Linear mixed-model analysis of facial action units related to dominance.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6707",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Caesarean Section",title:"Caesarean Section",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In this book, we present recent advances in surgical techniques as well as the most common perioperative complications in patients that undergo a cesarean section. Moreover, we discuss appropriate measures to reduce unnecessary procedures.",isbn:"978-1-78923-932-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-931-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-661-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72159",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"caesarean-section",numberOfPages:154,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5efff2e8c75a9e3dc96206b2929c59e7",bookSignature:"Georgios Androutsopoulos",publishedDate:"September 26th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6707.jpg",numberOfDownloads:11296,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:7,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 10th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 1st 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 30th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 20th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 19th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"173834",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Androutsopoulos",slug:"georgios-androutsopoulos",fullName:"Georgios Androutsopoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173834/images/system/173834.jfif",biography:"Georgios Androutsopoulos completed his Degree in Medicine in 1995, at the National and Kapodestrian University of Athens. \r\nHe received his Medical Specialization in 2006, at the Department of Obstetrics - Gynecology of the University of Patras. He also completed his Doctorate of Medicine 'Pregnancy complications in Greek women with inherited thrombophilia” in 2007, at the same Department.\r\nHe started his clinical career in 1-8-2006, as Obstetrician - Gynecologist at the General, Maternity and Pediatric Hospital of Athens 'Mitera” and he served up until 20-1-2009. In 23-1-2009 he became Consultant of Obstetrics and Gynecology at the General Hospital of Amfissas and he served up until 3-1-2012.\r\nHe started his academic career in 3-1-2012, as Lecturer and Consultant of Obstetrics and Gynecology at the University of Patras and he served up until 20-10-2014. In 20-10-2014, he became Assistant Professor and Consultant of Obstetrics and Gynecology at the same University and holds the position until today. Between 1-11-2016 and 31-10-2017, he was Honorary Clinical Research Fellow in Gynaecological Oncology at Northern Gynaecological Oncology Centre (NGOC), Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Gateshead, United Kingdom. Currently, he is the Head of the Division of Gynecological Oncology of the University of Patras.\r\nHe has got both academic and clinical experience as well as a heavy workload of research and educational duties. Moreover, he has active participation in Medical Students Educational Program as well as in Residency Training Program at the Department of Obstetrics - Gynecology of the University of Patras. His research interests are mainly focused in Gynecological Oncology.\r\nEditor in Scientific Journals: 29.\r\nEditorial Board Member in Scientific Journals: 47.\r\nReviewer in Scientific Journals: 99.\r\nParticipation in Authorship of Scientific Books: 6.\r\nPublications in International Scientific Journals with Reviewers: 82.\r\nPublications in National Scientific Journals with Reviewers: 11.\r\nCitations of Publications: 765.\r\nh-index (Scopus): 6, h-index (Scholar): 13, i10-index (Scholar): 25.",institutionString:"University of Patras",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Patras",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"189",title:"Obstetrics and Gynecology",slug:"obstetrics-and-gynecology"}],chapters:[{id:"63340",title:"Introductory Chapter: Is It Time to Reconsider the Importance of Cesarean Section?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80297",slug:"introductory-chapter-is-it-time-to-reconsider-the-importance-of-cesarean-section-",totalDownloads:789,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Georgios Androutsopoulos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63340",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63340",authors:[{id:"173834",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Androutsopoulos",slug:"georgios-androutsopoulos",fullName:"Georgios Androutsopoulos"}],corrections:null},{id:"61562",title:"Trends in Cesarean Section",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77309",slug:"trends-in-cesarean-section",totalDownloads:1174,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cesarean section (CS) is part of the standard of care in modern obstetrics. Its availability, practicity, high acceptance among patients, and the permanent improvement in surgical techniques, anesthesia, blood replacement, and neonatal care have popularized the procedure as a safe and reasonable alternative to vaginal delivery for any individual born in the twenty-first century. Beyond an established recommended rate of 15% for all births, presently the main challenge in obstetrical care is to limit its use to patients that need the procedure in order to keep an adequate perinatal outcome. The rate of CS has been used in many healthcare settings as an indicator of an individual or institutional obstetrical performance. The issue of overuse of CS as a birth alternative beyond clear maternal or fetal indications has received extensive analysis not only from the reproductive medicine point of view but also from neonatal, ethical, financial, and public health stakeholders. Its place in modern obstetrics, and its impact on short-and long-term maternal and neonatal outcomes, health financial budgets, and in public health policies, have positioned CS a mayor issue to take care of in modern medicine.",signatures:"Andres Sarmiento",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61562",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61562",authors:[{id:"233687",title:"M.D.",name:"Andres",surname:"Sarmiento",slug:"andres-sarmiento",fullName:"Andres Sarmiento"}],corrections:null},{id:"61216",title:"Value of Caesarian Section in HIV-Positive Women",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76883",slug:"value-of-caesarian-section-in-hiv-positive-women",totalDownloads:948,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The international main goal is to reduce mother-to-child HIV transmission. The appropriate birth delivery for seropositive woman has been analyzed since the beginning of the twenty-first century. Although at the beginning of HIV pandemic delivery by caesarian section (C-section) was considered mandatory in many studies and meta-analyses, recent information reveal limited benefits. Mother-to-child transmission is higher when mothers are diagnosed late during pregnancy, in advanced stages with a high HIV viral load, and labor with membranes ruptured for more than 4 h, especially when the antiretroviral treatment is not respected. During vaginal delivery, the risk of HIV transmitting to infant is due to microtransfusions during uterine contractions or by newborn exposure to cervicovaginal secretions or blood. Although the indication of C-section in HIV-positive women is controversial, there are some situations in which C-section remains mandatory. In mothers diagnosed late during pregnancy, in situation in which HIV viral load is not affordable in real time in the last trimester of pregnancy, and in mothers with poor adherence to antiretroviral treatment, C-section remains one of the most important measures of prevention for HIV mother-to-child transmission.",signatures:"Simona Claudia Cambrea and Anca Daniela Pinzaru",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61216",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61216",authors:[{id:"189887",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Simona Claudia",surname:"Cambrea",slug:"simona-claudia-cambrea",fullName:"Simona Claudia Cambrea"},{id:"250093",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca Daniela",surname:"Pinzaru",slug:"anca-daniela-pinzaru",fullName:"Anca Daniela Pinzaru"}],corrections:null},{id:"62854",title:"The Surgical Technique of Caesarean Section: What is Evidence Based?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78040",slug:"the-surgical-technique-of-caesarean-section-what-is-evidence-based-",totalDownloads:2460,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Caesarean section is the most frequent obstetric operation which is associated with increased maternal morbidity and mortality. Although these risks are low, affected women may suffer from severe consequences and this may affect subsequent pregnancies and deliveries. A variety of surgical approaches have been described, however, on low evidence level. The objective of this chapter is therefore to systematically search the literature and analyse the available evidence including preoperative workup, prophylactic antibiotics, skin disinfection, preoperative bladder catheterization as well as details of the individual steps of the actual operation itself such as skin incision types, preparation of soft tissue and womb, removal of the placenta, cervical dilatation and stitching of the womb, peritoneum, rectus muscle, fascia, subcutaneous fat, and skin. We systematically searched for meta-analysis, systematic reviews, and big studies and evaluated the evidence for each individual step.",signatures:"Jan-Simon Lanowski and Constantin S. von Kaisenberg",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62854",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62854",authors:[{id:"100660",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",surname:"Von Kaisenberg",slug:"constantin-von-kaisenberg",fullName:"Constantin Von Kaisenberg"},{id:"240353",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan-Simon",surname:"Lanowski",slug:"jan-simon-lanowski",fullName:"Jan-Simon Lanowski"}],corrections:null},{id:"60123",title:"Pros and Cons of Myomectomy during Cesarean Section",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75365",slug:"pros-and-cons-of-myomectomy-during-cesarean-section",totalDownloads:1358,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Additional surgical interventions apart from emergencies during cesarean section are not recommended in the textbooks; thus, surgical procedures like myomectomy as an adjunct to cesarean section remains a hot topic of discussion. There are many publications supporting serosal myomectomy during cesarean section, but studies published so far are poor in quality of evidence. To clarify the efficacy and safety of cesarean myomectomy, large-scale randomized controlled studies and studies explaining the mid-term and long-term outcomes of the cesarean myomectomy are required. Traditionally, cesarean myomectomy is performed from the uterine serosa as in the usual abdominal myomectomy. Although the surgical technique is the same as intracapsular myomectomy, a novel cesarean myomectomy technique, endometrial myomectomy, introduced into the obstetrics practice for minimizing the risk of adhesion formation and diminishing the blood loss during surgery. Further, strong studies are needed to overcome the controversy on cesarean myomectomy.",signatures:"Cengiz Tokgöz, Şafak Hatirnaz and Oğuz Güler",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60123",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60123",authors:[{id:"235275",title:"M.D.",name:"Şafak",surname:"Hatırnaz",slug:"safak-hatirnaz",fullName:"Şafak Hatırnaz"},{id:"240855",title:"Dr.",name:"Cengiz",surname:"Tokgöz",slug:"cengiz-tokgoz",fullName:"Cengiz Tokgöz"},{id:"240856",title:"Dr.",name:"Oğuz",surname:"Güler",slug:"oguz-guler",fullName:"Oğuz Güler"}],corrections:null},{id:"60912",title:"Complications of Cesarean Operation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75901",slug:"complications-of-cesarean-operation",totalDownloads:1402,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the last decades, there has been a huge increase in the incidence of the cesarean section that worldwide became a routine procedure in most hospitals despite the potential complications which in some cases can cause permanent damage or can even be fatal, affecting both the mother and the fetus. In this chapter, we will discuss the most frequent complications that occur in the cesarean section both in the surgical act and after the event.",signatures:"Enrique Rosales Aujang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60912",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60912",authors:[{id:"237635",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",surname:"Rosales",slug:"enrique-rosales",fullName:"Enrique Rosales"}],corrections:null},{id:"63427",title:"Caesarean Section: Reasons for and Actions to Prevent Unnecessary Caesareans",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76582",slug:"caesarean-section-reasons-for-and-actions-to-prevent-unnecessary-caesareans",totalDownloads:1223,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"According to data from 150 countries, the worldwide caesarean section rate increased from 7% in 1990 to 19% in 2014. Latin America and the Caribbean region reported the highest CS rate 42%, followed by North America 32%, Oceania 31%, Europe 25%, Asia 19%, and Africa 7%. This trend is accompanied by increasing reports of severe adverse outcomes, such as invasive placenta, peripartum hysterectomy, and massive obstetric bleeding. The World Health Organization stated in 2015 that caesareans are effective in saving maternal and infant lives only when they are required for medically indicated reasons and that caesarean rates higher than 10–15% at a population level are not associated with reduced maternal or newborn mortality rates. More than 90% of women claim that they want to give birth in a natural way. In contrast, recent studies suggest that the majority of planned caesareans are carried out for psychosocial or nonmedical reasons. Knowledge about the indications for caesareans is a prerequisite in order to define actions to prevent unnecessary caesareans. The aim of this chapter was to present a review of the history behind, and to evaluate the indications for, caesarean sections in order to suggest appropriate actions to prevent unnecessary caesareans.",signatures:"Ylva Vladic Stjernholm",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63427",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63427",authors:[{id:"238942",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ylva",surname:"Vladic Stjernholm",slug:"ylva-vladic-stjernholm",fullName:"Ylva Vladic Stjernholm"}],corrections:null},{id:"62348",title:"Improving Obstetrical Outcomes in Cesarean Sections, by Utilizing Evidence-Based Strategies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78667",slug:"improving-obstetrical-outcomes-in-cesarean-sections-by-utilizing-evidence-based-strategies",totalDownloads:959,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cesarean sections are the most commonly performed surgery in the USA. Changing policies and clinical information have resulted in improved outcomes for both mothers and babies. We describe evidence-based best practices for a multi-strategy approach to reduce cesarean section rates, increasing safety and success of vaginal births after cesarean section, decreasing complication rates in higher order cesarean sections, and accurate estimations of blood loss. In addition, we present a novel approach of utilizing venous lactate levels to identify the need for blood transfusions in the resuscitation of women with postpartum hemorrhage. Given that pregnancy is a life event, we describe increased self-reported stress levels in women during pregnancy and after the birth. In summary, adoption of the best practices outlined herein will greatly enhance the safe practice of cesarean sections.",signatures:"Donald Morrish and Iffath A. Hoskins",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62348",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62348",authors:[{id:"235201",title:"Dr.",name:"Iffath",surname:"Hoskins",slug:"iffath-hoskins",fullName:"Iffath Hoskins"},{id:"236201",title:"Dr.",name:"Donald",surname:"Morrish",slug:"donald-morrish",fullName:"Donald Morrish"}],corrections:null},{id:"60224",title:"Vaginal Delivery after Cesarean Section",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75900",slug:"vaginal-delivery-after-cesarean-section",totalDownloads:992,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cesarean delivery is needed (indicated) for many reasons such as failure to progress, cephalopelvic disproportion, antepartum hemorrhage, preeclampsia, and repeated cesareans. The increase of the cesarean delivery rate is accompanied with an increase in the maternal and perinatal morbidities and increase in maternal mortality such as complications of anesthesia, injury to the nearby structure, respiratory distress syndrome, childhood allergy and childhood obesity. Vaginal delivery after cesarean section (VBAC) is one of the tools that aimed to reduce the rate of cesarean delivery. Here in this chapter we would like to highlight the different guidelines for VBAC, the success rate of VBAC, the determinant of the success rate, maternal and perinatal outcomes of VBAC. Then the arena of using oxytocic drugs in VBAC is discussed in details too.",signatures:"Zaheera Saadia, Nadiah AlHabardi and Ishag Adam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60224",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60224",authors:[{id:"180747",title:"Prof.",name:"Ishag",surname:"Adam",slug:"ishag-adam",fullName:"Ishag Adam"},{id:"242606",title:"Dr.",name:"Zaheera",surname:"Saadia",slug:"zaheera-saadia",fullName:"Zaheera Saadia"},{id:"242607",title:"Dr.",name:"Nadiah",surname:"AlHabardi",slug:"nadiah-alhabardi",fullName:"Nadiah AlHabardi"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6191",title:"Selected Topics in Breastfeeding",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3334b831761ffa52e78de6fc681e33b3",slug:"selected-topics-in-breastfeeding",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría P.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6191.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10460",title:"Current Topics in Caesarean Section",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e59550fca39fd09ff4addfe39ca822a0",slug:"current-topics-in-caesarean-section",bookSignature:"Panagiotis Tsikouras, Nikolaos Nikolettos, Werner Rath and Georg Friedrich Von Tempelhoff",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10460.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"48837",title:"Prof.",name:"Panagiotis",surname:"Tsikouras",slug:"panagiotis-tsikouras",fullName:"Panagiotis Tsikouras"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8557",title:"Empowering Midwives and Obstetric Nurses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c6d90f0978fbce94e13061740cb1d4bc",slug:"empowering-midwives-and-obstetric-nurses",bookSignature:"Amita Ray",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8557.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"251100",title:"Prof.",name:"Amita",surname:"Ray",slug:"amita-ray",fullName:"Amita Ray"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10929",title:"The Gynecological Papyrus Kahun",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b8818312089bdfb0423707a231e104d8",slug:"the-gynecological-papyrus-kahun",bookSignature:"Helena Trindade Lopes and Ronaldo G. 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In 2010, he received a Ph.D. in Egyptology from the University of Basel, Switzerland.\nFrom 2012 to 2017, Dr. Pereira was a post-doctoral fellow at CHAM/FCSH – Universidade Nova de Lisboa.\nIn 2018, he became an Onassis Fellow, hosted by the Department of Mediterranean Studies, University of the Aegean, Greece. \nIn 2019, he became an auxiliary researcher at CHAM/FCSH – Universidade Nova de Lisboa. 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Though statistics on the extent of the crime is hard to prove, anecdotal reports suggest that it is increasing [1]. For instance, more than 500 different trafficking flows were detected between 2012 and 2014 across the globe [1]. Similarly, from a recent global survey on human trafficking published by International Labour Organization (ILO) and the Walk Free Foundation, an estimated 40.3 million people were reported to be in modern slavery in 2017 [2]. While the total annual revenue accruing from human trafficking varies, depending on the source, but it is estimated to be between US$ 5 and US$42 billion [3].
Although human trafficking is common in different continents of the world, it is endemic in Africa. Africa has been bedevilled with a number of crisis, including high levels of unemployment, poverty, hunger, corruption, political and economic instabilities, to mention a few [4, 5]. These problems are exacerbated by tensions and insurrections, which have led to internal displacements of people. The quest for survival in the midst of these socio-political and economic crises have engendered high migration flow from one African State to another; from one African region to another, and from Africa to other continents. While some migration activities are legal, many others are carried out illegally. Meanwhile criminals regularly deceive migrants and traffick them into a world of different dimensions of exploitation. While the exact numbers and demographics of trafficked persons from Africa are unknown, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) reports often provide guestimates of the realities [6]. For instance, according to UNODC report in 2016, a total of 69 countries detected human trafficking victims from Sub-Saharan Africa between 2012 and 2014 [1].
The scale of human trafficking in Africa came from alarm raised by activists, civil societies and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), especially in Nigeria, Togo, South Africa, Benin Republic, to mention a few in the latter 1990s [7, 8, 9, 10]. For instance, anecdotal reports indicated that human trafficking in West Africa has assumed alarming proportion since the mid-1990s [8, 11, 12]. Child trafficking also became prominent in West Africa when international media focused on the exposure of a ship code-named
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the nature, extent and the complexities of human trafficking in Africa. It draws from a review of literature on human trafficking in different parts of Africa and beyond. The chapter begins with the conceptualisation of human trafficking, and moves onto an overview of human trafficking in Africa; the factors engendering human trafficking in Africa, and suggestions for effective response to it.
Defining human trafficking is relatively contentious [2, 11, 14, 15]. Part of the controversy revolves around the array of activities that are involved in it. This could be part of the reasons why Gould [16] described it as ‘a slipping concept’ that is very difficult to pin down. Moreover, the controversy between traditional practices and modernisation sometimes blur the understanding and definition of the concept. Portrayals of human trafficking in Western democracies may be different from that of Africa [6]. For instance, a child hawking goods in public could be construed as a form of exploitation, but in some Western African societies, it could be part of the routines of a child in order to assist his/her parents [11].
The definition of human trafficking varies from scholar to scholar, and country to country. Most of the debates are rooted in divergent worldview, historical backgrounds and findings from studies conducted by scholars [17]. Trafficking in persons (human trafficking) is defined in article 2(a) of the 2000
For the purpose of this article, human trafficking is defined as the deception, recruitment, transportation and transfer of persons, for the purpose of exploitation.
The end of the Cold War resulted in the rise of regional conflicts in Africa and the decline of borders, leading to an increased number of economic and political refugees [18, 19]. Since then, the rates of human trafficking in different parts of Africa have also increased considerably due to capacity gaps in the management of sub-regional economic cooperation and regional integration initiatives among African states [18]. This situation led to several interventions by policy makers and other stakeholders at the continental, regional and national levels. However, many African countries are still finding it very challenging to combat human trafficking due to ineffective policies and capacity, even where legislation is in place. The combination(s) of lack of political will, political and institutional corruption, and a range of other underlying perennial socio-economic problems that these countries are confronted with have made the fight against human trafficking almost insurmountable [7, 18].
Human trafficking is a dynamic phenomenon with a range of interlocking forces, factors and processes [6]. Trafficking issues and challenges often revolve around three variables, (though with two extreme ends)—the demand for cheap labour and exploitation on one hand, and the willingness to meet basic economic needs for survival on the other ([20], p. 7). It will be erroneous to describe human trafficking essentially as an economic cum security issue, perhaps due to the factors that entrap people into it.
Trafficking features in West Africa is complex, so are its routes. Countries like Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon and Senegal are source, transit, and destination countries for trafficked women and children [1]. Trafficking of young girls from rural areas in countries such as Mali, Benin, Burkina Faso, Togo, and Ghana to work in Cocoa plantations in Urban Cote D’Ivoire are also documented in literature [1]. Trafficking from and through eastern Nigeria to Gabon have increased in recent years [1]. According to United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) 2017 report, children made up over a quarter of detected trafficking victims in the world, and out of this, 64% are from sub-Saharan Africa. This figure would have increased in recent times due to current political and economic challenges in sub-Saharan Africa that have compelled several people, including women and children to leave their homes in search of new opportunities in neighbouring countries [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29].
Similar to the experience in West Africa, human trafficking is prevalent in Southern Africa. Countries such as South Africa, Mozambique, Zambia, and Lesotho are source, transit and destination countries for human trafficking [9]. However, unlike the West African scenario where the flow is multidimensional—one country could serve as the source, while another serve as the transit and destination point—trafficking geography in Southern Africa is relatively complicated. It involves complex trafficking flows from diverse countries of origin from Africa and the rest of the world [10]. In this region, South Africa serves as the rallying point. In addition to its status as the powerhouse of the sub-region, South Africa also serves as an economic hub on the African continent. Until recently, has the largest economy in Africa [30], South Africa also serves as a major hub for trade in human commodity [6, 31]. It provides an enabling environment and market for the services of trafficked persons from the regional and extra-regional level [32]. Incessant crises that ravaged the Continent, such as political instabilities, insurrections, poverty, hunger, unemployment, kidnapping, terrorism, amongst others, make South Africa a magnet that attracts migration flows from other African countries [6, 33].
It is imperative to state that in the Southern African axis, South Africa serves mainly as the destination point. This is not to infer that South Africa is not a source or transit country for human trafficking, but as the economic hub of the region, South Africa is the main destination points for Southern African sub regional and extra-regional flows. Within South Africa, women and children are recruited and transported from the rural areas to cities, such as Johannesburg, Pretoria, Bloemfontein, Cape Town and Durban, for exploitation [6]. While most girls work as domestic servants in wealthy homes, majority of the boys serve as street vendors, waiters, beggars on the roads, street urchins, labourers on farm lands and plantations, and for other criminal activities [6].
According to United States Department of State Trafficking in Persons Report [34], West African syndicates dominate and control the commercial sex business in Hillbrow (Johannesburg) and other urban centres across the State, local criminal rings control child prostitution in the country. While Russian and Bulgarian crime syndicates control prostitution business in the Cape Town axis, the Chinese nationals organise and coordinate the sex trafficking of Asian nationals [34].
Children are trafficked to South Africa from Lesotho’s border towns; women and girls trafficked from Mozambique are destined for South Africa’s Gauteng and Kwa-Zulu Natal provinces [10]. In Malawi, women and girls are trafficked to northern Europe and South Africa. In addition to these configurations, women are also trafficked from Thailand, China, and Eastern Europe [35]. Ethnically based criminal syndicates in South Africa’s refugee camps recruit and transport their victims, usually married women from their home countries.
In Lesotho, traffickers often recruit male and female street children, victims of physical and sexual abuse at home, or children orphaned by AIDS [7]. Such children normally migrate from rural areas and border towns to Maseru, the capital, from where they are trafficked by mostly South African white Afrikaans to work in farms in Eastern Cape. In Mozambique, men, women and children are trafficked from Maputo to Durban or Johannesburg for various exploitative purposes. While women and children are trafficked to provide sexual services to miners at West Rand, men are trafficked for labour related task at the mines [7, 35].
In East African axis, Ugandan and Kenyan women are trafficked for prostitution in the Gulf States. The incessant crises in Uganda created an avenue for rebel leaders to kidnap children, young girls and women from the opposition camps [34]. In addition to the locals, victims of trafficking in Uganda are from the Democratic of Congo (Congo DRC), Burundi, Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda and South Sudan [34]. While girls, young ladies and women are forced into prostitution, boys and men work in agricultural, construction and other labour related industries in Uganda [34] Similarly, Kenya serves as a source, transit and destination country for trafficking of young girls and women to and from Europe [34].
Human trafficking also thrives in North Africa. Virtually all countries in this region of Africa are source, transit and destination countries for trade in human commodity [7]. However, there may be variations in the volume of trafficked victims are transported from and into each of the countries in the region [7]. For instance, Algeria is more of a transit and destination country than a source country, unlike other countries in the region like Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia that are essentially a source, transit and destination countries for human trafficking [34].
Traffickers in this region of Africa target undocumented (illegal) migrants from sub-Saharan Africa, like Mali, Niger, Cameroon and Nigeria. The illegal status of such migrants and language barriers make them vulnerable to various forms of exploitation by traffickers who often deceive them with a view to make them fill the available vacancies in the labour and sexual trafficking industries [6]. Contrastively, illegal migrants often fall prey to traffickers in North Africa while trying to cross the borders of some of the countries in the region en route Europe with the perception of improving their lives. While Europe is their ultimate destination, travelling long distances through the desert, especially Sahara desert en route Europe make them vulnerable to exploitation. Due to the long distances they are to cover, and the cost of transportation, these illegal migrants often run out of money, seek avenues to survive. Traffickers, aware of their vulnerabilities subject them to labour and sexual exploitation (USTIP Report, 2016). In addition, in Egypt (precisely), women and children are vulnerable to labour and sexual exploitation (USTIP Report, 2016). Men from United Arab Emirates (UAE), Kuwait and Saudi Arabia often purchase summer (temporary) marriages for commercial sexual exploitations. There are documentations of child sex tourism in Cairo, Luxor and Alexandria in Egypt (USTIP Report, 2016).
Studies have indicated an increase in migration flows across the world. Most of these flows are largely attributed to myriad of factors ranging from political upheaval, to economic-crises, ethnic discrimination, communal inequalities, civil wars to lack of viable means of livelihood ([7], p. 83; [36], p. 11; [37], p. 7). For people ensnared by hunger and poverty, migration through what Maggy Lee described as ‘irregular channels of smuggling and trafficking’ become an alternative means of survival or an escape route ([37], p. 7).
In Africa, human trafficking is of two dimensions - internal and external trafficking [1, 19]. Although there have been debates on the validity of this assertion, studies on human trafficking have shown that a country could serve as origin (source), transit and destination for trafficking operations [19]. For instance, citizens of countries as Canada, United Kingdom and New Zealand may find it difficult to accept that human trafficking thrives in their countries due to their tight border and sophisticated immigration control, however, studies have shown that virtually all country of the world is implicated in human trafficking web [19].
The market for this criminal trade is wide, owing to the lucrative nature of this business. The markets are often driven by highly sophisticated criminal gangs with network that span across States frontiers. The expansion of global market for trade and investment necessitated an increase in the demand and supply of people ([36], p. 26). Such expansion often culminates in high migration flow, and hibernating in the exodus of these individuals is this illicit trade (human trafficking). Similarly, globalisation created demographic disparities among the less-developed, developing and the developed countries, resulting in what Shelley referred to as ‘the feminization of poverty’ and ‘marginalisation of rural communities’ ([19], p. 3).
Globalisation has been enhanced considerably by the internet and the so called ‘dark web’ [1, 2]. Such platforms have often been exploited by traffickers to advertise and lure people into the trafficking world [2, 19]. Through the internet, several girls and ladies have been lured by traffickers (under the pretext of providing immigration services) to unknown destinations, where they are raped, and exploited [1]. Child pornography, online sex chats and other forms of illicit services, have been rendered by traffickers to different clients across the globe ([36], p. 130). Human trafficking has also been linked with sporting events ([36], p. 141). However, there are arguments and counter-arguments about its actual estimate.
The wave of natural disasters that swept through several countries of the world due to global warming has left many people homeless, displaced and impoverished. Examples of these natural disasters include the tsunami that swept through the Southeast Asian countries, the hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, drought in Sudan, and earthquake in Haiti [36]. Unfortunately, humanitarian responses to most of these emergency situations have often been undermined by corruption [1, 15]. According to Shelley [19] most of the assistance programmes and initiatives to assist disaster victims have largely been inadequate, with most of the needed aid too often, have been diverted by corrupt officials. The combination of the loss of their lands—both commercial lands and residential lands, and the uncertainty of securing any opportunity in other sector of their national economy, these distressed people often become vulnerable, and easy prey for traffickers ([19], p. 38).
In Africa, trafficking in Persons is of two different types. Literatures on the phenomenon suggest the internal and external trafficking [38, 39]. Internal trafficking takes place within a country’s territory (domestic trafficking). It usually takes the form of recruitment and movement of people from the rural to urban centres for various forms of exploitative work and or activities such as: prostitution, forced labour (as domestic servants), factory workers, workers in plantations and construction companies, drug peddlers, pick-pockets, waiters, among several others ([40], p. 4).
In contrast to the internal dimension, international trafficking takes the form of recruitment and movement of people from one country to another (cross-border trafficking) for the purpose of exploitation. The nature of exploitation in this form is also similar to the domestic form but in greater proportion. The demands are higher so also are the costs and implications. For most of the cross-border dimensions, the flows are usually between countries within the same region or neighbouring countries. Thus, the cross-border flow is not usually a distance one. However, there are instances of continental and intercontinental flows as well. According to United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNDOC), contemporarily, there are evidences of victims of human trafficking from the East Asian States found in over twenty (20) countries in regions across the globe, including the Americas, the Middle East, Europe, Central Asia and Africa ([41], p. 11).
The running of this global criminal enterprise is spearheaded by transnational criminal groups that cut across the continents of the world [1, 34]. These mafia groups combine drug trafficking, arms trafficking, money laundering and other forms of transnational crime with human trafficking—for both labour and sexual exploitation. According to Shelley, a combination of criminal gangs/organisations such as the Thai mafia, Indian criminal rings, Nigerian gang, Mexican group, Russian-speaking criminal ring, Albanian group and the Balkan criminal gang dominate the general human trafficking trade on a global scale [15, 34].
Regarding human trafficking for sexual exploitation, the combination of the Italian mafia families, Russian-speaking gang, Thai gang, Japanese Yakuza, the Triads, Jaotou, Jao Phro, Indian group, Sindikets (Syndicates in Malaysia), Fuk Ching in the United States dominate the trade [15, 34]. Other lesser mafia groups that dominate the sex trafficking market include the Dominican, Filipino and Turkish gang, amongst other trafficking entrepreneurs across the globe [15, 34, 42]. Most of these mafia organisations, especially those from the Asian axis have a turf, a hierarchical structure, restricted membership and often use violence to enforce compliance and exert authority [15, 34].
Contrastively, some other criminal networks of persons in human trade and other forms of transnational organised crime operate on an ad hoc basis, with no definite structure. It is instructive to state that most of these criminal groups have built strong empires of wealth and remained in the scene. Such vibrant structures were not necessarily fabricated due to the clandestine nature of the trade, but owing largely to the loopholes in most States structures and institutions (criminal justice), especially the police and border officials through corruption.
It is instructive to state at this juncture that the scale of research on human trafficking globally has been flooded with issues of sexual exploitation. Though a relatively appreciable volume also focus on the labour aspect, and few on organ harvesting, but the proportion of sexual domain is larger. The fact, however, is that the vast majority of modern day research findings have shown swelling incidences of trafficking of persons for labour exploitation in—agriculture, manufacturing industries, block factories, mining, fishing, domestic servants, carmel jockeys, pick-pockets, street vending, to mention a few [40].
The proportion of labour exploitation varies from State to State, from person to person, and often a function of the nature of task or work to be done (by trafficked victims). Labour exploitation often manifest itself in restriction of movement, seizure and confiscation of passport, daily verbal intimidation, cycles of abuses (rape, torture, beating, etc.), low wages, deduction or no pay at all, amongst others.
Contemporarily, the issue of human trafficking in Africa is taking a new dimension with the evolving menace of human trafficking into baby factories (or ‘baby farms’) for baby making coming to the centre stage. Onuoha [43] revealed this new wave of human trafficking in recent times. Though he argued that the incidence has been going-on for a while now in some parts of the world, but it is rising in a crescendo manner in Nigeria. However, it is very challenging to define the concept—‘baby factory’, ‘baby farming’ and ‘baby harvesting’ as they mean the same thing in this context, and as used by Onuoha.
Moreover, there is no legal definition for these terms since they are emerging concepts. However, according to Onuoha [43], baby factories ‘are locations where young ladies or girls, some teenagers or little above that, are harboured and deliberately encouraged or forced to become pregnant and subsequently give up their babies for sale’. Put differently, baby factory is an apartment or a form of accommodation in which teenagers and/or young ladies are kept (either voluntarily or by coercion), copulated, impregnated, and after delivery, their babies are taken away from them and sold to clients, agents or couples in need of babies. This could be done sometimes with or without the consent of the victims. This episode therefore brings to the fore a new concept in the human trafficking discourse: baby trafficking.
It is pertinent to state at this juncture that the problem of trafficking often do not begin with the traffickers, but with the circumstances that force victims to seek better living conditions in environments that render them vulnerable to exploitation [44]. Contrary to the popular embellished image of trafficked persons as either kidnapped, or coerced into leaving their homes, more often than not, the initial decision to migrate is often a conscious one [6]. Such decisions are further heightened by some of the factors that bedevilled Africa as earlier indicated.
Trafficking business thrives in Africa due to a range of precipitating factors can be broadly grouped into two—the ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors [6, 9, 10]. The push and pull factors are two sides of the same coin—the causes of one can also be the consequence of another. While the push factors are those issues and circumstances that drive or force people into accepting demands that render them susceptible to trafficking, the pull factors encapsulate those that influence people into accepting dehumanising offers. The push factors that contribute to human trafficking in Africa include, but are not limited to poverty, political instability, greed, peer pressure, and lack of legitimate and sustainable employment opportunities and corruption [6, 45, 46, 47]. The pull factors include but are not limited to high demand for organs and body parts, the demand for cheap and low-skilled labour, the effect of globalisation, weak border control, economic disparities between developed and developing countries [19, 48, 49, 50, 51]. It is imperative to indicate that counter-trafficking measures in many African States have considerably been ineffective because most of the strategies have rested on the tripod stand of arrest, punishment and incarceration [17]. While these measures could thrive in addressing the proximate causes of the crime, the remote causes will require proactive measures that will facilitate the process of finding a durable solution its root causes.
This chapter began by underscoring the global resonance of human trafficking and its debilitating impacts on human lives, and international peace and security. It further explored the dynamics of human trafficking in Africa and the impacts of globalisation in engendering the rise and growth of trafficking businesses, in Africa as well as in other parts of the world. The factors and forces that created the artificial structures for trafficking to thrive in different parts of Africa were also identified and discussed. In addition, the root causes of human trafficking were highlighted. It also was indicated that except proactive and enduring measures are put in place at addressing those age-long root causes factors, State response to human trafficking in contemporary African States will be not be successful.
From the foregoing, to address the scourge of human trafficking in Africa, each State should first consider and find solution to the underlying or root causes of the crime. These factors are embedded in the countries’ socio-economic, political, and cultural milieus. If the various African countries address these factors, it will serve as trajectories to combating the phenomenon. Such task is however a collective responsibility of all relevant stakeholders, which include, the Government, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), parents, civil societies, religious and educational institutions, and human rights groups, to mention a few.
In today’s world, where volatile interactions abound, a critical question that arises is how trust can and should be fostered. A fundamental underpinning of all social relationships is trust, and interpersonal communication is the mechanism through which trust is often accomplished. A multidisciplinary, multi-university, cross-cultural investigation was undertaken to address this question as well as to further explore how trust is established through implicit forms of communication. Employing a decision-making game with multiple rounds and 695 international participants, the University of Arizona, University of California Santa Barbara, Rutgers University, Stanford University, University of Maryland and Dartmouth University investigated the manner in which nonverbal relational messages, comprised of nonverbal and verbal communication, might secure trust [1]. Applying a spiral model of trust, we formulated predictions of how people utilize implicit, relational messages to define their interpersonal relationships and from those exchanges, ultimately arrive at a determination of who can be trusted and who, not. We examined how relational messages of affection, dominance and composure signal and elicit trust, either universally across cultures or not, and how those messages are moderated by deception.
An integral part of human communication is the exchange of what are called relational messages. These are implicit messages that enable people to assess how they relate to one another and how they regard their interpersonal relationship. For example, at the most basic level, people must determine who is friend and who is foe, who they like and who they dislike, and whether the relationship is superficial or one of depth. These messages more often than not are expressed through nonverbal behaviors, which are the focus of this report. Although they also can be expressed verbally, for example, telling another that you trust them and find the relationship to be a deep and abiding one, the preponderate share of relational communication is managed nonverbally. In this way, verbal and nonverbal communication accomplish a division of labor, with the verbal aspects of communication handling substantive matters and the nonverbal aspects of communication handling much of the relationship work.
For example, a discussion in a classroom devoted to the topic of the election may be transacted through words, while nonverbally the students and teacher signal what the power relationship is—whether the instructor is in charge and the students are acquiescent to her or his authority, or the instructor is intending to instill a communication environment of equality; whether the instructor and students like one another or harbor some hidden animosity; whether they are engaged in the topic or are disinterested and detached from it; and so on. These various messages combine to build a foundation of mutual trust and goodwill such that the instructor presents what he/she believes to be the most current and valid material and the students enter the exchange accepting that the instructor is knowledgeable and credible, or the students are distrustful of the instructor’s motivations, material and credibility and reject it.
The topoi of relational communication are generic continua of message exchange by which we can characterize all human interactions [2]. Burgoon and Hale [3, 4], after reviewing analyses of human relationships from such disciplines as anthropology, ethology, psychology, psychiatry, sociology and communication, identified up to 12 dimensions along which communication is transacted. To the extent that these are universal, these themes should arise in all cultures, though possibly to different degrees. How they are expressed, and in particular how the central ones relate to trust, are the major objective of this current research project.
Our theory of relational communication is that relational message themes are universal, interdependent, and together, through their dynamic exchange, become the cornerstones of trust. One avenue of our work examined self-reports of the communication behaviors people use and observe. This self-report work examined how relational themes are shown in various, disparate countries; the extent to which those countries are similar or different in the emergence of relational messages; and what behaviors contribute to perceptions of trust. A second avenue of work examined macro- and micro-level kinesic, vocalic and linguistic behaviors indicative of the major relational themes of dominance, liking, and composure and ultimately, how they contribute to trust. Three open-source software tools, OpenFace, OpenSmile, and SPLICE, were employed to investigate what nonverbal and verbal behaviors predict relational messages of dominance, composure and liking (see [5]) and whether the same behaviors could be used to develop a predictive model of trust. The nonverbal and verbal communication behaviors were also examined across six countries. A third avenue drilled deeper into the interpretive micro-level behavioral aspects of relational themes using computer vision techniques. Together the lines of investigation explored how trust spiraled dynamically over the course of group decision making and what relational message themes showed the most change.
In human relationships, an intrinsic theme of relational communication is dominance-submission, which reflects the vertical dimension of primate relationships in social settings. People must know what the power structure is, whether there is a discernible status hierarchy, and who sits atop the pecking order and who is at the bottom. One’s relative position in the hierarchy is typically negotiated through nonverbal kinesic, vocalic, proxemic, haptic, physical appearance, artifactual and chronemic signals. These signals are arrayed as continua. One can variously be highly, moderately or not at all dominant in relation to another. In dyads, groups, families, organizations and the like, people can be arrayed from most to least powerful, highest status to lowest status, most acquiescent to not at all. According to Burgoon and Dunbar [6], dominance is dynamic and situationally contingent. It is an actual action that recruits a submissive, acquiescent response from another. Whereas power may reflect a potential to act, dominance is the actual expression of that potentiality. If a dominant overture fails to elicit a submissive response, it is not dominance, but merely domineeringness. Thus, dominance requires both an action by Person A and a complementary, coupled response by Person B.
A second dimension is variously called affection-disaffection, love-hate, or liking-dislike. It reflects the valence dimension of relational communication that ranges from highly positive to highly negative. It is orthogonal to the vertical dimension. People may feel affection toward another and express it through a host of nonverbal signals. Conversely, they may dislike another and express that sentiment through nonverbal signals as well, although social mores inhibit sending highly visible or vocal expressions of dislike.
Along with dominance, affection is one of most prominent relational message themes. These two themes are central ones around which the other relational communication themes are arrayed. Three additional nonorthogonal topoi include composure-nervousness, involvement-detachment and similarity-dissimilarity. A person may express a sense of poise and composure in the presence of another or may appear nervous, anxious and uncomposed. In other words, one’s demeanor is altered in relation to the other person. It does not reflect a general demeanor around others but rather, a person-specific nervousness or composure. A person may also show high or low involvement with another, that engagement being behavioral, cognitive and emotional. Yet another of the topoi is similarity-dissimilarity. Ongoing interactions with unfamiliar others require trying to assess the degree of similarity that exists between them. Such similarity is a starting place for communication. When homophily between individuals is high, communication is likely to be the most successful [7].
All of these topoi are interrelated to the theme of trust. As explained in the spiral model of trust [7], trust is an interactive and iterative process that derives from multiple factors. It flows from, is sustained by, and modified through dynamic communication patterns. These patterns include the dominance relationships the parties bring to an interaction—such as the father being the head of a family and wife and children showing obedience to the father’s strictures in a traditional paternal family structure, or the members of egalitarian LGBTQ couples showing similar degrees of dominance while negotiating decisions. The degree of positive affection that members of a social unit feel toward one another is communicated through the kinds of kinesic, vocalic and haptic patterns measured in our study. In families, for example, how loving the siblings feel toward one another and their parents dictates how they express that affection dimension through nonverbal messages. A third dimension reflected here is composure or nervousness—how at ease or tense members of the relationship feel in the presence of one another. If a person feels uneasy in the presence of others in a group, they may display that uneasiness through nonverbal messages of discomfort.
These dimensions combine to spiral into greater or lesser trust, and that spiral can change over time, becoming more intensely trustful or more suspicious and less trusting. Trust is a moving target. It is modified by the situation in which people find themselves and the relational messages they receive from others. In a group setting, for instance, members who wish to promote others’ trust in themselves may attempt to temper their demeanor initially by being nondominant, but over time to bolster their persuasiveness by increasing signals of dominance. To promote liking and composure, they may send to others positively toned messages of liking and being at ease in hopes that those sentiments will be reciprocated. The important points to draw from the spiral model are that trust is the product of many different relational messages, as illustrated in Figure 1, and are in a state of flux, depending on the current context. The relational messages are comprised of various nonverbal and verbal signals in various strengths and combinations, the net result of which is the expression of trust and receipt of messages of trust. These messages may be communicated in similar ways across cultures, but to the extent they are communicated dissimilarly, culture must be taken into account.
The relationship of relational messages to trust.
The context for this study of relational communication and trust is situated within a multi-national study of cultural differences in conducting and detecting deception. In potentially adversarial situations, messages may be moderated by deception, which adds a toxic element to the exchanges. Thus, deception is also a centrally important moderator.
Trust places people in a state of vulnerability to deception by others. Trust is often equated with a truth-bias, in other words, expecting that others are truthful, not deceptive. Defined formally, truth-bias is an overestimate of another’s truthfulness independent of their actual honesty [8]. Thus, to understand trust is to understand deception and vice-versa. Trust and deception are intricately interrelated. Eliciting another’s trust is accomplished by showing that one is not deceptive, by conveying authentic or apparent honesty. Likewise, assessing another’s trustworthiness may be based on spontaneous impressions from another’s nonverbal demeanor, which can lead to dangerous decisions when that demeanor is false [10].
Unfortunately, most deception research pertaining to trust has been done in a “cultural vacuum” [11]. Moreover, the vast majority of studies on verbal and nonverbal cues to deception or deception detection skill have been done in English-speaking, western cultures. The work involving culture has focused largely on whether people who are from the same culture can detect deception within an interaction episode better or worse than people who are from two different cultures (see [12] for a review). Very few studies have analyzed cultural differences in displays associated with deception or in the detection of deception (i.e., comparing norms and behaviors of people who are situated in different cultures, such as cues used during deception by people in Japan versus by people in the U.S.). This leaves questions about cultural-level variations in decision-making concerning trust of an interaction partner unanswered.
There are two main theoretical perspectives on how to detect deception across cultures and hence, whether to trust an interaction partner. The first is the universal cues hypothesis [13]. The central premise of this perspective is that due to the evolutionary benefits of successful deception and deception detection being similar for all humans, the cues emitted by deceivers are unlikely to vary from one culture or society to the next. Moreover, for the same reason, the universal cues hypothesis says detectors of deception will experience and interpret those cues similarly in all cultures. In other words, the universal cues hypothesis expects deceivers should act similarly and deception detectors should have evolved similarly to spot deceptive behavior across cultures. Supporting this view, the Global Deception Research Team’s study [14] found that deception has vast similarities across 75 countries. Another investigation across 5 countries [15] proposed and supported a pan-cultural typology of 10 motives for deceiving. In sum, the universal cues hypothesis predicts minimal cultural differences in deception detection, and thus by extension, how trust decisions are formed between interaction partners.
The second view is the specific discrimination perspective [12, 16]. This perspective takes the position that people rely on learned, culturally-determined norms and expectations to guide both their behavior and sensemaking during an interaction. As such, lying is conditioned by culture because cultures differ in their nonverbal behavior norms and displays, the value attached to honesty, frequency of lying, conditions for interpersonal trust, and responses to others’ lies. Consequently, the specific discrimination perspective posits that deception and its detection are specific to communication patterns that vary across cultures. This helps to explain findings that people can better identify a liar from their own culture than a liar from a different culture by noticing deviations from their own learned cultural code (e.g., [12]). Applying this perspective to the decision-making process regarding trust of an interaction partner, the same forces lead to the prediction that trust and trust decision-making should vary in different cultures.
A few studies have tested these competing hypotheses about the influence of culture in deception detection. For example, George and colleagues [17] studied deception and its detection in three countries: America, India, and Spain. Participants evaluated 32 snippets of recorded interviews involving the three cultural groups across two languages. Within each stimulus set, half of the snippets were honest and the other half were dishonest. The researchers measured the cues that judges in each country cited as important to their decision about a person’s honesty. Twenty-three cues were identified (e.g., nervousness, logical structure, talk time, voice pitch, etc.). The authors found that judges across the three cultural/language groups relied on similar cues. For example, nine cues including lack of eye contact, fidgeting, tone or pitch, pauses, stuttering, vague reply, repetitive answers, contradicting oneself, and bragging accounted for a large majority of the deception cues used by judges in all three countries. The cues included kinesic, vocalic and verbal indicators. George and colleagues concluded that their results tend to support the universal cues hypothesis (see also [12, 13, 16]). Also supporting the universal cues hypothesis, others find that the frequency, motives for lying, and skill in deception detection are also similar across cultures (see [18] for a review). One of the few investigations of actual behavior and trust, and a model for the current experiments described in this chapter, is [19].
The consistency in findings helps to offset the paucity of culture-based experiments. Nevertheless, more controlled investigations rather than anecdotal reports are needed to confirm a universal cues hypothesis. Our investigation begins to fill the void by conducting the study in multiple countries ranging across four different continents and observing actual behavior rather than relying on self-reports of behavior, thereby allowing for the potential for variability that supports the specific discrimination perspective.
Much research looks at people’s perceptions rather than actual behavior. We were interested in going beyond perceptions to look at actual behaviors people display that foster trust and that signal they trust another person. We looked at nonverbal signals from the voice (known as vocalics), the face and body (known as kinesics) and linguistic (verbal) indicators. We hypothesized that trust would be communicated by those signals associated with messages of liking, moderately high dominance and moderate composure, and that it would be a combination of these signals that would evince and elicit trust. In other words, the more a person showed that they liked another individual and felt reasonably relaxed and composed around that individual, the more they were likely to trust that person. Similarly, people would be trusted the more they showed they liked others, exhibited many of the signals associated with moderate dominance and conveyed that they were moderately relaxed, not nervous.
Participants were recruited from nine universities in six countries: Zambia, Israel, Singapore, Fiji, Hong Kong, and the U.S. (which included three of the universities, all with a diversity of international students). Country selection was a function of finding universities with a willing local host and a federal government that would consent to the 60-page Institutional Review Board requirements. All participants were current students (mean age = 22 years). In total, 695 people participated in the experiments and 95 games were played.
We devised a method for analyzing trust using an interactive social game created by Don Eskridge called The Resistance (variations of the game are sometimes known as Mafia or Werewolf) played in groups comprised of five to eight strangers. A detailed description of the game is found in [24]. It began with an ice-breaker activity designed to establish a baseline for perceptions of dominance, liking, nervousness and trust. During the ice-breaker, players introduced themselves to the group, told an interesting fact about themselves, and then another player probed with a question to elicit more information. We measured their perceptions of the other players on self-report scales immediately following the ice-breaker.
Following the ice-breaker, Resistance players were randomly and secretly assigned to play one of two roles: deceivers (called “Spies”), or truth-tellers (called “Villagers”). There were two to three Spies per game, depending on the size of the group, but Villagers always outnumbered the Spies. The Spies were aware of who the other Spies were, but the Villagers did not know anyone else’s role. Villagers attempted to deduce the other players’ identities within the game. The players engaged in a practice round before the game play actually began to ensure they understood their goals in the game. Spies’ purpose was to win the game by remaining hidden and infiltrating the Villagers’ groups while the Villagers’ goal was to uncover who the Spies were to avoid infiltration. So, finding out who to trust and who not to trust was especially crucial for the Villagers but important to the Spies as well.
Players completed a series of hypothetical “missions” by forming teams of five to eight members. At the beginning of each round, players elected a leader, who then chose other players for these missions based on who they thought would help them win the game. All players voted to approve or reject the team leader and then voted on the leader’s proposed team. Again, trust played an important role because players from both sides needed to trust that the leader was picking the team that would ensure they won the round. Players took both a public and private vote, thus introducing the potential for distrust when the two votes did not match. Those who were chosen by the leader to go on the mission team secretly voted for the mission to succeed or fail. Villagers won rounds by figuring out who the spies were and excluding them from the mission teams to ensure mission success. Spies won rounds by causing mission failures. The ultimate winners of the game (Spies or Villagers) were determined by which team won the most rounds (up to a maximum of 8 rounds). Additionally, players won monetary rewards by being voted as a leader or winning the game. (See [24] for more details).
Following Cho and colleagues’ recommendation [20], culture was measured both at the macro level in terms of each player’s country of residence and also at the individual level in terms of self-construals on the cultural orientations of vertical and horizontal individualism and collectivism, as well as positive and negative face [20, 21, 22]. Before the game began, participants completed a set of self-report measures used by [19] to gauge individuals’ cultural orientations along dimensions of individualism–collectivism, horizontal-vertical status, and positive–negative face [22, 23]. In total, six measures were taken: vertical collectivism, vertical individualism, horizontal collectivism, horizontal individualism, positive face, and negative face.
Vertical individualists place value on independent individual achievement and tend to be competitive with others, while vertical collectivists accept inequality in the social structure, value self-sacrifice for group goals and collaborate with others. Horizontal collectivists value cooperation and caring among group members and strive for group harmony. Horizontal individualists value both equality and uniqueness in a way that respects individual decision-making. People high in positive face have a desire to protect their self-esteem by making positive impressions on others, as positive face reflects a felt need for social approval. In contrast, people high in negative face feel a need for interpersonal distance to protect their autonomy and value privacy for both self and others.
During the game and at its close, participants completed self-report measures to gauge their perceptions of liking, dominance, composure and trust of each other player in their game after an ice-breaker activity and then again after rounds 2, 4, 6, and 8, if the game lasted that many rounds. Because participants responded to these items three to five times about each of the other players, we used single items to avoid fatigue.
Many of the same behaviors were featured in the various relational messages because they were expected to be highly correlated. In [5], the verbal, kinesic, and vocalic indicators were summarized. Among those that were tested, the significant predictors of trust are noted below with an *.
Behaviorally, we looked for the following indicators of liking:
proximity, direct body orientation
Backchannel cues (nods, uh-huhs)
Postural mirroring
Relaxed laughter
Vocal pitch variety
Rapid turn-switches
First-person plurals
Positive affect language
Dislike was expected to be signaled primarily by the opposites of these, such as indirect body orientation, lack of backchanneling and mirroring, and absence of relaxed laughter.
For dominance, we looked for these signals:
High immediacy or nonimmediacy (combination of proximity, gaze, body orientation, forward lean, touch)
More head movement, pitch, roll and yaw*
More facial expressiveness*
Verbal nonimmediacy
Frequent initiation of conversation
High visual dominance ratio (more looking while talking than looking while listening)
Deeper and more variable pitch*
More interruptions
More and longer turns at talk*
More first-person pronouns
Louder amplitude*
Nondominance or deference would be conveyed by the opposites, such as physical rigidity, passive facial expressions, and low visual dominance ratio, higher pitch, few interruptions, shorter turns at talk, and more first-person plural pronouns or third-person pronouns. More of these indicators were vocalic or verbal.
For nervousness, we looked for the following:
Softer amplitude*
Higher pitch
More nonfluencies
Shorter and fewer turns at talk*
More gaze aversion
More indirect body orientation or facing
More facial rigidity (FAU02)*
More postural, head, and vocal rigidity*
We hypothesized that trust would be communicated by those signals associated with messages of liking, moderately high dominance and moderately low nervousness, and that it would be a combination of these signals that would evince and elicit trust.
The number of participants and games played in each country was uneven but contributed to acquiring a diverse sample: U.S. (30 games, 209 players), Singapore (12 games, 84 players), Fiji (14 games, 106 players), Israel (9 games, 64 players), Zambia (15 games, 117 players), and Hong Kong (15 games, 115 players). Player cultural background was quite diverse. Players reported being from 42 different nationalities and over 60 different ethnicities. Participants self-classified as either Asian (38%), white/European (18%), black/African (17%), Fijian/Pacific Islander (15%), Latinx (3%), Middle Eastern (1%), mixed (3%), or other (5%).
Despite this diversity, and interestingly, mean scores across participants on the cultural orientations were more similar than expected. Figure 2 shows the means for each of the cultural orientations measured, in each of the six countries. Scores in the US, Israel (IL), Hong Kong (HK), and Singapore (SP) were very similar across all of the orientations. Participants in Zambia (ZM) and Fiji (FJ) reported the highest scores on horizontal and vertical collectivism, horizontal individualism, and positive face, but the lowest scores on vertical individualism compared to participants in the other countries. We did not find individualism and collectivism to align with expectations about participants from eastern versus western cultures, nor did we find those two cultural orientations to be orthogonal as originally conceived by Hofstede [21]. Instead, most participants in all six locations reported roughly equal levels of individualism and collectivism. Others have found similar results, sparking debates about whether Hofstede’s original conceptualization of the cultural differences needs updating, especially in light of greater cross-cultural communication and globalization in recent decades (e.g., [25, 26].
Mean scores for each cultural orientation by country.
Games were played in English. 39% of the sample were native English speakers. Among those who were not native speakers, their average self-reported English-speaking fluency was quite high (5.82 on a 7-point scale, with higher scores indicating greater fluency.) The average age at which the non-native speakers began to speak English was 6 years. This is not surprising because in all of the countries except Israel where data for this study were collected, English is an official language, and in Israel, English is required as a second language in schools. Thus, individuals in the sample possessed a high level of English language proficiency. Based on this, we feel confident that the results would be very similar as if all players had played the game in their primary language. Future research, however, is needed to understand if differences in the language used for communication influences both the expression and perception of trust.
Experience with similar deception-detection games varied across the locations: 50% or more of the players in Singapore, the U.S., and Hong Kong reported playing a similar game in the past. The number of rounds played within the allotted one-hour period also differed significantly by country, with the most rounds played on average in the U.S. (6.6) and the fewest in Israel (3.6) and Zambia (3.6).
Our first analysis was whether culture makes a difference. If results differ by culture, culture must be included as a variable in other analyses or each culture should be measured separately.
Villagers in the six countries varied in their trust of other players. Zambian Villagers reported the lowest trust of all other players in their games with no differentiation between deceivers (Spies) and fellow truth-tellers; whereas Villagers in Singapore reported significantly lower trust of Spies than fellow truth-tellers. Only a little evidence was found to support a relationship between trust and the cultural orientations. Deception detectors higher on vertical individualism (i.e., who are competitive and prefer to work alone to defeat an enemy) reported less trust of the deceivers in their games (r = −.11, p < .05), indicating that vertical individualism sensitizes people to deception cues perhaps via the competitiveness aspect of this cultural orientation. That said, the correlation is weak and none of the other cultural orientations were significantly correlated with trust.
We also looked at trust dynamically over the course of the game. The same pattern was found in all countries such that villagers’ trust decreased for both truth-tellers (other Villagers) and deceivers (Spies) in the early rounds of game play, but then rebounded for trust of truth-tellers (see Figure 3a) while continuing to decline for deceivers (see Figure 3b).
Trust of (a) truth-tellers and (b) deceivers over the course of the game by location.
Despite some variability, the results in the aggregate show limited cultural differences across judgments and behavioral patterns relating to trust. The similarities better warrant a conclusion in favor of the universal cue hypothesis than the specific discrimination perspective when it comes to trust. That said, cultural differences remain a persistent point of interest that warrant continued examination in the future.
For subjective judgments of relational messages, we hypothesized that Spies who display more signals of liking, dominance and composure are trusted more by Villagers.
First, the rating of liking at the end of the game was highly correlated with the post-game ratings of dominance and composure. The more players expressed dominance and composure, the more they were liked. In turn, as predicted by the spiral model, such players were trusted more.
A regression model showed that the Villagers’ judgment of Spies’ dominance was a significant predictor of trust (R2 = .059). This was true for all the countries sampled, especially Singapore and the U.S. The exception was Israel, where more dominance was associated with less trust, possibly because Israelis already scored high on dominance and might have found extreme dominance to be excessive and suspect.
As another indicator of trust, Villagers identified who they thought were Spies among all the players in their game, and the actual spies were less often judged to be one (R2 = .078).
In detailed results reported by Dunbar et al. [27], Villagers’ ratings of Spies on dominance decreased over time, whereas it increased for Villagers as they came to their final game round. Dominance was correlated with trustworthiness. Dominant players may have been more confident in their abilities or perhaps had more charisma and extroverted styles that led them to appear more trustworthy. Despite their increased dominance, Villagers were not more likely to win (the win ratio was nearly 50/50 for Villagers and Spies). Thus, the link between dominance and trustworthiness did not seem to result in outcomes that are beneficial to the players. Ratings of apparent nervousness were only mildly affected by the players’ game role: Villagers were less nervous over time than Spies but only slightly so. Villagers became more relaxed, while Spies remained somewhat nervous.
Figure 4a and b show the pattern of relational messages predicting trust by role, in this case illustrated with the dominance relational message. Although ratings declined initially, ratings of Villagers remained higher than Spies and showed an upswing over time. In other words, the more Villagers communicated moderately high dominance, the more others saw them as trustworthy; Spies expressing dominance were also seen as more trustworthy. The correlation between dominance and trust ranged from .23 in the baseline to .37 at game’s end, indicating that moderately high dominance contributed to more trust.
Relationship of dominance to trust, by veracity.
Facial expressions can convey a lot of information about one’s physical and emotional state. People rely on facial expressions to “collect” both intentional and unintentional meaning during interactions. The Facial Action Coding System (FACS) [28] was developed as a systematic way to code facial motion by segmenting the face into separate regions (forehead and eyebrows, eyes and cheeks, mouth and chin). Each of the motions, such as an eyebrow raise or an open-mouth smile, is a Facial Action Unit (FAU).
Results from a dissertation showed that dominance was predicted from nonverbal kinesic signals, head movement and vocal signals. As illustration, Table 1 shows all the facial action units, both means and standard deviations, with significant relationships with dominance [29]. There are several facial muscles involved with various emotional expressions, but the most noticeable effect is high standard deviations, meaning there is a lot of variability or expressiveness. Composure had several relationships, although fewer than dominance, but trust had only two FAUs that emerged as significant. AU23 appeared most frequently. (Liking was not examined.)
Dependent Variable: Dominance (Low/Medium/High) | |||
---|---|---|---|
Control Variables: Gender, Game Experience, English Proficiency | |||
FAU | Description | Significant Means | Significant Standard Deviation Coefficients |
AU1 | inner brow raiser | * | |
AU2 | outer brow raiser | * | |
AU5 | upper lid raiser | * | * |
AU6 | cheek raiser | * | |
AU9 | nose wrinkler | * | * |
AU10 | upper lip raiser | * | |
AU12 | lip corner puller | * | |
AU14 | dimpler | * | * |
AU15 | lip corner depressor | * | * |
AU17 | chin raiser | * | * |
AU20 | lip stretcher | * | |
AU23 | lip tightener | * | |
AU25 | lips part | * | * |
AU26 | jaw drop | * | * |
AU45 | blink | * |
Linear mixed-model analysis of facial action units related to dominance.
Among the most important behavioral vocalic signals in these models were utterance length, harmonic noise ratio (a quality measure), pitch, loudness and shimmer. Longer utterances, more voice quality, deeper pitch, louder, more variability in loudness and more shimmer were more indicative of dominance. These signals were most evident around critical decision points in the game, such as choosing team members and voting on leaders for the mission team.
Liking was most predicted linguistically by the number of sentences. Liking was higher, the more a person spoke multiple sentences. Vocally, it was most predicted by measures of voice quality (harmonic noise ratio standard deviation, jitter standard deviation, and shimmer). These measures of voice quality indicate liking was higher the less the voice HNR and jitter varied and the lower the presence of shimmer. These are indicative of a consistent, unvarying voice.
Nervousness was associated with softer amplitude, more jitter, less dominant language but surprisingly, longer turns at talk. Composure would be the opposites of these, i.e., louder, less jitter, more dominant language, and shorter speaking turns.
Linguistically, trust was most predicted by more turns at talk, more words, and a higher readability score (i.e., more articulate speech). More talk, with a more educated voice, elicited trust.
Does the smallish number of predictors of trust mean there are few nonverbal and verbal signals of it? No. The reason is the interdependence of these variables. They are correlated with one another, so the statistical models using multiple regression identify the signals that account for the most shared and unique variance (have the biggest impact). Although included as possible predictors are all the variables identified above in the 2.4 Behavioral Indicators section, because so many of these variables are highly correlated with another, the statistical models will only retain the most significant variables (i.e., the ones accounting for the most variance). These are the best predictors, but doubtless several other indicators combine with them, or substitute for one another to convey a given meaning. For example, affection can be expressed by smiles, or frequent eye gaze, or touch, or direct facing, or a combination of these, as well as plural first-person pronouns and more intimate language.
What is apparent is that all the communication channels—verbal, kinesic, vocalic, and linguistic--play a role in the trust process and together can convey trust in a very substantial manner. Classification analysis for specificity (i.e., identifying truth-tellers) showed 74 - 79% accuracy in spotting truth tellers, a significant level of discrimination.
One of the unique contributions of the current investigation was the development and application of a computer vision method for retrospectively finding the most meaningful segments in a video. Here we describe the framework and its application to dominance, liking and trust in videos using robust facial features. We create a mechanism to compute the attention of the detection model in the time domain, identifying key frames. We use those key frames to draw conclusions about the kind of micro-expressions that emerge as important during the attentional periods of the model.
The Facial Action Coding System (FACS) [9] was developed as a systematic way to code facial motion with respect to non-overlapping facial muscle actions called Facial Action Units (FAUs).
With so much communicated by the facial expressions, we opted to incorporate facial cues into a system to investigate whether the presence and intensity of some specific facial expressions correlate with how dominant, likable, and trusted a person is perceived by others. For the technically minded, our approach has the following pipeline. A morphable model is superimposed to a subject’s face and, with the help of a feature extractor, for each frame of the input video the intensities of 17 Facial Action Units (FAUs) are computed. These are normalized with the parameters of the morphable model, resulting in 17 identity-agnostic FAU intensities. Also, gaze angles of the subject are tracked for each frame of the input video.
The 19 1-dimensional signals (17 FAUs and 2 gaze signals) were concatenated, channel-wise, and this signal was fed as input to a model for video classification. The model used was the Temporal Convolutional Network (or TCN) [30, 31]. We used 250 videos and trained our model to regress dominance, liking and trust using an MSE loss function. Given a trained model, we predicted dominance, liking and trust on a test set and retained 25 subjects with the lowest error for further analysis. By using the gradients of the model, we identified the key frames in the input video and performed retrospective analysis on the facial features that are most prevalent in the model’s prediction. The overall framework can be seen in Figure 5. In Figure 6, we can see the attention visualization of the model.
Illustration of the proposed framework. FAU intensities and gaze angles are extracted from video sequences which are considered as 1D normalized channel-wise concatenated signals to train a predictor model. Model attention is computed to enable retrospective analysis of dominance, liking and trust.
(left) screenshot of frames from original videos; (right) FAU waveforms and attention visualizations of the predictor model. We can see that the model trained for liking identifies as key timesteps, the frames that the subject smiles; lip corner puller (FAU 12) and upper lip raiser are maximally activated at those frames.
Analysis of the players’ facial behaviors revealed that some facial action units including lip stretching, blinking, and fake smiling occurred more frequently during deceptive acts. These might be expected with inauthentic trust. Further analysis of the players’ facial muscles suggests that subjects who were more dominant, likable and trusted had more intense facial expressions. Speculatively, it seems that those subjects were more involved in the game and as a result gained the trust of their peers. Furthermore, specific facial expressions, such as smiling and eyebrow raising, emerged more than others.
There were no noticeable differences when examining the FAUs across subjects from different countries, further supporting our intuition that expressions of trust are culture-invariant.
As part of a cross-cultural, multi-purpose investigation, this project investigated whether trust is signaled by kinesic and vocalic (nonverbal) features and linguistic (verbal) features. Results show that all these features convey relational messages of dominance, liking and composure, which in turn combine to signal trust or distrust. Although the relational messages are moderately correlated with one another, different types of signals are present in each relational message. Whereas both kinesic and vocalic signals play a role in conveying dominance or nondominance, vocalic signals are more prominently featured in composure or nervousness, and facial expressions are especially salient in signaling liking and disliking.
The various indicators, or their perceptual representation, spiral together to form an amalgam of trust. The verbal and nonverbal signals are dynamic, so that their meaning is in flux. Rather than judgments being made anew during each round, it appears that trust is forged from an accretion of meaning built up by the interaction context. For example, in the current task, over the course of several rounds of decision-making, players had the benefit of results from prior rounds to inform their current judgments and build up impressions of other players’ trustworthiness. In other words, judgments were cumulative rather than transitory. First impressions may also have set an interpretation frame that colored all that followed. If, for instance, someone had a reputation for dishonesty, nonverbal and verbal signals by that individual might be attached to that initial expectation and help build an impression of someone who should not be trusted. This is often the case when members of law enforcement quickly narrow an investigation to a single suspect and in a hypothesis-confirming manner, interpreting all relational messages to fit their first impression. Scam artists hoping to swindle elders out of their social security checks rely on this principle to create a favorable first impression and continue to build upon it.
Other relational messages may fill out skeletal first impressions, adding, for instance, messages related to involvement, emotional arousal, formality or informality, similarity of dissimilarity, inclusion or exclusion, task or social orientation and so on. The context may dictate which messages may be salient and have a potential connection to trust. The key is to understand that these implicit messages that are exchanged are part of the interaction spiral that forms trust or distrust. It is the communication exchanges and the resultant relational message interpretations that become the psychological template of trust.
Future research could explore expressivity from other kinesic indicators in the trunk, limbs and hands. Which behaviors generate a sense of energy and engagement that promotes trust? In contrast, the behavioral opposites of inexpressiveness and rigidity may generate suspicion. The suspicion and distrust aspect of developing trust is understudied yet quite important to probing relationships in adversarial relationships and relationships in which trust is eroding. Facial impassivity and wooden postures can be a potent clue that someone is being deceptive. Onlookers may develop early suspicions from such behavior apart from anything that is said. People in intimate personal relationships may begin to develop distrust of their partner from such nonverbal behaviors before other actions begin to undermine trust.
An interesting result of our work is that culture did not appear to be a major driver of trust. While we found a few differences in trust patterns across the six countries, and that the cultural orientation of vertical individualism negatively correlated with trust, on balance the results generally support the universal cues hypothesis more than the specific discrimination perspective. These results are in line with some other recent studies of culture and deception (e.g., [17]).
The current investigation, beyond contributing to an understanding of the psychology of trust, presents a number of methodological advances that have, or could be made. Many insights come from the dissertation of Walls [29] in using artificial intelligence to transform behavior into actionable insights. Walls observes that before significant accuracy can be achieved in creating a set of classifiers for predicting trust, measurement decisions must be made about the length and duration of units of observation to be used. Whether analysis is at the level of individual turns at talk, interact exchanges between pairs or clique groups, phases of decision-making, or entire rounds of a game can alter estimates of accuracy. Also, eliminating periods of silence in videotaped recordings and narrowing judgments to meaningful segments such as voting periods can also alter and improve predictive accuracy. The parameters of the classification models can be learned in a data-driven approach using machine learning techniques.
This research successfully demonstrates that automatic action unit extractions and feature creation for facial analysis, combined with the latest in computer vision techniques, represent an unbiased analysis of videos that brings an understanding of trust. Model building is accomplished using feature creation algorithms, machine learning techniques, and analysis. This project has demonstrated the utility of this approach by using the same analysis to predict team selection, leader elections and game wins. That is, the design has replications built into it. Such within-subject designs have the benefit of controlling other sources of “noise” such as personality or gender because those sources of variance remain constant across the replications. Thus, the system design is general in that it can discover connections to any set of cues.
Another innovation of the research reported here is the use of the attention mechanism to locate sparsely exhibited behaviors and identify the key frames in the video that may be especially consequential in understanding trust. Just as interpersonal relationships have trajectories that change at turning points, key frames may signal those important turning points that signpost the positive or negative development of trust. For example, disclosure of highly intimate details about one’s past may encourage reciprocal disclosure from the partner and escalate the relationship’s mutual trust to the next level. In videos consisting of thousands of frames, the ability to locate the points at which turning points occur can be very useful.
The use of the attention mechanism can alleviate the need to label every timestep of importance in the video. We store only meta-data for each video, such as the subject’s role, and use the attention mechanism to identify the important time-steps in the video. Those vary depending on the task that the model is trained for. In that way, we can perform retrospective analysis of those frames, while keeping the data collection protocol simple.
A further next step in research would be to use the key frames identified by the attention mechanism to re-train the model. Re-training the model can be useful for large input videos, since the models can ignore the majority of the input frames, which are irrelevant for the modeling task.
Future collaborations with others investigating behavioral networks of linguistics, vocalics, and kinesics is sure to bring new discriminating features to the machine learning techniques. This is easy to do with the current developed methods since they can be used with different modalities. Only one step to transform every modality to a canonical input form is required. Obtaining new features can be accomplished by having new experimental participants watch the game videos and record their perceptions of trust.
The psychology of trust is a rich construct for investigation. Examination of how it develops through implicit relational messages promises to bring greater understanding of the construct. New software and automated computer vision tools can accelerate and amplify the progress of those investigations.
This research was sponsored by the Army Research Office and was accomplished under Grant Number W911NF-16-1-0342. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of the Army Research Office or the U.S. Government. The U.S. Government is authorized to reproduce and distribute reprints for Government purposes notwithstanding any copyright notation herein.
Judee Burgoon and Jay Nunamaker are principals in Discern Science International, a for-profit entity conducting research and systems development for credibility assessment. The remaining authors declare no conflict of interest.
The authors wish to thank Bradley Dorn, Rebecca (Xinran) Wang, Xunyu Chen, Steven Pentland, Lee Spitzley, Tina Ge, Matt Giles, Mohammed Hansia, Chris Otmar, Yibei Chen, Becky Ford, Ligong Han, and Lezi Wang for their contributions to conducting this research.
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Among all these techniques, electrodeposition is the most suitable technique for nanostructured thin films from aqueous solution served as samples under investigation. The electrodeposition of metallic layers from aqueous solution is based on the discharge of metal ions present in the electrolyte at a cathodic surface (the substrate or component.) The metal ions accept an electron from the electrically conducting material at the solid- electrolyte interface and then deposit as metal atoms onto the surface. The electrons necessary for this to occur are either supplied from an externally applied potential source or are surrendered by a reducing agent present in solution (electroless reduction). 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Al-Bat’hi",authors:[{id:"174793",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad",middleName:null,surname:"Souad",slug:"mohamad-souad",fullName:"Mohamad Souad"}]},{id:"54226",title:"Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance for Optical Fiber-Sensing Applications",slug:"localized-surface-plasmon-resonance-for-optical-fiber-sensing-applications",totalDownloads:2265,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"It is well known that optical fiber sensors have attracted the attention of scientific community due to its intrinsic advantages, such as lightweight, small size, portability, remote sensing, immunity to electromagnetic interferences and the possibility of multiplexing several signals. This field has shown a dramatic growth thanks to the creation of sensitive thin films onto diverse optical fiber configurations. In this sense, a wide range of optical fiber devices have been successfully fabricated for monitoring biological, chemical, medical or physical parameters. In addition, the use of nanoparticles into the sensitive thin films has resulted in an enhancement in the response time, robustness or sensitivity in the optical devices, which is associated to the inherent properties of nanoparticles (high surface area ratio or porosity). Among all of them, the metallic nanoparticles are of great interest for sensing applications due to the presence of strong absorption bands in the visible and near-infrared regions, due to their localized surface plasmon resonances (LSPR). These optical resonances are due to the coupling of certain modes of the incident light to the collective oscillation of the conduction electrons of the metallic nanoparticles. The LSPR extinction bands are very useful for sensing applications as far as they can be affected by refractive index variations of the surrounding medium of the nanoparticles, and therefore, it is possible to create optical sensors with outstanding properties such as high sensitivity and optical self-reference. In this chapter, the attractive optical properties of metal nanostructures and their implementation into different optical fiber configuration for sensing or biosensing applications will be studied.",book:{id:"5721",slug:"nanoplasmonics-fundamentals-and-applications",title:"Nanoplasmonics",fullTitle:"Nanoplasmonics - Fundamentals and Applications"},signatures:"Pedro J. Rivero, Javier Goicoechea and Francisco J. Arregui",authors:[{id:"69816",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Goicoechea",slug:"javier-goicoechea",fullName:"Javier Goicoechea"},{id:"188796",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rivero",slug:"pedro-j.-rivero",fullName:"Pedro J. Rivero"},{id:"197277",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Arregui",slug:"francisco-arregui",fullName:"Francisco Arregui"}]},{id:"25297",title:"Nanofabrication of Metal Oxide Patterns Using Self-Assembled Monolayers",slug:"nanofabrication-of-metal-oxide-patterns-using-self-assembled-monolayers",totalDownloads:3443,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"860",slug:"nanofabrication",title:"Nanofabrication",fullTitle:"Nanofabrication"},signatures:"Yoshitake Masuda",authors:[{id:"12385",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshitake",middleName:null,surname:"Masuda",slug:"yoshitake-masuda",fullName:"Yoshitake Masuda"}]},{id:"77225",title:"Piezoelectricity and Its Applications",slug:"piezoelectricity-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:510,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The piezoelectric effect is extensively encountered in nature and many synthetic materials. Piezoelectric materials are capable of transforming mechanical strain and vibration energy into electrical energy. This property allows opportunities for implementing renewable and sustainable energy through power harvesting and self-sustained smart sensing in buildings. As the most common construction material, plain cement paste lacks satisfactory piezoelectricity and is not efficient at harvesting the electrical energy from the ambient vibrations of a building system. In recent years, many techniques have been proposed and applied to improve the piezoelectric capacity of cement-based composite, namely admixture incorporation and physical. The successful application of piezoelectric materials for sustainable building development not only relies on understanding the mechanism of the piezoelectric properties of various building components, but also the latest developments and implementations in the building industry. Therefore, this review systematically illustrates research efforts to develop new construction materials with high piezoelectricity and energy storage capacity. In addition, this article discusses the latest techniques for utilizing the piezoelectric materials in energy harvesters, sensors and actuators for various building systems. With advanced methods for improving the cementations piezoelectricity and applying the material piezoelectricity for different building functions, more renewable and sustainable building systems are anticipated.",book:{id:"10511",slug:"multifunctional-ferroelectric-materials",title:"Multifunctional Ferroelectric Materials",fullTitle:"Multifunctional Ferroelectric Materials"},signatures:"B. Chandra Sekhar, B. Dhanalakshmi, B. Srinivasa Rao, S. Ramesh, K. Venkata Prasad, P.S.V. Subba Rao and B. Parvatheeswara Rao",authors:[{id:"335022",title:"Dr.",name:"B. Chandra",middleName:null,surname:"Sekhar",slug:"b.-chandra-sekhar",fullName:"B. Chandra Sekhar"},{id:"422021",title:"Dr.",name:"B.",middleName:null,surname:"Dhanalakshmi",slug:"b.-dhanalakshmi",fullName:"B. Dhanalakshmi"},{id:"422022",title:"Dr.",name:"B.Srinivasa",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"b.srinivasa-rao",fullName:"B.Srinivasa Rao"},{id:"422023",title:"Dr.",name:"S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ramesh",slug:"s.-ramesh",fullName:"S. Ramesh"},{id:"422024",title:"Dr.",name:"K.Venkata",middleName:null,surname:"Prasad",slug:"k.venkata-prasad",fullName:"K.Venkata Prasad"},{id:"422025",title:"Dr.",name:"P.S.V",middleName:null,surname:"Subba Rao",slug:"p.s.v-subba-rao",fullName:"P.S.V Subba Rao"},{id:"422026",title:"Dr.",name:"B.Parvatheeswara",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"b.parvatheeswara-rao",fullName:"B.Parvatheeswara Rao"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1169",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81438",title:"Research Progress of Ionic Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting",slug:"research-progress-of-ionic-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting",totalDownloads:23,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101771",abstract:"Thermoelectric material is a kind of functional material that can mutually convert heat energy and electric energy. It can convert low-grade heat energy (less than 130°C) into electric energy. Compared with traditional electronic thermoelectric materials, ionic thermoelectric materials have higher performance. The Seebeck coefficient can generate 2–3 orders of magnitude higher ionic thermoelectric potential than electronic thermoelectric materials, so it has good application prospects in small thermoelectric generators and solar power generation. According to the thermoelectric conversion mechanism, ionic thermoelectric materials can be divided into ionic thermoelectric materials based on the Soret effect and thermocouple effect. They are widely used in pyrogen batteries and ionic thermoelectric capacitors. The latest two types of ionic thermoelectric materials are in this article. The research progress is explained, and the problems and challenges of ionic thermoelectric materials and the future development direction are also put forward.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jianwei Zhang, Ying Xiao, Bowei Lei, Gengyuan Liang and Wenshu Zhao"},{id:"77670",title:"Thermoelectric Elements with Negative Temperature Factor of Resistance",slug:"thermoelectric-elements-with-negative-temperature-factor-of-resistance",totalDownloads:71,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98860",abstract:"The method of manufacturing of ceramic materials on the basis of ferrites of nickel and cobalt by synthesis and sintering in controllable regenerative atmosphere is presented. As the generator of regenerative atmosphere the method of conversion of carbonic gas is offered. Calculation of regenerative atmosphere for simultaneous sintering of ceramic ferrites of nickel and cobalt is carried out. It is offered, methods of the dilated nonequilibrium thermodynamics to view process of distribution of a charge and heat along a thermoelement branch. The model of a thermoelement taking into account various relaxation times of a charge and warmth is constructed.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Yuri Bokhan"},{id:"79236",title:"Processing Techniques with Heating Conditions for Multiferroic Systems of BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3, CaTiO3 Thin Films",slug:"processing-techniques-with-heating-conditions-for-multiferroic-systems-of-bifeo3-batio3-pbtio3-catio",totalDownloads:96,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101122",abstract:"In this chapter, we have report a list of synthesis methods (including both synthesis steps & heating conditions) used for thin film fabrication of perovskite ABO3 (BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3 and CaTiO3) based multiferroics (in both single-phase and composite materials). The processing of high quality multiferroic thin film have some features like epitaxial strain, physical phenomenon at atomic-level, interfacial coupling parameters to enhance device performance. Since these multiferroic thin films have ME properties such as electrical (dielectric, magnetoelectric coefficient & MC) and magnetic (ferromagnetic, magnetic susceptibility etc.) are heat sensitive, i.e. ME response at low as well as higher temperature might to enhance the device performance respect with long range ordering. The magnetoelectric coupling between ferromagnetism and ferroelectricity in multiferroic becomes suitable in the application of spintronics, memory and logic devices, and microelectronic memory or piezoelectric devices. In comparison with bulk multiferroic, the fabrication of multiferroic thin film with different structural geometries on substrate has reducible clamping effect. A brief procedure for multiferroic thin film fabrication in terms of their thermal conditions (temperature for film processing and annealing for crystallization) are described. Each synthesis methods have its own characteristic phenomenon in terms of film thickness, defects formation, crack free film, density, chip size, easier steps and availability etc. been described. A brief study towards phase structure and ME coupling for each multiferroic system of BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3 and CaTiO3 is shown.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Kuldeep Chand Verma and Manpreet Singh"},{id:"78034",title:"Quantum Physical Interpretation of Thermoelectric Properties of Ruthenate Pyrochlores",slug:"quantum-physical-interpretation-of-thermoelectric-properties-of-ruthenate-pyrochlores",totalDownloads:74,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99260",abstract:"Lead- and lead-yttrium ruthenate pyrochlores were synthesized and investigated for Seebeck coefficients, electrical- and thermal conductivity. Compounds A2B2O6.5+z with 0 ≤ z < 0.5 were defect pyrochlores and p-type conductors. The thermoelectric data were analyzed using quantum physical models to identify scattering mechanisms underlying electrical (σ) and thermal conductivity (κ) and to understand the temperature dependence of the Seebeck effect (S). In the metal-like lead ruthenates with different Pb:Ru ratios, σ (T) and the electronic thermal conductivity κe (T) were governed by ‘electron impurity scattering’, the lattice thermal conductivity κL (T) by the 3-phonon resistive process (Umklapp scattering). In the lead-yttrium ruthenate solid solutions (Pb(2-x)YxRu2O(6.5±z)), a metal–insulator transition occurred at 0.2 moles of yttrium. On the metallic side (<0.2 moles Y) ‘electron impurity scattering’ prevailed. On the semiconductor/insulator side between x = 0.2 and x = 1.0 several mechanisms were equally likely. At x > 1.5 the Mott Variable Range Hopping mechanism was active. S (T) was discussed for Pb-Y-Ru pyrochlores in terms of the effect of minority carrier excitation at lower- and a broadening of the Fermi distribution at higher temperatures. The figures of merit of all of these pyrochlores were still small (≤7.3 × 10−3).",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Sepideh Akhbarifar"},{id:"77635",title:"Optimization of Thermoelectric Properties Based on Rashba Spin Splitting",slug:"optimization-of-thermoelectric-properties-based-on-rashba-spin-splitting",totalDownloads:124,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98788",abstract:"In recent years, the application of thermoelectricity has become more and more widespread. Thermoelectric materials provide a simple and environmentally friendly solution for the direct conversion of heat to electricity. The development of higher performance thermoelectric materials and their performance optimization have become more important. Generally, to improve the ZT value, electrical conductivity, Seebeck coefficient and thermal conductivity must be globally optimized as a whole object. However, due to the strong coupling among ZT parameters in many cases, it is very challenging to break the bottleneck of ZT optimization currently. Beyond the traditional optimization methods (such as inducing defects, varying temperature), the Rashba effect is expected to effectively increase the S2σ and decrease the κ, thus enhancing thermoelectric performance, which provides a new strategy to develop new-generation thermoelectric materials. Although the Rashba effect has great potential in enhancing thermoelectric performance, the underlying mechanism of Rashba-type thermoelectric materials needs further research. In addition, how to introduce Rashba spin splitting into current thermoelectric materials is also of great significance to the optimization of thermoelectricity.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Zhenzhen Qin"},{id:"75364",title:"Challenges in Improving Performance of Oxide Thermoelectrics Using Defect Engineering",slug:"challenges-in-improving-performance-of-oxide-thermoelectrics-using-defect-engineering",totalDownloads:214,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96278",abstract:"Oxide thermoelectric materials are considered promising for high-temperature thermoelectric applications in terms of low cost, temperature stability, reversible reaction, and so on. Oxide materials have been intensively studied to suppress the defects and electronic charge carriers for many electronic device applications, but the studies with a high concentration of defects are limited. It desires to improve thermoelectric performance by enhancing its charge transport and lowering its lattice thermal conductivity. For this purpose, here, we modified the stoichiometry of cation and anion vacancies in two different systems to regulate the carrier concentration and explored their thermoelectric properties. Both cation and anion vacancies act as a donor of charge carriers and act as phonon scattering centers, decoupling the electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jamil Ur Rahman, Gul Rahman and Soonil Lee"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:6},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",slug:"alexandros-tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. 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Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. 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There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. 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She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"7",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11403,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",slug:"alexandros-tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9959",title:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9959.jpg",slug:"biomedical-signal-and-image-processing",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",hash:"22b87a09bd6df065d78c175235d367c8",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259308/images/system/259308.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Southern California",institution:{name:"University of Southern California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9973",title:"Data Acquisition",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Applications in Biomedical Engineering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9973.jpg",slug:"data-acquisition-recent-advances-and-applications-in-biomedical-engineering",publishedDate:"March 17th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",hash:"75ea6cdd241216c9db28aa734ab34446",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Data Acquisition - Recent Advances and Applications in Biomedical Engineering",editors:[{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9905",title:"Biometric Systems",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9905.jpg",slug:"biometric-systems",publishedDate:"February 10th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",hash:"c730560dd2e3837a03407b3a86b0ef2a",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Biometric Systems",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Kuwait"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8622",title:"Peptide Synthesis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8622.jpg",slug:"peptide-synthesis",publishedDate:"December 18th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Jaya T. 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