th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"17 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Zaman is a member of the Medical Council of India, the Association of Medical Biochemists of India, and the Association of Clinical Biochemists of India. 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Dr. Zaman obtained a Post Graduate Diploma in Clinical Research (PGDCR) from Symbiosis University, India. He has almost fifteen years of experience as an Associate Professor at King Khalid Government University, Saudi Arabia, and Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences, India. He has expertise in quality development and curriculum design and is trained in e-learning methods. He has more than fifty research publications to his credit in both national and international journals. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
Aflatoxins (AFs), secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus Flavus and Aspergillusparasiticus, are a numerous group of chemically related compounds characterised by high toxicity. Among these, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most potent known carcinogen for liver and, together with aflatoxins B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) is the most frequently found and the most toxic of the group [1]. Therefore, maximum residue levels (MRLs) for AFB1 and for the sum of the four AFB1 + AFB2 + AFG1 + AFG2 (total aflatoxins) in food and feed have been set by the European Union [2-4] and all over the world [5-7].
\n\t\t\t
The occurrence of aflatoxins (AFs) has been widely reported in a variety of crops (including maize, wheat, barley, rice, groundnuts, nuts, pistachios, cottonseed, and spices) which can be infected pre-, during and post-harvest. Moreover, due to the relative stability of AFs to thermal and chemical stresses, they are found on commodities despite the elimination of mould, after long periods of storage, and also after the transformation of raw materials; therefore the presence of AFs has also been ascertained in commodities such as composite feed, flour, bakery products, and roasted peanuts.
\n\t\t\t
In addition, products of the animal metabolism of aflatoxins could retain toxicity, such as in the case of AFB1, which, once ingested, is rapidly absorbed and transformed into a hydroxylated metabolite. The latter is secreted into the milk and thus has been named aflatoxin M1 (AFM1). The hepatotoxicity and carcinogenic effects of AFM1 have also been demonstrated and IARC have included this toxin in the group I human carcinogens as well as the parent AFB1[1]. Milk and derived products can consequently also be implicated in the spreading of aflatoxins. Therefore, most countries have also set up MRLs of AFM1 in milk, which varies from the 50 ng kg-1 established by the EU to the 500 ng kg-1 established by US FDA [2, 8]. More restrictive MRLs have been decided by the EU for the presence of AFM1 in baby food [2].
\n\t\t\t
A part from safety issue, food contamination caused by AFs also strongly affects economic interests; so much effortis devoted to the development of analytical methods for detecting these contaminants. Newly developed methods of analysis are intended both for screening purposes (rapid, economic and simple methods) and for the accurate, reproducible and sensitive quantification by confirmatory methods.
\n\t\t\t
Numerous chromatographic methods to detect AFs in foods have been developed, coupled to fluorescent or mass spectrometric detection [9-11]. Likewise, several methods for aflatoxin M1 determination in milk based on high-performance liquid chromatography associated to fluorescence or mass spectrometric detection have been developed [12-13]. However, chromatographic techniques are mainly used in confirmatory analyses and are usually not applied to routine controls owing to the necessity to use expensive equipment and extensive clean-up steps.
\n\t\t\t
The first rapid methods of analysis for AFs were based on Thin Layer Chromatography [14]; this technique is still used today even though in a significant lesser extent compared to methods based on the use of antibodies. Immunochemical methods of analysis are widely employed as screening methods for measuring AFs in food and feed [9, 14-18] and also for AFM1 quantification in milk and dairy products [19-21] thanks to their rapidity, selectivity and sensitivity. Several ELISA kits are commercially available, whose performances are generally adequate to meet legal requirements, and are routinely employed for aflatoxin monitoring. Some of these methods have also been validated [17-18]. However, even immunoassays need to be run in a laboratory, use a minimum of equipment and occasionally require some sample treatments, which may also involve the use of hazardous chemicals. Instead, affordable monitoring of food contaminants requires the highest-through put and more economical methods of detection and, possibly, little or no sample treatment, user-friendliness, employment of non-hazardous chemicals, in situ applicability. Additional requisites in aflatoxin detection would be low detection limits (especially for aflatoxin M1) and adaptability to very differing commodities (for aflatoxins B and G).
\n\t\t\t
Several innovative strategies have been proposed for the rapid, qualitative, semi-quantitative or quantitative detection of aflatoxins, also based on the use of specific antibodies without constraints of classical immunoassays [22]. For example, an interesting qualitative approach has been described for the detection of AFM1 in milk [23-24]. The proposed method is based on a flow-through immunoassay with visual detection. Main advantages are represented by the high sensitivity and by the on site applicability of the assay which does not require any equipment for the treatment of the sample, norfor the analysis. In addition, it allowed the possibility of obtaining sample pre-concentration and/or clean-up in the same device used for the analysis [25]. Nevertheless, this method implies several subsequent steps to be carried out, thus limiting simplicity and rapidness of use. Very recently, the same approach has also been demonstrated for the multi-detection of different mycotoxins, thus increasing its potentiality of utilization [26].
\n\t\t\t
Numerous immunosensors have been described [27] as well, and research is constantly evolving in this area, particularly for the development immunosensors for the selective determination of AFB1 [28-32] and for AFM1 detection [33-35].
\n\t\t\t
In parallel, strategies aimed at avoiding the use of antibodies in the development of rapid methods for aflatoxin detection have also been reported, such as those based on the preparation of polymers with molecular recognition properties towards AFB1as capture systems [36-37] or those based on the exploitation of its natural fluorescence for the detection [38]. A combination of the surface plasmon resonance phenomenon and fluorescence has been exploited in the work of Wang et al and permitteda very sensitive determination of AFM1, though the proposed assay took almost an hour to be accomplished and couldn\'t be considered as a truly rapid method [39]. A fancy and cunning approach for the rapid quantification of AFB1 have been described in the work of Arduini et al, who exploited the inhibiting effect of the toxin towards the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. The measurement of the enzymatic activity was demonstrated to directly allow AFB1 quantification in 3 minutes and within the 10-60 μg l-1 range [40].
\n\t\t\t
Among the rapid methods for screening of food contaminants, the\'lateral flow immunoassay” (LFIA) (also known as immunochromato graphic assayorimmuno-colloid gold immunoassay, ICG) has recently attracted the interest of researchers and industry. This technology has long been known in medical fields for diagnosing blood infections and failure of internal organs, disclosing drug abuse or ascertaining pregnancy and combines a series of benefits, including extreme simplicity, rapidity, and cost effectiveness [41]. These features make it ideally suited for screening large number of samples, for being conducted by non-trained personnel and practically everywhere, thus enabling the effective possibility of food safety assessment at all stages of food and feed production.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. Lateral flow immunoassays for aflatoxins
\n\t\t\t
Since the early 2000\'s, scientific papers and commercial devices aimed at measuring mycotoxinsin food and feed have appeared, and recentlya certain amount of literature on this topic has become available, including comprehensive reviews [42-44]. In particular, some LFIAs for the qualitative and semi-quantitative detection of aflatoxins in food and feed have been described and will be discussed below. At the same time, commercial LFDs for the detection of aflatoxinsin various commodities have become available and some of them have also been validated by USDA-GIPSA [45].
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2.1. Principle of the method
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As aflatoxins are low-molecular-mass compounds, immunoassays in competitive formats should be conceived to measure them. The same principles and reagents as in the microwell-type immunoassays could be applied, except for the fact that,in LFIA, the separation of bound and unbound antibody sites is obtained by means of the lateral flow on a suitable support (the membrane). The liquid flow transports immunoreagents along the membrane where they encounter their partners in spatially confined zones of the membrane itself where immuno reactions take place.
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Besides the porous membrane which assures the flow, lateral flow devices (LFDs) usually include: an absorbent pad (positioned at the top of the membrane to increase the volume of the flowing liquid), a sample pad (to assure contact between the liquid sample and the membrane), and a rigid backing (Figure 1). A release pad can be added, whose role is to adsorb labelled antibodies in such a way that they are included in the device itself.
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The membrane is almost exclusively made of nitrocellulose (NC); sample and adsorbent pads are usually made of cellulose, although sample pads could also be made of glass fibre or other materials and sometimes are soaked with proteins and/or surfactants for special applications. Release pads are usually glass fibre pads. Lines are traced on the NC membrane by means of dedicated dispensers which enables the dispensing of small volumes (typically few μl per cm) with high reproducibility.
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Figure 1.
Schematic of a lateral flow device in the dipstick format.
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The simplest LFD is a dipstick, which is dipped directly into the sample solution. Labelled antibodies can be added to the sample as a concentrated suspension or provided in a lyophilized form to be re-suspended by the sample itself. Alternatively, the labelled antibody can be pre-adsorbed onto the releasing pad, which partially overlaps the membrane. The liquid sample itself causes the re-suspension of the pre-adsorbed labelled antibodies during the assay. The sample pad is added in such a way that it overlaps the membrane or the releasing pad. Its role is the reduction of matrix interference by filtration alone or combined with some chemical action by means soaked reagents.
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Besides the most popular dipstick format, LFDs exist in which the strip is inserted into a rigid plastic cassette provided with a sample well and a reading window. The main advantage of these housings is the guarantee of a reproducible compression of all components in the overlapping zones, which assures faster and more reproducible flows.
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With few exceptions, the indirect competitive format, in which the antigen (a protein conjugate of the target toxin) is coated on the membrane and the antibody is labelled, is strongly preferred in the development of LFIA for AFs. Antibody labelling can be obtain by using virtually whatever nanoparticles that have a spectroscopically detectable property, such as, for example, coloured or fluorescent nanoparticles. However, gold nanoparticles (GNPs) are generally employed, with few exceptions, because of some characteristics which make them particularly suitable for the purpose. First, the conjugation of antibodies with GNPs is very easily obtained by simply mixing the two components at a proper pH (at or above the pI of the antibodies). The preparation and characterisation of stable colloidal solution of GNPs also follows well-established, easy protocols and a wide literature is available on this topic. The surface plasmon resonance of GNPs determines an intense colour of colloidal gold, which varies from orange to pink depending on particle dimensions and on surface overlay, therefore coloured nanoparticles can be prepared and the colour nuance can be use to monitor preparation and conjugation to antibodies.
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The principles of the indirect competitive LFIAs which exploit GNP-labelled antibodies have been widely described and are schematized in Figure 2 and 3.
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Briefly, the labelled specific antibody is suspended in the liquid sample and flows through the membrane where it first encounters the antigen coated in a zone indicated as “Test line”(T-line). In the absence of the target compound (negative sample, Figure 2), labelled antibodies bind to the coated antigen and are focused on the T-line, so that a visible (detectable) line is formed.
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Usually, a second so-called “Control line” (C-line) follows and is constituted by secondary anti-species antibodies which capture any excess of specific antibodies.
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Figure 2.
A lateral flow immunoassay in the indirect formatwith GNP-labelled antibodies for a negative sample (no AF is present). The Test line is made by a protein conjugate of the target toxin, while the Control line is constituted of anti-species antibodies. Anti-aflatoxin antibodies mixed together with non-specific γ-globulins (both GNP-labelled) move along the membrane. Anti-AF antibodies bind the antigen coated in the Test zone and are focused, thus forming a visible (detectable) line. Non-specific γ-globulins pass the Test line and are captured by the anti-species antibodies in the Control line where they are focused and form a second visible (detectable) line.
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The appearance of a C-line can be regarded simply as the confirmation of the correct development of the assay (reagents and materials integrity) or else can be exploited to calculate the T/C signal ratio with the aim of normalizing strip-to-strip variations [46] or can also be regarded as an internal standard to which the intensity of the T-line is compared to determine positivity/negativity [47-48].
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When the target is present above the lower detectable concentration level (positive sample, Figure 3), binding of labelled antibodies to the coated antigen is inhibited, resulting in a non-visible (undetectable) T-line.
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Interpretation of assay results depends on the presence and intensity of both Test and Control lines as schematized in Figure 4.
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Figure 3.
A lateral flow immunoassay in the indirect format for a positive sample (AF above the detectable limit). GNP-labelled anti-aflatoxin antibodies and non-specific γ-globulins move along the membrane. Anti-AF antibodies bind the toxin in the sample and the interaction with coated antigen is thus inhibited. Non-specific γ-globulins pass the T-line and are captured by the anti-species antibodies in the Control line where they are focused. Therefore, a single line (C-line) appears on the membrane.
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Figure 4.
Assay result interpretation. Two intense lines: valid test, negative sample (target toxin below the detection limit of the method); intense C-line and fading T-line: valid test, the amount of the target toxin is near to the detection limit; intense C- line: test valid, positive sample (target toxin above the detection limit); intense or fading T-line: invalid test.
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2.2. LFIAs for aflatoxins B and G
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The first LFIA aimed at measuring any one of aflatoxins appeared in the scientific literature ten years ago and was one of the first reported lateral flow assays for food contaminants. The authors described a simplified device formed by aNC membrane on which the T-line had been traced upon by dispensing antibodies towards AFB1. The signal reporters were liposomes, which were tagged with AFB1 and encapsulated a visible dye. The tagged liposomes flowed along the membrane where encountered the coated anti-AFB1 antibodies and were captured, thus determining the appearance of a coloured T-line due to the focalization of the encapsulated dye. If some AFB1 was present in the sample, the binding of the tagged liposomes to the coated antibodies was inhibited and the colour of the T-line faded. The absolute limit of detection of such a device was 18 ng of AFB1 and the test could be completed in a total of 12 minutes, including sample preparation [49].
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Apart from this early approach, following papers described more usual LFDs based on the use of GNPs as antibody labels. In 2005, Delmulle and co-workers reported the development of a dipstick which allowed authors to detect AFB1in pig feed. The visual detection limit (VDL) was set at 5 μg kg-1 and the analysis could be completed in 10 minutes [50]. In the same year, the group of Xiulianal so described the preparation of GNP-labelled antibodies towards AFB1 and their exploitation in a visual LFIA [51]. The application of the developed dipstick to measure AFB1 in rice, corn, and wheat was reported in a following paper of the same group [52]. The described LFD showed a VDL of 2.5 µg l-1 in buffer, which became 0.05 µg l-1 when the colour intensity of lines was determined by means of a photometric reader. Therefore, a sensitive quantification of the target toxin (limit of detection, LOD, 2 µg kg-1 in food) could be demonstrated; moreover, accuracy of the developed assay was confirmed on 60 samples through comparison with ELISA.
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A visual LFIA for detecting AFB1 was also described by papers of Shim et al [53-54]. The developed LFD was shown to cross-react to some extent to other major aflatoxins (AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2) but not to differing mycotoxins (such as ochratoxin A, citrinine, patulin, zearalenone, and T-2 toxin). Nevertheless, it was applied for selectively measuring the sole AFB1in rice, barley and feed. VDLs of 5-10 µg l-1(rice, barley) and 10-20 µg l-1(feed) were obtained and the proposed method showed agreeing results towards HPLC analysis on up to 172 food and feed samples. The same group also published results obtained with a multi-analyte device aimed at contemporary measuring AFB1 and ochratoxin A in feed. The described method allowed the simultaneous detection of the two toxins which could be completed in 15 minutes and showed a VDL of 10 µg kg-1for AFB1. Method validation by means of ELISA and HPLC confirmatory analyses was also reported [55].
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Although regulations prescribe the simultaneous determination of AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2 beside AFB1 quantification, most papers described LFIA selective towards AFB1.To meet the need of measuring all the four major AFs our group developed a quantitative LFIA for total aflatoxin determination in corn samples. The assay could be completed in 10 minutes, showed a LOD of 10 µg l-1 and was validated through comparison with HPLC on 25 samples. In addition, an aqueous extracting medium was also optimized and proven to allow reliable quantification of total aflatoxin [56]. Except in this case, AFs were always extracted in methanol/water (typically 70/30 or 80/20 v/v) followed by dilution of the extract before LFIA analysis to reduce the proportion of the organic solvent, which is hardly compatible with materials composing LFDs. However, a methanol amount lower than 15-20% has been demonstrated by most authors to be compatible with LFD materials and further more not to affect immunoassay performance.
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Most recent contributes to the topic are due to the group of Zhang and co-workers, who described two LFDs, the first highly selective towards AFB1 and the second able to measure total aflatoxins [57-58]. Both devices have been applied to visually detect target toxins in peanuts (the highly selective one could also be exploited to detect AFB1 in pu-erh tea, vegetable oil and feed). Both methods allowed reliable results (agreeing with HPLC determination) to be obtain in 15 minutes. In addition, the LFIA aimed at measuring total AFs was extremely sensitive, with VDL in peanut extracts as low as 0.03, 0.06, 0.12, and 0.25 µg l-1for AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2, respectively.
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In addition to papers aimed at describing actually functioning devices for measuring AFs, those targets have often been chosen as system models for the development of original devices which exploited non-traditional signal reporters to label antibodies. Besides the above mentioned approach of Ho and Wauchope, based on the use of dye-encapsulating liposomes, Liao and Li described a visual device which exploited nanoparticles with a silver core and a gold shell as the reporters in the construction of a LFD for AFB1. The toxin was determined in cereals and nuts and performances were compared to those of a GNP-based LFIA and to results obtained through a classic microwell-based immunoassay. The authors demonstrated that the newly developed LFD was comparable to the GNP-LFD in terms of stability of components and reproducibility of signals. On the other hand, it allowed a great enhancement in sensitivity so that values as low as 0.1 µg l-1AFB1 could be measured [59].
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With the expectation of increasing the useful signal, therefore being able to reduce immunore agents for the benefits of the competition, magnetic nanogold microspheres with a Fe2O3 core and a shell of multiple GNPs have also been proposed. The magnetic core of particles allowed authors to simplify separation steps during the labelling of antibodies and their micro- dimensions to enhance colour during the test itself. A three-fold increase in sensitivity was stated for the visual detection of AFB2 compared to the use of simple gold colloid nanoparticles [60].
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2.2.1. Application of LFIA for aflatoxins B and G in food analysis
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A major concern in the development of LFDs for aflatoxins is the unpredictable effects due to food components co-extracted from the sample beyond the target and which affect not only the antigen-antibody interaction on which the immunoassay is based, but also the mechanics of the device itself.
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Some authors experienced the apparently inexplicable failure of recovery experiments conducted on fortified materials and the incongruity of results attained for artificially and naturally contaminated samples, which necessitate matrix-matched calibrations and recommended the use of naturally contaminated samples blended in varying proportions with blank samples as calibrators [56, 61-63]. Matrix components not only interfere in defining appropriate standards for calibration but also determine requirement of distinct devices to be developed for individual foods.
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Despite the fact that the some authors reported calibration by using standard AFs diluted in buffers (to which methanol is added in limited proportions, as discussed above) and stated no interference from matrix given a limited dilution of sample extracts, the application of LFDs for the effective AF B and G detection in food remains the bottleneck in the development of new LFIAs. This taskis also made particularly complex by the multiplicity andvariety of matrices to be considered in aflatoxin B and G analysis.
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2.3. LFIAs for aflatoxin M1\n\t\t\t\t
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The development of LFIAs for AFM1 is one of the most challenging goals in this field of research because of the extreme sensitivity required by legislation for this contaminant (particularly in the European Union).
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The first paper dealing with the subject reported a validation study on a commercial device which was conceived for meet US regulations and did not described any preparation protocols and methods. The ROSA Charm Aflatoxin M1™ aimed at quantitatively measuring AFM1 in milk was validated as the result of an inter-laboratory trial, which involved 21 participants, at four levels above and two below the declared LOD of the assay (400 ng l-1) [64]. Less than 5% of false negative (n=83) and no false positive below 300 ng l-1 were found. For contaminations between 350 and 450 ng l-1 false positivity increased from 21 to 93%.
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More recently, Wang et al first described the development of a LFD for the detection of AFM1 [65]. The cut-off level (0.5-1 µg l-1) is just above the eligible value required by the US regulation [8] and far beyond the more severe limits imposed by the European Union for this contaminant [2]. However, it is an effectively sensitive and rapid assay, provided that the whole analytical procedure can be completed in 10 minutes, as no sample treatment is required.
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A visual device has also been developed by Zhang et al which showed a VDL for AFM1of 0.3 μg l-1 [66]. Although the sensitivity improvement respect to the work of Wang et al, the obtained VDL remains far away from the detectability demand imposed by EU MRLs for this contaminant.
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3. Development of a highly sensitive LFIA for measuring AFM1 in milk
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With the aim of producingasystem sensitive enough to reach the limits imposed by European regulations, we developed a competitive lateral flow immunoassay which exploited rabbit polyclonal antibodies towards AFM1that had been previously employed in the development of a sensitive ELISA [19]. A classic device, including a NC membrane (onto which the two lines of reagents had been immobilized), cellulose sample and adsorbent pads, and a glass fibre release pad (on which GNP-labelled antibodies are pre-adsorbed) was conceived.
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The method was designed to be a competitive LFIA, in which the Test line comprised an AFM1 conjugate (competitor) and the Control line was composed of anti-rabbit IgG antibodies. GNP-labelled anti-AFM1 antibodies were furnished as pre-adsorbed in a release pad. When re-suspended by the sample, flowed across the membrane where first encountered the T-line and bound to the immobilized AFM1 conjugate. A red colour became visible at the T-line, due to the focusing of nanoparticles. If some AFM1 was present in the sample, it competed with the immobilized AFM1-BSA for binding to the GNP-labelled antibodies, resulting in a reduction of the T-line intensity. The anti-rabbit IgG antibodies on the Control line captured any excess GNP-labelled antibodies to produce a C-line as a visible confirmation of particle flow. Signal intensities of the two lines were read by a portable scanner connected to a laptop and processed by dedicated software, which acquires images, determines colour intensity, interpolates values on a memorized standard curve and returns the concentration of the analyte in the sample.
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Since the methodin development was a competitive immunoassay, its sensitivity was influenced by several well-known factors, such as antibody dilution and competitor concentration, provided that a definite antiserum was used. Additional factors that could be considered were: the chemical structure of the hapten (actually, the use of heterologous competitors had been shown to improve sensitivity [67]), the structure of the antigen used as the competitor in the assay (as far as the nature of the carrier-protein and the degree of conjugation between the hapten and the carrier-protein itself were considered); the specific response of the reporter used to label the antibody; the extent of antibody labelling (moles of reporter per mole of antibody). In effect, the work of Byzovaet al [68] firstly reported the effect of varying some of the described factors on LFIA performances and, in particular, showed that the diminishing of the molar substitution ratio (SR) between the hapten and the carrier-protein in the preparation of the competitor significantly improved as say sensitivity. The same authors also studied the binding capacity of different anti-species antibodies (which were used to trace the C-line) concluding, in this case, that no evident differences could be observed.
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The need of developing a very high sensitive assay for determining AFM1 in milk at levels of regulatory concern according to EU regulation [2], forced us to investigate further in these directions and to question other established practices, such as the assumption that the labelling of antibodies should be conducted in such a way to obtain a complete coating of GNP surfaces.
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Therefore, the effects of varying: the competitor (use of homologous or heterologous hapten; nature of the carrier-protein and hapten-to-protein molar ratio) and the reporter (extent of antibody labelling)on sensitivity were studied and optimized.
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3.1. Materials and methods
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3.1.1. LFD preparation
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Gold colloids with mean diameter of about 40 nm were prepared using the sodium citrate method as previously described [46]. The saturation concentration of the anti-AFM1 antibody for conjugation with gold nanoparticles was determined according to Horisbergand Rosset [69]. GNP-antibody conjugation was carried out using an amount of antibodies which is the half the saturation concentration and was carried out as follows: 100 μl of a 0.5 mg ml-1 anti-AFM1antibodies in borate buffer was added to 10 mL of pH-adjusted colloidal gold solution. After 30’ incubation at room temperature, 1 ml of borate buffer containing 1% of BSA was added. The mixture was centrifuged and the pellet was washed twice by re-suspension in borate buffer with 0.1% BSA added. Finally, the pellet was re-suspended in borate buffer supplied with 1% BSA, 0.25% Tween 20, 2% sucrose, and 0.02% sodium azide and stored at 4°C until use.
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Release pads were previously treated with borate buffer supplied with 1% BSA, 0.25% Tween 20, 2% sucrose, and 0.02% sodium azide. After drying, gold-labelled antibodies were distributed near the lower edge of the pads and left to dry.
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Test and Control lines were spotted upon a NC membrane as follows: the AFM1-protein conjugate (SR 4) at 0.3 mg/ml was the capture reagent, and the goat anti-rabbit IgG antibodies (2 mg/ml) formed the C-line. Then, the membrane was dried. Strips were composed as follows: from the top; the adsorbent pad, the NC membrane, the release pad and the sample pad were pasted, in sequence, with 1-2 mm overlap. Release pad was positioned so that the line of GNP-labelled antibodies was on the opposite site from the edge of the membrane. The prepared membrane was cut into strips of 5 mm, which were inserted into rigid plastic cassettes. Cassettes were stored in plastic bags containing silica at room temperature until use.
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3.1.2. Lateral flow immunoassay procedure
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Pasteurized milk samples were purchased in large stores, and raw milk samples were obtained from farms. Whole and semi-skimmed milk (1 ml) were centrifuged for 2 min at 6000 rpm. The upper fat layer was discharged, 500 μl of the underlying serum was transferred into a tube and 25 μl of 10% Tween 20 was added. The mixture was immediately used in the lateral flow assay.
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The test was carried out by placing 100 μl of sample into the sample well. After 15 minutes of incubation at 37°C, the cassette was placed above a mobile scanner connected to a laptop. The Skannex 3.0 software (SkannexAS,Hoenefoss, Norway) was used to acquire and process images. Calibration curves were obtained by plotting the ratio between the intensity of the test (T) and the control line (C) [46] against the log of AFM1 concentration. For each experiment, a calibration curve was determined by a nonlinear regression analysis of the data using the four-parameter logistic equation [70]. For the construction of the standard curve and for recovery experiments blank milk samples that did not show any detectable residues of the target when analysed by a reference ELISA (LOD 5 ng l-1) [19] were fortified with appropriate amounts of an AFM1 standard solution.
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3.2. Optimization of the LFIAs
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3.2.1. Effect of varying the hapten, the AFM1-protein substitution ratio and the carrier protein in the T line
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The polyclonal antiserum used in this work had showncertain cross-reactivity towards aflatoxin B1 (about 35% when measured by means of the ELISA); therefore a competitor synthesized by using a hapten derived from this toxin was considered as a “heterologous” competitor respect to AFM1 protein conjugates (which were homologous to the immunogen). Therefore, three conjugates of AFM1 with Bovine Serum Albumin (AFM1-BSA) conjugates which varied in the hapten-to-protein ratio, one conjugate of AFM1with ovalbumin (AFM1 –OVA) and one conjugate between AFB1and BSA (AFB1-BSA) were evaluated as potential competitors to be immobilized in the Test line (Table 1). Each conjugate was dispensed on the membrane at the same rate and volume (1µl/cm), however the concentration was varied to obtain an absolute signal of about 20-25 arbitrary units in the T-line when the strip were read by means of the software. AFM1 standard solutions (0-10-100-1000 ng l-1) prepared in a blank pasteurized whole milk were measured in triplicate and IC50 values were compared (Table 1). The AFB1 conjugate qualitatively behaved as the AFM1 conjugate with a similar SR, except for the absolute signal, which was less intense at the same concentration of dispensing. Interestingly, the decrease of the amount of AFM1 per mole of protein strongly influenced the sensitivity of the assay. Indeed, the reducing of the substitution ratio (SR) from about 22 to about 4 allowed an improvement of nearly 10-folds in the IC50 to be obtained. This result is in good agreement with the observation of Byzova and co-workers [68] and with expectations based on the experience with competitive immunoassays in other formats (such as for example in ELISA). In parallel, the absolute signal decreased and forced to increase the amount of antigen to be dispensed. Nevertheless, the advantage of reducing the hapten density strongly predominated over the increase of the absolute antigen concentration.
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tConjugate
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SR
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Dispensing concentration (mg ml-1)
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IC50 (µg l-1)
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AFM1-BSA
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4
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0.8
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0.2
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AFM1-BSA
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15
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0.4
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1.1
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AFM1-BSA
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22
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0.2
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1.7
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AFM1-OVA
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10
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0.8
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0.6
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AFB1-BSA
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24
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0.4
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1.6
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Table 1.
Effect of varying the competitor to be used in the Test line of the LFD. Protein conjugates were dispensed onto the membrane at different concentrations to reach an absolute signal comprises between 20 and 25 arbitrary units on the T-line. SR represents the molar substitution ratio between the toxin and the protein which had been estimated by spectrophotometric measurements.
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On the contrary, the substitution of the bovine serum albumin (which had been used to prepare the immunogen) with ovalbumin as the carrier-protein seemed irrelevant. In fact, antibodies binding the BSA used as the immunogenic carrier-protein are saturated in the preparation of the gold labelled- antibody. This preparation involves the GNP overcoating with exceeding amount of BSA to prevent aggregation; however, the inhibition of further non-specific binding to BSA of antigens could also be attained.
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3.2.2. Labelling of antibodies with gold nanoparticles
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Optimization of LFIA usually involves checkerboard titrations where the amounts of antibodies and of the competitor are varied to achieve the lower limit of detection and the maximum slope of the calibration curve. Varying the amount of antibodies is exclusively intended as diluting the colloid of GNPs coated with antibodies themselves. The parameter used to measure this dilution is the optical density (OD) of the gold colloid, assuming that GNPs surface had been saturated with antibodies; a typical protocol prescribes that the saturation amount of antibodies, intended as the amount that prevent GNP aggregation, has to be determined firstly and this stabilizing amount or, more usually, a small excess of antibodies, has to be conjugated to GNPs to prepare the signal reporter. Nevertheless, contrarily to this generally accepted assumption, Laycock et al reported a huge increase in sensitivity due to the reduction of antibodies coated onto GNPs in comparison to the stabilizing amount [47].
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Therefore, besides studying the effect of varying GNP-labelled antibody (intended as varying the OD under saturating conditions); we considered that dilution of antibodies to favour competitive conditions would also be achieved by reducing the number of molecules of antibody bound per GNP at a fixed OD value. Consequent risk of GNP aggregation, due to incomplete shielding of the superficial GNP charges, could be efficiently prevented by the further addition of exceeding amount of other proteins, such as for example BSA, which is particularly effective in this purpose.The variation of the amount of GNP-labelled antibodies dispensed at different ODs (3 and 6) under saturating conditions, apparently did not directly influence the sensitivity of the LFIA (data not shown) Nevertheless, the increasing of the OD allows the development of more intense absolute signals, which in turn means that the amount of competitor could be decreased in the T-line therefore improving detectability.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
To study antibody dilution intended as the reduction of antibody amount per GNP, different amount of antibodies were reacted with portions of the same GNP colloid as follows: saturation amount (AbSAT), excess of antibody (Ab/ AbSAT = 1.5), defect of antibody (Ab/ AbSAT = 0.7), and half the saturation amount (Ab/ AbSAT = 0.5). The four GNP-antibody preparations were dispensed onto release pads at OD 3 and applied to strips where the AFM1-BSA with SR of 22 and a concentration of 0.2 mg/ml had been traced upon to form the T-line. AFM1 calibrators prepared in milk were run onto these strips in triplicate. Resulting curves are show in in Figure 4. Besides a significant signal reduction, a certain improvement in sensitivity was observed when the amount of antibody was lowered from saturating conditions (IC50 = 1.71 ± 0.01) to its half (IC50 = 0.99 ± 0.01); however detectability was influenced in a considerably lesser extent respect than when modifying the nature of the competitor (i.e.: the SR of the conjugate used to obtain the T-line), as discussed above.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Figure 5.
Effect of the amount of antibodies coated onto the GNPs (Ab) compared to the amount needed for saturating GNP surface (AbSAT)for varying Ab/ AbSAT: 0.5 (), 0.7 (▲), 1 (), 1.5 ().GNP-antibodies dispensed at OD 3; T-line: AFM1-BSA conjugate (0.2 mgml-1, SR=22).
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.3. AFM1 detection in milk by the developed LFIA
\n\t\t\t\t
Protein and fat contents of milk may influence test results in various ways: the sample flow can be altered (for example fat content strongly affectsviscosity) and any of the milk components can give specific or non-specific interactions with immunoreagents involved in the assay. In fact, we observed that casein determined a strong signal depression of both the Test and Control lines. With the aim of developing a unique system that could be used on milk samples undergone to different thermal treatments, i.e.: with different levels of protein denaturation (raw, pasteurized, UHT milk) and with variable fat content (whole, semi-skimmed, skimmed milk), samples were standardized by a rapid centrifugation stepto allow the removal of the fat layer and by adding Tween 20 to control protein interferences.
\n\t\t\t\t
After development (15’ at 37°C), strips were scanned. Dedicated software acquires and processed images and the signal, intended as the T/C ratio, was plotted against the logarithm of AFM1 concentration to carry out calibration. As previously observed in the development of LFIA for other mycotoxin [56, 61-63], matrix-matched calibration should be carried out to fit experimental results obtained on milk samples. Therefore, a pasteurized whole milk sample in which AFM1 was found out undetectable when analysed by the reference ELISA kit was used to prepare diluted calibrators. A typical calibration curve is depicted in Figure 5. A LOD (calculated as the average of the blank minus 3 standard deviations from the average) and IC50 of 20 ng l-1 and 102 ± 19 ng l-1 were estimated, respectively.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 6.
A typical calibration curve for AFM1 measurement in milk by the developed LFIA. Error bars represent SD of 3 replicates.
\n\t\t\t\t
Accuracy of the developed LFIA was evaluated on different kind of milk samples (Table 2). Milk samples were purchased on the market and were found undetectable according to the developed LFIA. Therefore, accuracy was evaluated on samples fortified at two levels (50 and 100 ng l-1). Acceptable results were obtained, although a slight overestimation or underestimation were observed for the raw and the UHT samples, respectively, which can be attributed to the fact that calibration was carried out in pasteurized milk.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
The intra- and inter-day precision was evaluated at 3 levels of fortification (0-50-100 ng l-1). RSD values were generally high (above 30%) which makes reliability of quantification questionable.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMilk sample
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
AFM1 measured by ELISA (ng l-1)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Fortification level (ng l-1)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Estimated AFM1± SD (ng l-1)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Recovery (%)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
raw
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
17.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
<LOD
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
50
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
78.4 ± 6.2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
121
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
100
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
153.2 ± 14.1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
135
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
whole 1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
< LOD
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
<LOD
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
50
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
40.0 ± 2.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
80
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
100
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
121.5 ± 9.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
122
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
whole 2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
<LOD
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
50
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
79.0 ± 8.6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
126
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
100
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
125.5 ± 11.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
126
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
skimmed
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
15.7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
34.6 ± 1.2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
50
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
74.4± 4.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
117
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
100
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
113.0 ± 20.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
97
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
UHT
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
<LOD
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
<LOD
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
50
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
46.8 ± 5.3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
94
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
100
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
87.5 ± 10.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
88
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 2.
Recovery of AFM1 determination from artificially contaminated milk samples undergone to various thermal treatments and with different fat content as determined by the developed LFIA. Recovery was calculated as follows: (estimated AFM1 for the fortified sample – estimated AFM1 for the non fortified sample) / fortification level *100
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.4. Intra-laboratory validation of the semi-quantitative LFIA
\n\t\t\t\t
The objective of analytical methods such as those based on the LFIA technology is the parting between samples surely complying with legislation in force and samples which do not comply. However, a further category of samples should be considered and is represented by those samples in which the toxin content is close to the legal limit which because of measure uncertainty cannot be classified as compliant or noncompliant (Figure 4). These “uncertain samples” should be submitted to further controls before entering the transformation chain. In the case of milk, rejection is more often the fate of such uncertain samples (as for noncompliant samples), because the perishable nature of milk discourages time-consuming investigations. Therefore, the purpose of the work could become the development of a very rapid screening method which allowed the semi-quantitation of AFM1 in milk in such a way to permit the discrimination between compliant and noncompliant samples. The instrumental quantification of coloured lines and their correlation with a calibration curve, in this context, could be regarded as a way to limit subjectivity in the interpretation of results and to improve detectability [52, 44] rather than going into the direction of factual quantitative measurements.
\n\t\t\t\t
To achieve the useful ability to discriminate compliant from noncompliant samples, a proper cut-off value should be established. The eligible EU MRL value (i.e.: 50 ng l-1) would be expected to be at tain able given the high sensitivity of the developed LFIA. Nevertheless, the definition of a cut-off level should consider precision and technical limitations of the method, besides sensitivity. Moreover, the calibration curve being a continuously descending curve characterized by a finite slope, the definition of a single-point cut-off value is less appropriate than the identification of an indicator range of analyte concentrations within which uncertain or “non-attributable” results (neither “compliant” nor “noncompliant”) fall [44].
\n\t\t\t\t
As regard precision, European legislation for screening methods of analysis defines as appropriate a relative uncertainty of 47% of the MRL and as acceptable even 94% for AFM1 based on the application of Horwitz equation [71]. Accepting the more restrictive criterion, this means that any screening methods should be able to discriminate between AFM1 content less than 26.5 ng l-1 (negative sample) and AFM1 content over 73.5 ng l-1 (positive sample). Samples that have AFM1 content close to the thres hold limit should thus be defined as uncertain because precision did not allow to reliably attributing them to one or another group.
\n\t\t\t\t
In spite of this, it should be noted that a “non-attributable” judgement would determine rejection of the sample with a considerable economic damage, as discussed above. Therefore, the minimum number of non-attributable results would be expected for a worth while method and this number obviously depends on the combination of accuracy and precision of the method itself. To indicate the capability of a qualitative/semi-quantitative method to produce the lowest score of non-attributable results, for a defined uncertainty interval, we introduced a new parameter indicated as “efficiency” of the method, defined as the ability of the method itself to detect truly non-attributable as non-attributable. Efficiency was thus calculated as the number of truly non-attributable tests divided by the sum of known non-attributable samples, in strict analogy with “sensitivity” and “selectivity” of qualitative and semi-quantitative as says, which are defined as the rate of truly positive e and truly negative test results, respectively [50, 60]. The more efficient the assay, the highest the score of useful results (samples certainly attributed as compliant or noncompliant).
\n\t\t\t\t
The ability of the developed LFIA to correctly attribute to each of the groups milk samples found on the market was thus assessed; in particular, negative (compliant) samples were defined as those in which AFM1 content was below 30 ng l-1, positive (noncompliant) samples those in which AFM1 content was above 70 ng l-1 and uncertain (non-attributable) those having an AFM1 content between 30 and 70 ng l-1. Since all tested samples were always contaminated below 30 ng l-1 as established by the reference ELISA, positive samples were generated through fortification at 50 and 100 ng l-1. Results of this evaluation, together with the definition of sensitivity, selectivity and efficiency, are reported in Table 3.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
It can be observed from data that the definition of an indicator range instead of a cut-off level allowed us to avoid occurrence of false compliant and false noncompliant. Incorrect attribution occurred in 15% of samples (6/40), though 3 of them would represent a minor issue being assigned as non-attributable rather than noncompliant, which anyhow mean that samples would be discarded. The efficiency is relatively low, however it could still be considered acceptable.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tParameter
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Definition
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Calculated as
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Value (%)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Sensitivity
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
truly positive / known positive
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
tp / (tp + fn + fup)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
81.3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Selectivity
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
truly negative / known negative
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
tn / (tn + fp + fun)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
100.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Efficiency
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
truly uncertain / known uncertain
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
tu / (tu + fun + fup)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
62.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
False compliant rate
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
false negative / known negative
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
fn / (tn + fn + fun)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
False noncompliant rate
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
false positive / known positive
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
fp / (tp + fp + fup)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
False non-attributable rate
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
false uncertain / known uncertain
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
fu / (tu + fun + fup)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
37.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 3.
Evaluation of LFIAs performances on 40 milk samples: 16 negatives, 16 positives and 8 uncertain. The AFM1 reference content was determined by an ELISA kit [19]. Abbreviations used: tp, truly positive (AFM1 below 30 ng l-1); tn, truly negative (AFM1 above 70 ng l-1); tu, truly uncertain (AFM1 between 30 and 70 ng l-1); fn, false negative; fp, false positive; fun, false uncertain and known to be negative; fup, false uncertain and known to be positive.
\n\t\t\t\t
Finally, the stability of the overall device at room temperature was evaluated as the possibility of correctly measuring samples contaminated at low (<30 ng l-1) and high levels (> 70 ng l-1) and by using calibration curves carried out with freshly prepared strips; nevertheless, it could not be confirmed for periods longer than a month.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4. Conclusions
\n\t\t\t
Despite LFIAs still being regarded in some ways as an emerging and incoming technology for food safety monitoring, there are several examples of fully developed devices described in the literature and also available as commercial kits for detecting a variety of natural and xenobiotic contaminants. Annual updates of state-of-the-art techniques underline the growing interest in the field and the increasing relevance of this technology over more established screening techniques. Not with standing the research is conditioned by the attainment of effectively functioning devices, often at the expense of true innovation, except in a few rare cases.
\n\t\t\t
The literature concerning lateral flow immunoassays for aflatoxins is stilllimited, partly because the subject is very recent; indeed, the first published work on this topic dates back to just adecade ago. From this pioneering approach, several papers have been published which describes devices mainly aimed at measuring aflatoxin B1. The use of LFDs for aflatoxin determination in nuts has also been demonstrated, even if the principal application is represented by their use to monitor aflatoxin contamination in cereals and derived products. This can be explained by the fact that research in this field is strongly driven by industry and by the prevalent economic impact of cereals in comparison to other commodities potentially affected by aflatoxin contamination.
\n\t\t\t
The development of reliable devices for AFM1 detection, conversely, suffers the extreme sensitivity required to analytical methods aimed at measuring such a contaminant. Very few papers have been published which describe LFIAs for AFM1and none actually meet those requirements, despite the high interest in obtaining adequate systems for the rapid and on site monitoring of this toxin.
\n\t\t\t
In this paper, we demonstrated that modifying the format of the classic lateral flow assay (such as tailoring the toxin conjugate, used as the competitor in the T-line, and the antibody labelling procedure)a greatdetect ability improvement could be obtained. The estimated LOD of the developed semi-quantitative LFIA was one order of magnitude lower than previously published LFIAs for AFM1, therefore allowed us to effectively discriminate between compliant and noncompliant samples at a level required by the most severe legislation in force. Matrix-matched calibration was necessary to level results obtained on milk samples, however, various matrices (undergone to different thermal treatment and with differing fat contents) could be analysed after a very rapid and easy sample treatment, which involves 2’ centrifugation followed by the addition of a small volume of a concentrated solution of a surfactant.
\n\t\t
\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/40108.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/40108.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/40108",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/40108",totalDownloads:3707,totalViews:500,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:3,impactScorePercentile:86,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 1st 2012",dateReviewed:"July 22nd 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"January 23rd 2013",dateFinished:"October 15th 2012",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/40108",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/40108",book:{id:"3109",slug:"aflatoxins-recent-advances-and-future-prospects"},signatures:"Laura Anfossi, Claudio Baggiani, Cristina Giovannoli and Gianfranco Giraudi",authors:[{id:"48947",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Anfossi",fullName:"Laura Anfossi",slug:"laura-anfossi",email:"laura.anfossi@unito.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"59928",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"Baggiani",fullName:"Claudio Baggiani",slug:"claudio-baggiani",email:"claudio.baggiani@unito.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"59929",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Giovannoli",fullName:"Cristina Giovannoli",slug:"cristina-giovannoli",email:"cristina.giovannoli@unito.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"59930",title:"Prof.",name:"Gianfranco",middleName:null,surname:"Giraudi",fullName:"Gianfranco Giraudi",slug:"gianfranco-giraudi",email:"gianfranco.giraudi@unito.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Lateral flow immunoassays for aflatoxins",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Principle of the method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. LFIAs for aflatoxins B and G",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1. Application of LFIA for aflatoxins B and G in food analysis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.3. LFIAs for aflatoxin M1\n\t\t\t\t",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Development of a highly sensitive LFIA for measuring AFM1 in milk",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1. Materials and methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.1.1. LFD preparation ",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.1.2. Lateral flow immunoassay procedure",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.2. Optimization of the LFIAs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.2.2. Labelling of antibodies with gold nanoparticles",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.3. AFM1 detection in milk by the developed LFIA",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.4. Intra-laboratory validation of the semi-quantitative LFIA ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"4. 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Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKaragusheva\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVan Peteghem\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSibanda\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDe Saeger\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tImmunoaffinity pre-concentration combined with on-column visual detection as a tool for rapid aflatoxin M1 screening in milk\n\t\t\t\t\t Food Control\n\t\t\t\t\t20\n\t\t\t\t\t9\n\t\t\t\t\t802\n\t\t\t\t\t806\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B25",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGoryacheva\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDe Saeger\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNesterenko\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEremin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVan Peteghem\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tRapid all-in-one three-step immunoassay for non-instrumental detection of ochratoxin A in high-coloured herbs and spices.\n\t\t\t\t\tTalanta\n\t\t\t\t\t72\n\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t1230\n\t\t\t\t\t1234\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B26",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEdiage\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE. N.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDi Mavungu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. D.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGoryacheva\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVan Peteghem\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDe Saeger\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2012\n\t\t\t\t\tMultiplex flow-through immunoassay formats for screening of mycotoxins in a variety of food matrices.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnalytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t403\n\t\t\t\t\t265\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B27",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRicci\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVolpe\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMicheli\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPalleschi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tA review on novel developments and applications of immunosensors in food analysis.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnalytica Chimica Acta\n\t\t\t\t\t605\n\t\t\t\t\t111\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B28",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhong\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNiessner\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKnopp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tMultifunctional magnetic bead-based electrochemical immunoassay for the detection of aflatoxin B1 in food.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnalyst\n\t\t\t\t\t134\n\t\t\t\t\t8\n\t\t\t\t\t1554\n\t\t\t\t\t60\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B29",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZaijun\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhongyun\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXiulan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYinjun\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPeipei\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tA sensitive and highly stable electrochemical impedance immunosensor based on the formation of silica gel-ionic liquid biocompatible film on the glassy carbon electrode for the determination of aflatoxin B1 in bee pollen.\n\t\t\t\t\tTalanta\n\t\t\t\t\t80\n\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t1632\n\t\t\t\t\t1637\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B30",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. Q.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tA signal-amplified electrochemical immunosensor for aflatoxin B1 determination in rice.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnalytical Biochemistry;\n\t\t\t\t\t387\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t82\n\t\t\t\t\t86\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B31",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPohanka\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMalir\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRoubal\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKuca\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tDetection of Aflatoxins in Capsicum Spice Using an Electrochemical Immunosensor.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnalytical Letters\n\t\t\t\t\t13\n\t\t\t\t\t41\n\t\t\t\t\t2344\n\t\t\t\t\t2353\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B32",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJiang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tPiezoelectric immunosensor with gold nanoparticles enhanced competitive immunoreaction technique for quantification of aflatoxin B1.\n\t\t\t\t\tBiosensensors and Bioelectronics\n\t\t\t\t\t24\n\t\t\t\t\t8\n\t\t\t\t\t2580\n\t\t\t\t\t2585\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B33",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMicheli\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGrecco\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBadea\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMoscone\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPalleschi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tAn electrochemical immunosensor for aflatoxin M1 determination in milk using screen-printed electrodes.\n\t\t\t\t\tBiosensensors and Bioelectronics\n\t\t\t\t\t21\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t588\n\t\t\t\t\t596\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B34",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tParker\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. O.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLanyon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tManning\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tArrigan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTothill\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tElectrochemical immunochip sensor for aflatoxin M1 detection.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnalytical Chemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t81\n\t\t\t\t\t13\n\t\t\t\t\t5291\n\t\t\t\t\t5298\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B35",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKanungo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPal\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBhand\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tMiniaturised hybrid immunoassay for high sensitivity analysis of aflatoxin M1 in milk.\n\t\t\t\t\tBiosensensors and Bioelectronics\n\t\t\t\t\t26\n\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t2601\n\t\t\t\t\t2606\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B36",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPiletska\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKarim\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCoker\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPiletsky\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tDevelopment of the custom polymeric materials specific for aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A for application with the ToxiQuant T1 sensor tool.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Chromatography A\n\t\t\t\t\t1217\n\t\t\t\t\t16\n\t\t\t\t\t2543\n\t\t\t\t\t2547\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B37",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaggiani\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAnfossi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGiovannoli\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tMolecular imprinted polymers as synthetic receptors for the analysis of myco- and phyco-toxins.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnalyst\n\t\t\t\t\t133\n\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\t719\n\t\t\t\t\t730\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B38",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMolina-García\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFernández-de Córdova\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRuiz-Medina\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2012\n\t\t\t\t\tIndirect determination of aflatoxin B1 in beer via a multi-commuted optical sensor Food Additives & Contaminants\n\t\t\t\t\tPart A: Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure & Risk Assessment\n\t\t\t\t\t29\n\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t392\n\t\t\t\t\t402\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B39",body:'\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDostálek\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKnoll\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tLong range surface plasmon-enhanced fluorescence spectroscopy for the detection of aflatoxin M1 in milk.\n\t\t\t\t\tBiosensensors and Bioelectronics\n\t\t\t\t\t7\n\t\t\t\t\t24\n\t\t\t\t\t2264\n\t\t\t\t\t7\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B40",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tArduini\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tErrico\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAmine\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMicheli\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPalleschi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMoscone\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tEnzymatic Spectrophotometric Method for Aflatoxin B Detection Based on Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnalytical Chemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t79\n\t\t\t\t\t3409\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B41",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPosthuma-Trumpie\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKorf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVan Amerongen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tLateral flow (immuno)assay: its strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats. A literature survey.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnalytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t393\n\t\t\t\t\t569\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B42",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKrska\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMolinelli\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tRapid test strips for analysis of mycotoxins in food and feed.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnalytical and Bioanalytical Chemitry\n\t\t\t\t\t393\n\t\t\t\t\t67\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B43",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNgom\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGuo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tDevelopment and application of lateral flow test strip technology for detection of infectious agents and chemical contaminants: a review.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnalytical and Bioanalytical Chemitry\n\t\t\t\t\t397\n\t\t\t\t\t1113\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B44",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAnfossi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaggiani\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGiovannoli\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD’Arco\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGiraudi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2012\n\t\t\t\t\tLateral-flow immunoassays for mycotoxins and phycotoxins: a review.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnalytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t14\n\t\t\t\t\tDOI s00216-012-6033-4\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B45",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tU.S. Department of Agriculture.\n\t\t\t\t\t2012\n\t\t\t\t\tGIPSA Performance Verified Rapid Test Kits for Analysis of Mycotoxins\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.gipsa.usda.gov/fgis/tech-servsup/metheqp/testkits.pdf\n\t\t\t\t\taccessed June\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B46",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAnfossi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCalderara\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaggiani\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGiovanoli\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tArletti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGiraudi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tDevelopment and application of a quantitative lateral flow immunoassay for fumonisins in maize.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnalytica Chimica Acta;\n\t\t\t\t\t682\n\t\t\t\t\t104\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B47",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLaycock\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. V\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDonovan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEasy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tSensitivity of lateral flow tests to mixtures of saxitoxins and applications to shellfish and phytoplankton monitoring.\n\t\t\t\t\tToxicon\n\t\t\t\t\t55\n\t\t\t\t\t597\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B48",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKomano\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMaruko\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSekiguchi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSeto\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tDetection of saxitoxin in counterterrorism using a commercial lateral flow immunoassay kit.\n\t\t\t\t\tForensic Toxicology\n\t\t\t\t\t2938\n\t\t\t\t\t43\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B49",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWauchope\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. D.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tA Strip Liposome Immunoassay for Aflatoxin B1.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnalytical Chemistry;\n\t\t\t\t\t74\n\t\t\t\t\t1493\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B50",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDelmulle\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDe Saeger\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSibanda\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBarna-Vetro\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVan Peteghem\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tDevelopment of an Immunoassay-Based Lateral Flow Dipstick for the Rapid Detection of Aflatoxin B1 in Pig Feed.\n\t\t\t\t\t Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t53\n\t\t\t\t\t3364\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B51",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXiulan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXiaolian\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJiana\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhoub\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tPreparation of gold-labeled antibody probe and its use in immunochromatography assay for detection of aflatoxin B1.\n\t\t\t\t\tInternational Journal of Food Microbiology\n\t\t\t\t\t99\n\t\t\t\t\t185\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B52",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXiulan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXiaolian\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJian\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXiaohong\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJun\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tDevelopment of an immunochromatographic assay for detection of aflatoxin B1 in foods.\n\t\t\t\t\tFood Control\n\t\t\t\t\t17\n\t\t\t\t\t256\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B53",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShim\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW. B\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZ. Y\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKim\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. S\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKim\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. Y\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. J\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWoo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. J\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChung\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY. C\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEremin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChung\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tDevelopment of immunochromatography strip-test using nanocolloidal gold-antibody probe for the rapid detection of aflatoxin B1 in grain and feed samples.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Microbiology and Biotechnology\n\t\t\t\t\t171629\n\t\t\t\t\t1637\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B54",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShim\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW. B\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKim\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. S\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKim\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. Y\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChoi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. G\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJe\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. H\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKuzmina\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN. S\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEremin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChung\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tDetermination of aflatoxin B1 in rice, barley, and feed by non-instrumental immunochromatographic strip-test and high sensitive ELISA.\n\t\t\t\t\tFood Science and Biotechnology;\n\t\t\t\t\t17623\n\t\t\t\t\t630\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B55",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShim\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKim\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRyu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNam\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChung\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tDevelopment of One-step Simultaneous Immunochromatographic Assay for Rapid Analysis of Aflatoxin B1 and Ochratoxin A.\n\t\t\t\t\tFood Science and Biotechnology\n\t\t\t\t\t18\n\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t641\n\t\t\t\t\t648\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B56",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAnfossi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD’Arco\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCalderara\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaggiani\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGiovannoli\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGiraudi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tDevelopment of a quantitative lateral flow immunoassay for the detection of aflatoxins in maize.\n\t\t\t\t\t Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A: Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure & Risk Assessment\n\t\t\t\t\t28\n\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t226\n\t\t\t\t\t234\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B57",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tQ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXiao\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDing\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tA high selective immunochromatographic assay for rapid detection of aflatoxin B1.\n\t\t\t\t\tTalanta\n\t\t\t\t\t85\n\t\t\t\t\t736\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B58",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tQ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tUltrasensitive nanogold probe-based immunochromato graphic assay for simultaneous detection of total aflatoxins in peanuts.\n\t\t\t\t\t Biosensors and Bioelectronics\n\t\t\t\t\t26\n\t\t\t\t\t2877\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B59",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLiao\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tLateral flow immunodipstick for visual detection of aflatoxin B1 in food using immuno-nanoparticles composed of a silver core and a gold shell.\n\t\t\t\t\tMicrochimica Acta\n\t\t\t\t\t171\n\t\t\t\t\t3-4\n\t\t\t\t\t289\n\t\t\t\t\t295\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B60",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSauceda\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOtt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBasova\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGoryacheva\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBiselli\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNiessner\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKnopp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tMagnetic nanogold microspheres-based lateral-flow immunodipstick for rapid detection of aflatoxin B2 in food.\n\t\t\t\t\tBiosensors and Bioelectronics\n\t\t\t\t\t25\n\t\t\t\t\t514\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B61",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAnfossi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD’Arco\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaggiani\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGiovannoli\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGiraudi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tA lateral flow immunoassay for measuring ochratoxin a: development of a single system for maize, wheat and durum wheat.\n\t\t\t\t\tFood Control\n\t\t\t\t\t22\n\t\t\t\t\t12\n\t\t\t\t\t1965\n\t\t\t\t\t1970\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B62",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMolinelli\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGrossalber\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFührer\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaumgartner\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSulyok\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKrska\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tDevelopment of Qualitative and Semiquantitative Immunoassay-Based Rapid Strip Tests for the Detection of T-2 Toxin in Wheat and Oat.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t56\n\t\t\t\t\t2589\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B63",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMolinelli\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGrossalber\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKrska\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tA rapid lateral flow test for the determination of total type B fumonisins in maize\n\t\t\t\t\tAnalytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t395\n\t\t\t\t\t1309\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B64",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSalter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDouglas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTess\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMarkovsky\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSaul\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. 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Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tSensitive competitive direct enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and gold nanoparticle immunochromatographic strip for detecting aflatoxin M1 in milk.\n\t\t\t\t\tFood Control\n\t\t\t\t\t22\n\t\t\t\t\t964\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B66",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tQ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGuan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDing\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2012\n\t\t\t\t\tExtract-free immunochromatographic assay for on-site tests of aflatoxin M1 in milk Analytical Methods\n\t\t\t\t\tAccepted Manuscript\n\t\t\t\t\tDOI:10.1039/C2AY25205H\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B67",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLiu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXie\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGuo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY. R.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. N.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2012\n\t\t\t\t\tComparison of homologous and heterologous formats in nanocolloidal gold-based immunoassays for parathion residue determination.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Environmental and Science and Health Part. B, Pesticides, Food contaminants and agricultural wastes\n\t\t\t\t\t47\n\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t475\n\t\t\t\t\t83\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B68",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tByzova\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN. A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZvereva\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE. A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZherdev\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. V\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEremin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSveshnikov\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. G\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDzantiev\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tPretreatment-free immunochromatographic assay for the detection of streptomycin and its application to the control of milk and dairy products.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnalytica Chimica Acta;\n\t\t\t\t\t701\n\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t209\n\t\t\t\t\t217\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B69",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHorsiberger\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRosset\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1977\n\t\t\t\t\tColloidal gold, a useful marker for transmission and scanning electron microscopy.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t25\n\t\t\t\t\t295\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B70",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFindlay\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. 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R.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tValidation of immunoassays for bioanalysis: a pharmaceutical industry perspective.\n\t\t\t\t\t Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis\n\t\t\t\t\t21\n\t\t\t\t\t1249\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B71",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tEuropean Commission.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tCommission Regulation (EC) No 401/2006 of 23 February 2006 laying down the methods of sampling and analysis for the official control of the levels of mycotoxins in foodstuffs.\n\t\t\t\t\tOfficial Journal of the European Community\n\t\t\t\t\tL070\n\t\t\t\t\t12\n\t\t\t\t\t34\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Laura Anfossi",address:"laura.anfossi@unito.it",affiliation:'
Department of Chemistry, University of Turin, Giraudi
Department of Chemistry, University of Turin, Giraudi
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"3109",type:"book",title:"Aflatoxins",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Future Prospects",fullTitle:"Aflatoxins - Recent Advances and Future Prospects",slug:"aflatoxins-recent-advances-and-future-prospects",publishedDate:"January 23rd 2013",bookSignature:"Mehdi Razzaghi-Abyaneh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3109.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0904-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4255-3",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:201,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"48251",title:"Prof.",name:"Mehdi",middleName:null,surname:"Razzaghi-Abyaneh",slug:"mehdi-razzaghi-abyaneh",fullName:"Mehdi Razzaghi-Abyaneh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"378"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"41479",type:"chapter",title:"Development of Maize Host Resistance to Aflatoxigenic Fungi",slug:"development-of-maize-host-resistance-to-aflatoxigenic-fungi",totalDownloads:2268,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Robert L. Brown, Deepak Bhatnagar, Thomas E. 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\n
1. Introduction
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Cosmology is as old as other branches of sciences, beginning at the ancient Greeks. But modern cosmological study started in the twentieth century, marked by Einstein’s theoretical research in 1917 and Hubble’s observational investigations in 1929. The Big Bang cosmological model came mainly from Hubble’s work. Hubble used the Doppler Effect to interpret what came to be known as the cosmological redshift. The “tired light” hypothesis was proposed by Zwicky in 1929, after Hubble’s paper, as an alternative interpretation to that of the Doppler effect for the cosmological redshift [1]. In 1929, Hubble obtained a distance-redshift relation through observations. He then obtained a new relation of distance-velocity by using the Doppler effect to interpret the redshift. About half a year later after Hubble’s paper, Zwicky proposed a “tired light” hypothesis to explain the distance-redshift relation. But the nature of the “tired light” was only vaguely explained in Zwicky’s work, so that the “tired light” hypothesis has not been accepted by most cosmologists and astronomers to this day. The Big Bang, after Hubble’s work, became the most accepted cosmological model. In recent years, problems related to Big Bang have been more and more clearly realized by cosmologists and astronomers. Some problems are directly related to the interpretation of the Doppler effect for cosmological redshift. The Big Bang model cannot surmount these problems. Fortunately, the study of “tired light” theory has continued. In 2013, Shao developed the “tired light” hypothesis on the basis of physical principles, that is, (a) electromagnetic field theory, (b) the mass-energy equivalence, (c) the quantum light theory, and (d) the Lorentz theory [2]. Based on these physical principles, the “tired light” theory explains the cosmological redshift as the result of photon energy loss due to the interactions with material particles as photons travel through cosmological space. By this interpretation for cosmological redshift, the Cosmos is infinite and eternal.
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2. Big Bang, history and problems
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Hubble derived the distance-velocity relation from observational result of the distance-redshift relation, by employing the interpretation of Doppler effect [3]. The Big Bang is popularly known in present days, but some problems accompanying it have been aroused. Furthermore, some problems result from the interpretation of Doppler effect for the cosmological redshift. Actually, all the problems are rooted in the Doppler effect interpretation of cosmological redshift. The present situation is that the Big Bang cosmology is facing some hurdles, which it seems cannot be easily overcome within the framework of the Big Bang model.
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2.1. Big Bang and Doppler effect
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The Big Bang model came from two sources. One source is, weakly, Einstein’s finite boundless cosmological model proposed in 1917. The other one is, strongly, the interpretation of the Doppler effect for the cosmological redshift, employed by Hubble [3].
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Hubble employed the Doppler effect to interpret the cosmological redshift in the distance-redshift relation he discovered in 1929. In doing this, Hubble derived the distance-velocity relation which led people to conceive of the Cosmos in the image of a Big Bang. Why did Hubble use the Doppler effect to interpret the redshift? One reason is that he had no other choice since the Doppler effect was the only interpretation for redshift at that time.
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Reber had introduced the history of the Doppler effect and its application to the studies of the Sun’s motion and the rotation of our galaxy [4]. The Doppler effect was enunciated in 1842. Doppler claimed that the frequency and wavelength of light or sound would change when a signal from a moving source was observed. The effect was confirmed in 1845 for sound. It was subsequently confirmed for light by observation in 1871 and by experiment in 1901.
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About the year 1900, the Doppler effect was used to study the rotating of double stars. Around 1910, it was used to study the motion of the Sun in the Milky Way. And by 1920, it was used to examine the rotation of our galaxy. “All three of the above examples are correct interpretations of spectral shift caused by relative motion between the source and the observer,” Reber remarked.
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When Hubble had found the relation of distance-redshift, he used the Doppler effect to interpret the redshift, that is, the movements of spectral lines. He did so habitually, as previous studies had done. Whether he considered the difference between light sources within our galaxy and those in other galaxies is not known. But the problems were brewing by his doing. Hubble should have been conscious of the fact that the light sources belong to other galaxies. Then, was it suitable to use the Doppler effect for the interpretation of the redshift in the distance-redshift relation? Nevertheless, Hubble transformed the distance-redshift relation to the distance-velocity relation by using a Doppler interpretation for the redshift. In doing this, Hubble had no real choice because there was only the Doppler effect available to him for the interpretation of redshift. Regarding this, Reber remarked: “clearly, the interpretation of these spectral shifts as representing relative motion was dubious.”
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2.2. The problems related to Big Bang
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As a cosmological model, the Big Bang presents some difficult problems. There are some phenomena that the Doppler effect cannot explain and others that Big Bang cannot resolve, due to its Doppler effect interpretation for cosmological redshift.
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Some of the phenomena and problems are:
The solar limb effect, that is, the variation of redshift on solar disc,
The signal redshift of Pioneer 6,
The large redshift of quasars,
Super velocity of light,
The horizon problem,
The age of the Cosmos.
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3. The history of “tired light” theory
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Hubble employed the Doppler effect to interpret the cosmological redshift in his study. It was a bold move which he might not have made if he had considered the issue deeply. Zwicky however did not think the Doppler effect was suitable for the interpretation of the cosmological redshift. The Doppler effect says nothing about the nature of matter. It is only a problem in kinematics. The redshift induced by the Doppler effect is caused by relative motion between the light source and the observer. Zwicky thought the things are not so simple. He proposed the “tired light” hypothesis that the cosmological redshift is caused by the interaction of the light with a latent feature of the Cosmos. The tired light hypothesis claims that while the light propagates, it must be affected by all matters of the Cosmos. The idea came from Mach who thought that all of the matter in the Cosmos is related, so that any part of the matter is affected by all the other parts. Although Zwicky objected to the Doppler effect interpretation of cosmological redshift, the tired light hypothesis was vague on physical mechanics, so few people took the hypothesis seriously. But there have been a few people contemplating tired light, keenly working to find the physical mechanics thereof, without success [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. The physical mechanics of tired light was not clearly described until 2013 when M. Shao published his paper. Shao pointed out that the physical mechanics of tired light should be the Lorentz electric force produced by the electromagnetic field of photons acting on material particles.
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The phenomena and problems related to Big Bang listed in Section 2.2 can now be explained by the renewed tired light theory (thereafter referred as TLT).
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4. The TLT: basic thoughts
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The Cosmos is composed of matters and fields. A material aggregation produces two kinds of field, the gravitational field and the electromagnetic field, with the forces of the fields; the gravitational and the electromagnetic forces; and different matter aggregations interact with one another. They attract for or repel each other, which changes or keeps the conditions of matter distribution of various regions, in large or small scales, of the Cosmos.
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With the principle of matter-energy equivalence, the electromagnetic field and material particles can be considered the same thing. Then, their densities and sizes can be calculated. A hydrogen atom and a photon of visible light are presented in the simplest case.
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The mass of a hydrogen atom is \n\n1.67\n×\n\n10\n\n−\n27\n\n\n\nkg\n\n, and its diameter is \n\n2.4\n×\n\n10\n\n−\n10\n\n\nm\n\n. Then, the density of the hydrogen atom is \n\n231\n\nkg\n\nm\n\n−\n3\n\n\n.\n\n
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The average wavelength of the visible light is \n\n5.5\n×\n\n10\n\n−\n7\n\n\n\nm\n\n, being the diameter of a photon. For the simplicity, we assume that the photon has spherical symmetry. From \n\nE\n=\nhν\n\n, here \n\nh\n\n is the Plank constant, and \n\nν\n\n is the frequency of the light, and \n\nE\n=\nM\n\nc\n2\n\n\n, the mass of the photon is \n\n4\n×\n\n10\n\n−\n36\n\n\n\nkg\n\n. Then, the density of the photon is \n\n4.6\n×\n\n10\n\n−\n17\n\n\nkg\n\nm\n\n−\n3\n\n\n\n.
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From the above data, the ratio of the size of the photon to that of the hydrogen atom is 2292, and the ratio of the density of the photon to that of the hydrogen atom is \n\n2\n×\n\n10\n\n−\n19\n\n\n\n. The two ratios reveal that the hydrogen atom is very hard and small compared to the photon. The photon, relatively, is extremely low in density and more than 2000 times larger than the hydrogen atom. We now consider a hydrogen atom encountering a photon. The photon is traveling at a light speed, \n\n3\n×\n\n10\n8\n\n\nm\n\ns\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n, in cosmological space. The hydrogen atom is more or less stable. Since the motion is relative between the photon and the hydrogen atom, the photon could be supposed in a stable mode, and the hydrogen atom penetrates the photon at the speed of light. The diameter of the photon being \n\n5.5\n×\n\n10\n\n−\n7\n\n\n\nm\n\n, then the hydrogen atom should penetrate the photon in \n\n1.8\n×\n\n10\n\n−\n15\n\n\n\ns\n\n. In such a short time, the hydrogen atom should not show electronic neutrality but present in the mode of electric dipole. A photon is actually a section of moving electromagnetic field. During the time of hydrogen atom penetration of the photon, the electromagnetic field of the photon should interact with the hydrogen atom. The electromagnetic field of the photon acts on the hydrogen atom and does some work on the hydrogen atom, given by the Lorentz electric force. A little bit of the energy of the electromagnetic field is transferred from the electromagnetic field to the hydrogen atom. Although the photon loses a very small amount of energy in meeting with a hydrogen atom, it will, traveling a long distance in the cosmological space, show a detectable effect for a photon meeting a large number of hydrogen atoms (and other kinds of atoms and molecules), that is, the photon undergoes a cosmological redshift.
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The expression for the cosmological redshift, based on the tired light theory, obtained by Shao in 2013, is, \n\nZ\n=\nexp\n\n\nkN\n\nλ\n0\n\n+\nu\n\n\n−\n1\n\n, where \n\nk\n\n is a coefficient, \n\nN\n\n is the number of material particles that a photon interacts with in its course from emitter to observer, \n\n\nλ\n0\n\n\n is the original wavelength of the light, and \n\nu\n\n is the change of the wavelength induced by the gravitational effect [2].
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5. Reasoning: the energy loss of a photon, the electromagnetic field of a photon, etc.
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5.1. Polarization of atoms and molecules
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A hydrogen atom is electrically neutrality in a common time scale. But in a very short instant, for example, about the period of an electron revolving around the nucleus, the hydrogen atom appears to be polarized. A polarized atom must be affected by an electromagnetic field. The hydrogen atom is the simplest atom. It is believed that many kinds of atoms are similarly polarized in a very short time interval.
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A small molecule is not always oscillating, deviating from the mode of electromagnetic equilibration. Hence, in a very short time interval, a molecule may be affected by an electromagnetic field. Based on this reasoning, it may be said that many kinds of atoms and molecules should be affected by electromagnetic fields.
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5.2. The electromagnetic field of a photon
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Light has been considered from two different viewpoints, the wave theory and the particle theory. To explain the photoelectron effect, Einstein suggested that light energy propagates in packets, that is, photons. This is the particle viewpoint of light. The energy of a photon is \n\nE\n=\nhν\n\n. Contrarily, from the viewpoint of wave theory, light is looked upon as a propagating series of electromagnetic wave.
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The two different viewpoints describe the same objective thing but they express different features of light. For the purpose of understanding the energy transfer process from photons to material particles, both viewpoints need to be combined. What is a photon? Einstein and Plank defined a photon by the frequency of the light. They were talking about the effects of energy emission and absorption. For the special case under discussion here, a photon is looked upon as a section of the electromagnetic field of the traveling light. The length of the section is the wavelength of the light. In the corresponding period, the electromagnetic field completes an oscillation. A thread of traveling light can be imaged as a series of photons, and a photon is a section of moving electromagnetic field.
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Consider the case of a photon interacting with a hydrogen atom. Since the average size of a photon of visible light is more than 2000 times larger than a hydrogen atom, as mentioned above, the situation of a photon interacting with a hydrogen atom can be viewed as the hydrogen atom penetrating the photon. The photon is viewed as a stable electromagnetic field, and the hydrogen atom is moving through the electromagnetic field of the photon.
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5.3. The Lorentz force of the electromagnetic field of a photon
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The size of the electromagnetic field is the wavelength of the light. That is to say that a photon is a section of electromagnetic field which, in a period, oscillates along its length. Image moving together with an electromagnetic field is within the cosmological space. We will see some hydrogen atoms passing through the electromagnetic field, that is, they are penetrating the photon.
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The electromagnetic field of the photon will affect a charged particle with a Lorentz force. In the short time of \n\n1.8\n×\n\n10\n\n−\n15\n\n\n\n second, the hydrogen atom is polarized, and it should be forced to change its motion mode by the Lorentz force. The Lorentz magnetic force changes the moving direction of the hydrogen atom, and the Lorentz electric force does some work on the hydrogen atom. Thus, some energy, although small, is transferred from the photon to the hydrogen atom. In the tremendous long journey from emitter to receiver, a photon has to encounter a large number of material particles, so the sum of the energy loss of the photon should show up. The energy loss of the photon is the redshift of the light.
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5.4. The ISM and IGM
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The Cosmos is the only objective existence and is composed of all the matter and fields produced by the matter. Since it is the only existent thing, it is eternal and infinite. Since it is eternal and infinite, matter can exist in all possible forms, of which there are galaxies, stars, planetary systems, planets and others. All the above are aggregations of atoms, except that there are roaming atoms, molecules, and dusts, which are the components of the interstellar medium (ISM) and intergalactic medium (IGM). By the way, since the Cosmos possesses infinite possibilities for matter, all kinds of living things, including the human, are here on Earth.
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5.5. Matter and fields
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There are four kinds of forces related to matter. The strong force and the weak force, which manifest within atoms, are not discussed here. The electromagnetic force and the gravitation are the forces controlling the material distribution of the Cosmos. Generally speaking, all forms of material aggregation and the two kinds of field, the electromagnetic field and the gravitational field, are the elements composing the Cosmos. Matter forms galaxies, stars and planets, and still more smaller celestial objects. The concern here is the atoms and molecules which roam in the interstellar space and intergalactic space, that is, the ISM and the IGM. The greater part of the ISM and IGM is composed of the simplest atom, hydrogen. Kant first talked about the formation process of planetary system. Generally, he is right, and, his reasoning is applicable to the formation of galaxies. These processes are condensing processes. The question is what is the inverse process by which matter is exiled? Roughly, the supernova is a means of material dispersion. Another way is the evaporation of black holes. The Cosmos is in an equilibrium state by these two processes: condensing and dispersing. Nevertheless, we are especially interested here in the interaction between photons and material particles, atoms and molecules.
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Most of the ISM and IGM are hydrogen atoms, and most of the others are helium. The rest are heavier elements, molecules, etc. As discussed previously, when a photon meets a material particle, the photon can be looked upon as a section of moving electromagnetic field, and the atom or molecule is passing through the electromagnetic field. While the atom or molecule travels through the electromagnetic field of the photon, a little bit of energy is transferred from the photon to the particle through the effect of the Lorentz electric force. Within the tremendously long journey of a photon from emitter to observer, a vast number of atoms and molecules are encountered and interacted with the photon. With the interactions, a part of the energy of the photon is consumed, and the photon is redshifted.
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5.6. Equilibrium of energy matter and energy transfer
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As a whole, the cosmos is in an equilibrium state of the matter and energy. But in a local area, there are stars forming and extinguishing. On the larger scale, there are galaxies forming and extinguishing (dispersing). All the processes relate to energy absorption or emission. Consider again the energy transfer process from a photon to a material particle. As said before, when a photon meets a material particle, it can be looked upon as a material particle moving through an electromagnetic field. The material particle may be an atom or a molecule. The particle may be charged. If not, the electrically neutral particle may display polarity in the very short interval as it moves through the electromagnetic field of the photon. When the charged or polarized material particle moves through the electromagnetic field, the Lorentz magnetic force of the electromagnetic field changes the direction of the path of the material particle, and the Lorentz electric force does some work on the material particle, changing the motion of the particle. Then some energy is transferred from the electromagnetic field, that is, the photon, to the material particle. In the long journey of the photon from emitter to observer, a massive number of material particles have interacted with the photon, producing an observable effect, that is, the redshift.
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6. The equation of the cosmological redshift
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6.1. The energy loss of a photon
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A larger photon will transfer more energy to a material particle since it has a longer interaction time with the material particle. So a larger photon transfers a larger part of its energy to the material particle than a smaller one. Thus, the energy loss of a photon is proportional to its size. A photon, on its journey after emission, meets a number of material particles before being received by an observer. The greater the number of material particles it meets, the more energy it loses. So, the energy loss of the photon is also proportional to the number of material particles it meets.
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6.2. Equations for the cosmological redshift
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When a photon of size \n\nλ\n\n and energy \n\nE\n\n meets a material particle, the material particle runs through the electromagnetic field of the photon in a time \n\nt\n=\nλ\n/\nc\n\n, where \n\nc\n\n is the speed of light. In the interaction, the material particle can be viewed as stationary compared to the speed of the photon. During the interaction, the photon transfers a tiny amount of energy \n\nδ\n\nE\n\n\n to the material particle. A coefficient \n\nk\n=\nδ\n\nE\n\n/\nEλ\n\n is defined here, denoting the rate of energy loss of the photon per unit length. The coefficient \n\nk\n\n is denoted conceptually at this stage. Further theoretical or experimental studies are needed to determine its value.
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If a photon of size \n\n\nλ\n0\n\n\n and energy \n\nE\n\n when emitted meets \n\nN\n\n material particles in its path and transfers a part of its energy to the material particles, supposing all the material particles interact equally with the photon, a differential equation for the energy of the photon is obtained with coefficient \n\nk\n\n as follows:
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\n\n\ndE\ndN\n\n=\n−\nk\n\nλ\n0\n\nE\n.\n\nE1
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The solution, from the condition \n\nE\n=\n\nE\n0\n\n\n when \n\nN\n=\n0\n\n, is
The expression for the redshift is \n\nZ\n=\n\n\nλ\n−\n\nλ\n0\n\n\n\nλ\n0\n\n\n\n. It can be written as \n\nZ\n=\n\n\n\nν\n0\n\n−\nν\n\nν\n\n=\n\n\n\nE\n0\n\n−\nE\n\nE\n\n\n. Then, it obtains,
The redshift described above is induced by the process of energy loss of photons. It can be called tired light redshift, referred to as “TR” thereafter. The cosmological redshift (CR) is not simply induced by a single effect. In addition to TR, the gravitational redshift (GR), that is, the redshift induced by the gravitational field of the source star, must be considered in the analysis and evaluation of CR.
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The GR is different from TR in nature. It has no relation to the interaction of photons with material particles. So, Eq. (5) should have the form
where \n\n\nλ\ng\n\n\n denotes the part of the wavelength change induced by the gravitational effect. (GR equals \n\nGM\n/\n\nc\n2\n\nR\n\n. Here, it is also expressed as \n\n\nλ\ng\n\n/\n\nλ\n0\n\n\n.) For simplicity, set \n\nu\n=\n\nλ\ng\n\n\n. Eq. (6) is rewritten as,
Now, there are two expressions, Eqs. (5) and (7), for the cosmological redshift. Eq. (5), comparatively simpler, considers only the effect of TR, whereas Eq. (7) considers the effects of TR and GR.
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7. Features of TLT and evidence: part I
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7.1. Redshift vs. wavelength
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A photon emitted from a star undergoes a continuous process of energy loss on its journey by interacting with material particles before it reaches an observer on Earth. It encounters material particles within the corresponding spaces of: (1) the atmosphere around the star, (2) the ISM in the galaxy the star belongs to, (3) the IGM, (4) the ISM of our galaxy, and (5) the atmosphere of the Earth. In the five parts, the IGM is the main one which CR is induced by. Although, the IGMs are sparsely distributed in the intergalactic space, the space is vast compared with the other spaces. Therefore, the tired light redshift (TR), the main part of the cosmological redshift (CR), is mainly induced by the interaction of photons with material particles of IGM. It may then be supposed that the photons of different wavelengths emitted from a certain source meet the same number of material particles in the intergalactic space along the line of sight of an observer on the Earth. Furthermore, roughly speaking, it may be supposed that the photons meet the same number of material particles on their entire journey from an emitter to an observer. So, \n\nN\n\n, the number of material particles the photons met can be considered as a constant. Thus, \n\nN\n\n can be included in the coefficient \n\nk\n\n, and Eq. (7) takes the form,
Eq. (7) shows the characters that a larger \n\n\nλ\n0\n\n\n is related to a larger \n\nZ\n\n, and a larger\n\n\nN\n\n is related to a larger \n\nZ\n\n too.
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7.2. Evidence for TLT
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7.2.1. Early evidence
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As early as 1929, Zwicky had noticed the relation between redshift and wavelength. “Some exceptions have been found, suggesting that \n\nΔ\nν\n/\nν\n\n for \n\n\nH\nβ\n\n\n is somewhat greater than for \n\n\nH\nγ\n\n\n” [1]. Here, \n\nΔ\nν\n/\nν\n=\n∆\nλ\n/\n\nλ\n0\n\n\n is the redshift, and the value of \n\n\nλ\n0\n\n\n for \n\n\nH\nβ\n\n\n is greater than that for \n\n\nH\nγ\n\n\n. This is the earliest description for the relation between redshift and wavelength, whereby a longer wavelength is related to a larger redshift. Eq. (7) shows this character; a larger \n\n\nλ\n0\n\n\n is corresponding to a larger \n\nZ\n\n.
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Wilson reported an observational result for the Seyfert galaxy NGC4151 [12]. He noticed a “slight apparent trend of velocity with wavelength.” In that study, redshift is interpreted in terms of the Doppler effect and expressed as a recession velocity, that is, \n\nV\n=\ncZ\n\n. Then, from Eq. (9),
The fitting result for the relation between the velocity \n\nV\n\n and wavelength \n\n\nλ\n0\n\n\n to Eq. (10) in Eq. (2) is,
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\n\nV\n=\n0.003959\n\nλ\n0\n\n+\n948.09\n.\n\nE11
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Comparatively, the mean radial velocity obtained by Wilson is 967 km s−1.
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Espey et al. presented a set of data for redshifts in a range of about 1–3, of six emission lines from 18 quasars, with mean values of velocity for five lines relative to \n\n\nH\nα\n\n\n [13]. The fitted result for the data is,
Schmidt and Matthews presented observational results of emission lines for quasars 3C47 and 3C147. Seven lines were observed for 3C47 and five lines for 3C147 [14]. After necessary treatment for the data, relations between redshift \n\nZ\n\n and wavelength \n\n\nλ\n0\n\n\n have been fitted to Eq. (8) as follows [2]. For 3C47, the relation is,
Nishihara et al. presented redshifts of the emission lines \n\n\nH\nα\n\n\n, \n\n\nH\nβ\n\n\n, OIII, MgII, CIII, CIV, and OI for five quasars, Q1634 + 706, Q1630 + 377, Q0117 + 213, Q1011 + 250, and Q1331 + 170 [15]. The relations between redshift \n\nZ\n\n and wavelength \n\n\nλ\n0\n\n\n to Eq. (8) for each quasar in Eq. (2) are:
In an ordinary redshift observation, usually some emission lines or absorption lines are detected. In most cases, the values of redshift of the lines are slightly different from each other. Early observers had published the original results. But afterwards, the deviations between the redshifts of the lines in most cases were moved out by averaging the values of redshift, the reason being that the redshifts for lines from a certain source should be the same according to the Big Bang model. Hence, all that is required is an average value. Subsequently, most observers gave only the average value of redshifts and did not mention the deviations, as if they do not exist, since they cannot be explained by Big Bang. But the difference between redshifts for lines from a certain source reveals a flaw in the Big Bang model. Nishihara et al. have remarked: “however, the physical mechanisms producing these velocity deviations are not well understood” [15].
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The cosmological model of Big Bang is mainly inferred from the Doppler interpretation to CR following Hubble’s lead. The main reason of Hubble used it is that the Doppler effect was the only interpretation for redshift at that time. Zwicky advanced an alternative, that is, the tired light hypothesis, which led to TLT (tired light theory) [1, 2]. TLT developed the tired light hypothesis on the foundations of physics, that is, electromagnetic field theory and the Lorentz force. It revealed the redshift-wavelength relation, substantiated by observational results as shown above.
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8. Features of TLT and evidence: part II
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8.1. Redshift vs. the number of material particles
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For a given \n\n\nλ\n0\n\n\n included in the coefficient \n\nk\n\n, Eq. (7) becomes,
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\n\nZ\n=\nexp\n\n\nkN\n+\nu\n\n\n−\n1\n,\n\nE20
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showing the relation between redshift and the number of material particles a photon interacts with on its journey. If the material particles are assumed to be distributed evenly in intergalactic space or the other respective spaces, the redshift should be proportional to the distance of the photon’s journey. Some redshift phenomena that cannot be explained by the Doppler effect can be explained by TLT.
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The Limber effect of the Sun, the signal redshift of Pioneer 6, and the large redshift of quasars are the examples of some overt phenomena that cannot be explained by the Doppler effect. Eq. (11) explicitly shows the relation of the redshift to the number of material particles by which the three foregoing puzzles can be accounted for.
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8.2. The limb effect (variation of redshift on the solar disc)
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8.2.1. The Cosmos, Sun, Earth, and human beings
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The Sun is a special star for human beings. It is the only star we can observe in detail since it is near the Earth. Actually, the Earth and we human beings and all the living things on the Earth are entwined with the Sun. We are a part of the solar system. We belong to the solar system, which belongs to our galaxy, which in turn belongs to the Cosmos. We human beings are simply a particular form of matter in the Cosmos. We observe the Cosmos and try to understand it with our peculiar intelligence that is self-understanding of the Cosmos from a viewpoint of philosophical significance.
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8.2.2. Limb effect
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The limb effect is a phenomenon involving redshift on the solar disc, that is, the redshift changing from the center to the limb of the solar disc. On the edge of the solar disc, the redshift is larger than that near the center. Although the limb effect was discovered more than a century ago, it could not be adequately explained [3]. Assis discussed the limb effect and concluded that the tired light theory provides a satisfactory explanation. He suggested that the redshift was due to the interaction of light with the atmosphere of the Sun while passing through it [16].
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TLT gives a clear explanation of the Limber effect—the largest redshift on the limb of the solar disc is due to the fact that the light emitted from the edge of the surface of the Sun encounters more material particles while traveling to Earth and therefore loses more energy than that from the inner part of the solar disc, since the atmosphere of the Sun at the edge of the solar disc has the deepest length along the line of sight of an observer on Earth [2].
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Adam, as early as in 1948, observed the redshift on the solar disc and presented a set of 14 redshifted lines at seven positions on solar disc. The redshifts vary from the center to the limb [17]. In 1991, LoPresto et al. observed the infrared oxygen triplet absorption lines at seven positions on the solar disc along the limb effect [18].
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According to Eq. (11), redshift is related to the number of material particles that the photons met on their journey. Considering the depth of the atmosphere of the Sun along the line of sight of an observer on the Earth, Shao showed that Adam’s data fit Eq. (11). The redshift curve coincides with the data points satisfactorily. Similarly, the data from LoPresto et al. were found to fit Eq. (11) very well too [2].
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8.3. The signal redshift of Pioneer 6
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When Pioneer 6 on its orbit at the far side of the Sun was approaching the Sun in November 1968, the signal it sent to Earth gave an additional frequency shift, or redshifted. The shift changed day by day. The phenomena could not be well explained. Chastel and Heyvaerts introduced the frequency shift [19]. Merat et al. reported that the data “strongly favor the existence of a new redshift cause at work in the Sun’s vicinity” [20].
\n
The signal redshift of Pioneer 6 can be explained by TLT. Like the explanation to the limb effect of the Sun, the signal redshift of Pioneer 6 is due to the energy loss in the signal while traveling through the atmosphere of the Sun. The atmosphere of the Sun is at a certain depth around the Sun. While the signal path from Pioneer 6 to Earth was getting closer to the edge of the Sun, the signal passed through a longer distance, day by day, through the atmosphere of the Sun. Consequently, more energy was lost and so the stronger the redshift caused, day by day, until Pioneer 6 went behind the Sun.
\n
\n
\n
8.4. The large redshift of the quasars
\n
The large redshifts of the quasars are rather queer, as their nature is not clear. TLT may give some insight into the quasars. The quasars might have much thicker and denser layers of atmosphere, that is, gaseous material particles, compared to normal stars. On this assumption, TLT provides a possible explanation for the large redshifts of the quasars. The main part of CR is TR, which is induced by the interaction of photons with material particles. The greater the number of material particles that the photons encounter the larger the redshift that should result. The light emitted from a quasar has to penetrate through the dense and thick layer of atmosphere around it, so that the light is redshifted much more than that from a normal star at the same distance from Earth. Thus, the quasars do not need to be located so far away as the Doppler effect interpretation of redshift supposes.
\n
\n
\n
\n
9. Considerations about the problems related to Big Bang
\n
\n
9.1. The problems of Big Bang
\n
Hubble’s work had led to the Big Bang model by using the Doppler effect to interpret the cosmological redshift. Of the two possible alternatives to Hubble for the observed redshift, either employing the Doppler interpretation or giving no interpretation, Hubble selected the former, to some extent beyond the traditional usage of the Doppler effect. In so doing, Hubble had triggered the Big Bang, although he harbored doubts as to its legitimacy. In 1937, he remarked: “thus the familiar interpretation of redshift as velocity shifts leads to strange and dubious conclusions.” In contrast, as to the tired light interpretation for redshift, Hubble remarked, “while the unknown, alternative interpretation leads to conclusions that seem plausible and even familiar” [21].
\n
Because the Big Bang is rooted in the Doppler interpretation for cosmological redshift, many problems are produced thereof, puzzling cosmologists to this day. These problems are insoluble by Big Bang cosmology because they are largely characteristic of the Doppler effect, from which researchers cannot exculpate themselves. Among the problems loom the super velocity problem, the horizon effect, and most importantly, the problem of the beginning of the Cosmos. There are other problems also related to the cosmological model of Big Bang, famously the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) and the old paradox of Olbers. Comparatively, all these problems do not arise in the tired light theory (TLT).
\n
\n
\n
9.2. Super velocity
\n
The super velocity problem is the direct consequence of invoking the Doppler interpretation of cosmological redshift to obtain \n\nV\n=\n\nH\n0\n\nD\n\n. Recalling history, Hubble and Humason had adduced a distance-redshift relation (DRR) through observations. Following traditional lines, Hubble transformed DRR to a distance-velocity relation (DVR) by replacing redshift with velocity, from which it has been concluded that the galaxies are moving away from the Milky Way. Hubble accepted the idea of runaway galaxies as a fact. But is it really a fact? The answer must be “no.” The supposed “fact” simply lends support to the Big Bang model, hence its raison d’être. In the treatment from DRR to DVR, there is no physical meaningful content about the nature of matter at all. Zwicky, therefore, objected and proposed his “tired light” hypothesis, which, afterwards, Hubble said is “plausible” and “familiar.”
\n
Zwicky’s hypothesis has not been accepted by most astronomers and cosmologists because it is vague on physical meaning. But things are changing. It is especially important at present because more and more people have realized the problems related to Big Bang entanglement. After 84 years, the tired light hypothesis has been reset in accord with the foundations of physical principles [2]. The basic principles that TLT is based on are: (a) electromagnetic field theory, (b) the matter-energy equivalence, (c) the quantum theory of light, and (d) the Lorentz theory. According to TLT, since redshift is produced by energy transfer from photons to material particles, it concludes that there is no systematic motion of galaxies on large scale of the Cosmos. Hence, there is no super velocity problem. The Cosmos is boundless and timeless.
\n
\n
\n
9.3. Horizon problem
\n
The horizon problem (also known as the homogeneity problem) is a characteristic problem of the Big Bang model. It arises from the homogeneity of regions in the Cosmos, which cannot be explained by the Big Bang model. According to Big Bang, the history of the Cosmos is finite, and in a finite time, the Cosmos could not evolve to the present homogeneity. Because the Big Bang model is based on the Doppler interpretation for cosmological redshift, the problem is, then, inherited from the Doppler interpretation. If the Doppler interpretation of cosmological redshift is abandoned, the problem disappears. The cosmological model based on TLT does not produce the problem. Based on TLT, the Cosmos is infinite and eternal, so that the homogeneity of the Cosmos is natural.
\n
\n
\n
9.4. The age of the Cosmos
\n
The age of the Cosmos is another feature of the Big Bang model, again due to the Doppler interpretation of redshift. By using the Doppler effect for redshift, Hubble obtained the relation \n\nV\n=\n\nH\n0\n\nD\n\n. Since \n\n\nH\n0\n\n\n, the Hubble constant, has the dimension \n\nv\n/\nd\n\n, then \n\n1\n/\n\nH\n0\n\n=\nS\n\n. Thus, \n\nS\n\n has been labeled the age of the Cosmos. But Hubble took the wrong direction when he interpreted the cosmological redshift by the Doppler effect. Everything derived from this wrong direction is also wrong. In the Big Bang model of the Cosmos, the cause is the result, and the result is the cause. Actually, the Doppler effect used in the interpretation of cosmological redshift and the Big Bang model describe the same thing, that is, recession of the celestial objects being observed. There is, between the two, nothing related to the material nature or physical process except kinematics. The TLT model of the Cosmos does not possess this problem.
\n
\n
\n
9.5. The cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR)
\n
The CMBR was discovered in the 1960s, and it has been thought to be proof of the Big Bang. Just as Hubble had used the Doppler effect to interpret the redshift in the relation of redshift-distance because he had no alternative choice at his disposal, proponents of CMBR had no other explanation for it except Big Bang, at the time of the discovery. Now, the situation has changed. TLT interprets the redshift on a profound basis of physical principles and, at the same time, gives a plausible explanation for CMBR. The CMBR is tired light in the microwave band. The photons from all directions emitted by the faraway sources are redshifted after a long journey. Photons then, from all the other galaxies in the background of the Cosmos, around the Earth, theoretically around the Milky Way, have been redshifted to form the CMBR. Tired light does not only form CMBR, but it also forms CRBR (cosmological radio background radiation) [4].
\n
\n
\n
9.6. Olbers’ paradox
\n
Olbers’ paradox is a historical problem as old as natural science itself, that is, from the time of the ancient Greeks. Olbers described the paradox in 1823. After the Big Bang became a popular cosmological model, Olbers’ paradox was explained by Big Bang because the history of the Cosmos was finite. But if Big Bang is not assured, then the explanation by it is not reliable. A new explanation could be given by the principle of TLT. By TLT, light from the stars in faraway galaxies should be redshifted such that visible light would be lengthened outside the waveband of visible light, then the night sky should be dark. As mentioned above, visible light has been redshifted into CMBR and CRBR. Since the energy lost by photons is transferred to material particles, the Cosmos may not be heavily heated. Material particles that have gained the energy have more ability to form new stars and galaxies.
\n
\n
\n
\n
10. Some thoughts on cosmology
\n
Zwicky first proposed TLT because application of the Doppler effect to interpret cosmological redshift leads to a strange idea, that is, Big Bang. The etiology of the logical reasoning of TLT presented here is also uncomfortable feelings by the dizzy image of Big Bang.
\n
We human beings have been living on the Earth for several million years. Our system of knowledge began in the Neolithic Age, not more than 10,000 years. The beginning of the sciences dates back to the age of ancient Greeks, about 2500 years ago. The beginning of modern sciences is marked by the work of Copernicus, not more than 500 years ago. As a branch of modern science, the history of modern cosmology is not more than 100 years. But the history of the knowledge of the Cosmos is as old as the beginning of science. On the one hand, cosmology is old since it began from and needs only reasoning on the whole nature. On the other hand, it is young because the detailed and elaborate observation methods and technology for the study of the Cosmos emerged at the start of the twentieth century. Thus, paradoxically, cosmology is the oldest and also the youngest branch of science.
\n
Big Bang cosmology is only the beginning of modern cosmology. The tired light theory described herein, began with Zwicky’s hypothesis, has been reset on the basis of physical principles. It may be the next forward step of modern cosmology.
\n
\n
\n
11. Conclusions
\n
The tired light theory, proposed by Zwicky in 1929 and recently developed by Shao in 2013, explains the cosmological redshift as the result of energy loss of photons due to the interactions with material particles as photons travel through cosmological space. A differential equation is established through the analysis of a photon’s energy loss based on the mass-energy equivalence and the Lorentz theory. A redshift expression is achieved by expanding the solution of the equation. The redshift expression shows that the redshift is related to the wavelength of light and the number of material particles that photons interact with on their traveling journey in the cosmological space. The relationship of redshift to wavelength of light is in accordance with the observational data in the cited literatures. And the relationship of redshift to the number of material particles that interact with photons explains the limb effect of the Sun, the signal redshift of Pioneer 6, and the large redshifts of quasars. The cosmological model based on the tired light theory gets rid of the problems that are related to Big Bang, that is, the super velocity problem, the horizon effect, and the problem of the beginning of the Cosmos. Moreover, the model explains the cosmic microwave background radiation as a natural result of the tired light effect, and therefore, Olbers’ paradox is disappeared. Based on the tired light theory and together from the cosmological principle, the Cosmos is infinite and eternal.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The authors are grateful to Mr. S. Crothers for reading through the paper and making linguistic corrections and modifications and also thankful to his thoughtful suggestions on the chapter. This work was supported by National Basic Research Program of China grants 973 Programs 2015CB857100
\n
\n',keywords:"tired light, energy loss, photons, cosmological redshift, Lorentz theory, big bang, CMBR, Olbers’ paradox",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64538.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64538.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64538",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64538",totalDownloads:1305,totalViews:230,totalCrossrefCites:2,dateSubmitted:"June 16th 2018",dateReviewed:"August 31st 2018",datePrePublished:"December 7th 2018",datePublished:"June 12th 2019",dateFinished:"November 26th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"More and more problems related to Big Bang have been appeared in recent years. All the problems are due to the Doppler interpretation of redshift. The “tired light” theory, proposed in 1929 by Zwicky and most recently developed by Shao in 2013, gives a new explanation for redshift. The theory has shown that the redshift is induced from the energy loss of photons by the interaction with material particles on their journey through cosmological space. The basic principles related to the energy transfer are mainly the mass-energy equivalence and the Lorentz theory. Problems, such as super velocity, the horizon problem, the cosmological microwave background radiation, and Olbers’ paradox, vanish in the cosmological model of “tired light” theory. The model describes a boundless and timeless Cosmos.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64538",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64538",signatures:"Ming-Hui Shao, Na Wang and Zhi-Fu Gao",book:{id:"7389",type:"book",title:"Redefining Standard Model Cosmology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Redefining Standard Model Cosmology",slug:"redefining-standard-model-cosmology",publishedDate:"June 12th 2019",bookSignature:"Brian Albert Robson",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7389.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-864-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-863-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-865-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"102886",title:"Prof.",name:"Brian Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Robson",slug:"brian-albert-robson",fullName:"Brian Albert Robson"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Big Bang, history and problems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Big Bang and Doppler effect",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. The problems related to Big Bang",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. The history of “tired light” theory",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. The TLT: basic thoughts",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Reasoning: the energy loss of a photon, the electromagnetic field of a photon, etc.",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.1. Polarization of atoms and molecules",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.2. The electromagnetic field of a photon",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.3. The Lorentz force of the electromagnetic field of a photon",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.4. The ISM and IGM",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.5. Matter and fields",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.6. Equilibrium of energy matter and energy transfer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"6. The equation of the cosmological redshift",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"6.1. The energy loss of a photon",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"6.2. Equations for the cosmological redshift",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"6.3. The gravitational redshift",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18",title:"7. Features of TLT and evidence: part I",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"7.1. Redshift vs. wavelength",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"7.2. Evidence for TLT",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"7.2.1. Early evidence",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"7.2.2. More evidence",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"7.2.3. The data of redshifts",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24",title:"8. Features of TLT and evidence: part II",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"8.1. Redshift vs. the number of material particles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"8.2. The limb effect (variation of redshift on the solar disc)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"8.2.1. The Cosmos, Sun, Earth, and human beings",level:"3"},{id:"sec_26_3",title:"8.2.2. Limb effect",level:"3"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"8.3. The signal redshift of Pioneer 6",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"8.4. The large redshift of the quasars",level:"2"},{id:"sec_31",title:"9. Considerations about the problems related to Big Bang",level:"1"},{id:"sec_31_2",title:"9.1. The problems of Big Bang",level:"2"},{id:"sec_32_2",title:"9.2. Super velocity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_33_2",title:"9.3. Horizon problem",level:"2"},{id:"sec_34_2",title:"9.4. The age of the Cosmos",level:"2"},{id:"sec_35_2",title:"9.5. The cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_36_2",title:"9.6. Olbers’ paradox",level:"2"},{id:"sec_38",title:"10. Some thoughts on cosmology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_39",title:"11. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_40",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Zwicky F. On the red shift of spectral lines through interstellar space. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1929;15:773-779\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Shao M. The energy loss of photons and cosmological redshift. Physics Essays. 2013;26(2):183-190\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Hubble E. A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic nebulae. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1929;15:168-173\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Reber G. Endless Boundless Stable Universe. Hobart: University of Tasmania; 1977\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Pecker J, Vigier J. A possible tired light mechanism. In: Hewitt A, Burbidge G, Fang L, editors. Observational Cosmology. Beijing: IAU; 1987. pp. 507-511\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Marmet P. A new non-Doppler redshift. Physics Essays. 1988;1(1):24-32\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Ghosh A. Velocity-dependent inertial induction: A possible tired-light mechanism. Apeiron. 1991;9(10):95-119\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Assis A. On Hubble’s law of redshift, Olbers’ paradox and the cosmic background radiation. Apeiron. 1992;12:13-29\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Rabounski D. An explanation of Hubble redshift due to the global non-holonomity of space. Progress in Physics. 2009;1:L1-L2\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Sorrell W. Misconceptions about the Hubble recession law. Astrophysics and Space Science. 2009;323:205-211\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Mamas D. An explanation for the cosmological redshift. Physics Essays. 2010;23(2):326-329\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Wilson O. Proportionality of nebular red shifts to wave length. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 1949;61:132-133\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Espey B, Carswell R, Bailey J, Smith M, Ward M. Hα emission lines in high-redshift quasars. The Astrophysical Journal. 1989;342:666-676\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Schmidt M, Matthews T. Redshifts of the quasi-stellar radio sources 3C47 and 3C147. The Astrophysical Journal. 1964;139:781-785\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Nishihara E, Yamashita T, Yoshida M, Watanabe E, Okumura S, Mori A, et al. Redshift differences between the balmer and [OIII] \n\nλ\n\n5007 lines in high-redshift quasars. The Astrophysical Journal. 1997;488:L27-L30\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Assis A. A steady-state cosmology. In: Arp H, Keys C, Rudncki K, editors. Progress in New Cosmologies: Beyond the Big Bang. New York: Plenum Press; 1993. pp. 153-167\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Adam M. Interferometric measurements of solar wavelengths and an investigation of the Einstein gravitational displacement. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 1948;108:446-464\n'},{id:"B18",body:'LoPresto J, Schrader C, Pierce A. Solar gravitational redshift from the infrared oxygen triplet. The Astrophysical Journal. 1991;376:757-760\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Chastel A, Heyvaerts J. Perturbations of Pioneer 6 telemetry signal during solar occultation. Nature. 1974;249:21-22\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Merat P, Pecker J, Vigier J. Possible interpretation of an anomalous redshift observed on the 2292 MHz line emitted by Pioneer-6 in the close vicinity of the solar limb. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 1974;30:167-174\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Hubble E. The Observational Approach to Cosmology. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1937\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ming-Hui Shao",address:"shaomh@xao.ac.cn",affiliation:'
Xinjiang Astronomical Observatory CAS, Urumqi, China
Xinjiang Astronomical Observatory CAS, Urumqi, China
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It is also a means to help nations meet goals to increase the percentage of individuals with post-secondary education in order to address workforce needs. However, learners and instructors often have concerns with their ability to be successful in a distance learning environment. This chapter presents a theoretical model for eLearning and eTeaching aimed at helping learners and instructors successfully navigate distance learning courses. Examples of course activities corresponding to the model components are shared. A qualitative analysis of learner self-reflections demonstrates the efficacy of the model in terms of increased autonomy, self-regulation, and targeted skills.",book:{id:"4792",slug:"e-learning-instructional-design-organizational-strategy-and-management",title:"E-Learning",fullTitle:"E-Learning - Instructional Design, Organizational Strategy and Management"},signatures:"Maureen Snow Andrade",authors:[{id:"96902",title:"Dr.",name:"Maureen",middleName:null,surname:"Snow Andrade",slug:"maureen-snow-andrade",fullName:"Maureen Snow Andrade"}]},{id:"37322",title:"Mobile System Applied to Species Distribution Modelling",slug:"mobile-system-applied-to-species-distribution-modelling",totalDownloads:2001,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"2505",slug:"innovative-information-systems-modelling-techniques",title:"Innovative Information Systems Modelling Techniques",fullTitle:"Innovative Information Systems Modelling Techniques"},signatures:"Álvaro Silva, Pedro Corrêa and Carlos Valêncio",authors:[{id:"116016",title:"MSc.",name:"Alvaro",middleName:"Fagner Rodrigues Da",surname:"Silva",slug:"alvaro-silva",fullName:"Alvaro Silva"},{id:"116660",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro Luiz",middleName:null,surname:"Pizzigatti Correa",slug:"pedro-luiz-pizzigatti-correa",fullName:"Pedro Luiz Pizzigatti Correa"},{id:"140676",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Valêncio",slug:"carlos-roberto-valencio",fullName:"Carlos Roberto Valêncio"}]},{id:"38450",title:"Microwave Antenna Performance Metrics",slug:"microwave-antenna-performance-metrics",totalDownloads:15062,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"2203",slug:"data-acquisition-applications",title:"Data Acquisition Applications",fullTitle:"Data Acquisition Applications"},signatures:"Paul Osaretin Otasowie",authors:[{id:"145221",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul",middleName:"Osaretin",surname:"Otasowie",slug:"paul-otasowie",fullName:"Paul Otasowie"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"92",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81557",title:"Object Tracking Using Adapted Optical Flow",slug:"object-tracking-using-adapted-optical-flow",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102863",abstract:"The objective of this work is to present an object tracking algorithm developed from the combination of random tree techniques and optical flow adapted in terms of Gaussian curvature. This allows you to define a minimum surface limited by the contour of a two-dimensional image, which must or should not contain a minimum amount of optical flow vector associated with the movement of an object. The random tree will have the purpose of verifying the existence of superfluous vectors of optical flow by discarding them, defining a minimum number of vectors that characterizes the movement of the object. The results obtained were compared with those of the Lucas-Kanade algorithms with and without Gaussian filter, Horn and Schunk and Farneback. The items evaluated were precision and processing time, which made it possible to validate the results, despite the distinct nature between the algorithms. They were like those obtained in Lucas and Kanade with or without Gaussian filter, the Horn and Schunk, and better in relation to Farneback. This work allows analyzing the optical flow over small regions in an optimal way in relation to precision (and computational cost), enabling its application to area, such as cardiology, in the prediction of infarction.",book:{id:"10652",title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg"},signatures:"Ronaldo Ferreira, Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira and António José Ribeiro Neves"},{id:"81558",title:"Thresholding Image Techniques for Plant Segmentation",slug:"thresholding-image-techniques-for-plant-segmentation",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104587",abstract:"There are challenges in the image-based research to obtain information from the objects in the scene. Moreover, an image is a set of data points that can be processed as an object in similarity way. In addition, the research fields can be merged to generate a method for information extraction and pixel classification. A complete method is proposed to extract information from the data and generate a classification model capable to isolate those pixels that are plant from others are not. Some quantitative and qualitative results are shown to compare methods to extract information and create the best model. Classical and threshold-based state-of-art methods are grouped in the present work for reference and application in image segmentation, obtaining acceptable results in the plant isolation.",book:{id:"10652",title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg"},signatures:"Miguel Ángel Castillo-Martínez, Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes, Blanca E. Carvajal-Gámez, Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa and Alberto J. Rosales-Silva"},{id:"81234",title:"Cognitive Visual Tracking of Hand Gestures in Real-Time RGB Videos",slug:"cognitive-visual-tracking-of-hand-gestures-in-real-time-rgb-videos",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103170",abstract:"Real-time visual hand tracking is quite different from commonly tracked objects in RGB videos. Because the hand is a biological object and hence suffers from both physical and behavioral variations during its movement. Furthermore, the hand acquires a very small area in the image frame, and due to its erratic pattern of movement, the quality of images in the video is affected considerably, if recorded from a simple RGB camera. In this chapter, we propose a hybrid framework to track the hand movement in RGB video sequences. The framework integrates the unique features of the Faster Region-based Convolutional Neural Network (Faster R-CNN) built on Residual Network and Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) algorithm. This combination is enriched with the discriminative learning power of deep neural networks and the fast detection capability of hand-crafted features SIFT. Thus, our method online adapts the variations occurring in real-time hand movement and exhibits high efficiency in cognitive recognition of hand trajectory. The empirical results shown in the chapter demonstrate that the approach can withstand the intrinsic as well as extrinsic challenges associated with visual tracking of hand gestures in RGB videos.",book:{id:"10652",title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg"},signatures:"Richa Golash and Yogendra Kumar Jain"},{id:"80064",title:"Robust Template Update Strategy for Efficient Visual Object Tracking",slug:"robust-template-update-strategy-for-efficient-visual-object-tracking",totalDownloads:62,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101800",abstract:"Real-time visual object tracking is an open problem in computer vision, with multiple applications in the industry, such as autonomous vehicles, human-machine interaction, intelligent cinematography, automated surveillance, and autonomous social navigation. The challenge of tracking a target of interest is critical to all of these applications. Recently, tracking algorithms that use siamese neural networks trained offline on large-scale datasets of image pairs have achieved the best performance exceeding real-time speed on multiple benchmarks. Results show that siamese approaches can be applied to enhance the tracking capabilities by learning deeper features of the object’s appearance. SiamMask utilized the power of siamese networks and supervised learning approaches to solve the problem of arbitrary object tracking in real-time speed. However, its practical applications are limited due to failures encountered during testing. In order to improve the robustness of the tracker and make it applicable for the intended real-world application, two improvements have been incorporated, each addressing a different aspect of the tracking task. The first one is a data augmentation strategy to consider both motion-blur and low-resolution during training. It aims to increase the robustness of the tracker against a motion-blurred and low-resolution frames during inference. The second improvement is a target template update strategy that utilizes both the initial ground truth template and a supplementary updatable template, which considers the score of the predicted target for an efficient template update strategy by avoiding template updates during severe occlusion. All of the improvements were extensively evaluated and have achieved state-of-the-art performance in the VOT2018 and VOT2019 benchmarks. Our method (VPU-SiamM) has been submitted to the VOT-ST 2020 challenge, and it is ranked 16th out of 38 submitted tracking methods according to the Expected average overlap (EAO) metrics. VPU_SiamM Implementation can be found from the VOT2020 Trackers repository1.",book:{id:"10652",title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg"},signatures:"Awet Haileslassie Gebrehiwot, Jesus Bescos and Alvaro Garcia-Martin"},{id:"80109",title:"Siamese-Based Attention Learning Networks for Robust Visual Object Tracking",slug:"siamese-based-attention-learning-networks-for-robust-visual-object-tracking",totalDownloads:90,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101698",abstract:"Tracking with the siamese network has recently gained enormous popularity in visual object tracking by using the template-matching mechanism. However, using only the template-matching process is susceptible to robust target tracking because of its inability to learn better discrimination between target and background. Several attention-learning are introduced to the underlying siamese network to enhance the target feature representation, which helps to improve the discrimination ability of the tracking framework. The attention mechanism is beneficial for focusing on the particular target feature by utilizing relevant weight gain. This chapter presents an in-depth overview and analysis of attention learning-based siamese trackers. We also perform extensive experiments to compare state-of-the-art methods. Furthermore, we also summarize our study by highlighting the key findings to provide insights into future visual object tracking developments.",book:{id:"10652",title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg"},signatures:"Md. Maklachur Rahman and Soon Ki Jung"},{id:"79005",title:"Smart-Road: Road Damage Estimation Using a Mobile Device",slug:"smart-road-road-damage-estimation-using-a-mobile-device",totalDownloads:112,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100289",abstract:"Mexico is located on five tectonic plates, which when moving, generate telluric movements. These movements, depending on their intensity, affect the telecommunications infrastructure. Earthquakes tend to cause landslides, subsidence, damage to structures in houses, buildings, and roads. In the case of road damage, it is reflected in cracks in the pavement, which are classified according to their size, shape, and depth. The methods that are currently implemented to inspect roads mainly use human perception and are limited to a superficial inspection of the terrain, causing this process ineffective for the timely detection of damage. This work presents a method of road analysis using a drone to acquire images. For the processing and recognition of damages, a mobile device is used, allowing to determine the damage type on the road. Artificial intelligence techniques are implemented to classify them into linear cracks or zig-zag cracks.",book:{id:"10652",title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg"},signatures:"Izyalith E. Álvarez-Cisneros, Blanca E. Carvajal-Gámez, David Araujo-Díaz, Miguel A. Castillo-Martínez and L. 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For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. 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He collaborates with the Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (ARAM), University of Extremadura (UEx), Spain; VALORIZA - Research Center for the Enhancement of Endogenous Resources, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal; Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation (CITUR), Madeira, Portugal; and AQUAGEO Research Group, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil.",institutionString:"University of Johannesburg, South Africa and WSB University, Poland",institution:{name:"University of Johannesburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{id:"81920",title:"Rethinking an Approach for Sustainable Globalization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105141",signatures:"Parakram Pyakurel",slug:"rethinking-an-approach-for-sustainable-globalization",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81297",title:"Legumes Cropping and Nitrogen Fixation under Mediterranean Climate",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104473",signatures:"Fernando Teixeira",slug:"legumes-cropping-and-nitrogen-fixation-under-mediterranean-climate",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81493",title:"Rust Disease Classification Using Deep Learning Based Algorithm: The Case of Wheat",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104426",signatures:"Shivani Sood, Harjeet Singh and Suruchi Jindal",slug:"rust-disease-classification-using-deep-learning-based-algorithm-the-case-of-wheat",totalDownloads:40,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81428",title:"Observatory of Sustainable Development in Postgraduate Study Programs in Baja California",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104641",signatures:"Rodolfo Martinez-Gutierrez, Maria Marcela Solis-Quinteros, Maria Esther Ibarra-Estrada and Angel Ernesto Jimenez-Bernardino",slug:"observatory-of-sustainable-development-in-postgraduate-study-programs-in-baja-california",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:249,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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