TLRs cellular expression, binding ligands, signal adaptor & production [2].
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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However, it is not as simple as it sounds. BCI is a multidisciplinary discipline with an exponential progress parallel to and with Artificial Intelligence for the past decades. Initially started with the Electroencephalography (EEG) analysis, BCI offers practical applications for cortical physiology today. Although BCI outcomes are more perceptible in medicine such as cognitive assessment, neurofeedback, and neuroprosthetic implants, it opens up amazing avenues for the business community through machine learning and robotics. Thought-to-text is one example of a hot topic in BCI. So, it is quite predictable to see BCI for individual usage given the current affordability of platforms for less technologically savvy users as well as BCI integrated within office automation productivity tools. The current trend is towards vulgarization for businesses benefits, by extension to the society at large. Thus, the interest in preparing a book on BCI. This book aims to compile and disseminate the latest research findings and best practices on how BCI is expanding the frontiers of knowledge in clinical practices, on the brain itself, and the underlying technologies.",isbn:"978-1-83880-508-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-499-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-509-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80912",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"new-frontiers-in-brain-computer-interfaces",numberOfPages:142,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"58effd86e005fc9a6416c380f19e5f42",bookSignature:"Nawaz Mohamudally, Manish Putteeraj and Seyyed Abed Hosseini",publishedDate:"February 26th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8821.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5144,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:7,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 28th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 16th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 15th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 5th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 4th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"119486",title:"Dr.",name:"Nawaz",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamudally",slug:"nawaz-mohamudally",fullName:"Nawaz Mohamudally",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/119486/images/system/119486.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Nawaz Mohamudally graduated in telecommunications from the University of Science and Technology of Lille I in France. 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However, these algorithms usually assume that the noise is stationary and are thus not good at dealing with nonstationary noise types, especially under low signal-to-noise (SNR) conditions. To overcome the drawbacks of the above methods, nonnegative matrix factorization (NMF) is introduced. NMF approach is more robust to nonstationary noise. In this chapter, we are actually interested in the application of speech enhancement using NMF approach. A speech enhancement method based on regularized nonnegative matrix factorization (NMF) for nonstationary Gaussian noise is proposed. The spectral components of speech and noise are modeled as Gamma and Rayleigh, respectively. 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System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97502",slug:"toll-like-receptors-keys-of-the-innate-immune-system",body:'Our start point is that: inflammation is known pathogenesis of different pathophysiological conditions and diseases affecting different body tissues whether acute or chronic. Every inflammation involves an immune response -innate and adaptive- that started with specific receptors called recognition receptors to identify stimuli/damage signal, activation of consequence inflammatory pathway/cascade, the release of inflammatory markers, and recruitment of inflammatory immune cells [1].
The innate immune response is initiated by either endogenous ligands acting as damage signals known as the damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMPs), or exogenous pathogenic ligands-that are accurately portion of the pathogenic microorganism- lead to the same fate; damage signals throughout pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) [2]. These patterns alter the body of the cell and cause tissue injuries leading to massive necrosis that release intracellular component into surrounding, these components activate TLRs [3, 4]. These processes, which are both the mechanism and the net results of inflammations, infections, or ischemic injuries cause more, harm than the initial causes itself by improper stimulation of the immune response [3, 4].
TLRs are a family of pattern recognition receptors (PPR), which also involves nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptors (NLR) and retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I)-like receptors (RLR). They are located on cell membrane/surface and nucleus, are responsible for the detection/recognition of the pathogen or intracellular damaged derived molecular signals to start immune response [1, 2].
These complicated inflammatory processes induced by the immune system are the “Classical typical scenario” involved in the majority of ischemic events, cancers, infectious and inflammatory diseases [4]. For further information about the immune system, Video 1 (https://youtu.be/8mEnyBdsrr8) can be shown on Armando Hasudungan YouTube channel [2] that would explain the innate immunity link with TLRs.
TLRs are PRR family involves 13 members that exist in mammals with 10 members detected in the human genome [5, 6], depending on their similar morphology with Toll. Toll is a gene product that participate in both embryonic polarity development and adult fly -antimicrobial response of the species
TLRs are expressed in almost all body tissues involved in immunologic response as well as those exposed to external environments like the spleen, blood, lung & gastrointestinal tract [4, 8]. The particular cellular expression involves innate and adaptive immunity as well as different nonimmune cells. TLRs cellular expression involves the white blood cells “the sentinel of the innate immune response”: microphages (MΦ) & mast cell (MC) “innate immune response keys”, dendritic cells (DCs) (primarily pathogenic detector of the adaptive immune response) [4, 6, 8, 9], endothelial cells, epithelial cells, fibroblast, glial cells, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, etc. [1, 5, 8, 10].
Cellular expression of TLRs family members largely variable and mainly depends on the presence of active infections [8]; according to the same source, as ex., bacterial product & pro-inflammatory cytokines can induce the expression of TL3 while IL-10 blocks TLR4 expression. It has been found that TLR2 expression is more specifically involved in the gram-positive bacteria signaling [8]. TLRs are located either primarily to immune cell plasma membrane phospholipids including TLR 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, & 11 [3, 4, 8]; Or located at the endosomal and lysosomal phospholipids where their extracellular domain (ECD) and its ligand-binding site project into the interior of the organelles like TLR 3, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 13 [2, 3, 10, 11].
TLRs are a type I integral transmembrane glycoprotein family of very conserved structure [5, 7], consist of 700–1100 amino acids [2, 4]. Their structure, shown in Figure 1 consist of 2 domains: an ECD that recognize ligands, consist of repetitive motifs rich with leucine and an intracellular domain (ICD) –called cytoplasmic- that maintain inflammatory signal consequence, the last consist of interleukin (IL)-1 receptor region called Toll/IL receptor (TIR) domain [12, 13].
A representative structure of TLR. The conserved structural features of all TLRs consist of three critical components: (1) leucine-rich repeat (LRR) motif; (2) transmembrane helix; (3) intracellular TIR domain. The LRR structure is based on the model of TLR1-TLR2 heterodimer (Protein Data Bank, PDB, ID: 2z7x) interacting with six triacylated-lipopeptides, Pam3CysSerLys4 (Pam3CSK4), whereas the TIR domain homology model is based on TLR2-TIR structure (PDB ID: 1fyw) [
TLRs involves 13 family members that exist in mammals with 10 members detected in the human genome [5, 6]. Human TLRs amino acids sequence allow a subfamily classification into the TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, TLR5, and TLR9 subfamilies. The TLR2 subfamily involves TLR1, 2, 6, and 10; the TLR9 subfamily involves TLR7, 8, and 9 [14].
TLRs members can form homodimers/heterodimers among their same protein family or associates with an “outside TLR family” protein; both formations contribute to their structural and functional diversity [4]. Homodimers are formed by TLR4 while TLR members 1, 2, and 6 like TLR1/2 or TLR2/6 dimers form heterodimers [2, 3, 15, 16, 17]. TLRs members, their dimerization, cellular distribution, ligands, induced signaling pathway, and product are shown in Table 1; for further information about TLRs, Video 2 (https://youtu.be/8mEnyBdsrr8) about TLR overview can be shown at Armando Hasudungan YouTube channel [18].
TLRs | Immune Cell Expression | PAMPs | DAMPs | Signal Adaptor | Production |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
TLR1+ TLR2 | Cell surface Mo, MΦ, DC, B | Tri-acylated lipoproteins (Pam3CSK4) Peptidoglycans, Lipopolysaccharides | (TLR2 DAMPs listed below) | TIRAP, MyD88, Mal | IC |
TLR2+ TLR6 | Cell surface Mo, MΦ, MC, B | Diacylated lipoproteins (FSL-1) | Heat Shock Proteins (HSP 60, 70, Gp96) High mobility group proteins (HMGB1) Proteoglycans (Versican, Hyaluronic Acid fragments) | TIRAP, MyD88, Mal | IC |
TLR3 | Endosomes B, T, NK, DC | dsRNA (poly (I:C)) tRNA, siRNA | mRNA tRNA | TRIF | IC, type1 IFN |
TLR4 | Cell surface/ endosomes Mo, MΦ, DC, MC, IE | Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) Paclitaxel | Heat Shock Proteins (HSP22, 60, 70,72, Gp96) High mobility group proteins (HMGB1) Proteoglycans (Versican, Heparin sulfate, Hyaluronic Acid fragments) Fibronectin, Tenascin-C | TRAM, TRIF TIRAP, MyD88 Mal | IC, type1 IFN |
TLR5 | Cell surface Mo, MΦ, DC, IE | Flagellin | MyD88 | IC | |
TLR7 | Endosomes Mo, MΦ, DC. B | ssRNA Imidazoquinolin-es (R848) Guanosine analogues (Loxoribine) | ssRNA | MyD88 | IC, type1 IFN |
TLR8 | Endosomes Mo, MΦ, DC, MC | ssRNA, Imidazoquinolines (R848) | ssRNA | MyD88 | IC, type1 IFN |
TLR9 | Endosomes Mo, MΦ, DC, B, T | CpG DNA CpG ODNs | Chromatin IgG complex | MyD88 | IC, type1 IFN |
TLR10 | Endosomes Mo, MΦ, DC | profilin-like proteins | MyD88 | IC |
TLRs family members can recognize two types of associated molecular patterns as their ligands, derived from pathogens or damaged organelles damaged structures.
PAMPs derived from pathogen [5, 19]; like gram-negative bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS), gram-positive bacterial lipoteichoic acid (LTA) and peptidoglycan (PGN), mycobacterial lipopeptides, yeast zymosan, viral and bacterial ribonucleic acid (RNA), and unmethylated cytosine phosphate guanine containing- (CpG) deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) [20, 21].
DAMPs damaged organelles structures, extracellular matrix, cytosolic and nuclear proteins, Heat shock protein-60 (HSP-60) and HSP-70, hyaluronic acid fragments, and free fatty acids (FFA) [5, 22, 23]. They cause activation of the innate and inflammatory immune responses, epithelial regeneration, and sterile inflammation control [6, 24].
Upon TLRs recognition and binding to their ligands, they undergo conformational changes, dimerization as well as interaction with adaptor molecules passing series of intracellular signal transduction pathways that involve transcription factors NF-κB, IRFs, and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation. These pathways finally resulting in the secretion of pro-inflammatory mediators including nitric oxide (NO), CK- like tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), IL-6 & IL-1β, chemokines (CC), and type I IFN [15, 21, 25, 26]. As shown in Figure 2.
Signaling pathways of TLR. Surface and endosomal TLRs bind to adaptor molecules and co-receptors. Signal through Myd88 dependent/independent pathway ending with proinflammatory CK or type I IFN [
Co –receptors involved in TLRs signalling include Cluster differential 14 (CD14) and Lymphocyte antigen 96 (MD-2). Both have a major role in TLR4 activation after LPS recognition. CD14 is a glycophosphatidylinositol attached protein expressed on innate immune cells as macrophage and monocytes that function as co-receptor for both cell surface & endosomal expressed TLRs. Lymphocyte antigen 96 (MD-2), which is a cell membrane glycoprotein associated specifically with TLR4 ECD, and expressed at myeloid and endothelial cells [6, 13, 21, 26, 27].
TLRs signaling pathways involves four main adaptor protein molecules: MyD88, TIR domain-containing adaptor protein/MyD88 adaptor-like molecules (TIRAP) also called MAL, TIR domain-containing adaptor protein inducing interferon-β (TRIF), and TRIF related adaptor molecule (TRAM) [13, 21, 28]. TLRs signaling pathways involves activation of five TIR containing adaptor kinase molecules, like IL-1 receptor-associated kinase (IRAK) -1 and 4, TNF receptor-associated factor-6 (TRAF6), serine/threonine binding kinase (TBK)-1, MAPK, and inhibitor of kappa-B (IκB) kinase (IKK) [13, 28].
There are three transcription factors involved in the TLRs signalling pathway including NF-κB, AP1, and IRF. NF-κB is an intracellular pleiotropic protein complex; it is responsible for gene regulation of proinflammatory CK, CC, adhesion molecules, and cell cycle/survival regulating proteins as cyclin D1 and B cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2). AP1 is a dimer of both protein Jun and Fos families; that is associated with cell replication and survival regulation. Finally, the IRFs protein regulating IFNs, are responsible for signal stimulation via MyD88independent/TRIF pathway [6, 13].
There are two intracellular signalling pathways for TLRs involve MyD88-dependent/& MyD88-independent also called (TRIF-dependant) signal transduction pathway.
It is utilized by all TLRs but not TLR3 [21, 29]. This pathway activates the IRAKs, TRAF6, transforming growth factor (TGF)-β-activated kinase (TAK)-1 and the IKK complex [15]. It causes the nuclear translocation of NF-κB and adaptor protein-1 (AP1) [28, 30], and ends with the secretion of CK like IL-6, IL-10, IL-12 & TNF-α [16, 29]. MyD88 also stimulate the classical extracellular signal-regulated kinases (MAPK/ERK), phosphoinositide-3 (PI3), and Jun (N)terminal kinase (JNK) which stimulate the AP1 signalling pathway, and induce the interferon regulatory factor-7 (IRF7) ending with the release of type-I IFN or co-stimulatory molecules associated with the antimicrobial response by endosomal TLRs 3, 7, 8 and 9 [13, 29, 31, 32].
The main pathway of TLR3 and 4, involve TRIF signalling pathway activation which involves TRAF6 activation, results in inositol triphosphate-3 (IP3) phosphorylation and induction of IFN-β gene expression as well as activation of TRAF6 [21, 29].
Surprisingly the same outcome was obtained from plasmatoid dendritic cells (pDCs) stimulated by TLR 7& 9 throughout the activation of the MyD88/IRF7 dependent pathway [15, 33].
TLR4 further utilizes TIRAP to activate MyD88 and TRAM to bridge the TRIF activation, which means that TLR4 uniquely utilizes both the MYD88 dependent and independent pathways [11, 21, 29].
As stated by S. Kiziltas et al. “TLR stimulation product is dependent on the nature of PAMPs, the activated TLR, the activated cell and the level of CK. Moreover, the chronically activated signalling pathway would possibly induce transcription of oncogenic factor; adding further complexation to the intracellular signalling for these receptors” [5, 13].
TLRs play an important role in pathophysiological disorders due to their wide tissue distribution, their function as pattern recognition receptors that respond to variable bacterial and damage associated molecules, and involvement in multiple inflammatory signal pathways/& process all render TLRs being a major player in any inflammation-related disorder [4, 5, 6, 19, 22, 23, 34]. In addition, analysis of TLRs gene polymorphism in human disorders revealed an increased risk of bacterial infection and sepsis as an example [34]. This section is a shortcut or summary to TLR involvement in different pathophysiological disorders rather than a full description section.
Inflammation is a common etiology of many disorders and disease including ischemic injuries, microbial infections, diabetes, arthritis and cancer [3, 4, 35]; still, any inflammatory process is triggered by damage signal recognized by pattern receptors and induce activation of signaling pathways leading to the production of pro-inflammatory markers and activation of immune cells [35]. These processes also induce the release of free radicals (FR) such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the activation of hypoxia-inducible transcription factor-1 (HIF1), causing tissue stress and reduced tissue oxygen status, so-called tissue hypoxia. Hypoxia is believed to be a hallmark as well as a key trigger of inflammation itself [35, 36].
Under normal conditions HIF1-α subunit (the inducible form of the heterodimer protein HIF-1 transcription complex) [35], is controlled by hydroxylation of proline residue via prolyl hydroxylase enzyme, and breaking down via proteasome. However under inflammatory conditions LPS activate TLRs that stimulates nicotine amide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase (Nox)-associated cross-talk with the MAPK signaling pathways [36, 37], that causes proinflammatory CK & markers production thus increasing mitochondrial FR release like ROS causing more and more tissue stress. That causes HIF1- α activation; here HIF1- α protein inactivation process will be inhibited due to proline consumption, leading to HIF1-α accumulation in MΦ, DCs and other non-immune cells that exposed to hypoxia/ & non-hypoxic damage signals [38]. Furthermore, this would induce metabolic reprogramming of mitochondrial respiration causing succinate release, and production of IL-1β [35, 38].
In dendritic cells, TLRs cause further stabilization of HIF1-α via release of NF-κB, which would further increase glucose uptake and render shifting of mitochondrial respiration to the anaerobic glycolytic pathway due to the increased oxygen demand versus the decreased supply [35, 36]. Finally result in disruption of the normal function of DCs, the primary pathogenic detector of the adaptive immune response; which undergo cellular maturation upon TLRS activation that results in further expression of co-stimulatory molecules, further production of pro-inflammatory CK & CC, and migration to lymph node so to present antigens to naïve T-cells [4, 35]. All these scenarios would further amplify the existing inflammation and tissue damage [35].
HIF1-α is a transcription factor that responsible for cellular adaptive responses after exposure to injury/stress environment, including maintenance like controlling angiogenesis to improve blood vessel formation, shifting cellular mitochondria respiration to anaerobic glycolysis through improving cellular survival and cellular adhesion in oxidative stress environment’s [36]. In addition, it is the major controller of phagocytes bactericidal capacity, and involved in myeloid cell-mediated inflammation, and is an essential factor for inhibition of myeloid cell apoptosis induced by LPS. The last point made it an important factor also in the TLR4 signaling pathway [36, 38]. HIF1-α function as a double-edged sword, that mediate cellular adaptive to stress but progress disease status by the same time [38].
TLRs are expressed in various central nervous system (CNS) cells predominantly in neurons, astrocytes, resident microglia, cerebral microvasculature, plexuses choroid, and leptomeninges. They are associated with the detection of- and regulated by central DAMPs [33]. TLR4 is further upregulated centrally by glutamate via N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) dependent mechanism and peripherally by noradrenaline/β2 receptor, & corticotrophin-releasing factor. TLRs play an important role in restoring central homeostasis, physiology of stress-sensitive behaviour after injuries or diseases as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s, and stroke [33].
In the experimental model of CNS, stress exposure revealed mRNA upregulation and activation of TLRs in the brain frontal cortex after the stress is involved in the loss of neuronal plasticity and survival depending on the activation of NF-κB induced ROS production. Also resultant bacterial translocation from the gut to the systemic circulation and other organs such as the liver, spleen, and mesenteric lymph nodes; These circulating gram-negative bacteria are the major source of LPS, which can activate brain TLR4 through multiple pathways, including a neuroinflammatory response. This is partially explained by the theory known as leaky gut [11, 33].
In another experimental model of neurogenesis, TLR3 & 4 were found to act as down regulators, TLR3 deletion/loss of function was also linked to improved cognitive function. The same reference state an opposed case in viral meningitis when TLR3 & 9 recruitment help to decrease neuronal injury and localize infection area and in Alzheimer disease where TLR2, 4, 5, 7 & 9 were suggested to improve disease progression by inhibiting amyloid plaque accumulation [1].
TLR is thought to play a considerable role in several respiratory disorders starting from allergic rhinitis ending with severe inflammatory disorders like acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), through their activation by the causative inflammations derived by pulmonary oedema, trauma, sepsis & even drug overdose [9, 37]. In allergic rhinitis TLR2, 3, & 4 were found to be both upregulated by- and involved in-the causative inflammation [37].
TLR2 has the mainstay of involvement & determination in respiratory allergic disease due to considerable genetic variation. In asthma, an experimental study shows TLR2 induction by synthetic Pam3Cys triggers immune response & disease severity [37]. While in acute lung injury (ALI) & ARDS, TLR2 was found to be activated by Toll interacting protein (Tollip) [14]. TLR4 was found to increase asthmatics severity & prevalence in paediatrics. TLR4 genetic polymorphism affects cluster differentials (CD)41–251 regulatory T cells (Tregs) which are activated by LPS, the same ligand of TLR4 itself. [2, 3, 37].
An experimental model of doxorubicin and hydrogen peroxide-induced cardiac injury showed TLR2 to be involved in cardio myocytes apoptosis, besides TLR2 targeting suggested to be protective in septic cardiomyopathy [1]. In addition, murine models revealed cardiac tissue expression of TLR4 increased after hypertension, myocardial ischemia, maladaptive left ventricular hypertrophy, and angiotensin II (AngII) infusion participating in vascular remodelling & stiffness, endothelial dysfunction, increase myocardial infarction (MI) size & susceptibility. While Human studies revealed the same in patients with unstable angina, MI, heart failure, atherosclerosis & myocarditis [9, 27, 39, 40, 41].
TLR4 expression & signalling was increased in patients’ monocytes during attacks of unstable angina & MI [37]. In the experimental model & human vascular inflammation, TLR4 was found to increase the production of CK, CC as well as increase TLR2 expression. In the early stage of the atherosclerotic lesion, TLR4 mRNA protein was detected & MyD88 -the mainstay of TLR signalling pathway- gene deficiency was linked to decrement in CK, CC & lipid content production, as well as in atherosclerotic lesion size. The same reference stated that TLR2 genetic polymorphism was linked to increased coronary artery stenosis, while TLR7 & 8 was involved in cardiac inflammation caused by the Coxsackie virus [37].
The liver is the major organ that deals with gut-derived endotoxin, exposed by portal circulation [13, 42]. This continuous exposure would trigger frequent activation of the hepatic innate immune system; which contributes to the induction of inflammation in acute hepatic injuries, which means involvement of TLRs in the induction of inflammation [13]. Pathogenic suppression/& inhibition of TLRs found to mediates chronic hepatic injuries/disorders like hepatitis, fibrosis, alcoholic liver injuries, ischemia/reperfusion injury, and carcinoma [13, 28].
In Paracetamol human hepatotoxicity, endogenous chemical injury derives extracellular matrix (ECM) the ligand that activates TLR4 to release TNF-α, induce inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), peroxynitrite, glutathione depletion, so that will amplify immune response, sequestering leukocytes, increase serum hyaluronic acid, causing steatosis, necrosis, and hepatic congestion [16].
Hepatitis viral nucleic acid & proteins are the ligands detected by TLR3, 7, 8, & 9. Starting with hepatitis B virus (HBV), in vitro activation of TLR1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, & 9 result in the release of IFN which inhibit HBV DNA replication and RNA transcription. Whilst HBV itself downregulates the expression of TLR1, 2, 4, & 6, this limits their antiviral effect or even renders them nugatory [28]. This downregulation of TLRs is attributed to the presence of HBV e antigen (HBeAg) during acute infection. About hepatitis C (HCV), its core protein activates TLR 1, 2, 4 & 6, which are supposed to produce antiviral IFNs as well as increased hepatic inflammation. The same effect is presumed by TLR 3 & 4 in HBV is achieved here to produce IFN-β [28].
In alcoholic liver disease (ALD), alcohol mainstay effects are to increase gut mucosal permeability to LPS, modification of gut flora, reducing endotoxin clearance rate, and increasing hepatic endotoxin level [16]. These scenarios lead to higher expression of TLR1, 2, 4, 6 & 9 by both parenchymal and non-parenchymal cells, activating their pathway and release of inflammatory mediators, this process observed in the chronic alcohol experimental model [28, 29]. While a patient with cirrhosis expresses a high level of TNF-α, IL-1β, & IL-6, as well as chronic endotoxemia, recurrent bacterial infection [16]. Finally, the process of hepatic regeneration depends on the interplay between the immune system and non-parenchymal cell, which involves activation of TLRs/MyD88 pathway, here the bulky activation of TLRs, would inversely affect the regeneration process, which indicates that the extent of such activation is essential for hepatic regeneration. TLR2, 4 & 9 reported no important role in liver regeneration process [28, 43].
Both human patients and experimental models of diabetes linked the active TLR to the progression of diabetes complication throughout the activation of NF-κB signalling in adipose tissue MΦ due to high level of plasma FFA associated with obesity & diabetes type 2 (T2DM) [44].
In vivo & in-vitro studies performed by Zhang N. et al. revealed that TLR 2 & 4 activation in insulin target tissues as the liver, adipose tissue & immune cells linked them with insulin resistance. The first suggests that high TLRs loss of function or genetic modification protects against high FFA level resulted from large mass adipose tissue secreting non-esterified free fatty acids & reduction of their clearance/oxidation which disturbs gut permeability to LPs [45].
TLR4 resultant inflammation associated with activation IKK, MAPK, JNK, and p38 pathways would further increase insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS1) serine phosphorylation thus decrease insulin receptor’s signal transduction [31, 45]. Furthermore, TLR4-MyD88 signalling pathway activation was suggested throughout developmental researches for several anti-hyperlipidemic medications, while TLR1, 2, 3 & 7 were triggering both host immune defence and/autoimmune response that aggravate diabetic state [37].
TLRs expression in renal tube epithelial lining render their activation to be essential in renal vascular remodelling, endothelial dysfunction in multiple renal disorders like acute kidney injury (AKI), solid organ transplant, glomerulonephritis, ischemic/reperfusion injury (I/R injury) & diabetic renal disorders [27, 44]. Experimental streptozocin induced diabetic model revealed podcytopathy & fibrosis regression after TLR4 knocking out, as they are expressed by podocytes & decreased diabetic nephropathy after TLR2 knocking out [46, 47]. TLR4 gene polymorphism was linked to prostate cancer among gene clusters of TLR1, 6 & 10 [37].
TLRs, as the primary receptor for many ligands that trigger innate & adaptive immune response, with complex signaling pathways involving many adaptor molecules & co-receptors seem interesting for therapeutic target development. Synthetic agonist, antagonist and even naturalized antibodies could modify TLRs signaling to make them attractive targets for the management of different inflammatory disease. For example at 2013, Savva and Roger enlisted around 32 clinical trials at different phases for TLRs agonist/antagonist agent for the management of sepsis and infectious disease, these trials include even the antimalarial old agent chloroquine [28, 34].
TLR1/2 heterodimers were found to be increased in patients with atherosclerotic lesions, while administration of TLR1/2 agonist aggravates disease status, also TLR2 inhibition was suggested as diabetes and cardiovascular disorders therapy besides statins & thiazolidinedione by anti-inflammatory action [9]. Pam2/3CSK4 TLR2 ligands covalently linked to CD8+ or B-cell epitopes associated peptides were found to enhance therapeutic response in tumour models, by stimulating TLR2 induced T-cell activation [15]. A 3 component carbohydrate-based cancer vaccine involved TLR2 activator that mediates humoral immune response against tumour-induced glycopeptide antigens by affecting the maturation of cellular component of the innate immune system (DC & natural killer cells), furthermore cancer treatment with chimers of anti-tumour antibodies and small molecule agonist of TLR2 would alleviate disease progression [9].
Since high synovial expression of TLR3 in RA patients was found, one scenario for rheumatoid arthritis and possibly bone malignancy is to inhabit the TLR3 pathway via the RNA synthetic analogue Polyinosine-polycytidylic acid (poly (I:C) that affect monocyte –osteoclast cellular differentiation [9].
Various TLR4 antagonist was developed as a therapeutic agent, starting with the peptide P13- an inhibitor of TIR domain signalling pathway- that was found to ameliorate inflammatory response and improve surviving in a TLR4-mediated hepatic injury of murine model [16]. In addition, Lipid A mimetics E5564 and CRX526 bind to TLR4-MD2 complex showing valuable inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1 and TNF-α production in LPS treated animal models as well as septic shock patients in phase III clinical trial [9, 16, 29]. TLR4 inhibition was suggested as the scenario for treatment of thrombosis, atherosclerosis & vascular restenosis throughout coating TLR4 or MyD88 with inhibitory compound, small molecule antagonist, then by giving viral vectors that express antisense gene to TLR4 RNA [9], and finally TLR4/MD2/anti-Human IgG (Fc specific) (IgG-Fc) fusion protein inhibitor of NF-κB and JNK activation provides interesting biologic therapy for liver fibrosis, alcoholic and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis by decreasing IL-6 and monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1(MCP-1) production [16].
Another TLR4-synergizer Fc/fusion protein and TL4 ligand α-1 acid glycoprotein were found to inhibit LPS-induced activation of hepatic MΦ by blocking the triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1 (TREM1), and boosting the anti-inflammatory immune response. Other theoretically interesting scenarios involving the I.V administration of monophosphoryl lipid A derivatives as 2 adult HBV vaccine in treating viral hepatitis [13, 15, 16].
One possible scenario for cancer immunotherapy involved TLR5 binding to flagellin that can turn the tolerogenic DCs into active antigen-presenting cells (APC) [9].
Isatoribine, a TLR7 agonist administered I.V was found to decrease viral load with a moderate adverse effect profile in HCV patients. In addition, IGS-9620 that was experimentally assessed on the HBV animal model was found to decrease HBVs antigen (HBsAg) level in serum, HBV viral load as well as IFN-α in dose dependent-manner [15, 29]. Note that some TLR7 targeting therapies were approved by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) like imiquimod, TLR7-immune response modifier that was approved since 1997 for treatment of superficial skin malignant melanoma & genital warts by increasing cellular production of CK like IFN, IL-6 & TNF [9].
Selective TLR9 agonists like 1018 ISS (immunomodulatory sequences) that contain repeated CpG motifs were found to modulate the TLR9 signalling pathway involved in HBV infection and have been tested in phase III clinical trials. Another agonist IMO-2055 was under assessment in 2011 for oncologic disease as well as IMO-2125 which was found to maintain the high level of IFN was under assessment as a possible therapy to HCV patients. The TLR9 intracellular signalling inhibitors ST2825 and RO0884 designed to block IRAK1 &4/MyD88 singling pathway caused inhibition of the NF-κB, IL-1β, and TNF-α activation as well as decreased hepatic IL-6 secretion [9, 15, 29].
Medical and pharmacological development is focusing on the molecular level, in all aspects including analytical, physiological, pharmacological and even genetic aspects. Understanding immune response is thus important subject, furthermore, the target receptors which damage signals bind to, their signaling pathways end products will tell what possible immune response happened to human body. Toll-like receptors are those targets, the family of integral transmembrane glycoprotein expressed intracellularly or at cellular surface, considered main component and link between innate and adaptive immune response, which can induce signaling pathways involving four main adaptor molecules that initiate divaricated steps ending with inflammatory cytokines. These pathways could be involved in any inflammatory process/disorders and thus seems interesting targets for pharmacological intervention; all these steps bring us back to the bullet that explodes all these events in the body, the immune system.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
After precious Thanks to Almighty and Merciful GOD, I would like to express my thanks and gratitude to Professor G. H. Majeed who made it possible to me to accomplish this situation and reach you, my readers. Also to the magnificent group who introduced me to the world of toll-like receptors: professor Dr. Abduladheem Y. Abbood Al-Barrak, professor Dr. Bassim I. Mohammad, Dr. Samer Fadhel Hassan, Dr. Asma A. Swadi, and Dr. Huda J. Merza, and sure my own family.
Acute kidney injury Alcoholic liver disease Acute lung injury Angiotensin II Adaptor protein-1 Antigen-presenting cell Acute respiratory distress syndrome B cell lymphoma 2 Chemokine Cluster differential 14 Pro-inflammatory cytokines Cytosine phosphate guanine Damage-associated molecular pattern Dendritic cell Extracellular domain Extracellular matrix Free fatty acids Free radicals HBV e antigen HBV s antigen Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 Heat shock protein Ischemic/reperfusion injury Cytoplasmic domain Type-I interferon Anti-Human IgG (Fc specific) Inhibitor of kappa-B (IκB) kinase Interleukin Inducible nitric oxide synthase Inositol triphosphate-3 IL-1 receptor-associated kinase Interferon regulatory factor Inhibitor of kappa-B Jun (N)terminal kinase Lipopolysaccharides Leucine-rich repeat Lipoteichoic acid Mitogen-activated protein kinase Extracellular signal-regulated kinases Mast cell Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 Lymphocyte antigen 96 Myocardial infarction Messenger ribonucleic acid Myeloid differential88 Macrophage nicotine amide adenine dinucleotide phosphate nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptors Nitric oxide nucleotide oligomerization domain NADPH oxidase Pam3CysSerLys4 Pathogen-associated molecular patterns Plasmatoid dendritic cells Peptidoglycan Phosphoinositide-3 Polyinosine-polycytidylic acid Pattern recognition receptors retinoic acid-inducible gene I retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I)-like receptors Reactive oxygen species Diabetes type 2 Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β-activated kinase Serine/threonine binding kinase Transcription factors Transforming growth factor Toll/IL-receptor TIR domain-containing adaptor protein/MyD88 adaptor like Toll-like receptors Tumour necrosis factor-alpha Toll interacting protein TNF receptor-associated factor-6 TRIF related adaptor molecule Regulatory T cells Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1 TIR domain-containing adaptor protein inducing interferon-β
YouTube video: [3] Armando Hasudungan, Immunology-Toll Like Receptors Overview [Internet. YouTube]. 2014. Available from: https://youtu.be/8mEnyBdsrr8
YouTube video: [18] Armando Hasudungan, Immunology - Toll Like Receptors Overview [Internet YouTube]. 2014. Available from: https://youtu.be/8mEnyBdsrr8
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Due to rapid depletion of agricultural areas and soil quality by means of ever-increasing population and an excessive addition of chemical fertilizers, a rehabilitated attention is a need of the hour to maintain sustainable approaches in agricultural crop production. Biochar is the solid, carbon-rich material obtained by pyrolysis using different biomasses. It has been widely documented in previous studies that, the crop growth and yield can be increased by using biochar. This chapter exclusively summarizes the properties of biochar, its interaction with soil microflora, and its role in plant growth promotion when added to the soil.",book:{id:"7305",slug:"biochar-an-imperative-amendment-for-soil-and-the-environment",title:"Biochar",fullTitle:"Biochar - An Imperative Amendment for Soil and the Environment"},signatures:"Jyoti Rawat, Jyoti Saxena and Pankaj Sanwal",authors:null},{id:"46355",doi:"10.5772/57469",title:"Phytoremediation of Soils Contaminated with Metals and Metalloids at Mining Areas: Potential of Native Flora",slug:"phytoremediation-of-soils-contaminated-with-metals-and-metalloids-at-mining-areas-potential-of-nativ",totalDownloads:8501,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:80,abstract:null,book:{id:"3854",slug:"environmental-risk-assessment-of-soil-contamination",title:"Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination",fullTitle:"Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination"},signatures:"Paulo J.C. Favas, João Pratas, Mayank Varun, Rohan D’Souza and\nManoj S. Paul",authors:[{id:"169746",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Favas",slug:"paulo-favas",fullName:"Paulo Favas"},{id:"169747",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoj",middleName:"Stephen",surname:"Paul",slug:"manoj-paul",fullName:"Manoj Paul"},{id:"169952",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao",middleName:null,surname:"Pratas",slug:"joao-pratas",fullName:"Joao Pratas"},{id:"169953",title:"Dr.",name:"Mayank",middleName:null,surname:"Varun",slug:"mayank-varun",fullName:"Mayank Varun"},{id:"169954",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohan",middleName:null,surname:"D'Souza",slug:"rohan-d'souza",fullName:"Rohan D'Souza"}]},{id:"61845",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77987",title:"Montmorillonite: An Introduction to Properties and Utilization",slug:"montmorillonite-an-introduction-to-properties-and-utilization",totalDownloads:5408,totalCrossrefCites:39,totalDimensionsCites:70,abstract:"Clay mineral is an important material available in nature. With an increasing understanding of clay structure, montmorillonite is realized viable for an enhanced performance in a variety of materials and products in the areas of catalysis, food additive, antibacterial function, polymer, sorbent, etc. Significant development in the use and application of montmorillonite is seen in recent time. This chapter provides an overview of montmorillonite, structure, and properties and particularly discusses its recent utilization in important materials. Montmorillonite is introduced in terms of its natural sources, chemical structure, physical and chemical properties, and functional utilization. The important physical and chemical properties are summarized as particle and layered structure, molecular structure and cation exchange effect, barrier property, and water sorption. This is followed by the important functional utilizations of montmorillonite based on the effects of its chemical structure. The important functional utilization of montmorillonite includes food additive for health and stamina, for antibacterial activity against tooth and gum decay, as sorbent for nonionic, anionic, and cationic dyes, and the use as catalyst in organic synthesis. The environment concerns, to date, do not indicate the adversity for particles used as additive. Studies will be useful which are clearly based on any montmorillonite structure to describe environmental effects.",book:{id:"6561",slug:"current-topics-in-the-utilization-of-clay-in-industrial-and-medical-applications",title:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications",fullTitle:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications"},signatures:"Faheem Uddin",authors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"46032",title:"Soil Contamination, Risk Assessment and Remediation",slug:"soil-contamination-risk-assessment-and-remediation",totalDownloads:13782,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:55,abstract:null,book:{id:"3854",slug:"environmental-risk-assessment-of-soil-contamination",title:"Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination",fullTitle:"Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination"},signatures:"Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf, Mohd. Jamil Maah and Ismail Yusoff",authors:[{id:"25185",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Aqeel",middleName:null,surname:"Ashraf",slug:"muhammad-aqeel-ashraf",fullName:"Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf"},{id:"101988",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail",middleName:null,surname:"Yusoff",slug:"ismail-yusoff",fullName:"Ismail Yusoff"},{id:"169931",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohd Jamil",middleName:null,surname:"Maah",slug:"mohd-jamil-maah",fullName:"Mohd Jamil Maah"},{id:"169932",title:"Dr.",name:"Ng Tham",middleName:null,surname:"Fatt",slug:"ng-tham-fatt",fullName:"Ng Tham Fatt"}]},{id:"71931",title:"Open Pit Mining",slug:"open-pit-mining",totalDownloads:1486,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Open pit mining method is one of the surface mining methods that has a traditional cone-shaped excavation and is usually employed to exploit a near-surface, nonselective and low-grade zones deposits. It often results in high productivity and requires large capital investments, low operating costs, and good safety conditions. The main topics that will be discussed in this chapter will include an introduction into the general features of open pit mining, ore body characteristics and configurations, stripping ratios and stripping overburden methods, mine elements and parameters, open pit operation cycle, pit slope angle, stability of mine slopes, types of highwall failures, mine closure and reclamation, and different variants of surface mining methods including opencast mining, mountainous mining, and artisan mining.",book:{id:"8620",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",title:"Mining Techniques",fullTitle:"Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future"},signatures:"Awwad H. Altiti, Rami O. Alrawashdeh and Hani M. Alnawafleh",authors:[{id:"313182",title:"Prof.",name:"Rami",middleName:null,surname:"Alrawashdeh",slug:"rami-alrawashdeh",fullName:"Rami Alrawashdeh"},{id:"313522",title:"Dr.",name:"Awwad",middleName:null,surname:"Altiti",slug:"awwad-altiti",fullName:"Awwad Altiti"},{id:"313523",title:"Prof.",name:"Hani",middleName:null,surname:"Alnawafleh",slug:"hani-alnawafleh",fullName:"Hani Alnawafleh"}]},{id:"64027",title:"Stages of a Integrated Geothermal Project",slug:"stages-of-a-integrated-geothermal-project",totalDownloads:4207,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"A geothermal project constitutes two big stages: the exploration and the exploitation. Each one has a single task whose results allow defining the feasibility of a geothermal project, until achieving the construction and operation stage of the power generation plant. The first stage contains the area recognition, its limitation to the target, and elimination of external factors until defining a geothermal zone with characteristics to be commercially exploited. The main studies and analysis that can be applied during the exploration stage are listed, and the major indicator to continue with the project or suspend is the prefeasibility report. The major risks in the exploration stage are due to studies that are carried out on the surface; at this stage, the costs can be considered low. The main results of the exploration are the selection of sites to drill three or four initial wells. Each well provides a direct overview of the reservoir: depth, production thicknesses, thermodynamic parameters, and production characteristics. The drilling of three to four exploratory wells is recommended, as far as there is certainty of the feasibility of the project, and the development of the field begins with drilling of sufficient wells to feed the plant. In this stage, the cost increases, but the risks decrease.",book:{id:"7504",slug:"renewable-geothermal-energy-explorations",title:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations",fullTitle:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations"},signatures:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar, Georgina Izquierdo-Montalvo,\nDaniel Octavio Aragón-Gaspar and Denise N. Barreto-Rivera",authors:[{id:"258358",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Aragón-Aguilar",slug:"alfonso-aragon-aguilar",fullName:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar"}]},{id:"65070",title:"Biochar: A Sustainable Approach for Improving Plant Growth and Soil Properties",slug:"biochar-a-sustainable-approach-for-improving-plant-growth-and-soil-properties",totalDownloads:6825,totalCrossrefCites:55,totalDimensionsCites:91,abstract:"Soil is the most important source and an abode for many nutrients and microflora. Due to rapid depletion of agricultural areas and soil quality by means of ever-increasing population and an excessive addition of chemical fertilizers, a rehabilitated attention is a need of the hour to maintain sustainable approaches in agricultural crop production. Biochar is the solid, carbon-rich material obtained by pyrolysis using different biomasses. It has been widely documented in previous studies that, the crop growth and yield can be increased by using biochar. This chapter exclusively summarizes the properties of biochar, its interaction with soil microflora, and its role in plant growth promotion when added to the soil.",book:{id:"7305",slug:"biochar-an-imperative-amendment-for-soil-and-the-environment",title:"Biochar",fullTitle:"Biochar - An Imperative Amendment for Soil and the Environment"},signatures:"Jyoti Rawat, Jyoti Saxena and Pankaj Sanwal",authors:null},{id:"39170",title:"Study of Impacts of Global Warming on Climate Change: Rise in Sea Level and Disaster Frequency",slug:"study-of-impacts-of-global-warming-on-climate-change-rise-in-sea-level-and-disaster-frequency",totalDownloads:6599,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:null,book:{id:"2206",slug:"global-warming-impacts-and-future-perspective",title:"Global Warming",fullTitle:"Global Warming - Impacts and Future Perspective"},signatures:"Bharat Raj Singh and Onkar Singh",authors:[{id:"26093",title:"Dr.",name:"Bharat Raj",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bharat-raj-singh",fullName:"Bharat Raj Singh"},{id:"118426",title:"Prof.",name:"Onkar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"onkar-singh",fullName:"Onkar Singh"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"10",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81773",title:"Proterozoic Newer Dolerite Dyke Swarm Magmatism in the Singhbhum Craton, Eastern India",slug:"proterozoic-newer-dolerite-dyke-swarm-magmatism-in-the-singhbhum-craton-eastern-india",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104833",abstract:"Precambrian mafic magmatism and its role in the evolution of Earth’s crust has been paid serious attention by researchers for the last four decades. The emplacement of mafic dyke swarms acts as an important time marker in geological terrains. Number of shield terrains throughout the world has been intruded by the Precambrian dyke swarms, hence the presence of these dykes are useful to understand the Proterozoic tectonics, magmatism, crustal growth and continental reconstruction. Likewise, the Protocontinents of Indian Shield e.g. Aravalli-Bundelkhand, Dharwar, Bastar, and Singhbhum Protocontinent had experienced the dyke swarm intrusions having different characteristics and orientations. In Singhbhum craton, an impressive set of mafic dyke swarm, called as Newer dolerite dyke swarm, had intruded the Precambrian Singhbhum granitoid complex through a wide geological period from 2800 to 1100 Ma. Present chapter focuses on the published results or conclusions of these dykes in terms of their mantle source characteristics, metasomatism of the mantle source, degree of crustal contamination and partial melting processes. Geochemical characteristics of these dykes particularly Ti/Y, Zr/Y, Th/Nb, Ba/Nb, La/Nb, (La/Sm)PM are similar to either MORB or subduction zone basalts that occur along the plate margin. The enriched LREE-LILE and depletion of HFSE especially Nb, P and Ti probably indicate generation of these dykes in a subduction zone setting.",book:{id:"11139",title:"Geochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11139.jpg"},signatures:"Akhtar R. Mir"},{id:"81744",title:"Application of Onsager and Prigozhin Variational Principles of Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics to Obtain MHD-Equation Dissipative System in Drift Approximation",slug:"application-of-onsager-and-prigozhin-variational-principles-of-nonequilibrium-thermodynamics-to-obta",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103116",abstract:"Electromagnetic phenomena in plasma are easier to describe in terms of fields, expressing the electric current through the rotor of the magnetic field. But the approach that ignores the corpuscular aspect of the electric current, as noted by H. Alfven, does not allow describing many processes in space plasma. Indeed, relying on the concept of continuity, it is impossible in the mechanics of continuous media to take into account the fluctuations of hydrodynamic functions formed due to the molecular structure of the medium. At the hydrodynamic level of description, taking into account the structure leads to the Langevin equation. Therefore, to describe processes in a magnetized plasma, it is of certain interest to obtain MHD equations in the drift approximation not from the Vlasov equations, but based on the principles of Onsager and Prigogine, combined by Gyarmati into one variational principle and obtaining a one-liquid plasma model in the drift approximation. Fluctuations are taken into account by introducing an additional term in the expression for pressure, written in the drift approximation, which is similar to the postulation of the Langevin source for describing Brownian motion. The obtained fluctuating-dissipative system differs from the reversible one-liquid approximation of the two adiabatic invariants of Chu, Goldberger, Low.",book:{id:"10406",title:"Magnetosphere",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10406.jpg"},signatures:"Vadim Bogdanov"},{id:"81587",title:"Tectonic Collision, Orogeny and Geothermal Resources in Taiwan",slug:"tectonic-collision-orogeny-and-geothermal-resources-in-taiwan",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101504",abstract:"The recent tectonic evolution of Taiwan created ideal conditions for geothermal resources: heat, water and permeability. We examine heat flow measurements, seismic tomography, seismicity, hot spring distribution, tectonic history, geology, and volcanism described in previous studies to understand the relation between tectonics and geothermal potential in Taiwan. Taiwan is the youngest tectonically created island on earth. The island formed as a result of the transition from subduction of the Eurasian Plate under the Philippine Sea plate to active collision. Collision results in orogenic mountain building. The geology of the island is primarily an accretionary prism from the historic subduction. This active orogeny creates unusually high geothermal gradients by exhumation of the warmer material from depth and by strain heating. As a result, temperatures reach up to ~200 degree C. Volcanoes in the northern tip of Taiwan provide an additional source of heat. Favorable fluid flow from meteoric waters and permeability from seismicity and faulting results in exploitable geothermal systems near the surface. These systems can potentially provide geothermal power generation throughout the whole island, although there are currently only two geothermal power plants in Taiwan.",book:{id:"10953",title:"Earth's Crust and its Evolution - From Pangea to the Present Continents",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10953.jpg"},signatures:"Chao-Shing Lee, Lawrence Hutchings, Shou-Cheng Wang, Steve Jarpe, Sin-Yu Syu and Kai Chen"},{id:"81073",title:"New Semi-Inversion Method of Bouguer Gravity Anomalies Separation",slug:"new-semi-inversion-method-of-bouguer-gravity-anomalies-separation",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101593",abstract:"The workers and researchers in the field of gravity exploration methods, always dream that it is possible one day, to be able to separate completely the Bouguer gravity anomalies and trace rock’ formations, and their densities distribution from a prior known control points (borehole) to any extended distance in the direction of the profile lines-it seems that day become will soon a tangible true! and it becomes possible for gravity interpretation methods to mimic to some extent the 2D seismic interpretation methods. Where, the present chapter is dealing a newly 2D semi-inversion, fast, and easily applicable gravitational technique, based on Bouguer gravity anomaly data. It now becomes possible through, Excel software, Matlab’s code, and a simple algorithm; separating the Bouguer anomaly into its corresponding rock’ formations causative sources, as well as, estimating and tracing its thicknesses (or depths) of sedimentary formations relative to the underlying basement’s structure rocks for any sedimentary basin, through using of profile(s) line(s) and previously known control points. The newly proposed method has been assessed, examine, and applied for two field cases, Abu Roash Dome Area, southwest Cairo, Egypt, and Humble Salt Dome, USA. The method has demonstrated to some extent comparable results with prior known information, for drilled boreholes.",book:{id:"10759",title:"Gravitational Field",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10759.jpg"},signatures:"Abdel Fattah"},{id:"81141",title:"Modeling Radiation Damage in Materials Relevant for Exploration and Settlement on the Moon",slug:"modeling-radiation-damage-in-materials-relevant-for-exploration-and-settlement-on-the-moon",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102808",abstract:"Understanding the effect of radiation on materials is fundamental for space exploration. Energetic charged particles impacting materials create electronic excitations, atomic displacements, and nuclear fragmentation. Monte Carlo particle transport simulations are the most common approach for modeling radiation damage in materials. However, radiation damage is a multiscale problem, both in time and in length, an aspect treated by the Monte Carlo simulations only to a limited extent. In this chapter, after introducing the Monte Carlo particle transport method, we present a multiscale approach to study different stages of radiation damage which allows for the synergy between the electronic and nuclear effects induced in materials. We focus on cumulative displacement effects induced by radiation below the regime of hadronic interactions. We then discuss selected studies of radiation damage in materials of importance and potential use for the exploration and settlement on the Moon, ranging from semiconductors to alloys and from polymers to the natural regolith. Additionally, we overview some of the novel materials with outstanding properties, such as low weight, increased radiation resistance, and self-healing capabilities with a potential to reduce mission costs and improve prospects for extended human exploration of extraterrestrial bodies.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Natalia E. Koval, Bin Gu, Daniel Muñoz-Santiburcio and Fabiana Da Pieve"},{id:"81632",title:"Contribution of Geographic Information Systems to the Development of Ancient Cities",slug:"contribution-of-geographic-information-systems-to-the-development-of-ancient-cities",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104203",abstract:"The world has experienced a significant development of information and communication systems, new technologies, and basic infrastructure. The possession of integrated management systems would contribute to the consolidation of the functional performance of heritage buildings. This study focuses on the ancient city of “Taroudant”, located in central Morocco. The geographic information system (GIS) has helped draw maps that identified the geographic data of the city. GIS has also identified the population expansion from 1912 to 2006, which was the reason for the deterioration of heritage buildings in the city. Moreover, GIS has contributed to drawing maps that determine the location of the collapsed parts of the walls, along with the location of historical monuments in Taroudant, facilitating touristic visits and the identification of its features in a short period of time without the need for a tour guide. Presently, modern technologies and applications are among the most important elements supporting the successful transformation of traditional heritage buildings into digital monuments.",book:{id:"11134",title:"Geographic Information System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11134.jpg"},signatures:"Mustapha Nassir"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:138},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"81644",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ethics of Using Placebo Controlled Trials for Covid-19 Vaccine Development in Vulnerable Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104776",signatures:"Lesley Burgess, Jurie Jordaan and Matthew Wilson",slug:"perspective-chapter-ethics-of-using-placebo-controlled-trials-for-covid-19-vaccine-development-in-vu",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"80546",title:"Streptococcal Skin and Skin-Structure Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102894",signatures:"Alwyn Rapose",slug:"streptococcal-skin-and-skin-structure-infections",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"105e347b2d5dbbe6b593aceffa051efa",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Influenza - Therapeutics and Challenges",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. 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He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"26",type:"subseries",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. 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It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. 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At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/443366",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"443366"},fullPath:"/profiles/443366",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()