Carbon precursors used for the synthesis of graphene organized by their physical state. An example of the synthesis performed is shown in each case.
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Graphene belongs to the extensive realm of nanostructured allotropes of carbon. It is a 2D nanomaterial conformed of sp2-bonded carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal pattern, each carbon atom bonds in the plane to other three atoms, forming a chicken-wire network only one-atom thick. This amazing nanomaterial was isolated in 2004 by Novoselov and Geim [1], who later, in 2010, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Perhaps the most natural way to obtain graphene is by exfoliating a layer from graphite, such was the method used by Novoselov and Geim. This method, however, poses intrinsic disadvantages such as the low yield, the time required to find monocrystals, and the irreproducibility of the shapes of the crystals. Scientists realized that a method to produce graphene in a more controlled, reproducible, and scalable way was necessary. Among the many techniques available to produce nanomaterials, the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method has proven to be advantageous for the production of carbon nanostructures, it has been used to produce carbon nanotubes, carbon nanospheres, nanoribbons, fullerenes, and in 2009, the production of multilayer graphene (MLG) was reported on top of nickel (Ni) films [2, 3]. Later the same year, the synthesis of large-area graphene films was reported using Cu foils by the group of R.S. Ruoff [4], ever since, most CVD-graphene reports use copper foils as catalysts. The basics of the technique, the roles of the precursor, the catalysts, and the synthesis gases are reviewed in detail in the following paragraphs.
Early reports of CVD-graphene accounted for continuous films with regions of single-layer, bilayer, and few-layer graphene (SLG, BLG, FLG, respectively). Characterization of these films revealed that the BLG and FLG do not respect an AB stacking of the layers, the stacking from highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG); the orientation between adjacent layers is random in CVD-grown films. Another peculiarity of these graphene films is their polycrystallinity, as will be described below in detail.
The chemical vapor deposition technique is based on the chemical thermal decomposition of a precursor (the compound that provides the feedstock for the production of the desired material), so their individual constituents can build up a solid film or nanostructure into a specified substrate. In general, a common CVD equipment is composed of three main modules: 1) a precursor injection module, 2) the reaction site or chamber, and 3) the gas ejection module [5]. Although these three modules can be arranged either vertically or horizontally, the horizontal configuration is the most widely used. The reaction site consists of a region subjected to high temperatures where the thermal decomposition of the precursor can be triggered. A very common setup consists of a tubular furnace with a borosilicate/quartz/alumina tube inside serving as reaction chamber, see Figure 1, the nature of the tube would depend on the temperature conditions used in the process. If the process requires a catalyst, it can be placed inside the reaction chamber, such is the case for the CVD synthesis of graphene as will be reviewed in detail below. Depending on the mechanism used for the delivery and the type of precursor, the pressure conditions employed, different CVD configurations can be considered [5]. Each one of these alternatives can undergo the same tasks, but each will use a different approach to fulfill it. In the following sections, some of the most common and popular configurations will be exposed.
Schematic representation of a horizontal CVD setup, specifying the three constituent modules (top) and diagram of an LPCVD setup for the synthesis of graphene on copper foil and methane as precursor (bottom), dashed rectangles highlight the corresponding modules.
The atmospheric pressure chemical vapor deposition (APCVD) is one of the simplest configurations found for a CVD system since it operates in normal conditions (atmospheric pressure), making this option more affordable and easier to implement at laboratories. However, due to these conditions, problems related to the dispersion of the gases within the chamber have been considered as one of its major disadvantages, because the decomposed particles will not cover the substrate homogeneously as expected [6, 7].
For this approach, different precursors can be used. In the case of liquids or solids dissolved in solution, a bubbler or an evaporation system will be required to stimulate the particles to be expulsed and consequently be transferred into the chamber by the action of a carrier gas, provoking its decomposition in the reaction site [6].
The low-pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) is based on the use of vacuum for the outgassing of the system to achieve low pressures throughout the deposition process. In comparison with the last approach, with this technique, the dispersion and the deposition are enhanced, making it possible to obtain better coverage within the substrates and a higher quality. The pressures commonly used are between 10−1 and 10−2 torr and are reached with the use of mechanical and molecular vacuum pumps connected to the gas ejection module [6].
The aerosol-assisted chemical vapor deposition (AACVD) is characterized for using fine sub-micrometer-sized aerosol droplets of precursor dispersed throughout a gaseous medium, which eventually are transported into the reaction zone to be decomposed and deposited in the target substrate. The atomization of the liquid precursor can be achieved by different routes, as it could be the use of an ultrasonic aerosol generation, a pneumatic aerosol jet, or
Roll-to-roll CVD is one of the most recent approaches developed, and it consists of a continuous process that can carry out the deposition of the material on a substrate and its withdrawal or a sequential process such as a further transference into another suitable substrate (in some cases it is required). This CVD variant is equipped with conveyor belts that are in charge of the transport of the substrates into the reaction site, where a continuous inlet of gases throughout the chamber leads to a constant deposit built up in the incoming substrate without interruption. Subsequently, the conveyor belts either introduce the material into a second stage, where a transfer procedure can be done automatically, or take the substrate out of the system. This CVD configuration can be developed for different process conditions, such as ambient pressure, low pressure, or a plasma-enhanced CVD [9, 10].
One of the great advantages of using a CVD system is the wide variety of possible configurations. Above, we have described the most popular ones, but there is still a large catalogue of variants, among which are worth mentioning the plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), the ultrahigh-vacuum chemical vapor deposition (UHV-CVD), and the cold-wall chemical vapor deposition (CW-CVD), these alternatives will be briefly discussed in the following lines.
The PECVD variant uses plasma to improve the decomposition of the precursor and its deposition, allowing a reduction in the temperature and the possibility of avoiding the use of a catalytic substrate for the deposit [11]. The UHV-CVD is characterized by the use of more extreme low-pressure conditions (~10−7 torr) to avoid the oxidation of the deposit and to enhance the decomposition of the precursor [12]. Finally, the CW-CVD owes its name to the lack of a heating furnace, and it relies on a Joule heating approach for the decomposition of the precursor, achieving a more selective and controllable reaction site, by locally heating the substrate [13, 14].
Chemical vapor deposition has proven to be a very efficient method for graphene film synthesis [15]. It is possible to obtain films with few defects, good uniformity, and good control in the number of layers, acquiring films between one and few layers [16, 17].
Regardless of the CVD equipment configuration, almost all graphene synthesis procedures share the following requirements: a transition metal sheet that acts as a catalyst for carbon dissociation and as a substrate for graphene growth, which is placed inside the reaction chamber; a carbon-based precursor material [18]; temperatures around 1,000°C capable of decomposing the precursor material and dissociating the carbon [19, 20], at such temperatures a borosilicate tube is not convenient, the regular choice is a quartz tube, its transparency allows direct monitoring of the interior of the reaction chamber; a flow of hydrogen (H2) that provides a reducing atmosphere and influences growth behavior; and a flow of inert or carrier gas, argon (Ar) being the privileged option [18]. A diagram of a typical LPCVD setup for the synthesis of graphene is depicted in Figure 1. A characteristic of CVD-produced graphene films is the polycrystalline nature of the atom-thick membrane, as will be detailed below.
Although the deposition of graphene on metal substrates by CVD was reported for the first time on other metals such as Ni and platinum (Pt), Cu is currently the most widely used metal as a catalyst substrate for the growth of graphene by CVD [16].
This preference can be explained by the growth mechanism of graphene on these substrates. The difference in mechanisms was elucidated by the group of R.S. Ruoff in 2009 [21] using carbon isotope labeling and Raman spectroscopy mapping of graphene films grown on Ni and Cu. The difference is due to the carbon solubility of each metal. For metals with high solubility (9,000 ppm at 900°C in Ni, and 11,000 ppm at 1,000°C in Pt) [22], carbon atoms infiltrate the metal matrix at high temperatures, and this solubility tends to increase with temperature. When the temperature drops, the solute is precipitated from the matrix, leading to the formation of graphene. This saturation and precipitation process results in the formation of MLG regions [17, 22]. In contrast, for metals with low carbon solubility (7.4 ppm at 1,020°C in Cu) [22], the solubility is relatively low despite high temperatures. Therefore, the process of carbon saturation and precipitation does not occur. Graphene is formed on the surface of Cu, limited to it; hence, the size of the graphene films will be correlated with the copper films in the reaction chamber. This process promotes the formation of SLG [17, 22]. Common Cu foil thicknesses for the growth of graphene films are 25 and 50 micrometers; moreover, the purity of the foil varies among commercial suppliers.
In general, the growth mechanism of graphene by CVD on a copper substrate can be divided into three stages: (1) The precursor molecules collide with the surface of the Cu substrate. As a result, they can be absorbed on the surface, disperse back to the gas phase, or go to the next reaction step. (2) The molecules dehydrogenate totally or partially, or eliminate any element other than carbon (denitrogenation, deoxygenation), and active carbon species are formed. (3) The active species diffuse over the surface, cluster, generate nucleation sites, and begin to grow on graphene islands on the Cu substrate [15, 23]. These graphene islands are grains of honeycomb arranged carbons, they possess a particular orientation with respect to each other, when the grains are large enough and meet carbon atoms from a nearby grain, they coalesce, forming a grain boundary where the mismatch orientation is overcome by the presence of 5-, 6-, 7-, and 8-membered rings [24].
An important step prior to the CVD synthesis of graphene is the thermal treatment of the micrometer-thick Cu foils. Cu substrates undergo an annealing process that consists of heating them at high temperatures close to the Cu melting point, but lower than it (<1,085°C) for a certain period of time [25]. The surface of copper has some roughness, grain boundaries, surface defects, and impurity particles. This process is carried out in order to smooth the copper surface, reduce surface oxides, remove volatile impurities and surface contaminants, and favor the formation of graphene on the surface [26]. In addition, a reorganization of the copper atoms on the surface is promoted, which produces a release of internal stresses and an increase in the size of the Cu microcrystalline structure [25].
Regarding graphene nucleation, flat Cu regions, or terraces, favor the growth of SLG or BLG domains. In contrast, slope regions on the Cu surface, or ledges, promote MLG growth. Additionally, grain boundaries, impurities, and surface defects contribute to the formation of MLG domains [26].
The synthesis of graphene using the CVD technique can be carried out with a large catalogue of carbon-based compounds used as precursors. These precursors can be categorized by their physical state or by their chemical structure. By physical state, they can be classified as gaseous, liquid, and solid. While based on its chemical structure, they are separated as aliphatic and aromatic compounds. The use of an appropriate precursor with the right conditions can improve the efficiency of the production process and the quality of the final product [15].
Gaseous carbon precursors are the main source used for graphene synthesis by CVD. The most used are hydrocarbons such as methane (CH4) and acetylene (C2H2), followed by ethylene (C2H4) [27, 28, 29]. A gaseous precursor occupies less space than a liquid or solid one, because they can be stored in certain specialized containers. Some precursors are produced as a by-product of industrial processes, such as biogas, which is constituted essentially of methane and carbon dioxide [15].
Liquid carbon precursors are less commonly used in CVD methods. The most common precursors used in CVD are hexane (C6H14), ethanol (C2H5OH), and benzene (C6H6) [30, 31, 32]. These liquid carbon precursors are easy to use and relatively inexpensive compared with gaseous ones [15, 32].
In contrast to the use of gaseous materials, when the precursor used is in a liquid state, a previous stage is needed to transform the precursor from its liquid form to a vapor in order to be deposited on the metal substrate. Various CVD configurations have been used to work with liquid precursors. An approach constitutes the use of an external source of heat to vaporize liquids with high boiling points. Ultrasonic baths can be used to form aerosols from the liquids [15]. Unlike gaseous precursors that have a certain flow, an external constant gas flow is needed to carry the post-treatment precursor to the reaction chamber [15, 16]. Some of these precursors could be harmful to human health, since some may be volatile organic compounds or carcinogenic in nature [15].
Solid carbon precursors are equally rarely used. They are more complex in terms of chemical and biological structure. Any organic material that works as a carbon source can be used, including plant waste, plastics, animal waste, insect parts, even food. Therefore, solid precursors occupy more space in the reaction chamber than gaseous or liquid precursors [15, 33].
As with liquid precursors, prior to the synthesis process, an extra step is required to convert the solid material into a gas phase before acting on the metal catalyst. More energy is required to carry out the process, which can increase costs. Solid carbon precursors can be placed directly on top of the catalyst metal so that graphene forms on the back of the catalyst. Polymers have been spin coated directly on copper foils and used as carbon precursor [34]. Most of the precursors used are solid wastes or biomass; using these products to form graphene would positively impact waste recycling for the production of a high-value product and may reduce the overall cost of synthesis [15].
Table 1 presents different carbon precursors that have been used for the synthesis of graphene, divided by their previously discussed physical states, along with a detailed example of the synthesis process using one of those precursors.
Physical state | Compounds | Example |
---|---|---|
Gas | Methane [27], acetylene [28], ethylene [29], propene [35], biogas [36] | Acetylene was used as a precursor gas in a LPCVD to fabricate SLG and BLG at 1,035°C with a flow of H2 [28]. |
Liquid | Ethanol [32], hexane [30], benzene [31], methanol [37], pyridine [38], 1-propanol [37], 2-phenylethanol [39], palm oil [40] | SLG, BLG and tri-layer graphene (TLG) was synthesized with APCVD using two alcohols as precursors: 2-phenylethanol and ethanol at 980 or 990°C using a Ar-H2 mixture [32]. |
Solid | PMMA [34], hexabenzocoronene [39], highly oriented pyrolytic graphite [41], cookie [33], cockroach leg [33], grass [33], camphor [42] | APCVD was used to produce SLG and BLG graphene sheets with solid camphor that was evaporated in a first furnace at 200°C, and pyrolyzed in a second furnace at 1,020°C using H2 as carrier gas [42]. |
Carbon precursors used for the synthesis of graphene organized by their physical state. An example of the synthesis performed is shown in each case.
To decompose aliphatic precursors, high temperatures are needed to promote the partial or total dehydrogenation of carbon compounds, as well as the removal of other elements that could be previously linked to the chains, such as nitrogen and oxygen. Subsequently, it is necessary to promote the breaking of the carbon-carbon bonds between the chains. This favors the deposition of active carbon species on the metal substrate, the subsequent formation of graphene growth nuclei in sp2 formation, and the capture of active carbon for the growth of the graphene islands [15].
Aromatic compounds require a lower growth temperature, and graphene growth using benzene at around 300°C has been reported by Jang and coworkers [43]. Processes of dehydrogenation and possible denitrogenation and deoxygenation of the aromatic species take place at lower temperatures. Active aromatic ring species are deposited on the substrate forming graphene growth nuclei and capture the active carbon species for island growth. The low energy needed is related to the basic structure of aromatic compounds, which is analogous to the hexagonal honeycomb packaging of graphene [15].
In order to develop ecological and environmentally friendly CVD methods, green and bio-renewable carbon sources that are easily obtained at low cost are sought [40, 42, 44]. With the implementation of these precursors, it is attempted to reduce the use of greenhouse gases, the exploitation of toxic materials, and the development of ecological and sustainable technologies [44].
It has been possible to synthesize graphene using various ecological precursors such as foods, for example, cookies, chocolate, honey, sugar, butter, milk, cheese; waste such as plastics, grass, bones, eggshells, dog and cow feces, wood, leaf, bagasse, fruit, tea tree extracts; and derivatives of insects [44].
In particular, the use of solid botanical camphor (C10H16O) for the synthesis of SLG and BLG graphene sheets has been studied. Camphor is a natural solid botanical hydrocarbon source, which is regenerative, low-cost, and environmentally friendly [42]. Similarly, the use of palm oil as a carbon precursor for the synthesis of MLG has been studied. Palm oil is a natural oil source that has a unique chemical composition with long-chain carbon. It has high potential as a green and renewable carbon precursor in the large-scale production of graphene [40].
Molecular hydrogen has a fundamental role in the synthesis of graphene by CVD since it acts as an activating gas. It acts by cleaning the surface of the substrate, reducing impurities and defects during the annealing process, as well as reducing surface oxides [17, 23]. It behaves as a co-catalyst, along with the substrate, promoting the growth of graphene, as well as an etchant to control the growth and its properties [23, 45]. It controls the adsorption, stability, thickness or number of layers, the population on the catalyst surface, the configuration of the edges, and the morphology of the domains of the grown graphene [17, 23, 45].
The flow of H2 has been considered as an important factor for the quality of graphene during synthesis. By using a gaseous precursor, the radius of H2 with respect to the precursor gas can be studied [17]. It has been observed that when the H2/CH4 volume ratio in a process is greater than 0.5, the graphene remains in small separate islands and does not coalesce to form a large film. This may happen because excess H2 can limit graphene growth by removing weak carbon-carbon bonds despite acting as a co-catalyst [46]. If the ratio of H2 to CH4 is too high, the etching of carbon species becomes much faster than the formation of graphene layers [47], destroying the integrity of the network and reducing the quality of graphene [17].
Regarding the flow of the precursor gas, it has been reported that, for methane, the number of layers does not depend on the CH4 flow rate, although an increase in defects was observed with the increase in flow [17].
Similarly, the use of an inert gas can help the synthesis process. The inert gas can be used to dilute the carbon feedstock to achieve high H2 to precursor ratios, to increase the total pressure of the reaction chamber, or to dilute flammable or explosive material below its lower explosive limit [18, 46]. The concentration of each gas can range between 0 and 100%. The explosive limits of H2 in air range between 18 and 60%, and the flammable limits between 4 and 75%. Pure H2 and H2 mixture beyond the flammable limit are dangerous [46]. Furthermore, it can be used as a carrier gas for precursor molecules in certain cases [16]. Gases such as Ar and nitrogen (N2) have been used to fulfill this function [16, 18, 46]. Ar is chemically inert under the conditions used during the synthesis [18, 46]. N2 is inert as well, although more abundant and cheaper than Ar. Since it exists as a diatomic molecule, there is a risk that N2 will dissociate during synthesis. The dissociation product could act as a substituent in the graphene film, causing a doping or interruption of the network. However, the triple bond present has a very large binding energy, so the rate of N2 dissociation should be extremely small at the temperatures used. Furthermore, Cu is an inefficient catalyst for the dissociation of N2 [18].
Using a CVD system, large-area SLG can be synthesized with high yields; however, its crystallinity can represent an important disadvantage for its application. The polycrystalline nature of the Cu substrate and the presence of impurities within its surface lead to a high density of nucleation sites and adlayers, resulting in a polycrystalline material that will present diminished mechanical and electrical properties than the ideal product.
For this reason, in recent years, different alternatives have been proposed to solve this important factor. Li
Once graphene has been synthesized on Cu foils, its transfer to more suitable substrates for its study or to be used in different applications is necessary. There are several procedures that have been developed for this transfer step, having as purposes: a) to separate the graphene film from the original metal substrate where it was deposited and b) to protect the graphene after the transference [54]. In general, these procedures can be classified in two groups, the wet chemical methods and the dry chemical methods.
These methods are based generally on the coating of a protective polymeric layer over the graphene film (e.g., PDMS or PMMA), followed by the immerse in an etching solvent (e.g., FeCl3, HCl, HNO3, Fe(NO3)3, CuCl2) to remove the metal substrate, so the graphene can be positioned then in another substrate (e.g., SiO2) [55]. Figure 2 depicts a flowchart of the transfer process using PMMA. Despite the good results that could be obtained with this general technique, in recent years, new variants have been developed to overcome its disadvantages (i.e., the presence of impurities and the formation of cracks in the material). Such is the case of An and collaborators, who developed a reverse transfer technique by locating the graphene/PMMA bilayer into a flexible substrate (e.g., PET), reducing the density of cracks and the presence of impurities [56]. Lin and coworkers found a way to avoid the use of the polymeric layer, achieving better quality of transferred graphene (free of organic residues). They used isopropyl alcohol (IPA) and ammonium persulfate solution ((NH4)2S2O8) as the etchant agent, which was later substituted with DI water and IPA to reduce the surface tension and ease the transference to the desired substrate [57]. Furthermore, the need of the etching step has been also avoided in some techniques, such as Chandrashekar
Schematic representation of the wet transfer process using spin-coated PMMA.
The dry chemical methods are based on the same principle as the wet ones, but with the difference that these ones are performed under dry conditions. Several methodologies have been proposed as well, such as Yang
The chemical vapor deposition method provides graphene films of good quality and large area, the many variants of the method allow versatility in a number of parameters such as: precursor used, temperature, and pressure. From its first reports more than 10 years ago, CVD has remained as reliable technique to produce graphene films, many advances have been reported since, and understanding of the role of every parameter in the synthesis has been achieved. CVD graphene is polycrystalline by nature, and when more than one layer is produced, the mismatch or stacking of layers is not controlled, and these characteristics might condition its performance at the mechanical and electrical level. Applications that require continuous, conductive, transparent films can be tackled using CVD graphene; however, the transfer process remains a challenge to overcome.
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This chapter discusses general features of CMVI in dogs focusing on recent advances in diagnosis and treatment.",book:{id:"5469",slug:"canine-medicine-recent-topics-and-advanced-research",title:"Canine Medicine",fullTitle:"Canine Medicine - Recent Topics and Advanced Research"},signatures:"Sang-II Suh, Dong-Hyun Han, Seung-Gon Lee, Yong-Wei Hung, Ran\nChoi and Changbaig Hyun",authors:[{id:"13534",title:"Prof.",name:"Changbaig",middleName:null,surname:"Hyun",slug:"changbaig-hyun",fullName:"Changbaig Hyun"},{id:"371146",title:"Dr.",name:"Sang-II",middleName:null,surname:"Suh",slug:"sang-ii-suh",fullName:"Sang-II Suh"},{id:"371147",title:"Dr.",name:"Dong-Hyun",middleName:null,surname:"Han",slug:"dong-hyun-han",fullName:"Dong-Hyun Han"},{id:"371148",title:"Dr.",name:"Seung-Gon",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"seung-gon-lee",fullName:"Seung-Gon Lee"},{id:"371149",title:"Dr.",name:"Yong-Wei",middleName:null,surname:"Hung",slug:"yong-wei-hung",fullName:"Yong-Wei Hung"},{id:"371150",title:"Dr.",name:"Ran",middleName:null,surname:"Choi",slug:"ran-choi",fullName:"Ran Choi"}]},{id:"52484",title:"Infectious Causes of Abortion, Stillbirth and Neonatal Death in Bitches",slug:"infectious-causes-of-abortion-stillbirth-and-neonatal-death-in-bitches",totalDownloads:2818,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Problems in gestational development in dogs can be determined by infectious and non‐infectious causes. Among the non‐infectious causes, trauma during pregnancy, genetic characteristics of the animal, deficit nutrition, thyroid dysfunction, maternal problems and hormonal disorders are found. The majority of the cases are in relation to infectious diseases, one should consider viral, bacterial, fungal and protozoal, which can interfere directly or indirectly in the foetal development. The progression of foetal development may be affected by the direct action of the microorganisms to overcome the placenta, but they are also able to affect pregnancy and release placental toxins by inflammatory processes and, may still cause maternal pathologies, which entail problems such as hyperthermia, hypoxia and endotoxemia, which can result in abortion. Several diseases can trigger pregnancy loss in dogs. This action can be direct by microorganisms, as well as indirectly triggering other problems that lead to abortion. This chapter discusses the infectious aetiologies of reproductive failures (abortion, stillbirth and neonatal death) in bitches.",book:{id:"5469",slug:"canine-medicine-recent-topics-and-advanced-research",title:"Canine Medicine",fullTitle:"Canine Medicine - Recent Topics and Advanced Research"},signatures:"João Marcelo Azevedo de Paula Antunes, Débora Alves de Carvalho\nFreire, Ilanna Vanessa Pristo de Medeiros Oliveira, Gabriela Hémylin\nFerreira Moura, Larissa de Castro Demoner and Heider Irinaldo\nPereira Ferreira",authors:[{id:"191197",title:"Ph.D.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Antunes",slug:"joao-antunes",fullName:"João Antunes"},{id:"191203",title:"MSc.",name:"Débora Alves",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Freire",slug:"debora-alves-de-carvalho-freire",fullName:"Débora Alves De Carvalho Freire"},{id:"191204",title:"MSc.",name:"Ilanna Vanessa",middleName:null,surname:"Pristo De Medeiros Oliveira",slug:"ilanna-vanessa-pristo-de-medeiros-oliveira",fullName:"Ilanna Vanessa Pristo De Medeiros Oliveira"},{id:"191205",title:"BSc.",name:"Gabriela Hémylin",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira Moura",slug:"gabriela-hemylin-ferreira-moura",fullName:"Gabriela Hémylin Ferreira Moura"},{id:"191207",title:"Dr.",name:"Larissa",middleName:null,surname:"De Castro Demoner",slug:"larissa-de-castro-demoner",fullName:"Larissa De Castro Demoner"},{id:"194801",title:"MSc.",name:"Heider Irinaldo Pereira",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"heider-irinaldo-pereira-ferreira",fullName:"Heider Irinaldo Pereira Ferreira"}]},{id:"28674",title:"Atresia Ani in Dogs and Cats",slug:"atresia-ani-in-dogs-and-cats",totalDownloads:15480,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"1667",slug:"a-bird-s-eye-view-of-veterinary-medicine",title:"A Bird's-Eye View of Veterinary Medicine",fullTitle:"A Bird's-Eye View of Veterinary Medicine"},signatures:"Lysimachos G. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. Vouros",slug:"deep-multiagent-reinforcement-learning-methods-addressing-the-scalability-challenge",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Multi-Agent Technologies and Machine Learning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11445.jpg",subseries:{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems"}}},{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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