Frequently found bacterial organisms in early and late onset neonatal sepsis and pneumoniag +/- = gram-positive/negative* based on DNA-analysis
\r\n\t(i) Quantum dots of very high-quality optical applications, Quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QD-LED) and ‘QD-White LED’, Quantum dot photodetectors (QDPs), Quantum dot solar cells (Photovoltaics).
\r\n\r\n\t(ii) Quantum Computing (quantum bits or ‘qubits’), (vii) The Future of Quantum Dots (broad range of real-time applications, magnetic quantum dots & graphene quantum dots), Superconducting Loop, Quantum Entanglement, Quantum Fingerprints.
\r\n\r\n\t(iii) Biomedical and Environmental Applications (to study intracellular processes, tumor targeting, in vivo observation of cell trafficking, diagnostics and cellular imaging at high resolutions), Bioconjugation, Cell Imaging, Photoelectrochemical Immunosensor, Membranes and Bacterial Cells, Resonance Energy-Transfer Processes, Evaluation of Drinking Water Quality, Water and Wastewater Treatment, Pollutant Control.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-594-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-593-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-595-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"0dd5611c62c91569bd2819e68852002a",bookSignature:"Prof. Jagannathan Thirumalai",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11756.jpg",keywords:"LED, Organic LEDs, Dyes & Pigments, Solar Cells, Laser Photonics, Electronic Switching Devices, Qubits, Josephson Junction, Bioconjugation, Cell Imaging, Photoelectrochemical Immunosensor, Membranes, and Bacterial Cells",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 16th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 27th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 26th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 14th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 13th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"10 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. J. Thirumalai received his Ph.D. from Alagappa University, Karaikudi, He was also awarded the Post-doctoral Fellowship from Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), the Republic of Korea. His research interests focus on luminescence, self-assembled nanomaterials, and thin-film optoelectronic devices. He has published more than 60 SCOPUS/ISI indexed papers and 11 book chapters, edited 4 books, and member of several national and international societies like RSC, OSA, etc. His h-index is 19.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99242/images/system/99242.png",biography:"Dr. J. Thirumalai received his Ph.D. from Alagappa University, Karaikudi in 2010. He was also awarded the Post-doctoral Fellowship from Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Republic of Korea, in 2013. He worked as Assistant Professor of Physics, B.S. Abdur Rahman University, Chennai, India (2011 to 2016). Currently, he is working as Senior Assistant Professor of Physics, Srinivasa Ramanujan Centre, SASTRA Deemed University, Kumbakonam (T.N.), India. His research interests focus on luminescence, self-assembled nanomaterials, and thin film opto-electronic devices. He has published more than 60 SCOPUS/ISI indexed papers and 11 book chapters, edited 4 books and member in several national and international societies like RSC, OSA, etc. Currently, he served as a principal investigator for a funded project towards the application of luminescence based thin film opto-electronic devices, funded by the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), India. As an expert in opto-electronics and nanotechnology area, he has been invited as external and internal examiners to MSc and PhD theses, invited to give talk in some forum, review papers for international and national journals.",institutionString:"SASTRA University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"17",title:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"347258",firstName:"Marica",lastName:"Novakovic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"marica@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5348",title:"Luminescence",subtitle:"An 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Worldwide neonatal pneumonia is estimated to account for up to 10% of childhood mortality, with the highest case fatality rates reported in developing countries (3,4). It´s impact may be increased in the case of early onset, prematurity or an underlying pulmonary condition like RDS, meconium aspiration or CLD/bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), when the pulmonary capacity is already limited. Ureaplasma pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) have also been associated with the development of BPD and poor pulmonary outcome (5,6,7). In this chapter we will review different aspects of neonatal pneumonia and will present case reports from our level III neonatal unit in Graz.
Reported frequencies of neonatal pneumonia range from 1 to 35 %, the most commonly quoted figures being 1 percent for term infants and 10 percent for preterm infants (8). The incidence varies according to gestational age, intubation status, diagnostic criteria or case definition, the level and standard of neonatal care, race and socioeconomic status. In a retrospective analysis of a cohort of almost 6000 neonates admitted to our NICU pneumonia was diagnosed in all gestational age classes. The incidence of bacterial pneumonia including Ureaplasma urealyticum (Uu) pneumonia was 1,4 % with a median patient gestational age of 35 weeks (range 23-42 weeks) and a mortality of 2,5%. There was only one case of viral pneumonia, due to RSV-infection and no case of fungal pneumonia. The mortality rate associated with pneumonia is in general inversely related to gestational age and birthweight, being higher in cases of early onset compared to late onset, and especially high in low socioecomomic groups and developing countries (2,3,4). Group B Streptococcus accounts for most cases of early onset pneumonia, the commonest bacteria causing late-onset pneumonia are gram-negative bacilli such as E coli or Klebsiella spp.(8). Frequently bacterial pathogens found in early and late onset sepsis/pneumonia are listed in Table 1.
Pneumonia may be acquired by intrauterine (e.g. transplacental hematogenous, ascending from birth canal), intrapartum (e.g aspiration) or postnatal routes (e.g. hematogenous, environmental). The pathogens include mainly bacteria, followed by viruses and fungi which induce an inflammatory pulmonary condition (1,8). This may cause epithelial injury to the airways, leakage of proteinaceous fluid into the alveoli and interstitium, leading to surfactant deficiency or dysfunction. Data from a German study (9) suggest that respiratory insufficiency in pneumonia is most likely caused by inhibition of surface-tension-lowering properties of surfactant rather than by surfactant deficiency. Important predisposing factors in the evolution of pneumonia are immaturity, low birth weight, premature rupture of membranes, chorioamnionitis and factors associated with prolonged neonatal intensive care (2, 8).
Depending on the time of manifestation of infection neonatal pneumonia may be classified as early onset pneumonia (within the first 3 or 7 days of life, mostly within 48 hours), or late onset pneumonia (within 4 and 28 days of life). Congenital or intrauterine pneumonia can be considered a variant of early onset pneumonia (2). Other classifications refer to the underlying pathogen, like bacterial or viral pneumonia or the pattern of lung infiltrates (e.g. interstitial pneumonia) on chest radiographs. Clinical signs are unspecific and present as respiratory distress of various degree, suspicious appearing tracheal aspirates, cough, apnea, high or low temperature, poor feeding, abdominal distension, and lethargy. Tachypnea is a predominant clinical sign, present in 60-89 % of cases (2). Persistent fever is rather unusual, but has been reported in neonates with viral pneumonia (10). The radiographical appearance may also vary (11), showing reticulogranular-nodular infiltrates, and bilateral streaky or hazy lungs. As small bronchioli tend to collapse there may be compensatory hyperaeration in areas free of pneumonial infiltration. In addition there may be pleural effusions and/or pneumatocele formation in more complicated cases. Alveolar patterns with coarse, patchy parenchymal infiltrates, consolidation, and diffuse granularity are more typical for bacterial infections while parahilar streakiness, diffuse hazy lungs or reticulo-nodularity are more common in viral disease. The differential diagnoses to be considered on initial presentation are mainly surfactant deficiency syndrome and transient tachypnoe of the newborn, in addition meconium aspiration syndrome (MAS), pulmonary hemorrhage, pulmonary edema, primary pulmonary lymphangiectasis or pulmonary lymphangiomatosis, congestive heart failure (11,12) and Wilson-Mikity-syndrome (13). Additional investigations like echocardiography, high-resolution computed tomography, further laboratory studies, and in rare cases lung biopsy are helpful in the diagnostic work up.
The clinical diagnosis of pneumonia is challenging and may not always be correct (over- or underestimated). Early tracheal aspirate cultures obtained within the first 8 to 12 hours of age may help in diagnosing congenital pneumonia (14,15), especially in certain clinical conditions, including maternal fever, clinical chorioamnionitis and leukopenia. But even a positive blood culture or proven airway colonization do not necessarily correlate with the clinical picture of sepsis or pneumonia (16). In the clinical routine pneumonia is diagnosed based on a combination of perinatal risk factors, signs of neonatal respiratory distress, positive laboratory studies, radiological signs and a typical clinical course. Some clinical scenarios are more or less suspicious
As pneumonia is often associated with or non distinguishable from bacterial sepsis initial therapy at the NICU includes broad spectrum intravenous antibiotics according to local protocols. In our unit we start with a combination of ampicillin and a second generation cephalosporine. Although there is no evidence from randomized controlled trials that any antibiotic regime is superior for suspected early onset neonatal sepsis (23), the WHO recommends as first line treatment ampicillin plus gentamycin (24). In cases where we detect pathogens in blood, or in endotracheal aspirates we treat according to susceptibility from antibiogram results. A problem which is increasing worldwide in NICU´s is the occurrence of multidrug resistant pathogens, mainly gram-negative bacilli (25). As an alternative to systemic treatment aerosolized antibiotics like colistin have been used successfully in patients with VAP caused by multidrug resistant gram negative bacteria (26, 27). In patients where we suspect or diagnose an U infection we initiate treatment with intravenous clarithromycin (10mg/kg/day), a macrolid antibiotic. In a recently published randomized controlled placebo single-center study clarithromycin treatment resulted in eradication of Uu in 68,5 % of the patients and a significantly lower incidence of BPD (2.9% vs. 36.4%) in preterm infants weighing between 750 to 1250 g (28). Azithromycin, another macrolid antibiotic, which has good inhibitory activity against Ureaplasma in in-vitro studies, may also be beneficial for BPD prevention in Ureaplasma colonized/infected preterm infants, especially when used early and for longer duration (29). In general the clinical and microbiological effectiveness of macrolid antibiotics, the most commonly used in the literature being erythromycin, has not yet been shown in adequately powered randomized controlled clinical trials (30). Recommendations for the duration of antibiotic therapy in proven neonatal pneumonia range from 10 to 21 days (8). Surfactant therapy may be beneficial in selected patients by mechanisms improving lung function and decreasing bacterial growth, but may require repeated doses (22, 31,32). However, in a recently published meta- analysis in patients > 35 weeks gestation with proven or suspected pneumonia with onset during the first 28 days of life there was no evidence of a significant effect on the primary outcome death, time to resolution of pneumonia, BPD, pneumothorax and pulmonary hemorrhage (33). There are still open questions related to the surfactant preparation, dosage, optimal treatment frequency, number of doses and patient selection. Severe cases of pneumonia with respiratory insufficiency not responding to conventional therapy may occasionally be candidates for ECMO (34, 35). Preventative measures to be considered include maternal infection control in the prenatal period, prenatal screening and prophylaxis for streptococcal colonization (36), preference of non-or minimal invasive procedures in the neonatal period like respiratory support without intubation (37), immunoprophylaxis against RSV-infection, and general infection control measures in the neonatal unit to reduce the incidence and transmission of health-care-associated infections, the most important being hand hygiene (38,39,40). Preventive strategies that may have a great impact are maternal and infant vaccination programs, as has been already shown in developing countries e.g for pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccines (41).
Group B Streptococcus (g +) | Escherichia coli (g-) |
Escherichea coli (g-) | Staphylococcus epidermidis (g+) |
Staphylococcus aureus (g+) | Klebsiella-Enterobacter-species (g-) |
Listeria monocytogenes (g+) | Pseudomonas aeruginosa (g-) |
Enterococcus (g +) | |
Ureaplasma urealyticum (g+)* |
Frequently found bacterial organisms in early and late onset neonatal sepsis and pneumoniag +/- = gram-positive/negative* based on DNA-analysis
A male neonate was born at 42 weeks gestational age to a multiparous healthy mother following spontaneous labor in an external hospital. The membranes ruptured 3 hours before delivery. There was no prenatal maternal screening for groub B streptococci disease. After good primary transition, the infant developed clinical signs of respiratory distress with oxygen dependency and respiratory acidosis (6 hours post partum). After initiation of our standard broad spectrum antibiotic therapy the infant was transferred to our NICU. A septic workup showed leukopenia of 2.70 G/L, a left shift in the white cell count (immature/total neutrophils (I/T) 0,33), markedly elevated procalcitonin (303 ng/mL) and interleukin-6 (IL-6 > 400 pg/L) levels, but normal CRP values, and a positive urinary group B streptococcus testing. Blood cultures and tracheal aspirates were negative. Radiographics showed bilateral reticulogranular patterns compatible with the diagnosis of RDS (Figure 1). The patient was first placed on nasal CPAP but had to be intubated and ventilated mechanically due to respiratory deterioration with an increasing oxygen demand up to an FiO2 of 1,0 and persistent respiratory acidosis. Surfactant therapy showed no sufficient response. Inotropic support was necessary in case of arterial hypotension. Following inhaled nitric oxide therapy a decrease in oxygen requirement from 100 to 50 % was achieved over the following 48 hours, indicative of secondary pulmonary hypertension. On day 5 of life the clinical course was complicated by formation of a large left sided pneumatocele (Figure 2) and a consecutive symptomatic tension pneumothorax (Figure 3), which was successfully treated by insertion of a chest drain. On day 11 of life the patient was extubated, but the chest drain had to be left in situ for 3 ½ weeks due to recurrent air leaks. Laboratory parameters normalized within a week by our standard antibiotic regime. On day 37 of life the neonate had recovered and was discharged home.
Bilateral reticulogranular lung pattern in Group B Streptococcus pneumonia mimicking RDS (Case 1)
Pneumatocele formation on the leftside and streaky-granular infiltrates in Group B Streptococcus pneumonia (Case 1)
Leftsided tension pneumothorax complicating Group B Streptococcus pneumonia (Case 1)
A female infant was delivered by vacuum extraction at 37+4 weeks gestational age to a multiparous mother after premature rupture of membranes, meconium stained amniotic fluid and pathological cardiotocogram. Maternal vaginal swabs were tested negative for Group B Streptococcus. Apgar scores and umbilical artery pH were within the normal range. About 12 hours after birth the neonate showed signs of respiratory distress with tachypnea, grunting and an oxygen demand of FiO2 >0,3. He was intubated and transferred to our NICU. A chest radiograph on admission showed bilateral streaky infiltrates (Figure 4). On day 2 an elevated CRP of 100mg/L, in combination with the findings on chest radiographs and the clinical signs were highly suspicious for the diagnosis of early onset neonatal pneumonia. In the yellowish tracheal aspirates Listeria monocytogenes were detected. The asymptomatic mother was tested negative for Listeria infection in stool and urine probes. On closer questioning the mother remembered having
Bilateral,streaky and nodular infiltrates in Listeria pneumonia (Case 2)
developed gastrointestinal symptoms with diarrhea 2 weeks prior to birth after having eaten some cheese made from unpasteurized milk from a local food store. This led us to assume that the pregnant mother had most likely infected the fetus following ingestion of the bacterium, which had then crossed intestinal cells into the bloodstream and passed the placenta (42,43). After initiation of our standard antibiotic therapy the infant recovered quickly and was extubated on day 4 of life. Antibiotics were given for a total of 14 days. The child had a full recovery.
A female infant was born to a primigravid mother at 28+1 weeks of gestational age. Delivery was by cesarean section due to a pathological cardiotocogram and presumed maternal infection (preterm premature rupture of the membranes 9 hours before delivery, preterm labour, increased neutrophile count and elevated CRP). The mother was treated with
Bilateral lung infiltrates with consolidation mainly in the middle and right lower lobe in Enterobacter pneumonia (Case 3)
antibiotics. The preterm infant showed clinical and radiological signs of RDS and was intubated 15 minutes after birth. Standard broad spectrum antibiotics were started prophylactically but terminated after 3 days when daily white cell counts and CRP levels revealed no signs of infection. The patient was extubated on day 4 of life and placed on nasal CPAP. On day 6 of life the baby appeared septic with new onset of apneas, skin pallor, poor peripheral perfusion, metabolic acidosis and neurological signs like increased muscle tone and extreme irritability. Due to recurrent apneas despite caffeine therapy the infant had to be reintubated. The septic work up confirmed the clinical diagnosis of sepsis. Enterobacter cloacae, ESBL positive, was found in the blood culture, liquor cerebrospinalis and tracheal aspirate. Peripheral blood count showed leukocytosis, I/T ratio of 0,54, thrombocytopenia of 38 G/l, and elevated CRP values of 68,4 rising to a maximum of > 200 mg/L. Chest radiographs revealed new parenchymal changes compatible with the diagnosis of late onset bacterial pneumonia (Figure 5). The antibiotic regime was changed to meropenem and teicoplanin. As a further complication of sepsis the patient developed transient renal failure and an intraventricular hemorrhage with consecutive hydrocephalus, which was finally treated by insertion of a ventriculo-peritoneal shunt. After a long complicated neonatal period the patient was finally discharged from the hospital at an age of about 3 months in good clinical condition.
A female infant was born at 24+3 weeks gestational age by vaginal delivery after the mother had been admitted to our hospital 1 hour prior to delivery with abdominal pain and onset of labors. The neonate developed RDS soon after birth which led to intubation, surfactant application and mechanical ventilation. Broad spectrum antibiotic therapy was started in case of suspected early onset sepsis. Initial laboratory revealed leukocytosis of 52.00 G/L, increased IL-6 (29,2 pg/ml) but normal CRP values. The chest radiograph on admission was typical for mild RDS but the lung pattern worsened during the first 2 weeks of life showing disseminated streaky-patchy infiltrates and partly cystic changes (Figure 6 and 7), accompanied by an increase in ventilatory requirements suggestive of early BPD changes. Therefore a strategy of moderate early BPD-prevention (48) with a one week course of intravenous steroids (hydrocortisone) was started. Results from routine tracheal aspirate screening for Ureaplasma infection taken during the second day on mechanical ventilation revealed a positive culture test (106) for Uu. In addition the placenta histology showed signs of chorioamnionitis. Under the assumption of early onset ureaplasma pneumonia/ pneumonitis we commenced oral macrolid therapy with clarithromycin (10mg/kg), beginning on day 6 of life for a total of 14 days. A repeat ureaplasma culture taken during treatment was negative. Mechanical ventilation continued for 18 days followed by a prolonged period of NCPAP lasting 7 weeks. Oxygen dependency for more than 8 weeks but not at a corrected gestational age of 36 weeks was compatible with the diagnosis of mild BPD (44,45). At an age of about 4 months of life she was discharged home.
Streaky-patchy lung changes with partly cystic appearance in Ureaplasma urealyticum pneumonia on day 6 of life (Case 4)
Early BPD changes in Ureaplasma urealyticum pneumonia on day 18 of life (Case 4)
Despite advances in neonatal medicine pneumonia remains a serious problem even in developed countries, mainly due to the increased survival of very preterm births and their susceptibility for early and late bacterial infections. The clinical spectrum of pneumonia is complex, symptoms are often non-specific and laboratory findings may be of limited value, making a rapid and correct diagnosis difficult. Treatment may also be challenging if no organism can be cultivated or in case of multidrug-resistant bacterial pneumonia. There is no clear evidence from randomized controlled trials favoring a specific antibiotic treatment strategy so that treatment decisions are based on local antimicrobial resistance patterns and clinical experience. Surfactant substitution might be beneficial in selected cases. Preventive strategies like health-care associated infection control and vaccination programs might have the greatest impact and should be further evaluated and applied at all levels of perinatal care.
Leading automotive and energy executives from industries all around the world are looking at implementing strategies for promoting the use of electric vehicles and helping reduce oil consumption and climate-related emissions by trying to become an industrial leadership position in advanced electric-drive and hybrid vehicle technologies. The environmental advantages of electric vehicles (EVs) compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) are overwhelming for the environment. The life cycle of a combustion engine relies heavily upon fossil fuels to generate the electricity it runs on, therefore emitting dangerous and harmful emissions during manufacturing. In comparison to ICEV, EVs have two superior technical features: better upstream energy source flexibility and higher vehicle efficiency [1]. The lower efficiency of ICEVs is due to friction losses, fuel pumping losses, transmission losses, and thermodynamic energy losses in the vehicle configuration. EVs should obtain highly efficient electric powertrains to evade these losses. In the scenario of utilizing alternative fuels, such as biofuels to reduce environmental problems, many countries may face supply limitations. EV deployment has been steadily rising over the past ten years, with the global stock of electric passenger cars achieving 5 million in 2018, an increase of 63% from 2017 [2]. According to the Global EV Outlook 2020, sales of EVs reached 2.1 million globally in 2019. The significant barriers for expected EV commercialization comprise of vehicle price, range, charge time, battery life uncertainty, electric generator durability, vehicle model availability, charging infrastructure, and awareness and understanding of the technology. EVs typically use one or more electric motors or traction motors for propulsion. They may be powered via a collector system by electricity from off-vehicle sources, or may be self-contained with an electric generator or energy storage device. Thus, they can be mainly categorized into two basic types of EVs all-electric vehicles (AEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). If considered in details, EVs can be classified into five groups: Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV), Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV), Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV), Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV), and Solar Electric Vehicle (SEV) [3].
Fuel cell electric vehicle configuration.
Among the different technologies of interest, the FCEVs containing hydrogen engines have been developed (Figure 1), mainly due to their high-power density, quick start-up and low operating temperatures. FCEVs use a fuel cell such as a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) or solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) to convert the chemical energy in hydrogen and oxygen directly into electrical energy. Hydrogen is currently produced through many technologies either from non-fossil fuels or from fossil fuels. Examples of non-fossil fuel technologies are water electrolysis, thermolysis, thermochemical water splitting, and photonic process. Fossil fuel technologies involve hydrocarbons reforming, these processes are carried out by methods such as steam reforming, auto-thermal, and partial oxidation [4]. FCEVs emphasized in this chapter are FCEVs that are using PEMFC as an electric generator. The dynamic response from driving behavior is one of the limitations for using PEMFC, especially if the system achieves a high load demand to acquire the desired speed ability. According to this situation the FC system would be unable to feed the fuel and oxidant in time, so “fuel and oxidant starvation” phenomenon would occur leading to materials degrading over time [5]. The auxiliary electrical source is one of solutions used to stabilize the electrical potential of the PEMFC system. Therefore, one part of this chapter discusses practical solutions to accommodate driving behavior via “Hybridization System”. The missions of the hybridization system are relevant to the supply of traction power during PEMFC start-up, power assistance during driving cycles, regenerative braking energy recovery, the supply of electrical accessory loads, and PEMFC start-up and shutdown [6, 7]. An energy storage system such as a battery or a supercapacitor should be the preferred choice for the PEMFC hybridization system. A supercapacitor (SC) has interesting and effective functions such as its fast charge–discharge rate that can potentially support PEMFCs when they are operated under dynamic load demands [8]. Its fast responsiveness fulfills the power demand, rises the system power density and has to generate or absorb the power which either the PEMFC is not capable of generating or absorbing [9]. Figure 2 indicates an example of PEMFC-SC hybridization. A supercapacitor offers transient power to PEMFC for attaining load demands in a short period. Moreover, the supercapacitor contributes advantages to PEMFC via capturing regenerative braking energy, enhancing fuel economy, providing a flexible operating strategy, overcoming PEMFC cold-start and transient shortfalls, and significantly lowering the cost per unit power [6].
Basic concept of PEMFC-SC hybridization.
Regarding transportation applications, the hybridization concept is not only applied for cars, but also for buses, trains, and tramways. The PEMFC-battery-supercapacitor hybridization was applied for electric trams [9] which possessed PEMFC for governing a stable operation. The battery offers a portion of the positive low frequency components of power demands which in turn decreases the responsibility of the PEMFC, and absorbs the slow-variation negative segments. The supercapacitor supplies the transient power demand effectively during sudden acceleration and braking.
The PEMFC performance investigations corresponding to driving behaviors will bring about information sustained to durability and lifetime of PEMFCs. Transportation applications require more than 5000 hours of PEMFC lifetime in order to be used under different circumstances [10]. This requirement results in time consuming and expensive methodology for experimental investigations. This chapter also provides information on the modification of Accelerated Stress Test (AST) created for exploring fuel cell degradation behavior and decreasing those restrictions [11].
Different driving behavior corresponds to various PEMFC operating conditions which can lead to numerous cases of PEMFC component degradation. For example, load cycling conditions such as voltage cycling, temperature cycling, and humidity cycling brings about membrane degradation; cracks, pinhole, and peroxide and hydrogen peroxide production [12]. These conditions also result in catalyst degradation such as Ostwald ripening of particles and sintering of particles [12]. If FCEV is driven at start-stop condition, PEMFCs will operate at high voltage, high temperature and low humidity [13, 14]. The detachment of catalyst particles from carbon support, Ostwald ripening of particles, sintering of particles, and dissolution of the catalyst can occur under start-stop circumstances [13, 14]. Evaluating and understanding material degradation and failure mechanisms through physical, chemical, and electrochemical analyses are important for material selection and fuel cell design. In terms of electrochemical analyses, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and cyclic voltammetry (CV) are preferable. EIS is applied for diagnosing behavior of PEMFC such as metal corrosion, electrode-electrolyte interface behavior, double-layer capacity, electrical properties of material and interfaces, and electrodeposition [15]. Morphological studies using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) technique, Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), X-ray Diffraction (XRD) technique, and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) technique are proposed by scientists and engineers. This chapter presents case studies of material degradation occurring from driving behavior, since the information about the material degradation can be compiled into a database for the improvements of the cell component performance and durability, leading to the creation of new materials and new fuel cell hybridization designs.
Charging infrastructure and energy management are transforming in parallel with the growth in EV demand. The commercial success of the EV requires the development of an accessible charging infrastructure. Even though EVs do not produce the usual exhaust pipe emissions, main electricity utilized for EV charging systems is extensively generated from coal and natural gas that emits substantial CO2 emissions. Even though electricity delivered for a charging system can be generated from renewable energy generators such as photovoltaic cells and wind turbines, these generators have weather-dependent issues. Weather and location play significant roles in how efficient a solution can be in regards to suppling generators. Integration of renewable energy sources, energy storage systems, and electrical vehicles with smart power distribution networks could be solution to this problem.
The type of battery mentioned in this article is a vanadium redox flow battery that captures energy generated from photovoltaic cells or wind turbines, this energy can be collect at one time and stored for use at a later time (Figure 3). Research works of literature focused on the abovementioned integrations include wind-PEM electrolyzer-hydrogen systems and solar-PEM electrolyzer-hydrogen systems [16]. In terms of FCEVs, hydrogen infrastructures are the most costly for many countries. Filling fuel of FCEV can be manipulated via charging stations and on-board PEMFC systems. This article would like to provide information of the stationary scenario. Hydrogen production using an integrated system between a redox flow battery and an electrolyzer is a remarkable new technology for FCEV fueling. It is possible to provide charging stations and hydrogen fueling stations in the same location. Prior to discussion about the contribution of an energy storage device for charging EVs, basic information of the redox flow battery is provided in the following statements. A redox flow battery technology is quite similar to PEMFC technology. The battery produces reduction and oxidation reactions between two active materials to capture and release energy. The redox flow battery system includes two external reservoirs for collecting soluble electroactive electrolytes, two electrodes, a membrane separator and a flow circulation system [17]. Flow batteries can be divided into three categories according to state of reactants such as all liquid phase, all solid phase, and hybrid redox flow batteries [17]. In a polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyzer is an electrolytic cell where water reacts at the anode to form oxygen and positively charge hydrogen ions. The applied electrons transfer through an external circuit, while the hydrogen ions selectively move across the PEM to the cathode. At the cathode side, hydrogen ions combine with electrons from the external circuit to form hydrogen gas [18]. Different types of electrolyzes consist of proton exchange membrane electrolyzer, alkaline electrolyzer, and solid oxide electrolyzer [18].
Conceptual idea of using a redox flow battery for EV charging station.
This chapter comprises of the following topics; the importance of fuel cells for EV technologies, the degradation diagnoses using accelerated stress test procedures, energy storage units integrated with fuel cells for the FCEV applications, and the contribution of an energy storage device for charging EVs. The authors expect to provide information related to hydrogen fuel cells for transportation prior to this technology becoming more frequent in daily life.
The EV market has witnessed rapid evolution with the ongoing developments in the transportation sector. The EVs market is projected to reach 35% of all globally vehicles by 2040 [19]. The factors impacting the market shares of this alternative advanced technology are retail price equivalent (RPE), energy cost per kilometer, range (kilometers between refuel/recharge events), maintenance cost (annual), fuel availability, range limitation for battery electric vehicles (BEVs), public recharging availability, risk aversion, and diversity of make and model options available [20]. The principal factors affecting EV technology development relate to reliability, durability, efficiency, voltage losses, the current generation, power generation, and energy generation [21]. Reliability is defined as the ability of a product to perform the required function under stated conditions for a certain period of time [22]. Durability is the lifetime within the repair rate and cost of planned repairs, overhaul and maintenance [22]. Efficiency refers to the ratio between the useful energy output, which is the electrical energy produced, and the variation and energy input, which is the enthalpy of hydrogen [23]. Voltage losses are described as the voltage drop between standard voltage and real voltage [24].
In this sector five sorts of electric vehicles; HEV, PHEV, BEV, FCEV, and SEV, are discussed as follows:
hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) which combines an internal combustion engine system with a hybrid vehicle drivetrain.
plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is an HEV whose battery is recharged by plugging it into an external electricity source, as well as by its on-board engine and generator.
battery electric vehicles completely consume chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs, without a secondary source of drivetrain.
solar electric vehicle (SEV) powered exclusively by direct solar energy.
fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) uses a fuel cell, sometimes in combination with a small battery or supercapacitor, to power its on-board electric motor.
Powertrain configurations of EVs are illustrated in Figure 4, and it indicates that an energy storage device is necessary for specific functions, for instance, demand response, transmission, flexible generation, improve operational practices and providing high energy density [25, 26].
The powertrain configurations of EVs.
Even if electric vehicles have more than their share of advantages, it is worth noting that they still have their drawbacks. It is imperative to recognize that EVs are usually changing and their technologies are evolving if considering EVs’ pros and cons. HEV has an advantage in component availability, but it takes higher initial cost. Furthermore, its two power trains build complexity of configurations and significant transmission energy loss. The characters of PHEV are similar to HEV, however, high cost of its batteries and battery replacement and added weight are taken into consideration. SEV does not have speed or power that regular cars have, and its operation is relevant to weather dependency. It seems likely that BEV is in the spotlight, nevertheless, there are some cons. It gives short distance range, while battery technology and public recharging infrastructure are needed to be improved these are the reasons that Toyota has long maintained that hydrogen fuel cell technology could be a zero-emission solution across a broad spectrum of vehicle types? Do FCEVs have a future?
Despite the development of hydrogen fuel cell cars started in 1966 with GM’s Electrovan, they remain low in volume, expensive to produce, and restricted to sales in the few regions that have built hydrogen fueling stations. A big BEV manufacturer disagrees with this idea, and the CEO of the company described the fuel cell technology as a mind-bogglingly stupid technology. Why is Toyota still trying to make the fuel cell happen? Some scientists predicted that people would be able to drive FCEVs without any problems and to refuel 800 km of range in 2–3 minutes without any local emissions. BEVs maybe therefore only a temporary transitional technology.
Authors would like to provide readers with concise information that may help answer these questions. During PEMFC operations, hydrogen permeates through the anode via a bipolar plate and interacts with the catalyst for producing electrons and protons. The electrons are conducted via electrically conductive materials (catalyst, gas diffusion layers, bipolar plates, and current collectors) through an external circuit to the cathode, while the protons are simultaneously transferred via an ionic route through a polymer electrolyte membrane (Nafion membrane) to the cathode. At the cathode, oxygen permeates to the catalyst surface where it reacts with the protons and electrons with properly hydrated situations. Subsequently, the products of the fuel cell reactions are water, electricity and heat [27].
FCEVs are charged using compressed hydrogen gas, and the hydrogen is drawn from an onboard tank and fuses it chemically with oxygen to create water. The BEV battery is recharged by connecting it to the electrical grid through a connector system. With 5 minutes for one tank filling, refuelling hydrogen is significantly faster than charging a BEV that is around 3 hours [28]. Additional 5 to 10 minutes are spent for a hydrogen pump to be ready for refuelling after a few refuelling operations until the fueling pressure is built up again. People have to drive FCEVs to a hydrogen gas station for refuelling, while BEV can be either charged at home or a station. As known. Hydrogen fuel stations are rare since construction costs of hydrogen stations are expensive. The costs are expected to be decreased via large-scale deployment and standardization. Moreover, a centralized control center for the hydrogen station is envisioned, accordingly dropping the operating costs.
Hydrogen production principally composes of 2 approaches; stream reforming and electrolysis [29]. Steam reforming is currently one of the most pervasive processes for hydrogen production. This technique gains advantages from high-efficiency production and low operational and production costs. Reactants used for the process are natural gas and lighter hydrocarbons, methanol, and other oxygenated hydrocarbons [30]. Electrolysis is a promising option for hydrogen production from a renewable resource such as water. The process uses electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen [30]. For charging the battery and fueling hydrogen via electrolytic cell, both come with energy and efficiency losses. In the case of BEV, an electrical grid provides AC currents, while the batteries discharge DC currents. Quick charging efficiency is around 92%. If BEV runs with an AC motor, the inverter efficiency would be 90%. Also, a lithium-ion battery can lose energy due to current leakage, so a good estimate for charging a lithium-ion battery is about 90%. All these factors combined lead to 75–80% of total efficiency for charging BEV. In the case of FCEV, rectifier requires AC current from the electrical grid to drive the electrolysis, thus conversion efficiency would be about 92%. We also need to convert DC produced from fuel cell to power the AC motor with inverter efficiency 90%. Finally, the efficiency of the motor must be considered for both fuel cell and battery, currently around 90–95%. However, storage hydrogen into cylinder and transportation must be included for fuel cell efficiency losses. Once the hydrogen is produced and compressed into liquid or gas, available hydrogen infrastructure requires as hydrogen be able to be delivered from where it is produced to the point of end-use. Since hydrogen is exceedingly low density as a gas and liquid, to achieve satisfactory energy density, actual density must be increased. There are two choices, compressing and liquifying hydrogen, for increasing the density. Hydrogen can be compressed to 790 times atm pressure, but that takes energy nearby 13% of the total energy content of the hydrogen [29]. Hydrogen can be turned into liquid cryogenically. Hydrogen is liquified by decreasing its temperature to −253°C with 40% of an efficiency loss. The benefit of hydrogen liquefaction is that a cryogenic hydrogen cylinder is much lighter than a cylinder holding pressurized hydrogen. In conclude, pressurization is the better option for efficiency losses. Focusing on hydrogen transportation, hydrogen is being transported by truck or pipeline, where know energy loss from 10% up to 40%. In the worst case, the total efficiency of FCEV may be approximately 20%, while the BEV efficiency could be 56% [29]. Another weakness of FCEVs is the price per kg of hydrogen. The FCEV named Honda Clarity gets about 589 km with 5.5 kg of hydrogen, so that would cost about $0.14/km. In contrast, Tesla Model 3 (BEV) employs $0.03/km or $0.20/ kWh of energy. Noted, the information relates to the US hydrogen price in 2018 that was $15/kg.
The above data imply that FCEV is inferior to BEV, but FCEV might have its place. FCEV has key benefits; charging duration, electric range, energy density, and vehicle weight. In terms of electric range, FCEV seems to come out on top of BEV as same as charging duration. The electric range is the driving range of a vehicle using only power from its electric electricity supply to traverse a given driving cycle. In the case of an EVs, it means the total range per charge [31]. Current FCEVs have the electric range from 312 to 380 miles, whereas most of BEVs possess the range under 259 miles. From this benefit, 78% of automotive executive believe that FCEVs will be breakthrough for electric mobility. Increasing electric range requires a lot of batteries that will add the weight of the vehicles. At a certain point (350 miles of range) the additional battery weight no longer yields the additional range. For FCEVs, this battery weight compounding is not an issue, because they can be refueled less than 5 minutes. This case will occur when hydrogen fueling has good availability. Energy density is another important benefit of FCEVs. Hydrogen gives the energy density 39 kWh/kg, in contrast with batteries of 75 kWh extended range Tesla Model 3 providing the energy density around 0.2 kWh/kg [32]. Gasoline stocks up 13 kWh/kg. Adding an electric range of FCEVs can be done by simply increasing size if the hydrogen tank. For BEVs, that would mean an additional 100 kg of weight and $1000 in cost. In terms of specific energy of the FCEVs using compressed hydrogen, the specific energy is near 40,000 Wh/kg that differs from lithium-ion batteries having just 278 Wh/kg of specific energy. BEVs are suitable for personal transportation, but current batteries can never replace gasoline applications as trucks, boats, airplanes, and trains. Considering energy density and specific energy, hydrogen very well could. In other words, FCEV is a potential solution for large scale transportation, and there are currently some interesting innovations and fuel cell products on the market worth taking [33]. For examples: Toshiba Energy Systems & Solutions Corporation announced that it has signed an agreement with New Energy and the Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) for a multi-utility pure hydrogen fuel cell module for large modes of transport; the hydrogen train arrives in the Netherlands; hydrogen food retailer running in Norway; hydrogen truck in Japan [34]; Alstom (French manufacturer) plans to deliver 27 hydrogen fuel cell trains to subsidiary Fahma of regional public transport provider RMV in the central German state of Hesse by 2022, creating the world’s largest fuel cell train fleet in passenger transport. Hydrogen fuel providers have invested in the expansion of hydrogen fuel production and distribution facilities to serve developing FCEV market, for instance, Germany aims to open hydrogen refueling stations by 2020, France is planning on opening renewable hydrogen station by 2020, and the UK wants to establish 100 hydrogen station by 2025 [34]. Is there adequate lithium to support the growth of BEV commercialization? BEVs and stationary storage revolutions are existing demand shooting up. If these revolutions occur, a hundred Gigafactory scenario may come true. The 13.5 million tons of reserves may be less than a 17-year supply.
As aforementioned, FCEVs should be developed for supporting an interface between the transport and the energy system. Therefore, basic knowledge and basic information of materials and applications of FCEVs should be comprehended. The U.S. Geological Survey produced a reserve estimate of lithium in early 2015, concluding that the world has enough known reserves for about 365 years of current global production of about 37,000 tons per year.
To analyze degradation data of the PEMFC components and system, the traditional observation of durability information involves the degradation data as a function of time. PEMFC typically show a continuing degradation in power output during their operations, and the cumulative influence of the gradual degradation is still acceptable. The degradation will be improper if the cumulative impacts of continuing degradation become too high. Regarding the characterizations, the modifications of accelerated stress test (AST) protocols have been created for diagnosing the PEMFC degradation behaviour to decrease those restrictions. ASTs are regularly created depending on a specific application, since the performed PEMFC degradations associate to the different cell components, the origins of the stresses, and their influences. Elevated temperature, reduced humidity, open-circuit voltage, and cycling conditions are the foremost accelerated factors ordinarily used for accelerated life diagnosing. The dynamic conditions consist of relative humidity (RH), temperature, potential, freeze/thaw, or start/stop [35]. The crucial conditions for transportation requirements are dynamic load cycling, startup-shutdown, and freeze–thaw [36].
The protocols were created to represent working behaviour in each application. The protocol can be divided into 2 sub-protocols such as static driving cycle and dynamic driving cycle. The Department of Energy (DOE) created the first protocol for the 2000-hour test. After that, the New European Drive Cycle (NEDC) was created, and it was created under the assumption of the European driving behaviour at the maximum speed as 50 km/h (20 A) [37, 38]. In our previous work [39] driving protocol which is the combination of load cycling and start-stop behaviors was designed as presented in Figure 5. The proposed load cycling approach intended to accelerate the influences caused by the real operating conditions correlated to a generic dynamic load. The primitive concept was to design the AST protocol right on the real working conditions, assuming the load profile as the major degradation source. Thus, working conditions were accelerated stressing the real load cycles magnitude and frequency. To assure the similar degradation mechanisms the progress of the real load value was evaluated and kept during the accelerated cycle. The methodology allowed accomplishing the AST profile steady with the actual load dynamics, but amplified in magnitude and scaled in the time domain. Finally, the scaled cycles were repeated in a loop [39]. The profile of start-stop cyclic represented starting and shutting down a vehicle in a short time. At the starting situation, electrochemical reactions were speedily fed into the fuel cell to generate the desired power. On the other hand, the reactions were terminated by stopping the reactant supply.
The driving behaviors protocol [
This dynamic behaviour severely involved the operating condition changing that would cause material degradation. This created protocol presented an overview of ordinary approaches adopted in hybrid FCEV for power management, being the starting point for the load profile set-up for PEMFC operations [39].
The results of voltage degradation indicated that the voltage drop produced by load cycling gradually increased that corresponded to slowly operating condition differentiation. In contrast, the voltage degradation rate was significantly increased. This occurrence corresponded to the voltage lost in driving the chemical reaction at both on anode and cathode. The reduction of oxygen is a much slower reaction than the oxidation of hydrogen, therefore the system requires higher activation polarization, anode side losses can be neglected. This ageing regarded to damaging electrochemical surface areas of catalysts. The resistance to an electron flow through the electrically conductive PEMFC components and to an ion flow through the membrane caused a voltage drop as well. This loss generally happens in main components; bipolar plates, gas diffusion layers, catalyst, and membrane. The consumption of reactant gases at the catalyst layers leads to concentration gradients and the partial pressure of the reactants changing, affecting a decrease in fuel cell voltage [40]. Figure 6 illustrates the case study of sudden load variation behaviour when the car speed varies from a low speed like driving to suddenly adding acceleration and overtaking cars in front. At high load demand, the system requires high power and voltage leading to high energy to drive electrochemical reactions thermodynamically. Under this situation system temperature increases significantly, while relative humidity decreases. This operating condition may result in membrane degradation; chemical and/or mechanical degradation [41]. In terms of chemical degradation, radicals such as peroxide or/and hydrogen peroxide radically react with the backbone of the membrane (Nafion: polytetrafluoroethylene). On the other hand, this reaction cannot occur if the backbone is not fluorinated [42, 43, 44].
The cyclic profile represents sudden load variation.
The following mechanism, presented as Eqs. 1–3 [45], illustrates membrane damage where hydrofluoric acid was produced. Figure 7 shows the morphological feature of a membrane electrode assembly (MEA) observed by scanning electron microscope and energy-dispersive X-ray (SEM–EDX) after 888 hours of operation duration. The investigated results found that the gas diffusion layer was dissolved by fluorine leaching, and the gas diffusion layer lost weight around 30.95%wt [46]. Small spots in Figure 8 shows the catalyst removal from catalyst supports.
SEM–EDX micrographs of gas diffusion layer damaged by hydrofluoric acid leaching.
SEM–EDX micrograph of the catalyst layer on the PEMFC membrane.
Chemical degradation of the membrane [45]
The relative humidity cycling related to load cyclic profile generated membrane swelling and shrinking. This phenomenon is associated with hydration state and operating temperature called mechanical degradation [27]. The postmortem analyses from the humidity cycling tests suggest that in-plane tensile membrane stresses result in cracks to initiate and propagate within the membranes in a subcritical fashion. Cyclic mechanical stresses cause if hydrophilic membranes are exposed to fluctuating hygrothermal conditions during the PEMFC operation [47]. Moreover, these phenomena may affect to catalyst degradation such as Ostwald ripening or sintering of catalyst particles. The Ostwald ripening appears from the thermodynamic driving force, while the sintering is caused by the reduction in surface energy with particle growth. The phenomenon leads to the dissolution of smaller particles and the growth of larger particles related to Eq. 4–6. In PEMFC, the platinum (Pt) transformation via a coupled process involving the transport of ions (Pt2+ and/or Pt4+) through an ionomer/aqueous medium and a parallel (coupled) transport of electrons through the carbon support [48].
Pt dissolution reactions [49]
The catalyst degradation can be diagnosed via several techniques; electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) technique, cyclic voltammetry (CV) technique, SEM–EDX technique, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The investigated results from EIS explain the impact of ionic resistance, activation loss (relate to the loss of the electrochemical surface area), and mass transport losses [50]. The CV can be used to diagnose the evaluation of catalyst activity. With is analyzing, the counter and reference electrodes generally act as an anode side because the kinetics of the oxidation reaction is relatively fast. Working electrode acts as a cathode side because the reduction reaction is a rate-determining step [51]. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is a quantitative spectroscopic technique applied to characterize the surface chemistry of materials or to measure the elemental composition, empirical formula, chemical state, and electronic state of the elements existing in materials [51].
At low load demand in the sudden load variation, the system requires low voltage impacting slow reaction, so the system temperature decreases related to an increase in relative humidity. This operating condition causes a flooding phenomenon that can be studied via a hysteresis loop. The different voltage values from upward current testing and downward current testing in the hysteresis loop indicate accumulated water inside the PEMFC. The water flooding effects catalyst oxidation, reactant starvation, electro-osmosis, and back diffusion [52].
Although there are a lot of merits, PEMFCs are still not close to perfect. The major concern is relevant to performance and lifetime of the fuel cell. The performance of PEMFC is influenced by many internal and external factors, for instance fuel cell design and assembly, degradation of materials, operational conditions, and impurities [53]. Hybridization is one of solutions to reduce the problems. The hybridization in the energy sector can be categorized into four systems as follows:
Hybridization between alternative energy and backup power unit, which is usually integrated with a high level to provide local energy security, is created to provide the intermittent availability of alternative energy sources.
Hybridization between alternative primary sources, two or more alternative primary sources, is used to deliver complementary advantages.
Hybridization between alternative energy and energy storage systems is the combination of energy storage with alternative energy. It is applied to ensure reliability and security of the distributed power generation system, while maximizing its benefit using alternative energy.
Hybridization constructed with various types of energy storage devices is utilized for fast-dynamic storage devices and long-term storage devices [54].
In terms of transportation applications, PEMFC material suffers from closely random power load cycling such as the frequent start-up and shut-down [55]. An interesting approach to improve the efficiency and increase the lifetime of the PEMFC is to incorporate the new emerged energy storage, named Supercapacitor, in the system. A system that include several sources and/or energy storage devices is also known as hybrid system.
The concept of fuel cell-supercapacitor hybridization is quite new compared to the fuel cell-battery hybridization. The advantages of supercapacitors over the batteries are the higher number of charge/discharge cycles and the higher current rating. Once the supercapacitor is connected to the system, the stress due to the transient current were handled by the supercapacitor. There are many topologies of fuel cell-supercapacitor hybridization but most of them are connected together via various types of DC/DC converter. The very new concept of fuel cell/supercapacitor hybridization is to connect them directly together, this method is call direct-hybridization [56, 57, 58, 59]. This concept is very interesting because it is able to increase efficiency, lifetime and reduce the system cost due to the absence of the DC/DC converter, which has significant impact on system design. Table 1 presents the crucial characteristics of a supercapacitor applied to the energy storage hybridization. The supercapacitor generates higher power than a battery does, and either charging or discharging time is faster than the ability of a battery. The fast charging and discharging characters can diminish materials degradation and PEMFC lifespan. Also, a supercapacitor can offer transient power to meet load demand in a short time. According to this advantage feature chemical kinetic energy can be recovered during regenerative braking occurring while the automobile is slowing down or stopping. The supercapacitor can also save energy and protect materials components inside PEMFCs from deterioration [60].
Characteristics | Supercapacitors | Batteries |
---|---|---|
Specific energy (Wh/kg) | 1–10 | 100–265 |
Specific power (W/kg) | 500–10,000 | 300–1500 |
Cell voltage (V) | 1.2–3.3 | 2.5–4.2 |
Capacitance (F) | 0.1–12,000 | — |
Discharge time | s-min | min-h |
Charge time | s-min | min-h |
Charge/discharge efficiency (%) | 85–98 | 90 |
Characteristics of battery and supercapacitor for hybridization.
Supercapacitors in a FCEV operate with two features; charging electricity by PEMFC and discharging electricity to PEMFC. Once electrical current is charged into a supercapacitor, the positive charges of electrolyte move to a negative electrode using electrostatic force, and the negative charges of electrolyte transfers to the positive electrode. Supercapacitors are normally composed of three main structures; electrolytes, electrodes, and separators. Typically, the electrode of the supercapacitor is made from carbon particles due to they have high surface areas and high porosity required for collecting the charge. During charging duration [61], the charges transfer through the pores, and then they are stacked layer by layer as shown in Figure 9. On the other hand, a discharging process is an inversion operation of the charging step. Supercapacitors discharge electricity to load based on charge volume and voltage change over time leading to speedy response to load.
The operations of a supercapacitor.
The powertrain configuration of the FCEV is usually comprised of supercapacitors connected with PEMFC. The supercapacitor and convertor can be directly connected with PEMFC. The supercapacitor can also be connected in parallel with PEMFC through energy converters. A converter is an electromechanical device transforming a source of direct current (DC) from one voltage level to another. The energy converter functions as an energy collector storing generated energy. If the system quickly requires energy, the generated energy will be supplied by the converter. This connection feature makes the system more complex and expensive. A directly connected structure that a supercapacitor directly connects in parallel with PEMFC plays a role in self-energy management, therefore, the system requires an energy management design. This scenario can directly protect against rapid power variations that can increase the dynamics of the hybridization system. It is worth noting that a directly connected structure between PEMFC and supercapacitor, a supercapacitor is a necessity to be pre-charged before utilization to limit inrush current [62]. A hybrid system requires PEMFC as the main power source and supercapacitors as an auxiliary energy source. The supercapacitors assist the system to reduce voltage fluctuations at an unstable demand. The supercapacitor also stores electrical energy from PEMFC when there is excess energy. In contrast to this, the supercapacitor will supply power to PEMFC once the load demand is high. This system acquires less equipment, less sophistication, and provides higher effectiveness [63].
The noticeable data from investigation of supercapacitor effect on PEMFC-supercapacitor direct hybridization performance related to a driving behavior protocol are shown Figure 10 [64]. Throughout the testing period, the PEMFC generates electricity to load demand and supercapacitor for charging process until the voltage level between PEMFC and supercapacitor are equivalent.
The polarization curves of PEMFC and PEMFC-SC direct hybridization (A) non-charging supercapacitor (B) pre-charging supercapacitor at 0.90 V.
The curves in Figure 10 can be separated into three transitions. In the first step of the test using a non-charging supercapacitor, the PEMFC charge electricity to load as indicated in low current density range (yellow area) until the electrical power of the PEMFC and supercapacitor is in the same level. Both of electrical providers supply electrical power to load demand in the second step. Due to supercapacitor properties, fast charging and discharging, the voltage of supercapacitor dramatically decreases observed in the third step. At this situation the voltage level of supercapacitor is lower than the one belongs to the PEMFC, thus, the PEMFC charges electricity to charge supercapacitor again. In pre-charging point of view, the voltage of PEMFC-SC direct hybridization is higher than PEMFC in all transition. It implies that the PEMFC and supercapacitor jointly supply electrical power to load demand. The supercapacitor assists the system to reduce voltage loss at high current density. The major voltage loss occurs from the mass transport [65].
It is estimated that over the next 15 years there will be more than a million electric vehicles in a small country as Thailand [66]. To reach this target both government and business sectors must provide infrastructure and technologies corresponding to technology for electric power supply within vehicles and electric vehicle charging station technology. Currently Thailand has 400 electric vehicle charging stations nationwide [67]. The acquisition of electric energy supplied for charging an electric vehicle is to connect a charging system through a meter to a transformer. If the EV demand grows significantly the share of electricity consumption from industrial and household sectors will be a serious issue. The EV driven 311 km requires approximately 40 kWh of energy which costs approximately 200 THB ($6.40) [68]. Thinking about 10,760,499 EVs in Bangkok, 430 million kWh, worth 2152 million baht per charge will be a requirement [69]. Using renewable energy sources to generate electricity for the charging system should give a positive effect on the country’s energy security. Furthermore, an energy storage is needed for the integrated alternative electricity generation. The part aim to emphasize the information related to applying redox flow battery for the integrated charging system. Redox flow battery is considered as the most promising candidate in terms of its unlimited capacity, flexible security design and fast-response [70, 71]. In 2025, the forecast of rechargeable battery in the world expects to increase flow batteries using from 0.4% to 6.6%. Interesting properties of redox flow batteries are 85% of efficiency, 13,000 of cycle life, and 5–80 $/MWh∙cycles of capital cost. The major costs of the redox flow battery are electrolyte solution at 37% and stack cell at 31% [72] (Table 2).
Parameters | Technologies | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Lead-acid | Li-ion | Electrolyzer/ Fuel cell | Redox flow battery | |
10–40 | 16 | 1 | 2–100 | |
1–10 | 20 | >10 | 6–120 | |
25–50 | 100–200 | 800–1300 | 10–50 | |
1 h | 1 h | > 1 h | 1–10 h | |
ms | ms | ms | ms | |
75–85% | 95% | 35–45% | 85% | |
3000 | 4000-8000 | 50,000 | > > 13,000 | |
2 | 3.6 | 1.23 | 0.7–2.2 | |
200–400 | 500–2500 | — | 150–1000 | |
300–600 | 175–400 | — | 600–1500 | |
150 | 150–200 | 200 | << 70 |
Performance of energy storage devices [72].
The priority performance of battery can be considered as following data.
The power of flow battery is defined by the size and number of cells.
The energetic capacity is set by the amount of electrolyte stored in the reservoirs.
A conventionally single cell of the redox flow battery system consists of two external tanks storing electrolytes, electrodes both anode and cathode sides, a membrane separator, and pumps to generate circulation system. In a discharging process, the anolyte solution is fed in the anode side by the pump and electrolyte flow on bipolar. The electrolyte diffuses through the electrode and it occurs oxidation reaction creating electrons. The electrons move back from an electrode to a bipolar plate and take path around an electrical circuit from the anode side to cathode side. The charge-carrying species directly transfer from the anode to the cathode passing the ion-exchange membrane separating the anolyte and catholyte solution. The catholyte solution is fed in the cathode side, flows on the bipolar plate, and flows via a porous electrode occurring a reduction reaction where catholyte combines with the electron and proton. Once the flow battery is charged, a reduction takes place in the anolyte, while an oxidation is in the catholyte (Figure 11) [73, 74].
The schematic diagram of a redox flow battery.
There are rational decisions for using redox flow battery as a generator in charging station as following examples. People mainly recharge vehicles between 7:00 to 9:00 am, and between 18:00 and 20:00 pm. Grid operators would not be capable to suppress peak power requirements without critically oversizing installed power. Supplement a battery to a fast charging station is a feasible approach to alleviate the oversizing installed power. This electric storage system acts as a buffer to decrease the peak power request on the network without increasing EV charging time [75]. In this situation, the redox flow battery charges installed power during low electricity demand periods to supply electricity for the fast charging. The redox flow battery possesses specific characteristics; ability to decouple rated power from rated capacity, good design flexibility, and nearly unrestricted life. Additionally, the liquid electrolyte contained in the redox flow battery system allowing their installation inside deactivated underground gas container located at gas stations. This installation method authorizes a transition of a conventional gas station to a commercial charging station [76, 77].
In terms of research related to a scaled-up vanadium redox flow battery for HEVs [78], it rapidly charged by electrolyte replacement making it attractive for charging EVs or HEVs. In the not so distant future, redox flow batteries will be useful for EVs, forklift truck, and golf-cart. EVs used for long journey distance may be conceivable if the infrastructure is in place. PEMFC can be another option for charging station when integrated system as primarily renewable source/electrolyzer/PEMFC is constructed. According to these two systems, the wind/PEM electrolyzer/ compressed hydrogen/PEMFC (Figure 12
(A) the overall process of electricity production initiated by a wind turbine. (B) the overall process of electricity generation initiated by a solar cell [
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Management",slug:"environmental-sciences-waste-management"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:5,numberOfWosCitations:23,numberOfCrossrefCitations:20,numberOfDimensionsCitations:47,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"887",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8796",title:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"413211c08d7fafecdcaca36f521d4cd6",slug:"environmental-chemistry-and-recent-pollution-control-approaches",bookSignature:"Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña, Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Robina Farooq, Rajendra Dongre and Sara Riaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8796.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255072",title:"Dr.",name:"Hugo",middleName:null,surname:"Albeiro Saldarriaga Noreña",slug:"hugo-albeiro-saldarriaga-norena",fullName:"Hugo Albeiro Saldarriaga Noreña"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"65862",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84777",title:"Mycoremediation in Soil",slug:"mycoremediation-in-soil",totalDownloads:1892,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"The chapter reviews the most important researches on the use of micro- and macrofungi in the bioremediation of contaminated soils. In particular, the main classes of soil pollutants in Europe (heavy metals, mineral oils, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), monoaromatic hydrocarbons, phenols and chlorinated hydrocarbons (CHCs)), together with the emerging contaminants (i.e. endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and pharmaceutical-personal care products (PPCPs)) are considered. A description of the fungal species (saprotrophic and biotrophic basidiomycetes) and biodegradative extracellular (laccases and class II peroxidases) and intracellular (cytochrome P450 monooxygenases and glutathione transferases) enzyme classes is reported. Moreover, the chemical-physical parameters that influence the biodegradation process are examined, and the biostimulation and bioaugmentation strategies are described. A specific attention is paid to the microcosm studies, at the laboratory scale, which are an essential approach to evaluate the feasibility of a biodegradation process.",book:{id:"8796",slug:"environmental-chemistry-and-recent-pollution-control-approaches",title:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches",fullTitle:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches"},signatures:"Francesca Bosco and Chiara Mollea",authors:[{id:"93865",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca",middleName:null,surname:"Bosco",slug:"francesca-bosco",fullName:"Francesca Bosco"},{id:"96159",title:"Dr.",name:"Chiara",middleName:null,surname:"Mollea",slug:"chiara-mollea",fullName:"Chiara Mollea"}]},{id:"68347",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88339",title:"Bioremediation of Heavy Metals",slug:"bioremediation-of-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:1468,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Exposure to lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), and selenite (SeO3−2) consider the main heavy metals that threat human health. These heavy metals can interfere with the function of vital cellular components. Soil heavy metal contamination represents risks to humans and the ecosystem through drinking of contaminated groundwater, direct ingestion or the food chain, and reduction in food quality. Bioremediation means cleanup of polluted environment via transformation of toxic heavy metals into less toxic form by microbes or its enzymes. Otherwise, bioremediation by microbes has limitations like production of toxic metabolites. The efflux of metal ions outside the cell, biosorption to the cell walls and entrapment in extracellular capsules, precipitation, and reduction of the heavy metal ions to a less toxic state are mechanisms to metals’ resistance.",book:{id:"8796",slug:"environmental-chemistry-and-recent-pollution-control-approaches",title:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches",fullTitle:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches"},signatures:"Medhat Rehan and Abdullah S. Alsohim",authors:[{id:"175766",title:"Dr.",name:"Medhat",middleName:null,surname:"Rehan",slug:"medhat-rehan",fullName:"Medhat Rehan"}]},{id:"68268",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88207",title:"Arsenic Phytoremediation: Finally a Feasible Approach in the Near Future",slug:"arsenic-phytoremediation-finally-a-feasible-approach-in-the-near-future",totalDownloads:1075,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Arsenic, a class-1 carcinogenic, is a ubiquitous metalloid found in the atmosphere, soils, natural waters, and organisms. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that hundred million people worldwide might be chronically exposed to arsenic in drinking water at concentrations above the safety standard. Conventionally applied techniques to remove arsenic species show low removal efficiency, high operational costs, and high-energy requirements. The biological methods, especially phytoremediation, could be cost-effective for protecting human health and the environment from toxic metal contamination. Plants, as sessile organisms, have developed an extraordinary capacity to tolerate arsenic through three main strategies: uptake repression, sequestration into the vacuole, or extrusion. Therefore, arsenic perception and tolerance require a coordinated response that involves arsenic transporters, extrusion pumps, vacuole transporters, and the activation of the phytochelatin biosynthetic pathway. For phytoremediation to become a feasible strategy for arsenic removal from contaminated sites, it is essential to completely understand the molecular mechanisms of arsenic uptake, extrusion, and sequestration, as well as how this response is coordinated. The new genome-wide technologies provide a unique opportunity to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying arsenic perception and accumulation in plants that will open up new possibilities for phytoremediation of arsenic-contaminated waters and soils.",book:{id:"8796",slug:"environmental-chemistry-and-recent-pollution-control-approaches",title:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches",fullTitle:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches"},signatures:"Cristian Mateo, Micaela Navarro, Cristina Navarro and Antonio Leyva",authors:null},{id:"69539",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84208",title:"Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Agriculture: A Comparative Analysis",slug:"greenhouse-gas-emissions-of-agriculture-a-comparative-analysis",totalDownloads:722,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Greenhouse gas emissions are accounted by greenhouse gases inventories, which must be produced by common accounting rules, called Guidelines, which are endorsed by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). These inventories are fundamental to analyze the impact of agriculture on emissions, and as example of the difficulty and complexity of implementation of the guidelines, a comparative study is made on emissions from Agricultural Soil Management (CRF category 3D source) utilizing biological nitrogen fixation. The analysis carried out for the N2O emissions under this section of the agrarian sector of Spain, Europe, New Zealand, Canada and the USA, inventories and national communications from Argentina and Brazil permit to observe the wide spectrum of approaches and the importance of the management of the accounting rules to be used mainly if we need that the impact of mitigation policies are captured in a direct way by the inventory. New technologies could introduce changes in the rules and can be utilized for reducing emissions, and examples are also analyzed.",book:{id:"8796",slug:"environmental-chemistry-and-recent-pollution-control-approaches",title:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches",fullTitle:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches"},signatures:"Dionisio Rodríguez",authors:null},{id:"65795",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84548",title:"Progressive Research in the Molecular Mechanisms of Chronic Fluorosis",slug:"progressive-research-in-the-molecular-mechanisms-of-chronic-fluorosis",totalDownloads:1103,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Long-term excessive intake of fluoride (F) leads to chronic fluorosis, resulting in dental fluorosis and skeletal fluorosis. Chronic exposure to high doses of fluoride can also cause damage to soft tissues, especially when it passes through the blood-brain, blood-testis, and blood-placenta barrier, causing damage to the corresponding tissues. Fluorosis has become a public health problem in some countries or regions around the world. Understanding the pathogenesis of fluorosis is very important. Although the exact mechanism of fluorosis has not been fully elucidated, various mechanisms of fluoride-induced toxicity have been proposed. In this chapter, we will introduce the research progress of the mechanism of fluorosis, focusing on dental fluorosis, skeletal fluorosis, nervous and reproductive system toxicity, and influential factors related to fluoride toxicity (i.e., genetic background, co-exposure with other element). In addition, the application of proteomics and metabolomics in the study of the pathogenesis of fluorosis is also introduced. Currently, there is still no specific treatment for fluorosis. However, since fluorosis is caused by excessive intake of fluoride, avoiding excessive fluoride intake is the critical measure to prevent the disease. In endemic regions, health education and supplement diet with vitamins C, D and E, and calcium and antioxidant compounds are important.",book:{id:"8796",slug:"environmental-chemistry-and-recent-pollution-control-approaches",title:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches",fullTitle:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches"},signatures:"Liming Shen, Chengyun Feng, Sijian Xia, Yan Wei, Hua Zhang, Danqing Zhao, Fang Yao, Xukun Liu, Yuxi Zhao and Huajie Zhang",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68347",title:"Bioremediation of Heavy Metals",slug:"bioremediation-of-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:1472,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Exposure to lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), and selenite (SeO3−2) consider the main heavy metals that threat human health. These heavy metals can interfere with the function of vital cellular components. Soil heavy metal contamination represents risks to humans and the ecosystem through drinking of contaminated groundwater, direct ingestion or the food chain, and reduction in food quality. Bioremediation means cleanup of polluted environment via transformation of toxic heavy metals into less toxic form by microbes or its enzymes. Otherwise, bioremediation by microbes has limitations like production of toxic metabolites. The efflux of metal ions outside the cell, biosorption to the cell walls and entrapment in extracellular capsules, precipitation, and reduction of the heavy metal ions to a less toxic state are mechanisms to metals’ resistance.",book:{id:"8796",slug:"environmental-chemistry-and-recent-pollution-control-approaches",title:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches",fullTitle:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches"},signatures:"Medhat Rehan and Abdullah S. Alsohim",authors:[{id:"175766",title:"Dr.",name:"Medhat",middleName:null,surname:"Rehan",slug:"medhat-rehan",fullName:"Medhat Rehan"}]},{id:"68504",title:"Biological Remediation of Phenoxy Herbicide-Contaminated Environments",slug:"biological-remediation-of-phenoxy-herbicide-contaminated-environments",totalDownloads:989,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Phenoxy herbicides such as 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid (MCPA) are widely used in agriculture to control broadleaf weeds. Although their application has helped to increase the yield and value of crops, they are also recognized as a source of emerging environmental contamination. Their extensive use may promote contamination of soil, surface, and groundwater and lead to increased inhibition of plant development and soil toxicity. Hence, there is an urgent need to identify nature-based methods based on appropriate biological remediation techniques, such as bio-, phyto-, and rhizoremediation, that enable the effective elimination of phenoxy herbicides from the environment. Bioremediation typically harnesses microorganisms and their ability to utilize recalcitrant contaminants in complete degradation processes, while phytoremediation is a cost-effective, environmentally friendly strategy that uses plants to transform or mineralize xenobiotics to less or nontoxic compounds. Rhizoremediation (microbe-assisted phytoremediation), in turn, is based on the interactions between plant roots, root exudates enriched in plant secondary metabolites, soil, and microorganisms. Based on the above, this chapter presents current knowledge on the properties of phenoxy herbicides, as well as the concentrations detected in the environment, their toxicity, and the biological remediation techniques used for safe removal of the compounds of interest from the environment.",book:{id:"8796",slug:"environmental-chemistry-and-recent-pollution-control-approaches",title:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches",fullTitle:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches"},signatures:"Magdalena Urbaniak and Elżbieta Mierzejewska",authors:null},{id:"70249",title:"Bioremediation of Petroleum-Contaminated Soil",slug:"bioremediation-of-petroleum-contaminated-soil",totalDownloads:1099,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Petroleum is not only an important energy resource to boost the economic development, but also a major pollutant of the soil. The toxicity of petroleum can cause a negative impact on ecosystem, as well as the negative effects related to its carcinogenic for both animals and humans. In the present study, bioremediation as an alternative tool for restoration petroleum-contaminated soils was set forth, and focusing on the phytoremediatior plants, petroleum-biodegradable microorganism are responsible for the biodegradation of petroleum. In the present chapter, the bioremediation of petroleum-contaminated soil, as well as the influence factors of bioremediation are elaborated based on the recently studies. This will provide a novel understanding on bioremediation and help improve strategies for petroleum-contaminated soils remediation.",book:{id:"8796",slug:"environmental-chemistry-and-recent-pollution-control-approaches",title:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches",fullTitle:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches"},signatures:"Shuisen Chen and Ming Zhong",authors:null},{id:"63252",title:"Adsorptive Removal of Fluoride onto Different Waste Materials: Orange Juice Residue, Waste Seaweed, and Spent Cation-Exchange Resin",slug:"adsorptive-removal-of-fluoride-onto-different-waste-materials-orange-juice-residue-waste-seaweed-and",totalDownloads:1069,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"To effectively use waste materials in developing a sustainable society, adsorbents for removing trace or low concentrations of fluoride, which is difficult to be removed by conventional techniques, were prepared from three waste materials: orange juice residue, waste sea weed, and spent cation exchange resin. These adsorbents were loaded with tri- or tetravalent metal ions such as iron(III) and zirconium(IV), of which zirconium(IV) was found to be most suitable as the loaded metal ion. From the pH effect on adsorption, the adsorption mechanism was inferred, and adsorption and desorption was found to be controlled by changing pH values. The maximum adsorption capacities on zirconium(IV)-loaded orange juice residue, waste sea weed, and spent cation exchange resin were evaluated as 33.1, 18.1, and 37.6 mg/g, respectively, which were higher than those of most other adsorbents reported in literatures. They exhibited high selectivity for fluoride over other anionic species and high durability. Tests to remove trace concentrations of fluoride from actual waste plating solutions revealed that the concentration could be reduced below the acceptable level using small amounts of these adsorbents, i.e., it was reduced lower than 1.5 mg/dm3 (WHO standard) by adding 1 g of the adsorbents into 1 dm3 test solution.",book:{id:"8796",slug:"environmental-chemistry-and-recent-pollution-control-approaches",title:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches",fullTitle:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches"},signatures:"Katsutoshi Inoue, Hari Paudyal, Hidetaka Kawakita and Keisuke Ohto",authors:null},{id:"63393",title:"Characterization of the Youssoufia-Morocco-MineFluoride-Contaminated Water and Their Detrimental Effects on Human Health",slug:"characterization-of-the-youssoufia-morocco-minefluoride-contaminated-water-and-their-detrimental-eff",totalDownloads:829,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In Youssoufia, the second phosphate mining center of our country (Morocco), the drinking water needs of the rural population are of underground origins. Indeed, most of Youssoufia’s rural areas feed on traditional wells. The main purpose of this chapter is to evaluate the degree of contamination of mine water along the pumping canal by fluoride. Wells located near this channel were also analyzed to see the influence of the existence of black phosphate in this region on these wells. At the end of this analytical part, it is obvious to conclude that the dewatering waters of the black phosphate mines of Youssoufia, known as dewatering water along the canal, contain significant fluoride concentrations in the order of 3–4 mg/l on average and the waters of the wells located near this canal have fluoride concentrations higher than the standard recommended by the National Office of Drinking Water in Morocco and the World Health Organization which is 1.5 mg/l. Indeed, a number of residents residing in Youssoufia suffer from fluorosis.",book:{id:"8796",slug:"environmental-chemistry-and-recent-pollution-control-approaches",title:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches",fullTitle:"Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches"},signatures:"Moufti Ahmed",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"887",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:48,paginationItems:[{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103935",signatures:"Douglas Penaforte Cruz, Marinna Garcia Repossi and Lucianne Fragel Madeira",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81756",title:"Alteration of Cytokines Level and Oxidative Stress Parameters in COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104950",signatures:"Marija Petrusevska, Emilija Atanasovska, Dragica Zendelovska, Aleksandar Eftimov and Katerina Spasovska",slug:"alteration-of-cytokines-level-and-oxidative-stress-parameters-in-covid-19",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"81681",title:"Immunomodulatory Effects of a M2-Conditioned Medium (PRS® CK STORM): Theory on the Possible Complex Mechanism of Action through Anti-Inflammatory Modulation of the TLR System and the Purinergic System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104486",signatures:"Juan Pedro Lapuente",slug:"immunomodulatory-effects-of-a-m2-conditioned-medium-prs-ck-storm-theory-on-the-possible-complex-mech",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013. She relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the National Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to October 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is currently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI) Ambassador to Sri Lanka.",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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