Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Therefore, a variety of pharmacological and non-pharmacological therapies are the aims of several studies. To provide the best care, it is important to know and understand the therapeutic approaches that have shown important progress in this topic. This book contains eight chapters that are divided into three sections: Introduction, Pharmacological Therapies, and Non-Pharmacological Therapies. The authors of the chapters deal with the pathophysiology of SCI, the effect of antioxidant and immunosuppressive agents, stem cell-based therapies, the use of cultured cells for transference or transplantation, and the application of non-invasive modalities (transcutaneous electrical spinal cord stimulation, etc.) for SCI rehabilitation.",isbn:"978-1-78984-162-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-161-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-844-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77698",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"spinal-cord-injury-therapy",numberOfPages:172,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"674d4925395d0e0c564f092bda8c6482",bookSignature:"Antonio Ibarra, Elisa García-Vences and Gabriel Guízar-Sahagún",publishedDate:"November 27th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7879.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7975,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:18,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 17th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 6th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 5th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 26th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 25th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"72488",title:"Dr.",name:"José Juan Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Ibarra Arias",slug:"jose-juan-antonio-ibarra-arias",fullName:"José Juan Antonio Ibarra Arias",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72488/images/system/72488.jpg",biography:"Dr. Antonio Ibarra is Professor and Research Coordinator of the Health Sciences Research Center (CICSA), Faculty of Health Sciences, Anáhuac University, Mexico. As Coordinator, Dr. Ibarra funded the CICSA and developed scientific programs, agreements, and regulations for undergraduate/graduate students and researchers. As a scientist, Dr. Ibarra has studied the development of neuroprotective and neurorestorative therapies for spinal cord injury and cerebral ischemia. Recently, he investigated therapies for cognitive impairment. Dr. Ibarra has numerous scientific publications and has received national and international awards. His research findings led him to lecture at different international meetings. He holds advisory appointments at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) and CONACYT (National Council of Science and Technology).",institutionString:"Universidad Anáhuac",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Universidad Anáhuac",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"272474",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Guízar-Sahagún",slug:"gabriel-guizar-sahagun",fullName:"Gabriel Guízar-Sahagún",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272474/images/10954_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Gabriel Guízar-Sahagún is a senior researcher at the Instituto\nMexicano del Seguro Social. Dr. Guízar’s professional interest is\nbasic and clinical research on spinal cord injury, mainly topics\nrelated to protection, reparative procedures, and rehabilitation.\nHe earned his Masters and PhD degrees at the Faculty of Medicine of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM).\nDr. Guízar is a national research scientist and an advisor of\npostgraduate students from UNAM and Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría universities. He has published 81 articles, seven chapters in books, and 92 abstracts in\nthe memoirs of international meetings. Dr. Guízar has about 1050 citations to his\nscientific works, and 34 invited lectures on the topics of spinal cord injury, neural\ntransplantation, neuroprotection, and rehabilitation.",institutionString:"Unidad de Investigación Médica en Enfermedades Neurológicas",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"207140",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"García-Vences",slug:"elisa-garcia-vences",fullName:"Elisa García-Vences",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/207140/images/10955_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Elisa García-Vences earned her Masters and Doctoral degrees\nat Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico. She conducted\nher postdoctoral training at the Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría\n(INP). Dr. García was an associate researcher at INP and Instituto Nacional de Genómica. Currently, she is a professor, senior\nresearcher, and coordinator of the Master Program on Medical\nSciences at Universidad Anáhuac México. As a researcher, she is a\nmember of the National Research System and Secretary of the Research and Bioethics Committee of the Health Sciences Research Center at Universidad Anáhuac. Dr.\nGarcía has collaborated in 15 original articles on spinal cord injury, being the first\nauthor in two of them. Dr. García has participated in three book chapters as author\nand co-author.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud (CICSA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1122",title:"Neurological Physical Therapy",slug:"neurological-physical-therapy"}],chapters:[{id:"67427",title:"Introductory Chapter: Trends in Therapeutic Strategies after Spinal Cord Injury",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86687",slug:"introductory-chapter-trends-in-therapeutic-strategies-after-spinal-cord-injury",totalDownloads:546,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Tamara D. Frydman and Antonio Ibarra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67427",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67427",authors:[{id:"72488",title:"Dr.",name:"José Juan Antonio",surname:"Ibarra Arias",slug:"jose-juan-antonio-ibarra-arias",fullName:"José Juan Antonio Ibarra Arias"},{id:"303949",title:"MSc.",name:"Tamara D.",surname:"Frydman",slug:"tamara-d.-frydman",fullName:"Tamara D. Frydman"}],corrections:null},{id:"67161",title:"Physiopathology of Spinal Cord Injury",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86234",slug:"physiopathology-of-spinal-cord-injury",totalDownloads:699,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Spinal cord injuries have a multifactorial process with diverse evolution over time. An acute injury produces severe pathological and physiological changes in the organism, homeostasis is recovered, and both adverse and favorable reactions occur for the individual. In this chapter, we describe the pathophysiological follow-up to spinal cord injuries, from their acute to chronic presentations. The importance of this knowledge lies in finding solutions to the multiple disorders generated from a spinal cord injury. These will depend on the specific needs of each stage, considering the intensity of the injury, and the time elapsed from the beginning of the process until years later.",signatures:"Susana Martiñón, Juan Armando Reyes-Perez and Psyché Calderón-Vargas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67161",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67161",authors:[{id:"279482",title:"Dr.",name:"Susana",surname:"Martiñón",slug:"susana-martinon",fullName:"Susana Martiñón"},{id:"293909",title:"Dr.",name:"Psyché",surname:"Calderón-Vargas",slug:"psyche-calderon-vargas",fullName:"Psyché Calderón-Vargas"},{id:"293910",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Armando",surname:"Reyes-Perez",slug:"juan-armando-reyes-perez",fullName:"Juan Armando Reyes-Perez"}],corrections:null},{id:"66378",title:"Reactive Astrocyte Gliosis: Production of Inhibitory Molecules",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85570",slug:"reactive-astrocyte-gliosis-production-of-inhibitory-molecules",totalDownloads:1953,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The astrocytic cell responses to injury have been extensively studied in a variety of experimental models, and the term “astrogliosis” is often used to describe the astrocyte reactions to injury. Cells responding in these ways to injury are often referred to as “reactive astrocytes.” Glial scarring appears to be a critical feature of wound healing in the central nervous system (CNS), since elimination of the mitotically active contingent of reactive astrocytes leads to increase in the size of the wound. Reactive astrogliosis is a term coined for the morphological and functional events seen in astrocytes responding to CNS injury. The concept of reactive astrogliosis and its molecular and cellular definition in spinal cord injury (SCI) is still incomplete. Producing several inhibitory molecules discourages regeneration of axons in the injured spinal cord. This inhibition is compounded by the poor regenerative ability of most CNS axons. This is probably a more achievable therapeutic target than axon regeneration, and an effective treatment would be of assistance to the majority of patients with partial cord injuries. Of course, understanding about astrogliosis and producing mediators and inhibitory molecules such as signaling pathways help us to develop new treatment strategies for SCI.",signatures:"Mohammad Taghi Joghataei, Fereshteh Azedi and Soraya Mehrabi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66378",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66378",authors:[{id:"283292",title:"Dr.",name:"Fereshteh",surname:"Azedi",slug:"fereshteh-azedi",fullName:"Fereshteh Azedi"},{id:"283692",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Taghi",surname:"Joghataei",slug:"mohammad-taghi-joghataei",fullName:"Mohammad Taghi Joghataei"},{id:"305689",title:"Dr.",name:"Soraya",surname:"Mehrabi",slug:"soraya-mehrabi",fullName:"Soraya Mehrabi"}],corrections:null},{id:"66670",title:"Current Developments in Antioxidant Therapies for Spinal Cord Injury",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85424",slug:"current-developments-in-antioxidant-therapies-for-spinal-cord-injury",totalDownloads:1059,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"When spinal cord injury (SCI) occurs, numerous sources of reactive oxygen species and nitrogen species may be active within first minutes or hours and even reactivate few days later. Free radical formation and lipid peroxidation (LP) have been described as an important mechanism in the beginning and accelerated progress in the development of diverse pathologies, importantly in those related to central nervous system. The compromise of molecules and cellular structures due to the oxidative state of microenvironment in SCI may determinate survival or apoptosis of resident and infiltrating cells and polarization toward an inflammatory response, which lead to an extension of damaged tissue and loss of neuronal function, or a regulatory/regenerative response. The investigation of new antioxidant agents and their action at a molecular level begins to reveal mechanisms that, if correctly modulated, promise an improvement in recovery of functions with respect to conventional pharmacological therapies. In this chapter, we will review the general mechanisms of oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation, those antioxidant treatments in experimental development and clinical phase, as well as their achievements and limitations.",signatures:"Jonathan Vilchis Villa, Dulce M. Parra Villamar, José Alberto Toscano Zapien, Liliana Blancas Espinoza, Juan Herrera García and Raúl Silva García",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66670",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66670",authors:[{id:"280747",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Raúl",surname:"Silva García",slug:"raul-silva-garcia",fullName:"Raúl Silva García"},{id:"280748",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Vilchis Villa",slug:"jonathan-vilchis-villa",fullName:"Jonathan Vilchis Villa"},{id:"280751",title:"BSc.",name:"Liliana",surname:"Blancas Espinoza",slug:"liliana-blancas-espinoza",fullName:"Liliana Blancas Espinoza"},{id:"280754",title:"MSc.",name:"José Alberto",surname:"Toscano Zapien",slug:"jose-alberto-toscano-zapien",fullName:"José Alberto Toscano Zapien"},{id:"288703",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan",surname:"Herrera García",slug:"juan-herrera-garcia",fullName:"Juan Herrera García"},{id:"299206",title:"Dr.",name:"Dulce M.",surname:"Parra Villamar",slug:"dulce-m.-parra-villamar",fullName:"Dulce M. Parra Villamar"}],corrections:null},{id:"66551",title:"Effects of Cyclosporin-A, Minocycline, and Tacrolimus (FK506) on Enhanced Behavioral and Biochemical Recovery from Spinal Cord Injury in Rats",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85212",slug:"effects-of-cyclosporin-a-minocycline-and-tacrolimus-fk506-on-enhanced-behavioral-and-biochemical-rec",totalDownloads:838,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Spinal cord injury (SCI) results into an immediate primary injury (physical damages) followed by secondary damages (prolonged posttraumatic inflammatory disorder) resulting into severe motor dysfunction including paralysis. The present chapter discusses and investigates the neuroprotective effects of cyclosporin-A (CsA), minocycline, and tacrolimus (FK506) and their therapeutic effectiveness in recovery from the animal model of SCI. Based on the available recent literature on these three drugs, as well as in perspective of the results obtained on some experimental behavioral, biochemical, and oxidative stress parameters in the present study, the therapeutical potential of these three drugs has been discussed. Furthermore, the animal model of SCI used herein has been reviewed and compared with other reported animal models for understanding the utility, suitability, and reproducibility of the methodology of the present model for screening purposes in quest of searching ideal therapeutic compounds for maximum recovery from SCI.",signatures:"Mohammad Ahmad and Abdualrahman Saeed Alshehri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66551",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66551",authors:[{id:"281230",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"mohammad-ahmad",fullName:"Mohammad Ahmad"},{id:"293408",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdualrahman Saeed",surname:"Alshehri",slug:"abdualrahman-saeed-alshehri",fullName:"Abdualrahman Saeed Alshehri"}],corrections:null},{id:"65272",title:"Noninvasive Modalities Used in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83654",slug:"noninvasive-modalities-used-in-spinal-cord-injury-rehabilitation",totalDownloads:1148,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In the past three decades, research on plasticity after spinal cord injury (SCI) has led to a gradual shift in SCI rehabilitation: the former focus on learning compensatory strategies changed to functional neurorecovery, that is, promoting restoration of function through the use of affected limbs. This paradigm shift contributed to the development of technology-based interventions aiming to promote neurorecovery through repetitive training. This chapter presents an overview of a range of noninvasive modalities that have been used in rehabilitation after SCI. Among others, we present repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), surface electrical stimulation tools such as transcutaneous electrical spinal cord stimulation (tcSCS), transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), and functional electrical stimulation (FES), as well as its integration with cycling training and assistive robotic devices. The most recent results attained and the potential relevance of these new techniques to strengthen the efficacy of the residual neuronal pathways and improve spasticity are also presented. Future efforts toward the widespread clinical application of these modalities include more advances in the technology, together with the knowledge obtained from basic research and clinical trials. This can ultimately lead to novel customized interventions that meet specific needs of SCI patients.",signatures:"Filipe O. Barroso, Alejandro Pascual-Valdunciel, Diego Torricelli, Juan C. Moreno, Antonio Del Ama-Espinosa, Jozsef Laczko and José L. Pons",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65272",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65272",authors:[{id:"36836",title:"BSc.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Del Ama-Espinosa",slug:"antonio-del-ama-espinosa",fullName:"Antonio Del Ama-Espinosa"},{id:"180150",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Moreno",slug:"juan-moreno",fullName:"Juan Moreno"},{id:"187371",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",surname:"Torricelli",slug:"diego-torricelli",fullName:"Diego Torricelli"},{id:"279946",title:"Dr.",name:"Filipe O.",surname:"Barroso",slug:"filipe-o.-barroso",fullName:"Filipe O. Barroso"},{id:"283851",title:"MSc.",name:"Alejandro",surname:"Pascual-Valdunciel",slug:"alejandro-pascual-valdunciel",fullName:"Alejandro Pascual-Valdunciel"},{id:"283852",title:"Dr.",name:"Jozsef",surname:"Laczko",slug:"jozsef-laczko",fullName:"Jozsef Laczko"},{id:"283853",title:"Dr.",name:"José L.",surname:"Pons",slug:"jose-l.-pons",fullName:"José L. Pons"}],corrections:null},{id:"66029",title:"Transplantation or Transference of Cultured Cells as a Treatment for Spinal Cord Injury",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84645",slug:"transplantation-or-transference-of-cultured-cells-as-a-treatment-for-spinal-cord-injury",totalDownloads:815,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Spinal cord injury (SCI) involves damage to the spinal cord causing both structural and functional changes, which can lead to temporary or permanent alterations. Even though there have been many advances in its treatment, the results of clinical trials suggest that the current therapies are not sufficiently effective. Recently, there has been a lot of interest in regulating this harmful environment by transplanting cultured cells and boosting their antiinflammatory cytokines and growth factors production. Several types of cells have been studied for SCI therapy including, Schwann cells (SC’s), olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs), choroid plexus epithelial cells (CPECs), and immune cells (ICs) (lymphocytes, dendritic cells and alternative macrophage and microglia phenotypes). These treatments have shown to be promising and in this chapter, we will review the general aspects of transplanting these cells for SCI therapy as well as the neuroprotective and regenerative responses that different types of cells have reached in different SCI models. The mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) are one of the most well studied cell types; however, they were not included in this section because they will be reviewed in another chapter of this book.",signatures:"Roxana Rodríguez-Barrera, Karla Soria-Zavala, Julián García-Sánchez, Lisset Karina Navarro-Torres, Estefanía de la Cruz Castillo and Elisa García-Vences",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66029",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66029",authors:[{id:"207140",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",surname:"García-Vences",slug:"elisa-garcia-vences",fullName:"Elisa García-Vences"},{id:"280102",title:"Dr.",name:"Roxana",surname:"Rodríguez-Barrera",slug:"roxana-rodriguez-barrera",fullName:"Roxana Rodríguez-Barrera"},{id:"280109",title:"MSc.",name:"Karla",surname:"Soria-Zavala",slug:"karla-soria-zavala",fullName:"Karla Soria-Zavala"},{id:"280110",title:"BSc.",name:"Julián",surname:"García-Sánchez",slug:"julian-garcia-sanchez",fullName:"Julián García-Sánchez"},{id:"280112",title:"MSc.",name:"Estefanía",surname:"de la Cruz Castillo",slug:"estefania-de-la-cruz-castillo",fullName:"Estefanía de la Cruz Castillo"},{id:"291737",title:"Dr.",name:"Lisset Karina",surname:"Navarro-Torres",slug:"lisset-karina-navarro-torres",fullName:"Lisset Karina Navarro-Torres"}],corrections:null},{id:"69083",title:"Neuroregenerative-Rehabilitative Therapy for Spinal Cord Injury",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88808",slug:"neuroregenerative-rehabilitative-therapy-for-spinal-cord-injury",totalDownloads:919,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Spinal cord injury is one of the leading causes of disability worldwide. Current mainstay treatment strategies consist of surgical and medical management in acute and subacute stage. Rehabilitative management in the chronic stage. None of the existing strategies can repair the damage to the spinal cord and recover neurological functioning. Stem cells have promising results in pre-clinical and clinical studies. Various pre-clinical studies have evidenced neuro-regenerative capabilities of stem cells and shown neural recovery. Clinical studies have also shown improvements in neurological functions and quality of life. This chapter discusses about different types of cells available, routes of administration available to transplant these cells, dosages of cell and optimum time after injury at which cells should be transplanted based on world-wide literature. We have also discussed results following our protocol of intrathecal transplantation of autologous bone marrow mononuclear cells. Although, not a cure, stem cell therapy further improves quality of life, functional independence and reduces secondary complications when combined with existing treatment strategies; neuroregenerative rehabilitative therapy.",signatures:"Alok Sharma, Hemangi Sane, Nandini Gokulchandran, Prerna Badhe, Amruta Paranjape, Pooja Kulkarni and Vivek Nair",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69083",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69083",authors:[{id:"169151",title:"Dr.",name:"Alok",surname:"Sharma",slug:"alok-sharma",fullName:"Alok Sharma"},{id:"169970",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",surname:"Kulkarni",slug:"pooja-kulkarni",fullName:"Pooja Kulkarni"},{id:"204449",title:"Dr.",name:"Hemangi",surname:"Sane",slug:"hemangi-sane",fullName:"Hemangi Sane"},{id:"204451",title:"Dr.",name:"Prerna",surname:"Badhe",slug:"prerna-badhe",fullName:"Prerna Badhe"},{id:"204454",title:"Dr.",name:"Amruta",surname:"Paranjape",slug:"amruta-paranjape",fullName:"Amruta Paranjape"},{id:"277771",title:"Dr.",name:"Nandini",surname:"Gokulchandran",slug:"nandini-gokulchandran",fullName:"Nandini Gokulchandran"},{id:"279111",title:"Mr.",name:"Vivek",surname:"Nair",slug:"vivek-nair",fullName:"Vivek Nair"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9800",title:"Paraplegia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9cb6d23e2fd707ad3c1b5e3b096c8986",slug:"paraplegia",bookSignature:"José Juan Antonio Ibarra Arias and Carlos Alberto Cuellar Ramos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9800.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72488",title:"Dr.",name:"José Juan Antonio",surname:"Ibarra Arias",slug:"jose-juan-antonio-ibarra-arias",fullName:"José Juan Antonio Ibarra Arias"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited 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\r\n\tCancer is an increasing global health burden, and it is expected to rank as the leading cause of death in all over the world in the 21st century. The poor diagnoses, therapies and prognoses of the disease could be mainly related to the variation of severities, organs and tissue locations, the sensitivity and resistance to drugs, cell differentiation and cancer origin, and the understanding of the pathogenesis. It is well established that the interaction and the interplay between genes and proteins play an important role in investigation of mechanisms underlying cancer diseases. Thus, it is necessary to introduce new concept of Systems Clinical and precision medicine into cancer research, to integrate systems biology, clinical science, multiomics-based technology, bioinformatics and computational science to improve diagnosis, therapies and prognosis of such diseases. Indeed, cancer bioinformatics role is increasing in biomarkers identification and validation contributing to early diagnoses, monitoring of disease progress and response to therapy for patient’s life quality improvement.
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\r\n\tThis book entitled “Cancer Bioinformatics” will focus on the latest developments in the emerging field of systems clinical and precision medicine in cancer which integrates systems biology and network biomarkers, clinical science, omics-based technology, cutting-edge bioinformatics and computational approaches to improve diagnosis, therapies and prognosis of cancer. \r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83969-108-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-107-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-109-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"de4ec5bb46fa24bd45d7cc410bd95779",bookSignature:"Dr. Ghedira Kais and Dr. Yosr Hamdi",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10661.jpg",keywords:"Bioinformatics, Computational Approaches, Databases, Portals, Cancer Registries, E-Health Records, Novel Treatment, Drug Repurposing, Mutations, Biomarkers, Whole Exome Sequencing, Whole Genome Sequencing",numberOfDownloads:460,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 14th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 26th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 24th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 13th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 11th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"10 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Kais Ghedira is an assistant professor at the Institute Pasteur of Tunis (IPT) holding a Ph.D. degree in bioinformatics. 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\n
1. Terpenes and terpenoids
\n
Natural products are the compounds which isolate from different natural sources such as plants, animals, microbes, insects, plant pathogens, and endophytes and marine. These are known as secondary metabolites since they are formed due to the enzymatic resections of primary metabolites (amino acids, sugars, vitamins, etc.). Terpenes belong to the biggest class of secondary metabolites and basically consist of five carbon isoprene units which are assembled to each other (many isoprene units) by thousands of ways. Terpenes are simple hydrocarbons, while terpenoids are modified class of terpenes with different functional groups and oxidized methyl group moved or removed at various positions. Terpenoids are divided into monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, sesterpenes, and triterpenes depending on its carbon units (Figure 1). Most of the terpenoids with the variation in their structures are biologically active and are used worldwide for the treatment of many diseases. Many terpenoids inhibited different human cancer cells and are used as anticancer drugs such as Taxol and its derivatives. Many flavorings and nice fragrances are consisting on terpenes because of its nice aroma. Terpenes and its derivatives are used as antimalarial drugs such as artemisinin and related compounds. Meanwhile, terpenoids play a diverse role in the field of foods, drugs, cosmetics, hormones, vitamins, and so on. This chapter provides introduction and information on the bioactive terpenes isolated currently from different natural sources.
\n
Figure 1.
Classification of terpenes.
\n
\n
\n
2. Monoterpenes
\n
Monoterpenes consist of 10 carbon atoms with two isoprene units and molecular formula C10H16. These are naturally present in the essential and fixed oils of plants and related sources. Monoterpenes are structurally divided into the acyclic, monocyclic, and bicyclic type of compound. The compounds belong to this class usually have strong aroma and odor and are used in many pharmaceutical companies. Mixture of different monoterpene-based oils is used as fragrances for making perfumes and in other cosmetics. Most of the monoterpenes are active biologically with strong antibacterial activities. Several studies have shown in vitro and in vivo antitumor activity of many essential oils obtained from plants. The antitumor activity of essential oils of many species has been related to the presence of monoterpenes in their composition [1]. Herein, we are discussing some of the recently published active monoterpenes (Table 1, Figure 2).
It exhibited inhibitory activity on nitric oxide (NO) production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW264.7 cells with an IC50 value of 14.4 μM. Compounds in the SC-CO2 extracts of the radiation mutant cultivar and the original plant were quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection.
Source and biological activities of some monoterpenes.
\n
Figure 2.
Structure of monoterpene.
\n
\n
\n
3. Sesquiterpenes
\n
Sesquiterpenes are the class of secondary metabolites consisting of three isoprene units (C15H24) and found in linear, cyclic, bicyclic, and tricyclic forms. Sesquiterpenes are also found in the form of lactone ring (Table 2). Many of the latex in latex-producing plants contain sesquiterpene, and these are potent antimicrobial and anti-insecticidal agent. Artemisinin, a sesquiterpene lactone, one of the most active compounds in Artemisia annua shoots and roots (Figure 3).
\n
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\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Names
\n
Plant source
\n
Activity
\n
Ref.
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Arvestolides H and I
\n
Artemisia vestita
\n
H and I showed inhibitory effects on nitric oxide production in BV-2 cells induced by lipopolysaccharide with IC50 values of 43.2 and 39.9 μM, respectively.
Potency for drimenin at the hα4β2 AChR (0.97 μM) is several folds higher than that for other clinically used antidepressants using the same method. It could be used as a molecular scaffold for the development of more potent inhibitors with higher selectivity for the hα4β2 AChR.
B, C, and G exhibited inhibitory effects against LPS-stimulated nitric oxide (NO) production in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells with IC50 values of 10.8, 12.6, and 11.7 μM, respectively.
Mechanistic study revealed that the potential anti-inflammatory activity of A appears to be mediated via suppression of an LPS-induced NF-κB pathway and downregulation of MAPK activation.
14-O-Acetylinsulicolide A, 6β,9α-dihydroxy-14-p-nitrobenzoylcinnamolide, insulicolide A
\n
Marine-derived Aspergillus ochraceus fungus
\n
These compounds were evaluated for their cytotoxicities against three renal carcinoma cell lines, ACHN, OS-RC-2, and 786-O cells, and it displayed activities with IC50 values of 0.89–8.2 μM. Further studies indicated that it arrested the cell cycle at the G0/G1 phase at a concentration of 1 μM and induced late apoptosis at a concentration of 2 μM after a 72 h treatment of 786-O cells.
A was the most active compound found in this study, with IC50 values of 0.10 μM against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense trypomastigotes and selectivity indices of 20.5, respectively.
Source and biological activities of some sesquiterpenes.
\n
Figure 3.
Structures of sesquiterpenes.
\n
\n
\n
4. Diterpenes
\n
Diterpenoids belong to a versatile class of chemical constituents found in different natural sources having C20H32 molecular formula and four isoprene units (Figure 4). This class of compounds showed significant biological activities including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, and antifungal activities. Some of the diterpenes also have cardiovascular activity, such as grayanotoxin, forskolin, eleganolone, marrubenol, and 14-deoxyandrographolide. Kaurane and pimarane-type diterpenes are also biologically active metabolites isolated from the roots and leaves of different plants (Table 3).
\n
Figure 4.
Structure of diterpenes.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Names
\n
Plant source
\n
Activity
\n
Ref.
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Genkwanine P and laurifolioside A
\n
Buds of Wikstroemia chamaedaphne
\n
Compounds exhibited potential antihepatitis B virus activities with IC50 46.5 and 88.3 mg/mL against HBsAg.
Cephalotaxus fortunei var. alpina and C. lanceolata
\n
H demonstrated an inhibition of 49.0% by administration to zebra fish at a dose of 60.0 ng/mL, compared to cisplatin (DDP, 22.4%) at 15.0 μg/mL. It might affect the NF-κB signaling pathway rather than binding to microtubules. Additionally, it showed almost equal anti-inflammatory activities compared to the positive control, MG132.
G showed significant potential to inhibit P-glycoprotein (P-gp) activity in two MDR cancer cells (NCI-H460/R and DLD1-TxR). G also significantly stronger chemosensitized NCI-H460/R cells to DOX compared to Dexverapamil due to prolonged effect of P-gp inhibition that persisted for 72 h.
Source and biological activities of some diterpenes.
\n
\n
\n
5. Sesterpenes
\n
Sesterpenes consist of 25 carbon atoms with 5 isoprene units and molecular formula C25H40 (Figure 5). These are naturally present in the fungus, marine organism, insects, sponges, lichens, and protective waxes of insects. These types of compounds are biologically active having anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimicrobial, and antifungal activities (Table 4).
\n
Figure 5.
Structures of sesterpenes.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Names
\n
Plant source
\n
Activity
\n
Ref.
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Cybastacines A and B
\n
Nostoc sp. Cyanobacterium
\n
A and B showed moderate in vitro antibiotic activities. Sesterterpenes are rare among microbial secondary metabolites, with only one report of a previous alkaloid—sesterterpene found in cyanobacteria. This discovery represents a significant addition to the novel chemical structures active against resistant bacterial strains.
Mushroom species, Pleurotus ostreatus and Scleroderma areolatum
\n
This compound exhibited moderate micromolar activity against P. falciparum 3D7 and T. cruzi Tulahuen C4 parasites. It showed <50% inhibition at 25 μM, when incubated with the tumoral liver cell line, HepG2 (HB-8065) for 72 h.
Source and biological activities of some sesterpenes.
\n
\n
\n
6. Triterpenes
\n
A major class of secondary metabolites are known as triterpenes and it usually contains 30 carbon atoms consisting of 6 isoprene units (Figure 6). It is derived from the squalene biosynthetic pathway. Triterpenes have many methyl groups and it can be oxidized into alcohols, aldehydes, and carboxylic acids, which make it complex and differentiate it biologically. Triterpenes have many active sites for the glycosylation which converts it into another big class of compounds, namely, saponins (triterpene glycoside). Herein, we are discussing some recently published bioactive triterpenes (Table 5).
\n
Figure 6.
Structure of triterpenes.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Names
\n
Plant source
\n
Activity
\n
Ref.
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Polyporenic acid B
\n
Fruiting bodies of Fomitopsis palustris
\n
It showed strong cytotoxicity against the HCT116, A549, and HepG2 cell lines with IC50 values of 8.4, 12.1, and 12.2 μM, respectively.
G and H were evaluated for cytotoxic activity against the Hela human cancer cell line and compounds showed significant cytotoxicity with IC50 value at 1.82 and 2.45 μM, respectively.
A, B, and H were tested against human colon tumor (HCT-116) cell lines, exhibited good activities with IC50 values of 6.53, 4.94, and 6.48 μM, respectively.
Source and biological activities of some triterpenes.
\n
\n
\n
7. Meroterpenes
\n
Meroterpenes are the secondary metabolites with partial terpenoid skeleton. Meroterpenoids were partially derived from mevalonic acid pathways and widely derived from animals, plants, bacteria, and fungi [21] (Figure 7). Meroterpene biosynthesis expands the diversity available to isoprenoid pathways alone and allows for the assembly of natural products with highly unique structural attributes. Organisms belonging to the fungal kingdom have become proficient at exploiting this broad chemical synthesis platform for complex metabolite production. Herein, we are discussing some of the recently published bioactive meroterpenes (Table 6).
B showed strong anti-inflammatory activity in vitro by inhibiting nitric oxide (NO) production in lipopolysaccharide activated in RAW264.7 cells with IC50 value of 1.6 ± 0.1 mM.
This compound showed activity against the human cancer cell lines MCF-7, PC-3, and SMMC-7721, with IC50 values of 3.86, 6.60, and 3.58 μM, respectively, and induced MCF-7 cell death through a mitochondria-mediated apoptosis pathway.
Source and biological activities of some meroterpenes.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This research project was supported by a grant from the “Research Center of the Female Scientific and Medical Colleges,” Deanship of Scientific Research, King Saud University.
\n
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Terpenes and terpenoids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Monoterpenes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Sesquiterpenes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Diterpenes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Sesterpenes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Triterpenes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Meroterpenes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Marianna VS, Aline LX, Tamires CL, Damiao PS. Antitumor activity of monoterpenes found in essential oils. Scientific World Journal. 2014;953451:1-35. DOI: 10.1155/2014/953451\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Bomi N, Yangkang S, Hyo-Young K, Jin-Baek K, Chang HJ, Ah-Reum H. A new monoterpene from the leaves of a radiation mutant cultivar of Perilla frutescens var. crispa with inhibitory activity on LPS-induced NO production. Molecules. 2017;22:1471-1472. DOI: 10.3390/molecules22091471\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Shuai-Hua T, Chen Z, Ke-Wu Z, Ming-Bo Z, Yong J, Peng-Fei T. Sesquiterpenoids from Artemisia vestita. Phytochemistry. 2018;147:194-202. DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2018.01.00e4\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Hugo RA, Dominik F, Bernd S, Matthias H, Cristian P, Marcelo OO. Drimane sesquiterpenoids noncompetitively inhibit human α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors with higher potency compared to human α3β4 and α7 subtypes. Journal of Natural Products. 2018;81:811-817. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.7b00893\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Chen Z, Ran W, Xiao-Li M, Ke-Wu Z, Yang X, Pu-Ming Z, Ming-Bo Z, Yong J, Guo-Qing L, Peng-Fei T. Nitric oxide inhibitory sesquiterpenoids and its dimers from Artemisia freyniana. Journal of Natural Products. 2018;81:866-878\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Gui-Min X, Xiao-Qing L, Chen C, Kang C, Xiao-Bing W, Yu-Cheng G, Jian-Guang L, Ling-Yi K. Highly oxidized guaianolide sesquiterpenoids with potential antiinflammatory activity from Chrysanthemum indicum. Journal of Natural Products. 2018;81:378-386. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.7b00867\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Yanhui T, Bin Y, Xiuping L, Xiaowei L, Xiaoyan P, Lan T, Yonghong L, Xiaojuan L, Xuefeng Z. Nitrobenzoyl sesquiterpenoids with cytotoxic activities from a marine-derived Aspergillus ochraceus fungus. Journal of Natural Products. 2018;81:92-97. DOI: 0.1021/acs.jnatprod.7b00698\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Njogu MK, Josphat CM, Marcel K, Reto B, Thomas JS. Antiprotozoal sesquiterpene lactones and other constituents from Tarchonanthus camphoratus and Schkuhria pinnata. Journal of Natural Products. 2018;81:124-130. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.7b00747\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Shi-Fei L, Ying-Ying J, Zhi-Qiang Z, Jian-Bin C, Jie J, Xun-Long S, Li-Wei Z. Diterpenes from buds of Wikstroemia chamaedaphne showing antihepatitis B virus activities. Phytochemistry. 2018;151:17-25. DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2018.01.021\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Ling N, Xiu-Hong Z, Xiao-Jiao C, Bing-Jie Z, Mei-Fen B, Xiang-Hai C. Bioactive norditerpenoids from Cephalotaxus fortunei var. alpina and C. lanceolate. Phytochemistry. 2018;151:50-60. DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2018.04.007\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Xiaocong S, Feng L, Xueyuan Y, Jinghan W, Bangjian D, Chunfeng X, Da-Qing J, Jie Z, Dongho L, Yasushi O, Jing X, Yuanqiang G. Seco-labdane diterpenoids from the leaves of Callicarpa nudiflora showing nitric oxide inhibitory activity. Phytochemistry. 2018;149:31-41. DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2018.02.001\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Jian-Chao Z, Ya-Li W, Tian-Yuan Z, Zhong-Jian C, Tian-Mei Y, Ying-Ying W, Cheng-Peng S, Xiao-Chi M, Yi-Xuan Z. Indole diterpenoids from the endophytic fungus Drechmeria sp. as natural antimicrobial agents. Phytochemistry. 2018;48:21-28. DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2018.01.010\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Gordana K, Milka J, Nina MT, Milica P, Tijana S, Ivana SA, Vele VT. Jatrophane diterpenoids with multidrug-resistance modulating activity from the latex of Euphorbia nicaeensis. Phytochemistry. 2018;148:104-112. DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2018.01.016\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Wan-Ping W, Kun J, Ping Z, Kai-Kai S, Shi-Jin Q, Xiao-Ping Y, Chang-Heng T. Highly oxygenated and structurally diverse diterpenoids from Euphorbia helioscopia. Phytochemistry. 2018;145:93-102. DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2017.10.012\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Alfredo HC, Víctor TP, Santiago MC, Diego FRV, Antera MQ, Montserrat OD, Angel RS. Cybastacines A and B: Antibiotic sesterterpenes from a Nostoc sp. cyanobacterium. Journal of Natural Products. 2018;81:410-413. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.7b00638\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Frederick A, Ignacio P, Theresa A, Guiomar P-M, Elizabeth D, Jesús M, Thomas M, Luis R, Dolores G, Olga G, Francisca V, Christian A, Fernando R. Antiprotozoan sesterterpenes and triterpenes isolated from two Ghanaian mushrooms. Fitoterapia. 2018;127:341-348. DOI: 10.1016/j.fitote.2018.03.016\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Jinzhi Z, Yun Y, Mengyao Y, Ke Y, Xia L, Huayi Q, Guolin Z, Yinggang L. Lanostane-type C31 triterpenoid derivatives from the fruiting bodies of cultivated Fomitopsis palustris. Phytochemistry. 2018;152:10-21. DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2018.04.012\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Shuai-Bing Z, Zheng-Hui L, Marc S, He-Ping C, Ying H, Xiao-Qing GTF, Ji-Kai L. Lanostane triterpenoids from Tricholoma pardinum with NO production inhibitory and cytotoxic activities. Phytochemistry. 2018;152:105-112. DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2018.05.002\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Nailiang Z, Zhonghao S, Meigeng H, Yedan L, Dawei Z, Haifeng W, Yu T, Pengfei L, Junshan Y, Guoxu M, Xudong X. Cucurbitane-type triterpenes from the tubers of Hemsleya penxianensis and their bioactive activity. Phytochemistry. 2018;147:49-56. DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2017.12.014\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Yan-jiao C, Liang N, Jialong F, Jianping Z, Nusrat H, Yu-qing J, Hanwen Y, Bin L, Bin L, Iqbal C, Ikhlas K, Wei W. Seco-dammarane triterpenoids from the leaves of Cyclocarya paliurus. Phytochemistry. 2018;145:85-92. DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2017.10.013\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Senhua C, Meng D, Weiyang L, Xishan H, Zhaoming L, Yongjun L, Hongju L, Zhigang S. Anti-inflammatory meroterpenoids from the mangrove endophytic fungus Talaromyces amestolkiae YX1. Phytochemistry. 2018;146:8-15. DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2017.11.011\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Senhua C, Meng D, Weiyang L, Xishan H, Zhaoming L, Yongjun L, Hongju L, Zhigang S. Anti-inflammatory meroterpenoids from the mangrove endophytic fungus Talaromyces amestolkiae YX. Phytochemistry. 2018;146:8-15. DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2017.11.011\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Xiao W, Lin L, Rongxiu Z, Jiaozhen Z, Jinchuan Z, Hongxiang L. Bibenzyl-based meroterpenoid enantiomers from the Chinese liverwort Radula sumatrana. Journal of Natural Products. 2017;80:3143-3150. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.7b00394\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Qi L, Xiao-Yi W, Jing Y, Jin-Feng L, Rui L, Zheng-Chao T, Yong-Xian C. Spiro meroterpenoids from Ganoderma applanatum. Journal of Natural Products. 2017;80:61-70. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.6b00431\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Shagufta Perveen",address:"shagufta792000@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
Over the last 30 years, the organization of phonetic systems in bilingual speakers has been extensively examined (see [1] for more information). Phonetic category formation refers to the processes by which bilingual or second language leaners come to distinguish phonetic details of share phonemes in each language [2]. Most studies dealt with adult speakers who learn a second language (L2) after they have fully acquired their first language (L1). These studies mainly focused on how the influence of one language on the other depends on the learner’s age of exposure to the L2. The current chapter deals with phonetic characteristics of sound produced by bilingual children. Bilingual children are different from adult bilinguals or L2 learners in that their language systems of two languages continue to develop during developmental processes. Thus, it is of interest to examine bilingual children to understand how phonetic categories develop and are organized across languages and how L1 and L2 systems interact with each other. Two further questions are raised in investigating phonetic categories in bilingual children. First, currently available studies examining phonetic development in bilingual children mainly focused on stop consonant production; limited evidence regarding whether phonetic characteristics of other categories (e.g., vowels) are similar to stops is available. Second, children who are exposed to two languages are either simultaneous or sequential bilingual. Whether phonetic categories of simultaneous bilingual and sequential bilingual children show similar characteristics is not well-examined either. In order to address these questions, first, I outline the currently dominant theoretical models of phonetic category formation in bilinguals. Then, a comprehensive review of existing literature of phonetic categories in bilingual children is provided. Finally, a proposed model of development of phonetic category formation is formulated. Directions for future research on phonetic category formation in bilingual children are also suggested.
2. Theories of bilingual speech acquisition
2.1. Speech learning model for phonetic systems in adult bilingual and L2 speakers
Flege [1] offers the Speech Learning Model (SLM) to account for how individuals learn to produce the vowels and consonants of their L2. The aim of the model is to explain production limitations of experienced L2 learners focusing on more perceptual aspects of learners rather than their motoric constraints. Thus, SLM posits that difficulty to produce a certain L2 phoneme is attributed to a perceptual limitation to discern the sound, and not to production difficulty. A basic assumption in Flege’s model is that phonetic elements of the L1 and L2 are related to each other at the level of allophones, and the language-specific aspects of speech sounds are formed in long-term representation called phonetic categories. Since perception plays an important role in the establishment of phonetic categories, if bilingual speakers are able to perceive phonetic differences between L1 and L2, then a new phonetic category can be established for the L2 sound. The likelihood of establishing a new category is further increased by the degree of dissimilarity between an L2 sound and it’s closest related L2 sound [1, 3].
Flege further hypothesized that a single phonetic category is used to process similar L1 and L2 sounds due to equivalent classification. If sounds in the L1 and L2 are perceptually linked, then their perceived similarities may block category formation by what Flege refers to as the “mechanism of equivalence classification” [4]. For this process, phonetic category assimilation may occur. Flege and Eefting [5] examined the voice-onset-time (VOT) values of Spanish and English stop consonants as produced by Spanish-English bilinguals. They noted that Spanish-English bilinguals produced stop consonants in English with VOT values resembling those seen in Spanish, suggesting that phonetic category formation was blocked due to similarities in stop consonant production. Flege also predicts two circumstances in which bilingual productions may differ from that of monolinguals: a bilingual’s category formation is deflected away from the L1 category in order to maintain phonetic contrast between categories sharing a common L1-L2 phonological space; as a result, representations produced by bilinguals are based on features different from monolinguals. Bohn and Flege [6] investigated the production of German and English vowels by adult German learners of English. They note that these bilingual speakers produced vowels in such a way that they were able to maintain contrasts within the individual’s phonological space. During this process, phonetic category dissimilation may take place.
2.2. Linguistic system models in bilingual children
While SLM was developed to explain adult bilingual and L2 learners, the linguistic system model is a theory regarding language acquisition in bilingual children. The focus of this theory is whether bilingual children develop one or two linguistic systems in the learning of their respective languages. The one-system model, known as the Unitary Language System (ULS), was originally hypothesized by Volterra and Taeschner [7] and the two-system model, also known as the Dual Language System (DLS) hypothesis, was posited by Genesee [8]. Under the ULS model, during early language development, bilingual children would take received input from both languages and combine the information into a single language system. As the language acquisition process continues, bilingual children develop more advanced linguistic skills, and undergo a differentiation process. It is during this process that these children distinguish between languages and achieve bilingual status. The DLS hypothesis stands as an alternative to the ULS hypothesis. The DLS hypothesis posits that children establish two separate linguistic systems from the beginning of the language acquisition process. Under this model, children receive dual language input and separate this information into two distinct language systems. These children do not undergo a period in which their linguistic systems are merged. They have separate linguistics systems from the onset of the acquisition processes; thus children are always considered to be bilinguals under the DLS hypothesis. Since the ULS and DLS hypotheses are significant for understanding bilingual children, more detailed information on each hypothesis is discussed.
2.2.1. Unitary Language System hypothesis
Under the ULS hypothesis, Volterra and Taeschner [7] claim that between infancy and the age of 3, children progress through three stages in order to become bilingual. The first stage of language acquisition in bilingual children shares many similarities with the language development of monolingual children. As children receive language input from both languages, they organize the information into one system. Volterra and Taeschner provide evidence for this by noting a lack of translation equivalents during the early stages of language development. Children receiving dual language input appear to avoid learning words in both languages that share the same meaning. Volterra and Taeschner developed three stages based on a study conducted with two Italian-German bilingual sisters and from data taken from Leopold [9]. Speech samples from these three subjects were taken between 1 year and 2 months (1.2) and 3.9. Their parents indicated that they used the one parent, one language policy and thus only spoke to the children in their native languages. Data obtained during their study seemed to suggest that children do in fact learn translation equivalents between languages. Volterra and Taeschner refuted this idea by suggesting that word meanings have contextual ties which influence the child’s use of a word; thus they would not be considered a translation equivalent. During the second stage of language acquisition, the child is able to differentiate between the lexicons of each language but still continues to apply the same syntactic rules to both languages. Evidence for this stage of language development in bilingual children is seen in the presence of translation equivalents. The child’s language now indicates that he or she has words in both languages with equivalent or corresponding meanings. The presence of translation equivalents indicates that the child is able to distinguish lexical items of one language from the other, and sort them by language. Despite the distinction made between lexical items of each language, the incorporation of grammatical components from one language into the other continues to suggest a unified system. During the third stage, language acquisition in the bilingual child is complete. Both the lexical and syntactic linguistic systems are differentiated. Volterra and Taeschner found that the children from the Italian-German study and the Leopold study distinguished and applied the appropriate syntactic rules of each respective language as early as 3.9. It is at this stage that children become bilingual.
2.2.2. Dual Language System hypothesis
Paradis and Genesee [10] argue that bilingual children may acquire separate linguistic systems, and pose an additional option to the DLS by further categorizing these systems into autonomous (no interaction between the two language systems) and interdependent (interaction between the linguistic systems). If these linguistic systems are formed autonomously, then we would expect acquisition of each language by a bilingual to mimic that of a monolingual speaker of each respective language. However, if the two linguistics systems interact during language acquisition, we would expect to see three processes such as transfer, acceleration or delay in each language. Transfer occurs when bilinguals incorporate grammatical elements of one language into the grammar of another language. Acceleration happens when grammatical properties occur earlier in bilinguals than in typical developing monolinguals. Delay is the process in which the burden of simultaneous language acquisition causes delays in the grammatical development of bilinguals when compared to monolinguals.
3. Empirical evidence of phonetic category formation in bilingual children
This section reviews research examining phonetic categories of bilingual children. Investigating phonetic categories in bilingual children started in early 1980s and continued until now, although limited studies have been conducted. This section only reviews studies examining normally developing bilingual children and adolescents focusing on speech production. If any bilingual study examined only one language without addressing the theoretical question (e.g., one vs. two systems or how one language influences the other language), the study is not included in this review [e.g., 11, 12]. After reviewing studies that met the inclusion criteria, the studies are summarized based on the following aspects such as languages, sound category, age of bilingual children, type of bilingual children, etc. (see Table 1).
Summary of empirical evidence of phonetic category formation.
It is necessary to define bilingual children before each study is discussed. Bilingual children are commonly categorized into simultaneous and sequential [13], but the ages at which each group is categorized vary depending on the researchers. For example, Padilla and Lindholm [14] apply the term bilingual speaker to individuals who have simultaneously acquired two languages, and have generally received an equal amount of exposure and input from each language from birth. Genesee et al. [15] apply the term to individuals who have been exposed to their L2 within the first year of life while McLaughlin [16] and Hamers and Blanc [17] considered simultaneous bilingual children as having acquired the L2 before the L1 is established. Based on the Padilla and Lindholm as well as Genesee et al.’s definitions, certain bilingual children such as Korean-English bilinguals are always categorized as sequential or consecutive because most children in that language started to be consistently exposed to English only when they were enrolled into English-speaking daycare centres, preschools or kindergartens (unless one of the parents is English-speaking) [18]. This may lead to considerable heterogeneity of sequential bilingual children [13]. Lee and Iverson [19] argued that it is necessary to identify when L1 is established in order to determine bilingual status as simultaneous versus sequential. In other words, the identification should be based on a solid developmental milestone rather than an arbitrary age. In this chapter, following Hammers and Blanc, I consider simultaneous bilingual children as those who first learned L1, and then L2, before 5–6 years of age because a child’s sound system is not fully developed until 7 years of age [20]. Although a child is exposed to L2 before age 5 or 6, he or she should be exposed to L1 and L2 for a substantial period to become a simultaneous bilingual. If any study tests 3-year-old bilingual children who had been exposed to L2 for less than 1–2 years, these children are considered as sequential bilinguals.
To my knowledge, the earliest studies examining stop production in bilingual children were conducted by Bond et al. [21] and Konefal and Fokes [22]. Two of three children in Konefal and Fokes were also included in Bone et al., when they were young. Thus, only Konefal and Fokes’s results are discussed here. Konefal and Fokes examined three female Spanish-English children who were born in a Spanish-speaking country and moved to the US. These children were 4, 7 and 10 years of age. It is not certain about the duration of English language exposure, but these children had been exposed to English for approximately 3 years. Both English and Spanish stops were examined. English and Spanish languages have both voiced and voiceless stops, but the acoustic features (e.g., VOT) are different between the languages. VOT refers to the temporal interval between the release of stop closure and the onset of voicing of a following vowel. English voiced stops are produced with short lag VOT whereas Spanish voiced stops are produced with voicing lead. English voiceless stops are produced with long lag VOT while Spanish voiced stops are produced with short lag VOT. Since the 10-year-old girl had a language disorder, only results of the other two children are discussed here. The authors found that the 4- and 7-year-old children produced English and Spanish voiced stops and voiceless stops differently. The 7-year-old child was able to produce Spanish voiced stops with voicing lead, but the 4-year-old child was not able to. These studies mainly focused on comparing between normal and disordered children without direct comparisons between English and Spanish phonetic categories. It is not certain whether the bilingual children distinguished stops across English and Spanish.
Watson [23] examined stop consonants of 5-, 6-, 8- and 10-year-old French-English bilingual children. Five children for each age group were recruited in this study. Compared to Bone et al. and Konefal and Fokes, all children were well-balanced between English and French. Similar to Spanish, French stops are produced with either voicing lead (voiced stops) or short lag (voiceless stops). Watson found that the 5-year-old children had established voiced and voiceless contrast for only English, but not for French. Three of the five children did not show voiced and voiceless contrast. However, by the age of 6, the bilingual children developed voiced and voiceless distinction for each language. Watson also reported that VOT values decrease as age increases in bilingual children. Due to the small number participants per age group (five children), no statistical analyses were conducted. Although Watson examined both English and French within each bilingual child, he did not systematically compare English with French stop categories. The main interest was whether bilingual children demonstrate voiced and voiceless distinction in each language. Furthermore, bilingual children stop productions were not compared with those of monolingual English- or French-speaking children. Regardless of these limitations, Watson concluded that bilingual children can and do master two separate patterns.
In the 1990s, limited studies were still made to examine bilingual children’s production characteristics. Unlike previous studies, however, these studies employed control data from monolingual counterparts or input speech to compare bilingual children’s speech. Mack [24] examined stops produced by a 10-year-old French-English bilingual child and a monolingual English- or French-speaking child. Her question was to investigate the extent to which the two languages of a bilingual are interdependent or influence each other. Mack found that the French-English bilingual child produced English voiced stops similarly as compared to the English monolingual child; however, French voiced stops produced by the bilingual child were different from the monolingual French child. The French voiced stops were produced with short lag VOT like English stops, exhibiting transfer from English into French. In terms of voiceless stops, the bilingual child’s English voiceless stops were produced with much longer VOT than the monolingual child, but within a normal range. Although the author did not specify the mechanism for the longer VOT in this child, the longer VOT may be explained as a dissimilation effect to maximize different voiceless stops between English and French. The bilingual child’s French voiceless stops were produced with a longer VOT than the French monolingual child; but its VOT values were not within a normal range. Mack claimed that the bilingual child showed some degree of independence between the phonetic systems of his two languages in that the bilingual child demonstrated a distinction between the VOTs of his English and French voiceless stops; but there was also evidence of L2 language influence on L1.
Deuchar and Clark [25] examined a younger bilingual child in order to investigate early acquisition of the voicing contrast in the child’s two languages. This child was exposed to both English and Spanish relatively equally from birth by a Spanish-speaking father and an English-Spanish bilingual mother. Deuchar and Clark collected VOT measurements of utterance-initial stops in both English and Spanish productions made at three ages 4 months apart, which corresponded to the following ages: 1.7, 1.11 and 2.3. This study differed from previous research in that it also analysed the data that served as the Spanish and English input for the child, thus allowing for an additional layer of comparative analysis not typically seen in other studies. The authors found a lack of a voicing system in both English and Spanish at age 1.11, the establishment of a clear voicing system in English at age 2.3 but only the beginnings of a similar system in Spanish. The Spanish data did not reflect the caregivers’ voicing contrasts but rather progression towards an English-adult speaker voicing contrast. Interestingly, an analysis of the parent’s productions in Spanish revealed that the lag measurements were comparable to those of the child at age 2.3. When English and Spanish stops were compared within the child, voiceless stops were significantly different from each other; but voiced stops were not by 2.3. Deuchar and Clark claim that “at least, there is not a single, unified English/Spanish system” ([25], p. 363). The child may acquire English stop pairs earlier than Spanish because of the greater differences in the lag between English voiced and voiceless stops. Although they included speech input as a comparison, age equivalent monolingual children’s data are still needed to fully understand bilingual child’s phonetic category formation.
In the 2000s, more and more researchers examined phonetic category development in bilingual children. Small case studies were mainly conducted during an initial period; however, a relatively larger number of bilingual children followed. Unlike previous studies, studies during this era examined vowels in addition to stops. Khattab [26] tested three English-Arabic bilingual children (aged 5, 7 and 10) and age equivalent English- or Arabic-speaking children. The three bilingual children were siblings and raised in a city in the UK. Both parents were native Arabic speakers. Arabic was spoken to the children at home, but all three bilingual children were English-dominant. Arabic stops fall into two categories: stops with voicing lead and stops with short lag, similar to Spanish and French. The author found that the 5-year-old bilingual child only distinguished voiceless stops across languages, but she produced similar VOT for Arabic and English voiced stops. Arabic voiced stops were produced with short lag, instead of voicing lead. The other older children had acquired distinct VOT patterns for both voiced and voiceless stops, but the patterns did not always mirror those of their monolingual counterparts. The oldest child failed to produce the Arabic voiced stops with voicing lead VOT, suggesting that an interaction effect of English on Arabic.
Another small scale study examining different language users was conducted by Johnson and Wilson [27]. They examined two Japanese-English bilingual children whose ages were 2.10 and 4.8. They were sisters that lived in a bilingual family in Japan. When the children were 2.11 and 1.1, they moved into Canada. Both children had been exposed to a relatively equal amount of English and Japanese at home based on the one parent and one language principle. Both Japanese and English stops were examined using VOT. Japanese stops are similar to Spanish, French and Arabic in that voiced stops are produced with voicing lead whereas voiceless stops are produced with short lag VOT. Similar to Deuchar and Clark [25], parents’ input speech was collected for comparison as well as VOT values from existing literature ([28], for English) and Homma ([29, 30] for Japanese). The authors found that both children differentiated voiced and voiceless stops for each language. English voiced stops were produced with short lag whereas English voiceless stops were produced with long lag. None of the bilingual children produced Japanese voiced stops with voicing lead. Both bilingual children produced Japanese voiceless stops with long lag, which may be an influence from English. In short, the younger child produced similar English and Japanese stops for either voiced or voiceless; the older child produced English voiceless stops with longer VOT than Japanese voiceless stops. Although the authors did not specify the underlying mechanism for the longer VOT, it may be considered as a dissimilation process to maximize English and Japanese voiceless stop categories.
Kehoe et al. [31] examined another language group of bilingual children, that is, four Spanish-German bilingual children aged 2.0–3.0. Voicing contrast and VOT values between German and Spanish are similar to those of English and Spanish. The bilingual children’s VOT production was compared to three German children and to previous literature findings in Spanish. They found three patterns of VOT development. First, two bilingual children showed delay in the phonetic realization of voicing. These children did not acquire German voicing contrasts; Second, one child showed a transfer effect that he produced German voiced stops with voicing lead (Spanish-like) whereas he produced Spanish voiceless stops with long lag VOT (German-like); third, one child did not demonstrate any cross-language influence. By age 3, none of the German-Spanish bilingual children acquired Spanish voiced stops. In terms of cross-languages, two children distinguished German and Spanish voiceless stops; however, the other two children did not make such distinctions.
While previous studies mainly focused on stop productions, limited studies started investigating vowel production in bilingual children. Whitworth [32] examined vowel length and VOT acquisition in two German-English bilingual children, aged 9.11 and 12.5. Both children were exposed to both languages from birth based on the one parent, one language approach. The mother only spoke German whereas the father only spoke English to the children. English was the language used while the children attended schools and communicated with their friends. Thus, these children were English-dominant. The 9-year-old child possessed an English accent when he spoke German while the 12-year-old’s German is native-like with a northern standard German accent. German and English are produced with short lag VOT for voiced and long lag VOT for voiceless stops with a small difference in VOT values within each category. The author found that the younger child distinguished German and English voiceless stops, but not voiced stops, whereas the older child differentiated both voiced and voiceless stops across two languages. The author argued that the results seem to support two linguistic hypotheses. However, the VOT patterns these children showed were different from English and German. For example, although the younger child distinguished English and German voiceless stops, English VOT was shorter than German VOT, which shows the reverse pattern. Similarly, the older child produced longer VOT for German voiced stops than for the English voiced stop, which also appears to be a reverse pattern. One of the major criticisms of this VOT study was that the author did not control the place of articulation. It is well known that VOT for velar stops are produced with longest VOT for both voiced and voiceless stops. However, the author did not provide any information on how many tokens were included regarding place of articulation. In addition to VOT, the length of tense and lax vowels was also examined in Whitworth’s study. According to the author, German lax vowels are approximately half as long of German tense vowel [33]. English tense vowels are one-third longer than English lax vowels [34]. Both children produced English tense vowels significantly longer than German tense vowels; however, they did not differentiate English and German lax vowels. Although the author claimed that the younger child did distinguish them, the difference was marginal (p < .06).
So far, most studies were limited to case studies with a small number of participants involved. A larger group study was conducted by Baker and Trofimovich [35] to investigate how the phonetic vowel representation would be similar or different between long and short exposure duration for each age group. In this study, Baker and Trofimovich included four groups of Korean-English bilingual speakers. All participants were born in Korea and moved to the US at various ages. Two groups were adults with either shorter (M = 0.9 year) or longer (M = 6.9 years) exposure duration to English. The other two groups were older children. One of the children’s group was aged 10.2 years with 1.3 years of exposure duration; the other group was aged 16.9 years with 8 years of exposure duration to English. The authors found that the earlier the exposure to two languages, the more likely a bilingual will produce distinct acoustic realization of L1 and L2 sounds. For example, bilingual children with longer exposure duration distinguished English /ɪ/ from /i/, /æ/ from /ɛ/ and /u/ from /ʊ/ better than children with shorter exposure duration. They also found an L2 transfer effect on L1 in that the Korean /u/ was centralized in bilingual children with longer exposure. Age equivalent monolingual children were also recruited to compare with bilingual children with early exposure. They found that these bilingual children produced English /i/, /u/ and /ɛ/ similarly as monolingual children but they differed from monolingual children in their production of English /ɪ/, /ʊ/ and /æ/. They produced these vowels with higher F1 vowels than monolingual children. The authors suggested that the bilingual children with longer exposure duration demonstrated some evidence of L1 vowel influence on L2 vowels. Baker and Trofimovich conducted the first well-designed group study to provide important findings for how bilinguals organized their phonetic systems and the complex interactions between L1 and L2. However, these bilingual children started to be exposed to English at a later age, it is not certain whether language influence patterns appear in young bilingual children who acquire both languages at a young age.
Yavas [36] conducted a study where he examined older aged Spanish-English sequential bilingual children (10 2nd graders). These children were monolingual Spanish-speaking until age 5 in Florida, US; then started learning English in kindergarten and had been exposed to English 2–3 years. Unlike previous studies, Yavas used mixed sentences to elicit Spanish and English stops. For example, “Pon el papel on the table”. Only voiceless stops were elicited in both languages. Yavas did not conduct any statistical analysis; only a qualitative description for each individual child was addressed. The author reported that Spanish-English consecutive bilingual children’s data supported that heterogeneity of bilinguals. One bilingual child’s stop production was similar to monolinguals; this child manifested a totally separate system for English or Spanish. Four of the bilingual children showed a separate system for both languages with variations. For instance, one child produced bilabial English stops with shorter VOT, but with an acceptable range and the other child differentiated one place, but not the other places. Only one child did not differentiate two systems at all. Yavas concluded that the bilingual children showed unique and specific linguistic patterns. Yavas collected Spanish stops from mixed sentences while English stops with English only sentences. It is not certain whether such method leads to accurate production results. Also, Yavas examined only voiceless stops for older age children. It would be more useful if both voiced and voiceless stops were examined. In fact, whether voiced Spanish stops are influenced by English would be of interest.
Harada [37] examined VOT produced by 15 English-Japanese bilingual children in a Japanese immersion program in the US. The bilingual children were from grade 1 (age 6), grade 3 (age 8) or grade 5 (age 10). The children’s primary language is English, but they started to learn Japanese after enrolling in the immersion program. Thus, these children are categorized as sequential or consecutive bilinguals. This study also included 5 English-Japanese bilingual adults, 10 monolingual Japanese children, 5 monolingual Japanese adults and 5 monolingual English adults. However, no monolingual English-speaking children were included. Also, five English-Japanese bilingual teachers in the immersion program participated. Only English and Japanese voiceless stops were examined. Harada found that the bilingual children produced Japanese voiceless stops with significantly longer VOT values than the monolingual Japanese children and the immersion teachers. Within the comparison, the bilingual children’s Japanese stops were produced with significantly shorter VOT than English voiceless stops. These results indicated that the bilingual children make a phonetic distinction between Japanese and English although their VOT values are different from monolinguals.
In the 2010s, more comprehensive studies examining phonetic category formation have been conducted. Each study employed a relatively large number of children, and compared bilingual children’s speech with that of monolingual counterparts. Also, recent studies examined a variety of bilingual language groups such as Korean-English, Chinese-English or Dutch-English bilingual children. In addition, these studies made attempts to evaluate SLM in bilingual children.
Lee and Iverson [2, 19, 38] conducted a series of studies examining phonetic category formation in Korean-English bilingual children. First, Lee and Iverson [19] examined the phonetic representation of Korean and English stops produced by 5- and 10-year-old Korean-English bilingual children. The bilingual children’s stop productions were compared to age equivalent English- and Korean-speaking children. They had two research questions. First, when do Korean-English bilingual children establish fully independent phonetic systems for each language? Second, what kind of mechanisms (assimilation or dissimilation) do bilingual children employ in their development process? Each age or language group was compared of 15 children; a total of 90 children participated in this study. Investigating Korean-English bilingual children was of interest because Korean stops show a three-way laryngeal contrast and are distinguished by vowel-onset fundamental frequency (hereafter fo) in addition to VOT [39]. Unlike bilingual children whose languages have only voiced and voiceless distinctions for stop category, Korean-English bilingual children may have difficulty in differentiating phonetic categories of stops due to its complexities.
Lee and Iverson [19] reported that Korean-English bilingual children were able to make phoneme distinctions within each language. Both age groups of bilingual children clearly produced all English and Korean stops. When the authors compared English and Korean stops produced by 10-year-old Korean-English bilingual children, it was found that all possible comparisons were significantly different in terms of either VOT or fo values, indicating that 10-year-old Korean-English bilingual children established fully distinctive stop categories across two languages as monolingual English- or Korean-speaking children did. However, 5-year-old bilingual children did not distinguish stop categories across languages when they fall in the same VOT regions although these stop pairs were fully distinctive in monolingual children. For example, English voiced and Korean fortis stops are produced with short lag VOT. When compared, Korean fortis were produced with significantly higher fo values than English voiced stops. Similarly, English voiceless and Korean lenis and aspirated stops are produced with long lag VOT. Korean lenis stops are produced with lower fo than English voiceless whereas Korean aspirated stops are produced with longer VOT than English voiceless stops. These stop pairs were significantly different between the two 5-year-old monolingual groups, but not by 5-year-old children.
When the stop production was compared between bilingual and monolingual children, it was found that 10-year-old bilingual children showed longer VOT for Korean lenis and aspirated stops than monolingual Korean children. The bilingual children produced shorter VOTs for English stops than monolingual English-speaking children. The bilingual children also showed different fo values than monolingual children. They produced lower fo for Korean aspirated stops. These results were interpreted that Korean-English bilingual children employed both assimilation and dissimilation depending on age. Dissimilation took place by producing VOT longer than monolingual children in order to maximally distinguish all stops within a long lag region. Although a merged category was not found, 10-year-old bilingual children produced lower fo, indicating that lower fo in English may influence their fo for Korean stops.
Fabiano-Smith and Bunta [40] examined Spanish and English voiceless stops produced by eight 3–4-year-old Spanish-English bilingual children. Some bilingual children had recently arrived in the US, while the parents of other bilingual children had grown up in an English-speaking community. Regardless, the bilingual children attended a bilingual preschool where both languages were used and the language of the classroom alternated each day. Thus, both simultaneous bilingual and child L2 learners were included in this study. The bilingual speech was compared to eight monolingual Spanish or eight English-speaking children. Only bilabial and velar voiceless stops were examined. The authors found that although English or Spanish VOT values were significantly different between monolingual English- and monolingual Spanish-speaking children, these values were not significantly different in bilingual children. In terms of between group comparisons, English VOT values produced by bilingual children were significantly different from monolingual English-speaking children; however, their VOT values of Spanish were not different from monolingual Spanish-speaking children. The authors suggested that the results of this study provide evidence to support Flege’s claim, that is, equivalent classification that L1 may trigger assimilation of the L2 segmental category. This study provided important information that monolingual English- and Spanish-speaking children did distinguish voiceless stops across languages. However, since the authors did not test whether monolingual children distinguish English and Spanish voiced stops, it would be more comprehensive if they tested voiced stops in their study.
Muru and Lee [41] examined VOT produced by 5–6-year-old and 10-year-old Spanish-English bilingual children. These children were raised in a Spanish-speaking home and started to learn English at English-speaking daycare centres. Thus, these children were categorized as sequential bilingual children. The authors did not include monolingual counterparts. Thus, only Spanish and English VOT values produced by bilingual children were compared. The authors found that the 5–6-year-old Spanish-English bilingual children only made a distinction between English and Spanish for voiceless stops, but not for voiced stops. On the other hand, 10-year-old Spanish-English bilingual children were able to distinguish both voiced and voiceless stops across English and Spanish. One exception was that no significant difference was found between English voiced and Spanish voiced for velar place of articulation. This study was a good extension of Fabiano-Smith and Bunta’s study in that older aged Spanish-English bilingual children were examined. It seems that phonetic category formation is not established between English and Spanish at 3 years of age; however, their phonetic representation develops as they grow older and distinctive phonetic categories for voiceless first evolve at 5 years of age. Finally, phonetic category formation for English and Spanish stops is established at 10 years of age. These results were similar to Korean-English bilingual children, confirming that phonetic category formation is fully established by 10 years of age, but not 5 years of age.
In another study, Lee and Iverson [2] examined English and Korean vowels produced by 5- and 10-year-old Korean-English bilingual children. In their previous study [19], Lee and Iverson found that phonetic category for stops were established in 10-year-old Korean-English bilingual children, but not in 5-year-old children. The goal of this study was to determine when phonetic category formation takes place for vowel production. Is it similar to stop production? The same cohort of Korean-English bilingual children in Lee and Iverson’s stop study participated in this vowel study. Thus, all children characteristics were the same. Unlike Baker and Trofimovich’s study that involved Korean-English bilingual children who learned English after they fully acquired Korean, the Korean-English bilingual children in Lee and Iverson’s study had been exposed to both English and Korean for at least 2 years (5-year-olds) and 5 years (10-year-olds). First and second formant frequencies (F1 and F2) were measured. When bilingual and monolingual children were compared, English vowels were similar between the two groups except for a few vowels whereas F2 values of Korean vowels /u/ and /o/ were significantly higher in bilingual children than in monolingual Korean children, indicating English language influence on Korean vowels. When English and Korean vowels were compared within bilingual children, these vowels were grouped into four groups: high-front /i, ɪ, e/; non high-front /ɛ, æ/; high-back /u, ʊ, o/ and non high-back /ʌ, ɑ, ɔ/. The results showed that F1 and F2 values for high-front vowels were distinguished based on F2 values except for Korean /i/ and English /i/. In terms of non high-front, English /ɛ/ and Korean /ɛ/ were similar to each other; but they were different from English /æ/. All high-back vowels were produced fully distinctively; none of the F1 and F2 values overlapped each other. F1 or F2 values of non high-back vowels were also significantly different except for English /ɔ/ and Korean /ʌ/. The authors claimed that detailed phonetic categories across languages are not formed holistically in an across-the-board fashion. In other words, vowel acquisition is typically earlier than stop acquisition in monolingual children. Phonetic category formation also takes place in vowels earlier than stops in bilingual children. The authors also found little evidence regarding assimilation and dissimilation. The higher F2 of Korean /u/ was interpreted as evidence of assimilation that the centralized English /u/ influences the Korean /u/. This finding parallels the findings of Flege [42] with higher F2 than is characteristic of native French. The authors also found evidence of dissimilation in that 10-year-old Korean-English bilingual children produced the vowel /æ/ with higher F1 than found among monolingual English-speaking children. Korean-English bilingual children may exaggeratedly lower the tongue in the production of /æ/ to maximally distinguish it from the vowel /ɛ/.
Recently, Lee and Iverson [38] examined when phonetic categories of stops emerge in 3-year-old Korean-English bilingual children and whether phonetic category formation takes place similarly between two different sound categories. The bilingual children were exposed to both Korean and English languages from birth to 18 months. The authors examined both English and Korean stops as well as front vowels produced by 12 bilingual, 15 monolingual Korean and 15 monolingual English-speaking children. VOT and fo values of English and Korean stops and F1 and F2 values for English and Korean vowels were measured. The study found that monolingual and bilingual children produced English or Korean vowel phonemes distinctively. When English and Korean were compared, both monolingual and bilingual children did not distinguish any stop categories within the same VOT region; neither VOT nor fo was different across English and Korean stops. However, the bilingual and monolingual children produced stops differently in that the bilingual children produced higher fo values for English voiceless stops. While stops were not produced distinctively by both monolingual and bilingual children, both groups produced English and Korean vowels significantly differently for Korean /i/ and English /ɪ/ pairs as well as Korean /ɛ/ and English /æ/ pairs. When English vowels were compared between monolingual and bilingual children, no group differences were found in either language, indicating that Korean and English vowels produced by the 3-year-old bilingual children were similar to monolingual children. The authors concluded that phonetic categories in 3-year-old children develop without much interaction between the two languages in simultaneous bilingual children exposed to two languages at an early age.
Lee [38] further examined VOT values produced by 3-year-old sequential Korean-English bilingual children. These children had been exposed to both languages for only 6–8 months. They had very limited English language abilities when the study was conducted. The author found that these bilingual children showed some evidence to distinguish English and Korean stops in that English voiced and Korean fortis stops were produced differently. Korean fortis stops were produced with higher fo than English voiced stops. However, the Korean lenis and aspirated and English stops were not significantly different from each other. Since these children fully acquired Korean stops when they were exposed to English, the phonetic distinction between Korean fortis and English voiced stops may be salient to these children. Although the sequential Korean-English bilingual children distinguished English voiced and Korean fortis stops, the other consonants were not distinguished from each other, suggesting that these children did not fully acquire phonetic category formation in stop production. Since the author did not compare the bilingual child with monolingual counterparts, it is not certain whether sequential bilingual children’s stop production is similar or different from monolingual children.
Another study examining a 3-year-old sequential bilingual child was done by Simon [44] and Yang [45]. Simon reported a longitudinal case study examining the acquisition of English and Dutch stops. Dutch voiced and voiceless stops are produced with voicing lead and short lag, respectively that is similar to Spanish. The first recording was made 3 months after his exposure to English until 4.0 in 11 sessions. The author found the bilingual child successfully mastered the English contrast within a 7-month period, but the child’s L1 system showed changes. The percentage of Dutch voiced stops produced with voicing lead decreased 30% at the end of session, suggesting the influence from L2 on L1. Yang longitudinally examined a Chinese-English bilingual child’s vowel production for a 20-month period. Recording began when the child started to attend an English language preschool at age 3.7. Approximately, one recording session was made each month until 5.2. The author found three phases of vowel development. During the initial phase, several broad L1 categories are clustered near the three L1 corner vowels (/i, u, a/). Then, the child began to contrast among individual vowels in L2 with great production variation. Finally, the child’s vowel system was stabilized and reduced within category variation. Acoustic vowel space of English and Chinese was compared during the period. While Chinese vowel space was relatively stable, the child’s English vowel space showed substantial changes in both size and shape. Because these two studies did not compare stop or vowel segments between the two languages, it is not certain whether these children showed distinctive phonetic categories across languages.
Yang and Fox [46] further examined Chinese and English vowels produced by 5–6-year-old Chinese-English bilingual children as a group. Fifteen bilingual children participated; the children were divided into two groups depending on their English language proficiency. The authors found that although no significant difference of vowel formant frequencies among three groups (monolingual English and two bilingual children), bilingual children with low English proficiency showed greater variation and slight positional changes. Furthermore, the bilingual children with high English proficiency showed better separation among the vowel categories, similar to that of the monolingual English-speaking children whereas the bilingual children with low English proficiency showed great overlaps for most vowel pairs than the other groups. In addition, shared vowels of English and Chinese were compared. The authors reported that no significant difference was found for English and Chinese /i/ by monolinguals, but the other shared vowels were fully separated from each other. Two groups of bilingual children showed similar production patterns. The authors concluded that L2 vowel systems in the bilingual children with low English proficiency were strongly influenced by their L1. The bilingual children produced L2 vowels in a near-native manner, but some L2 features were transferred to L1 vowels, suggesting an assimilation process taking place during L1 acquisition. Table 1 shows a summary of empirical evidence of phonetic category formation.
4. Developmental model of phonetic category formation in bilingual children
Based on the findings of previous work on phonetic category formation, I propose a model called “development model of phonetic category formation” in both simultaneous and sequential bilingual children. In this model, I argue that phonetic category formation continues to evolve during the developmental process rather than emerge all at once in both types of bilingual children. Figures 1 or 2 shows a schematic representation of phonetic category development in terms of stop and vowel categories for either simultaneous or sequential bilingual children. The direction of arrows shows the language transfer effect. As can be seen in Figure 1, in simultaneous bilingual children at 3–4-years of age, phonetic categories for L1 and L2 stops are not distinguished at all regardless of language types. Thus, two circles representing L1 and L2 overlap each other. The size of the circle denotes the development of a stop system in each language. Whether the stop system of each language is fully developed or not depends on the sound system of each language. For example, 3-year-old simultaneous Korean-English bilingual children were able to produce both English and Korean stop phonemes distinctively within a language [38] whereas Spanish-English [25], Japanese-English [27] or Spanish-German [31] bilingual children were not able to produce Spanish or Japanese voiced stops which fall in voicing lead category. This finding was similar to previous research reporting that monolingual children have difficulty to acquire voicing lead stops [47]. The language influence effect also varied depending on languages. While Korean-English bilingual children did not show much interaction effects, bidirectional interaction [31] or unidirectional an influence of L2 on L1 [27]. At 5–6-years of age, phonetic categories for stops across language remains constant. Lee and Iverson [19] reported that Korean-English bilingual children did not distinguish English and Korean stops across languages; neither Khattab [26] nor Watson [23] reported that bilingual children distinguished stop categories at five years of age. These children still failed to produce voiced stops with lead voicing if any language has voicing lead stops. An L2 influence on L1 still exists at this age [19]. Phonetic category for stops, however, is fully established at age 10 or older in simultaneous bilingual children. It was also noted that interaction effects between L1 and L2 take place at these ages. The interaction direction may be unidirectional in that L2 influences L1 [19, 24, 26] or bidirectional [32]. It is not certain why Whitworth found a bidirectional influence with these children. Further studies need to verify this aspect.
Figure 1.
Developmental model of phonetic category formation in simultaneous bilingual children. Note: The size of the circle indicates the phoneme development within each language. Arrow direction denotes the influence of one language on the other. Both unidirectional and bidirectional influences are indicated when both claims are reported.
Figure 2.
Developmental model of phonetic category formation in sequential bilingual children. Note: The size of the circle indicates the phoneme development within each language. Arrow direction denotes the influence of one language on the other. Both unidirectional and bidirectional influences are indicated when both claims are reported.
While phonetic category for stops is not fully established until 10 years of age, that of vowels seems developed earlier than stops. At 3–4-years of age, simultaneous bilingual children produced vowels of both languages distinctively with limited interaction effects. The fully separated vowel systems remain the same at 5- and 10-years of age; however, the L2 language started to have an influence on the L1 vowel system at 5-years of age. The developmental model of vowel category formation heavily relies on Korean-English bilingual children [2, 38]. Since limited evidence is available on vowel production produced by simultaneous bilingual children, further studies are warranted to verify this observation.
It seems that phonetic category formation in sequential bilingual children develops similarly with simultaneous bilingual children; but some differences are also observed. At 3–4-years of age, sequential bilingual children did not manifest fully distinctive phonetic category for stops, similar to simultaneous bilingual children. While no transfer effect was observed in simultaneous bilingual children, a language transfer effect appears in that there was a strong effect of L1 on L2 language in sequential bilingual children. Similar to simultaneous bilingual children, sequential bilingual children did not manifest distinctive phonetic categories for stops at 5–6-years of age. Although voiceless stops were distinguished from each other, voiced stops across languages remains undistinguished by this age. Similar to 3–4-years of age, a unidirectional L1 influence on L2 exists during this age [40, 44]. Phonetic category formation; however, is fully acquired at 10 years of age or older in sequential bilingual children. There was also L1 influence on L2 during this age [37]. It is interesting to observe that L1 influence on L2 on stops in sequential bilingual children because L2 typically influences L1 in simultaneous bilingual children. It is not certain why this happens. It may be due to the fact that sequential bilingual children fully develop a stop system of their L1; thus, it may affect stops of L2, which is not fully developed yet.
Vowel category formation in sequential bilingual children also showed a similar pattern as compared to simultaneous bilingual children. At 3–4-years of age, a sequential bilingual child showed separation of two vowel systems after short exposure duration to L2, suggesting that this child tends to distinguish two systems although there was an influence of L2 on L1 [45]. However, this finding was based on a single bilingual child without direct comparisons between the two languages. Further studies are warranted to confirm their findings. At 5–6-years of age, sequential bilingual children continue to manifest two systems. L1 production is also influenced by L2 at this age [46]. The distinctive vowel categories remain in separation at 10 years of age. Unlike younger aged sequential bilingual children, 10-year-old sequential bilingual children showed either bidirectional influence for children with longer exposure duration or L1 influence on L2 for shorter exposure duration [35]. L1 influence on L2’ vowels were not observed in research with bilingual children, but the effect is commonly found in adult L2 learners. These differences may suggest that phonetic category formation and the effect of interaction between L1 and L2 may be different between child and adult bilingual speakers. In short, phonetic category formation in bilingual children is established progressively using multi-dimensional representations for each sound category, and continues to evolve in the developmental process. Interaction between L1 and L2 varied depending on types of bilingualism.
5. Limitations and directions for future research
The developmental model proposed in this chapter is based on current empirical evidence. Some research studies are a single case study without employing rigorous statistical analysis. Thus, this model should continue to develop based on more empirical findings in the future. Future studies should consider following aspects when phonetic category formation is examined in bilingual children. First, more group studies are expected in the future. Among 20 studies examining phonetic category formation in bilingual children, only half of the studies employed group comparisons. In order to lead to a more solid theoretical model of phonetic category formation, findings should be based on group studies. Second, when studies examine phonetic category formation in bilingual children, it is necessary to employ monolingual control groups of each language. Without understanding the phonetic development of monolingual children, it is not certain whether such a pattern shown in bilingual children is a natural developmental consequence or a bilingual effect. For example, several studies reported that bilingual children whose stops are produced with voicing lead often produced voiced stops with short lag VOT instead of voicing lead. It is not certain whether such production is attributed to the fact that these children acquire two languages or one language influences the other. Third, compared to studies examining stops, vowel studies are relatively limited. Only vowels produced by Korean-English and Chinese-English are currently available. In addition, no fricative or other consonantal study has been conducted. Thus, future studies are warranted to examine vowels and other consonants in simultaneous or sequential bilingual children. Fourth, although recent studies examined more diverse bilingual languages, still limited bilingual languages have been studied. Some bilingual languages are similar in that stops are categorized as either voiced or voiceless. Only Koreans, whose stop systems are different from other languages, were examined. Future studies may examine more simple or complex stop or vowel systems in order to fully understand how bilingual children manifest distinctive phonetic categories when they are in different language systems.
\n',keywords:"phonetic category, stop consonants, vowels, acoustics, bilingual children",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/57961.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/57961.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57961",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57961",totalDownloads:991,totalViews:147,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 13th 2017",dateReviewed:"October 31st 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"May 30th 2018",dateFinished:"December 4th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter reviews theories and research about phonetic category formation in bilingual children. Investigating phonetic categories provides us with a way to answer one of the longstanding theoretical issues in bilingualism, that is, whether bilingual children possess one versus two linguistic systems in the learning of their respective languages. In this chapter, theoretical backgrounds of phonetic categories in bilingual adults and children are reviewed. Then, empirical evidence showing phonetic categories in bilingual children is summarized. Finally, a development model of phonetic category formation in simultaneous and sequential bilingual children is proposed. Based on the model, detailed phonetic categories do not form across-the-board and bilingual children may invoke multi-dimensional representations of phonetic categories.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/57961",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/57961",signatures:"Sue Ann S. Lee",book:{id:"6201",type:"book",title:"Multilingualism and Bilingualism",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Multilingualism and Bilingualism",slug:"multilingualism-and-bilingualism",publishedDate:"May 30th 2018",bookSignature:"Beban Sammy Chumbow",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6201.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78923-227-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-226-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-332-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"113835",title:"Prof.",name:"Sammy Beban",middleName:null,surname:"Chumbow",slug:"sammy-beban-chumbow",fullName:"Sammy Beban Chumbow"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"209109",title:"Dr.",name:"Sue Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Sue Ann Lee",slug:"sue-ann-lee",email:"sueannlee01@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Southwestern Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Theories of bilingual speech acquisition",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Speech learning model for phonetic systems in adult bilingual and L2 speakers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Linguistic system models in bilingual children",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1. Unitary Language System hypothesis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2. Dual Language System hypothesis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Empirical evidence of phonetic category formation in bilingual children",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Developmental model of phonetic category formation in bilingual children",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Limitations and directions for future research",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Flege JE. Second-language speech learning: Theory, findings, and problems. In: Strange W, editor. Speech Perception and Linguistic Experience: Issues in Cross-Linguistic Research. 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Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. 2004;7:71-88'},{id:"B32",body:'Whitworth N. Acquisition of VOT, and vowel length by English-German bilinguals: A pilot study. Leeds Working Papers in Linguistics and Phonetics. 2000;8:229-235'},{id:"B33",body:'Antoniadis Z, Strube HW. Untersuchungen zur spezifischen Daur deutscher Vokale. Phonetica. 1984;41:72-87'},{id:"B34",body:'House AS. On vowel duration in English. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 1961;33:1174-1178'},{id:"B35",body:'Baker W, Trofimovich P. Interaction of native- and second-language vowel system(s) in early and late bilinguals. Language and Speech. 2005;48:1-27'},{id:"B36",body:'Yavas M. Voice Onset Time Patterns in Bilingual Phonological Development. Themes in Clinical Linguistics. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 2002. pp. 341-350'},{id:"B37",body:'Harada T. The production of voice onset time (VOT) by English-speaking children in a Japanese immersion program. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching. 2007;45(4):353-378'},{id:"B38",body:'Lee SAS, Iverson G. The emergence of phonetic categories in Korean-English bilingual children. Journal of Child Language. 2017;44:1485-1515'},{id:"B39",body:'Cho T, Jun S, Ladefoged P. Acoustic and aerodynamic correlates of Korean stops and fricatives. Journal of Phonetics. 2002;30:193-228'},{id:"B40",body:'Fabiano-Smith L, Bunta F. Voice onset time of voiceless bilabial and velar stops in 3-year-old bilingual children and their age-matched monolingual peers. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics. 2012;26(2):148-163'},{id:"B41",body:'Muru AM, Lee SAS. Development of phonetic categories of stop consonants in Spanish-English bilingual children. Clinical Archives of Communication Disorders. 2017;2(1):60-68'},{id:"B42",body:'Flege JE. The production of “new” and “similar” phones in a foreign language: Evidence for the effect of equivalence classification. Journal of Phonetics. 1987;15:47-65'},{id:"B43",body:'Lee SA. Phonetic categories of English and Korean stops in 3-year-old sequential Korean-English bilingual children. Clinical Archives of Communication Disorders. 2016;1(1):3-10'},{id:"B44",body:'Simon E. Child L2 development: A longitudinal case study on Voice Onset Times in word-initial stops. Journal of Child Language. 2010;37:159-173'},{id:"B45",body:'Yang J, Fox RA, Jacewicz E. Vowel development in an emergent Mandarin-English bilingual child: A longitudinal study. Journal of Child Language. 2015;42:1125-1145'},{id:"B46",body:'Yang J, Fox RA. L1-L2 interactions of vowel systems in bilingual Mandarin-English children. Journal of Phonetics. 2017;65:60-76'},{id:"B47",body:'Macken MA, Barton D. The acquisition of native voice onset time in English-learning children. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 1980;1241:1180-1191'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Sue Ann S. Lee",address:"sueann.lee@ttuhsc.edu",affiliation:'
Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, USA
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The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
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Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"768",title:"Petroleum Engineering",slug:"engineering-energy-engineering-petroleum-engineering",parent:{id:"117",title:"Energy Engineering",slug:"engineering-energy-engineering"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:106,numberOfWosCitations:115,numberOfCrossrefCitations:118,numberOfDimensionsCitations:234,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"768",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7609",title:"Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes",subtitle:"New Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"62359d9c21b76f899be04fa0f8b46668",slug:"enhanced-oil-recovery-processes-new-technologies",bookSignature:"Ariffin Samsuri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7609.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"120519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ariffin",middleName:null,surname:"Samsuri",slug:"ariffin-samsuri",fullName:"Ariffin Samsuri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7314",title:"Exploitation of Unconventional Oil and Gas Resources",subtitle:"Hydraulic Fracturing and Other Recovery and Assessment Techniques",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2eba15587cac74206f978e72a0cef2f9",slug:"exploitation-of-unconventional-oil-and-gas-resources-hydraulic-fracturing-and-other-recovery-and-assessment-techniques",bookSignature:"Kenneth Imo-Imo Eshiet",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"195037",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenneth Imo-Imo Israel",middleName:null,surname:"Eshiet",slug:"kenneth-imo-imo-israel-eshiet",fullName:"Kenneth Imo-Imo Israel Eshiet"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6466",title:"Shale Gas",subtitle:"New Aspects and Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"02763c6398f049c222acf6a774dd38ee",slug:"shale-gas-new-aspects-and-technologies",bookSignature:"Ali Al-Juboury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6466.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58570",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Ismail",surname:"Al-Juboury",slug:"ali-al-juboury",fullName:"Ali Al-Juboury"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5811",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"33b7777178f4a179ba475e3e15405427",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",bookSignature:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5811.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92105",title:"Dr.",name:"Mansoor",middleName:null,surname:"Zoveidavianpoor",slug:"mansoor-zoveidavianpoor",fullName:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4751",title:"Storage Stability of Fuels",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc73beb5dc74410e15c8ee19ee4de722",slug:"storage-stability-of-fuels",bookSignature:"Krzysztof Biernat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4751.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"155009",title:"Prof.",name:"Krzysztof",middleName:null,surname:"Biernat",slug:"krzysztof-biernat",fullName:"Krzysztof Biernat"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"58250",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72207",title:"Microbial Bioremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbon– Contaminated Marine Environments",slug:"microbial-bioremediation-of-petroleum-hydrocarbon-contaminated-marine-environments",totalDownloads:5105,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:38,abstract:"Petroleum pollution has become a serious environmental problem, which can cause harmful damage to the environment and human health. This pollutant is introduced into the environment from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Various physicochemical and biological treatments were developed for the cleanup of contaminated environments. However, bioremediation is based on the metabolic capabilities of microorganisms, and it is considered as the most basic and reliable way to eliminate contaminants, particularly petroleum and its recalcitrant compounds. It is more effective alternative comparing to classical remediation techniques. A high diversity of potential hydrocarbon degrader’s microorganisms was reported, and bacteria constitute the most abundant group, which has been well studied for hydrocarbon degradation. Several bioremediation approaches through bioaugmentation or/and biostimulation have been successfully applied. The interest on the optimizing of different parameters to achieve successful bioremediation technologies has been increased. In this chapter, we summarize the diversity and the hydrocarbon degradation potential of microorganism involved in the remediation of contaminated environments. We also present an overview of the efficient bioremediation strategies used for the decontamination of polluted marine environments.",book:{id:"5811",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Mouna Mahjoubi, Simone Cappello, Yasmine Souissi, Atef Jaouani\nand Ameur Cherif",authors:[{id:"107040",title:"Dr.",name:"Simone",middleName:null,surname:"Cappello",slug:"simone-cappello",fullName:"Simone Cappello"},{id:"219462",title:"Dr.",name:"Mouna",middleName:null,surname:"Mahjoubi",slug:"mouna-mahjoubi",fullName:"Mouna Mahjoubi"},{id:"223935",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasmine",middleName:null,surname:"Souissi",slug:"yasmine-souissi",fullName:"Yasmine Souissi"},{id:"223936",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameur",middleName:null,surname:"Cherif",slug:"ameur-cherif",fullName:"Ameur Cherif"}]},{id:"57237",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71163",title:"Analytical Methods for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and their Global Trend of Distribution in Water and Sediment: A Review",slug:"analytical-methods-for-polycyclic-aromatic-hydrocarbons-and-their-global-trend-of-distribution-in-wa",totalDownloads:4424,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:"Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are major organic pollutants in the environment, which are toxic to humans and biota, given their carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic nature. In this chapter, we carried out an overview of the sources and toxicity of PAHs, their common analytical methods of determination in the water and sediment samples, and also their global trend of distribution, with a view to provide baseline guidance for relevant control authorities. The choice methods for determining these contaminants are high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV/fluorescence detectors and GC/MS. Mass spectrometer coupled with GC is preferred because it offers robust identification of the analyte compounds both by retention time and mass spectrum, with additional structural information. Results collated revealed an extensive distribution of PAHs with total mean concentrations ranging from 0.0003 to 42,350 μg/L in water and 0 to 1.266 × 109 μg/kg (dw) in the sediment. PAHs in the two environmental matrices were much higher in the regions with intense oil exploration, shipping and industrial activities. It is therefore necessary to regularly monitor their levels in the aquatic environment, so as to provide mitigation options that will prevent risk to humans and aquatic animals.",book:{id:"5811",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Abiodun Olagoke Adeniji, Omobola Oluranti Okoh and Anthony\nIfeanyi Okoh",authors:[{id:"219919",title:"Dr.",name:"Abiodun",middleName:"Olagoke",surname:"Adeniji",slug:"abiodun-adeniji",fullName:"Abiodun Adeniji"},{id:"219920",title:"Prof.",name:"Omobola",middleName:null,surname:"Okoh",slug:"omobola-okoh",fullName:"Omobola Okoh"},{id:"219921",title:"Prof.",name:"Anthony",middleName:null,surname:"Okoh",slug:"anthony-okoh",fullName:"Anthony Okoh"}]},{id:"56472",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70093",title:"Drilling Fluids for Deepwater Fields: An Overview",slug:"drilling-fluids-for-deepwater-fields-an-overview",totalDownloads:2689,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"The increasing oil demand around the world along with the depletion of onshore and shallow water oil reserves have forced the oil companies moving into the development of deepwater subsea hydrocarbon reservoirs. Drilling fluids play a key role in all drilling operations, but they get a greater relevance in deepwater environments where the technological challenges of drilling at these extreme conditions generate significant operational risks as well as very high costs during the development of this kind of fields. The operational issues and concerns related to the drilling fluid design and application for deepwater fields are generally well known: narrow pore/fracture pressure gradient margins, wellbore stability, clay swelling, gas hydrates formation, formation damage, salt formations, lost circulation, stuck pipe, cuttings transport and environmental and safety aspects. Therefore, the present chapter aims to give an overview on the main challenges and research related to drilling fluid design and application for deepwater fields through the revision of the state of the art of the current and innovative technological solutions reported in literature.",book:{id:"5811",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Luis Alberto Alcázar-Vara and Ignacio Ramón Cortés-Monroy",authors:[{id:"149837",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis A.",middleName:null,surname:"Alcazar-Vara",slug:"luis-a.-alcazar-vara",fullName:"Luis A. Alcazar-Vara"},{id:"202407",title:"MSc.",name:"Ignacio R.",middleName:null,surname:"Cortés-Monroy",slug:"ignacio-r.-cortes-monroy",fullName:"Ignacio R. Cortés-Monroy"}]},{id:"56887",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70092",title:"Petroleum Source Rocks Characterization and Hydrocarbon Generation",slug:"petroleum-source-rocks-characterization-and-hydrocarbon-generation",totalDownloads:7884,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"This chapter is proposed to give the principal learning on the application of the formation of petroleum source rocks and hydrocarbon generation to exploration activities. The evaluation of petroleum source rocks and hydrocarbon generation is a very important skill for explorationists to define the location and type of petroleum prospects in a region. In this chapter, subsurface samples from case study (Sayun-Masilah basin) were used to determine the source rock characteristics and petroleum generative potentials of prospective source rocks. Qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the source rock in this basin was done by means of geochemical and geophysical approaches for four rock units. It is clear that Madbi Formation is considered the main source, in which the organic carbon content reached up to more than 5.2 wt%. The types of organic matter from rock-eval pyrolysis data indicated that type I kerogen is the main type, in association with type II, and a mixture of types II and III kerogens. The study of the different maturation parameters obtained from rock-eval pyrolysis, such as Tmax and vitrinite reflectance, reflects that the considered rock units are occurred in different maturation stages, ranging from immature to mature sources. One-dimensional basin modeling was performed to analyze the hydrocarbon generation and expulsion history of the source rocks in the study area based on the reconstruction of the burial and thermal maturity histories in order to improve our understanding of the hydrocarbon generation potential. Calibration of the model with measured vitrinite reflectance (%Ro) and borehole temperature (BHT) data indicates that the paleo-heat flow was high at Late Jurassic. The models also indicate that the early hydrocarbon generation in the Madbi source rock occurred during late Cretaceous and the main hydrocarbon generation has been reached approximately at Early Eocene. Therefore, the Madbi source rock can be considered as generative potentials of prospective source rock horizons in the Sayun-Masilah basin.",book:{id:"5811",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Nabil Mohammed Al-Areeq",authors:[{id:"198686",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabil",middleName:"Mohammed",surname:"Al-Areeq",slug:"nabil-al-areeq",fullName:"Nabil Al-Areeq"}]},{id:"68009",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88056",title:"Hybrid EOR Methods Utilizing Low-Salinity Water",slug:"hybrid-eor-methods-utilizing-low-salinity-water",totalDownloads:1258,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Low-salinity water (LSW) flooding has been applied in sandstone and carbonate formations to improve oil recovery. Wettability alteration by LSW has been identified as the dominant driving mechanism for the incremental oil recoveries. LSW flooding has been combined with other EOR methods to develop new hybrid approaches to improve crude/brine/rock (CBR) interactions with the objective of overcoming some of the LSW flooding downsides, which include oil trapping and fine migration. Hybrid methods can provide higher oil recovery than each stand-alone technique. For instance, changes in gas solubility during LSW injection positively affect the performance of LSW/gas hybrid injection. LSW/surfactant flooding can contribute to incremental recovery by simultaneously lowering interfacial tension (IFT) and wettability alteration. The synergistic effect of fluid redistribution by LSW and enhanced water mobility by polymer flooding improves oil detachment and displacement in porous media through the application of the hybrid approach LSW/polymer flooding. Nanoparticles (NPs), mainly SiO2, can alter wettability toward more water wetness in combination with LSW, and hot LSW can improve heavy oil production by reducing viscosity. Hence, the synergistic effect of hybrid EOR methods based on LSW flooding is considered a novel EOR approach to improve oil recovery.",book:{id:"7609",slug:"enhanced-oil-recovery-processes-new-technologies",title:"Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes",fullTitle:"Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes - New Technologies"},signatures:"Peyman Pourafshary and Nikoo Moradpour",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56887",title:"Petroleum Source Rocks Characterization and Hydrocarbon Generation",slug:"petroleum-source-rocks-characterization-and-hydrocarbon-generation",totalDownloads:7858,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"This chapter is proposed to give the principal learning on the application of the formation of petroleum source rocks and hydrocarbon generation to exploration activities. The evaluation of petroleum source rocks and hydrocarbon generation is a very important skill for explorationists to define the location and type of petroleum prospects in a region. In this chapter, subsurface samples from case study (Sayun-Masilah basin) were used to determine the source rock characteristics and petroleum generative potentials of prospective source rocks. Qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the source rock in this basin was done by means of geochemical and geophysical approaches for four rock units. It is clear that Madbi Formation is considered the main source, in which the organic carbon content reached up to more than 5.2 wt%. The types of organic matter from rock-eval pyrolysis data indicated that type I kerogen is the main type, in association with type II, and a mixture of types II and III kerogens. The study of the different maturation parameters obtained from rock-eval pyrolysis, such as Tmax and vitrinite reflectance, reflects that the considered rock units are occurred in different maturation stages, ranging from immature to mature sources. One-dimensional basin modeling was performed to analyze the hydrocarbon generation and expulsion history of the source rocks in the study area based on the reconstruction of the burial and thermal maturity histories in order to improve our understanding of the hydrocarbon generation potential. Calibration of the model with measured vitrinite reflectance (%Ro) and borehole temperature (BHT) data indicates that the paleo-heat flow was high at Late Jurassic. The models also indicate that the early hydrocarbon generation in the Madbi source rock occurred during late Cretaceous and the main hydrocarbon generation has been reached approximately at Early Eocene. Therefore, the Madbi source rock can be considered as generative potentials of prospective source rock horizons in the Sayun-Masilah basin.",book:{id:"5811",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Nabil Mohammed Al-Areeq",authors:[{id:"198686",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabil",middleName:"Mohammed",surname:"Al-Areeq",slug:"nabil-al-areeq",fullName:"Nabil Al-Areeq"}]},{id:"56405",title:"Characterization of Crude Oils and the Precipitated Asphaltenes Fraction using UV Spectroscopy, Dynamic Light Scattering and Microscopy",slug:"characterization-of-crude-oils-and-the-precipitated-asphaltenes-fraction-using-uv-spectroscopy-dynam",totalDownloads:3135,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Analysis of crude oil composition provides important information that impacts on the recovery, handling, and transportation of hydrocarbons. Crude characterization also provides data in the analysis of geochemistry of the source of origin. Crude oil characterization by optical methods is usually difficult because of its dark color; however, those characterizations are crucial because they give information that can affect some analysis procedures. Ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy is a simple and practical technique that allows the characterization of crude oil through dilution in solvents. A comparative study of crude oil solutions contrasted with their asphaltene fractions was performed. Each solution was analyzed in triplicate, on a UV-vis spectrophotometer. Calibration curves for both raw solutions showed no significant variations, indicating stability. Additionally, the results of dispersion and migration phenomena indicated stability only for crude oil solutions. The aggregate size dispersion was different for each type of crude and varied with respect to time. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed the type of morphology present for each type of asphaltene.",book:{id:"5811",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Ernestina Elizabeth Banda Cruz, Nohra Violeta Gallardo Rivas, Ulises\nPáramo García, Ana Maria Mendoza Martinez and José Aarón Melo\nBanda",authors:[{id:"174756",title:"Dr.",name:"Ernestina Elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Banda Cruz",slug:"ernestina-elizabeth-banda-cruz",fullName:"Ernestina Elizabeth Banda Cruz"},{id:"175028",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana María",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza-Martínez",slug:"ana-maria-mendoza-martinez",fullName:"Ana María Mendoza-Martínez"},{id:"186469",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulises",middleName:null,surname:"Paramo-Garcia",slug:"ulises-paramo-garcia",fullName:"Ulises Paramo-Garcia"},{id:"198863",title:"Dr.",name:"Nohra",middleName:"Violeta",surname:"Gallardo Rivas",slug:"nohra-gallardo-rivas",fullName:"Nohra Gallardo Rivas"},{id:"198864",title:"Dr.",name:"José Aarón",middleName:null,surname:"Melo Banda",slug:"jose-aaron-melo-banda",fullName:"José Aarón Melo Banda"}]},{id:"58250",title:"Microbial Bioremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbon– Contaminated Marine Environments",slug:"microbial-bioremediation-of-petroleum-hydrocarbon-contaminated-marine-environments",totalDownloads:5093,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:38,abstract:"Petroleum pollution has become a serious environmental problem, which can cause harmful damage to the environment and human health. This pollutant is introduced into the environment from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Various physicochemical and biological treatments were developed for the cleanup of contaminated environments. However, bioremediation is based on the metabolic capabilities of microorganisms, and it is considered as the most basic and reliable way to eliminate contaminants, particularly petroleum and its recalcitrant compounds. It is more effective alternative comparing to classical remediation techniques. A high diversity of potential hydrocarbon degrader’s microorganisms was reported, and bacteria constitute the most abundant group, which has been well studied for hydrocarbon degradation. Several bioremediation approaches through bioaugmentation or/and biostimulation have been successfully applied. The interest on the optimizing of different parameters to achieve successful bioremediation technologies has been increased. In this chapter, we summarize the diversity and the hydrocarbon degradation potential of microorganism involved in the remediation of contaminated environments. We also present an overview of the efficient bioremediation strategies used for the decontamination of polluted marine environments.",book:{id:"5811",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Mouna Mahjoubi, Simone Cappello, Yasmine Souissi, Atef Jaouani\nand Ameur Cherif",authors:[{id:"107040",title:"Dr.",name:"Simone",middleName:null,surname:"Cappello",slug:"simone-cappello",fullName:"Simone Cappello"},{id:"219462",title:"Dr.",name:"Mouna",middleName:null,surname:"Mahjoubi",slug:"mouna-mahjoubi",fullName:"Mouna Mahjoubi"},{id:"223935",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasmine",middleName:null,surname:"Souissi",slug:"yasmine-souissi",fullName:"Yasmine Souissi"},{id:"223936",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameur",middleName:null,surname:"Cherif",slug:"ameur-cherif",fullName:"Ameur Cherif"}]},{id:"68009",title:"Hybrid EOR Methods Utilizing Low-Salinity Water",slug:"hybrid-eor-methods-utilizing-low-salinity-water",totalDownloads:1254,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Low-salinity water (LSW) flooding has been applied in sandstone and carbonate formations to improve oil recovery. Wettability alteration by LSW has been identified as the dominant driving mechanism for the incremental oil recoveries. LSW flooding has been combined with other EOR methods to develop new hybrid approaches to improve crude/brine/rock (CBR) interactions with the objective of overcoming some of the LSW flooding downsides, which include oil trapping and fine migration. Hybrid methods can provide higher oil recovery than each stand-alone technique. For instance, changes in gas solubility during LSW injection positively affect the performance of LSW/gas hybrid injection. LSW/surfactant flooding can contribute to incremental recovery by simultaneously lowering interfacial tension (IFT) and wettability alteration. The synergistic effect of fluid redistribution by LSW and enhanced water mobility by polymer flooding improves oil detachment and displacement in porous media through the application of the hybrid approach LSW/polymer flooding. Nanoparticles (NPs), mainly SiO2, can alter wettability toward more water wetness in combination with LSW, and hot LSW can improve heavy oil production by reducing viscosity. Hence, the synergistic effect of hybrid EOR methods based on LSW flooding is considered a novel EOR approach to improve oil recovery.",book:{id:"7609",slug:"enhanced-oil-recovery-processes-new-technologies",title:"Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes",fullTitle:"Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes - New Technologies"},signatures:"Peyman Pourafshary and Nikoo Moradpour",authors:null},{id:"58096",title:"Organic Contaminants in Refinery Wastewater: Characterization and Novel Approaches for Biotreatment",slug:"organic-contaminants-in-refinery-wastewater-characterization-and-novel-approaches-for-biotreatment",totalDownloads:1800,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Addressing major environmental issues, such as water pollution, is essential nowadays in realizing sustainable development. The ever-increasing world population and industrial development have led to the introduction of different types of chemicals to the environment, leading to considerable deterioration in environmental quality. A major class of these chemicals is phenolic compounds, which are hazardous pollutants and highly toxic even at low concentrations. In recent years, researchers have realized the importance of extracting new bacterial strains that are effective in treating different types of highly contaminated wastewaters at different severe conditions. They also focused considerable amount of research on developing new types of reactors that would provide efficient mixing and reduce mass transfer limitations. The aim is to develop and evaluate effective reactor systems and biocatalysts for the biodegradation of major contaminants in petroleum refinery wastewater. This chapter examines the different available options for the treatment of refinery wastewater with more focus on novel biotreatment options.",book:{id:"5811",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Taghreed Al-Khalid and Muftah H. El-Naas",authors:[{id:"219926",title:"Prof.",name:"Muftah",middleName:null,surname:"El-Naas",slug:"muftah-el-naas",fullName:"Muftah El-Naas"},{id:"222785",title:"Dr.",name:"Taghreed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Khalid",slug:"taghreed-al-khalid",fullName:"Taghreed Al-Khalid"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"768",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",slug:"j.-kevin-summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",biography:"Full professor at University Miguel Hernández of Elche, Spain, previously working at the University of Alicante, Autonomous University of Madrid and Polytechnic University of Valencia. Graduate in Sciences (Chemist), graduate in Geography and History (Geography), master in Water Management, Treatment, master in Fertilizers and Environment and master in Environmental Management; Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences. His research is focused on soil-water and waste-environment relations, mainly on soil-water and soil-waste interactions under different management and waste reuse. His work is reflected in more than 230 communications presented in national and international conferences and congresses, 29 invited lectures from universities, associations and government agencies. Prof. Navarro-Pedreño is also a director of the Ph.D. Program Environment and Sustainability (2012-present) and a member of several societies among which are the Spanish Society of Soil Science, International Union of Soil Sciences, European Society for Soil Conservation, DessertNet and the Spanish Royal Society of Chemistry.",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",slug:"salustiano-mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",biography:"Salustiano Mato de la Iglesia (Santiago de Compostela, 1960) is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago and a Professor of zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. He has developed his research activity in the fields of fauna and soil ecology, and in the treatment of organic waste, having been the founder and principal investigator of the Environmental Biotechnology Group of the University of Vigo.\r\nHis research activity in the field of Environmental Biotechnology has been focused on the development of novel organic waste treatment systems through composting. The result of this line of work are three invention patents and various scientific and technical publications in prestigious international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",slug:"josefina-garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",biography:"Josefina Garrido González (Paradela de Abeleda, Ourense 1959), is a doctor in biology from the University of León and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. She has focused her research activity on the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of aquatic beetles, in addition to other lines of research such as the conservation of biodiversity in freshwater ecosystems; conservation of protected areas (Red Natura 2000) and assessment of the effectiveness of wetlands as priority areas for the conservation of aquatic invertebrates; studies of water quality in freshwater ecosystems through biological indicators and physicochemical parameters; surveillance and research of vector arthropods and invasive alien species.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",slug:"francisco-ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",biography:"Fran Ramil Blanco (Porto de Espasante, A Coruña, 1960), is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago de Compostela and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. His research activity is linked to the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of marine benthic invertebrates and especially the Cnidarian group. Since 2004, he has been part of the EcoAfrik project, aimed at the study, protection and conservation of biodiversity and benthic habitats in West Africa. He also participated in the study of vulnerable marine ecosystems associated with seamounts in the South Atlantic and is involved in training young African researchers in the field of marine research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",slug:"yizi-shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yizi Shang is a pioneering researcher in hydrology and water resources who has devoted his research career to promoting the conservation and protection of water resources for sustainable development. He is presently associate editor of Water International (official journal of the International Water Resources Association). He was also invited to serve as an associate editor for special issues of the Journal of the American Water Resources Association. He has served as an editorial member for international journals such as Hydrology, Journal of Ecology & Natural Resources, and Hydro Science & Marine Engineering, among others. He has chaired or acted as a technical committee member for twenty-five international forums (conferences). Dr. Shang graduated from Tsinghua University, China, in 2010 with a Ph.D. in Engineering. Prior to that, he worked as a research fellow at Harvard University from 2008 to 2009. Dr. Shang serves as a senior research engineer at the China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research (IWHR) and was awarded as a distinguished researcher at National Taiwan University in 2017.",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10843",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",subtitle:"Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",biography:"Prof. Mohamed Nageeb Rashed is Professor of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry and former vice-dean for environmental affairs, Faculty of Science, Aswan University, Egypt. He received his Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Assiut University, Egypt, in 1989. His research interest is in analytical and environmental chemistry with special emphasis on: (1) monitoring and assessing biological trace elements and toxic metals in human blood, urine, water, crops, vegetables, and medicinal plants; (2) relationships between environmental heavy metals and human diseases; (3) uses of biological indicators for monitoring water pollution; (4) environmental chemistry of lakes, rivers, and well water; (5) water and wastewater treatment by adsorption and photocatalysis techniques; (6) soil and water pollution monitoring, control, and treatment; and (7) advanced oxidation treatment. Prof. Rashed has supervised several MSc and Ph.D. theses in the field of analytical and environmental chemistry. He served as an examiner for several Ph.D. theses in analytical chemistry in India, Kazakhstan, and Botswana. He has published about ninety scientific papers in peer-reviewed international journals and several papers in national and international conferences. He participated as an invited speaker at thirty international conferences. Prof. Rashed is the editor-in-chief and an editorial board member for several international journals in the fields of chemistry and environment. He is a member of several national and international societies. He received the Egyptian State Award for Environmental Research in 2001 and the Aswan University Merit Award for Basic Science in 2020. 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He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. 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He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. 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\r\n\tIf we aim to prosper as a society and as a species, there is no alternative to sustainability-oriented development and growth. Sustainable development is no longer a choice but a necessity for us all. Ecosystems and preserving ecosystem services and inclusive urban development present promising solutions to environmental problems. Contextually, the emphasis on studying these fields will enable us to identify and define the critical factors for territorial success in the upcoming decades to be considered by the main-actors, decision and policy makers, technicians, and public in general.
\r\n
\r\n\tHolistic urban planning and environmental management are therefore crucial spheres that will define sustainable trajectories for our urbanizing planet. This urban and environmental planning topic aims to attract contributions that address sustainable urban development challenges and solutions, including integrated urban water management, planning for the urban circular economy, monitoring of risks, contingency planning and response to disasters, among several other challenges and solutions.
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Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/442076",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"442076"},fullPath:"/profiles/442076",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()