Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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The timing of phenological events provides vital information for climate change investigation, natural resource management, carbon sequence analysis, and crop and forest growth monitoring. This book summarizes recent progresses in the understanding of seasonal variation in animals and plants and its correlations to climate variables. With the contributions of phenological scientists worldwide, this book is subdivided into sixteen chapters and sorted in four parts: animal life cycle, plant seasonality, phenology in fruit plants, and remote sensing phenology. The chapters of this book offer a broad overview of phenology observations and climate impacts. 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As a Senior Research Scientist at Earth Resources Technology Inc, he worked at NOAA/NESDIS through a contract from April 2005 to June 2012. He was a visiting associate research scientist of University of Maryland from June 2012-August 2013 and worked at NOAA/NESDIS. As an Associate Professor/Senior Research Scientist, he has been working in the Geospatial Sciences Center of Excellence at South Dakota State University since August 2013. 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\r\n\tGene expression is a fundamental biological reaction in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. It could be said that gene expression is just dependent on the process of how mature RNAs are made, but the mechanism is very much complicated. For example, initiation of transcription is executed by multiple proteins, including specific DNA-sequence recognizing transcription factors and RNA polymerases. Therefore, it is dependent on DNA elements that are present within promoters, enhancers, or terminators of some genes. R-loop formation and RNA splicing can also affect gene expression. Gene expression in eukaryotic cells is regulated epigenetically by DNA methylation, histone modifications, and poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation. Moreover, recent studies have shown that transposable elements, including retrotransposons, LINEs, and SINEs in the human genome affect gene expression systems.
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1. Introduction
The development of orthognathic surgery techniques and materials has allowed surgeons and orthodontists to standardize treatment of maxillomandibular deformities. Multidisciplinary treatment of skeletal deformities by orthognathic surgery in addition to orthodontics has become a routine strategy believed to result in functional and esthetic outcomes in adult patients.
When malocclusion is caused by severe skeletal discrepancies, the orthodontist can propose dentofacial orthopedics in growing children, dental compensation for skeletal deformity or orthognathic surgery combined with orthodontic treatment (when the major growth potential of the patient has been completed). The decision is based on clinical examination and cephalometric analysis, both of which aim to assess the amount of three dimensional discrepancy. Patients with functional and esthetic issues require a multidisciplinary approach involving orthodontic and orthognathic surgery to reposition the maxilla and/or the mandible in three dimensions. Such a therapeutic approach is considered as the best treatment; it corrects dentofacial deformities which cannot be treated by orthodontics alone [1].
The stability of results in addition to the functional well-being and aesthetic appearance approach the level of excellence. The issue of skeletal, dento-alveolar and soft tissue relapse is a matter of discussion, debate and controversy in the orthodontic literature. The aim of this chapter is to define the criteria for stability that must be complied during both preparatory orthodontic and surgery phases in orthognathic surgery, without over-timing the postoperative orthodontic phase.
1.1. Stability criteria of ortho-surgical treatment
The management of dento-skeletal dysmorphosis requires a team of specialists that mainly include orthodontists and maxillofacial surgeons. The ultimate aim of orthodontists is both to meet the patients’ expectations, and make effective sustainable interventions. Three treatment objectives, which form the basis in treating patients with dento-facial deformities, are fundamental in orthognathic surgery namely function, esthetics, and stability. Skeletal relapse is the most common complication following orthognathic surgery. Optimal treatment planning for maxillofacial surgery requires an understanding of postoperative skeletal stability, dento-alveolar position and the soft tissue response to skeletal movement. Accurate treatment planning and careful orthodontic and surgical protocols are essential to the achievement of treatment objectives; these have to be planned with collaborating partners upon initial consultation (Figure 1). [1]
Figure 1.
Factors influencing stability in orthognthic surgery treatment.[1]
2. Preliminary patient evaluation
A systematic examination is necessary to adequately evaluate and treat patients with dento-facial deformities. Treatment planning should start only when the orthodontist and surgeon have agreed on a final treatment plan. It is mandatory that the patient be well informed about the treatment plan and related possible disadvantages.
Indeed, efficacy is guaranteed when there is clear and effective communication between the orthodontist and the maxillofacial surgeon from the outset.
Socio-psychological assessment of the patient’s motives and expectations
Aesthetic facial evaluation involving frontal and profile analysis
Dental and occlusal oral function evaluation
Cephalometric radiographic evaluation which forms an important part of the database for orthognathic surgical treatment planning. Soft tissue, skeletal and dental analysis are helpful diagnostic guides.
Occlusion and study cast evaluation which includes examination for intra and inter- arch relationships.
The initial consultation aims to discuss the possible need for surgical procedure as part of the treatment to achieve optimal results. However, before treatment, it is important to put emphasis on those elements that are directly related to stability; some of these include operative age, the soft tissue and muscles, and mandibular inclination. [2, 3]
2.1. Preoperative age
Growth following surgery may result in relapse; surgical osteotomy and osteosynthesis have little influence on the mandibular jaw growth. The initial growth of the patient’s face and continuous remodeling processes may lead to an advantageous or disadvantageous change of position of the mandible after sagittal split osteotomy. [3] The inability to predict the potential growth of the mandible can lead to failure or recurrence when the surgical indication is established before the end of growth. This leads practitioners to adopt a cautious attitude. To minimize the risks of relapse due to continuous growth, surgery should only be recommended to patients when growth is complete.
2.2. Soft tissue and muscles
Although long-term studies of surgical orthodontic stability are sparse, many authors predict the importance of active and /or passive contractions exerted by muscles and/or post surgical skeletal recurrences due to soft tissue. [2] An examination of cervical soft tissues and orofacial muscles (in particular the tongue) at rest and during function requires due attention. This is illustrated in case 1 which was a 19-year-old female admitted for burn injuries following a home accident at the age of 6 yrs. Aesthetic imbalance and significant dento-skeletal deformity is due to post-burn contractures of the neck (Figures 2 and 3). Facial appearance is the patient’s main concern. Radiographic evaluation and cephalometric analysis showed the patient presented high values for mandibular length and plane angle (FMA= 38°). The Wits appraisal indicated a large anteroposterior discrepancy between the maxilla and mandible (AOBO=-6.5mm) (Figure 4). Only surgery can improve the aesthetics. The expected dental and soft tissue changes to be affected by the preoperative orthodontic treatment are illustrates by cephalometric tracing. The surgical plan consisted of two-jaw surgery (Figure 5).
Lefort I maxillary osteotomy is used to perform advancement and expansion of the maxilla and a slight superiorly repositioning is needed to allow the mandible to auto-rotate and close the openbite.
Bilateral sagittal split osteotomy for setback of the mandible.
Preoperative orthodontic treatment planning included teeth alignment without extraction and provision of good arch form assisted by maxillary expansion (Figure 6).
But the project initially conceived can only succeed after surgical repair of cervical skin tissue, the only guarantee of stability after orthognathic surgery. Lingual Frenectomy, re-education for tongue position during swallowing are modalities that help stability.
Figure 2.
Frontal view, profile and smile of the patient before treatment: Female, 19 years of age, characteristics long face pattern, prognathism and vertical growth pattern, scar contracture due to neck burn and increased interlabial gap.
Figure 3.
Pre-treatment intra-oral photographs: frontal lateral occlusion shows severe open bite and maxillary anteroposterior and transverse deficiency. Constricted maxillary arch explains the crowding in the anterior maxilla.
Figure 4.
Pre-treatment orthopantomogram and lateral teleradiogram of skull.
Figure 5.
The orthodontic visual treatment objective illustrates the desired presurgical orthodontic tooth movement and predicts the surgical repositioning of the jaws and subsequent soft tissue changes. It has a key role in choosing dental extractions, if needed.
Figure 6.
Immediate preoperative intraoral photographs. Treatment did not need dental teeth extraction and the aim of preparatory orthodontic stage was to establish a good arch form in the maxillary and mandibular arches.
2.3. Presurgical skeletal pattern
The influence of the mandibular plane angle on horizontal and vertical skeletal stability has been shown in several studies. [3, 4] High angle patients have a greater risk of relapse after receiving bilateral sagittal split ramus osteotomy than low and normal–angle patients. Patients with a low mandibular plane angle, compared to high and normal angle patients, appear to have a more predictable procedure. Then, patients with a low mandibular plane angle have increased vertical relapse when advancement surgery is indicated; whereas patients with a high mandibular plane angle have more horizontal relapse. [3] Because the muscles of mastication are lengthened in the ramus area, they tend to return to their original positions, rotate the mandible in a clockwise movement, open the bite, and cause relapse. To minimize the risk of relapse, patients should be selected carefully; isolated mandibular advancement or setback should not be performed for patients with high mandibular plane angles. [3]
3. Defining treatment objectives
Therapy planning should be clear and precise and the objectives need to be defined with collaborative partners before a final treatment planning decision:
Focus of the objective of surgery should center on osteotomy choice and its site;
Orthodontic objective conditioned by the surgical objective, will consist of determining the necessary strategies to reduce preliminary occlusal obstacles and the rebalancing of the dentoalveolar system.
Starting cases orthodontically and then, if unsuccessful, referring them for surgery often produces compromised results. [5] It is, therefore, important to prioritize problems and think of potential solutions; this way one can define the objectives of each treatment step. The initial treatment plan must be established following a discussion between the different parties responsible for the smooth implementation of the various steps of the treatment plan.In fact, cephalometric and occlusal simulation setup permits the practitioner to project the occlusal dental and facial skeletal result, to ascertain and determine a suitable orthodontic surgical protocol. Those set-up demonstrates the general reharmonization of the teeth, the jaw and the face. It can then be used as a reference instrument in discussions with the surgeon and patient, and can be modified at all times according to the particular needs. The set-up is, and remains, an estimation which supplies simple quantitative proportional and comparative data. We can record all the data in it (Figure 7). [6]
The use of information technology in dental studies and orthodontics in particular, has contributed to the use of set-up scanning. A 3D simulation system has been developed for orthognathic surgery ; it helps integrate the shape data of the teeth, jawbone and face into the same coordinate system on a computer. The movement of bone associated with mandibular osteotomy and the subsequent changes in the facial form can thus be estimated preoperatively. [7]
The three-dimensional setups allow orthognathic surgery simulation through:
Integration of the dental arch using a three-dimensional digital model and accurate face scan of the patient.
Simulation of different possible osteotomies (Lefort, Obwegeser genioplasty), and removal of bone fragments.
Visualization of contact points.
Realization of a morphing orthognathic surgery
Figure 7.
Surgical visual treatment prediction The presurgical setup can assist surgical diagnosis accurate prediction of the postoperative skeletal, dental and facial profile and has become an essential part of the diagnostic and treatment planning procedure of combined surgical-orthodontic therapy.
4. Surgical treatment
The treatment protocol includes three distinct, but successive steps: Orthodontic phases of preparation are enacted prior to surgical treatment. Generally speaking, the stability of expected results depends on both meeting pre-defined objectives for each step as well as on the smooth and proper course of treatment. Otherwise, it could also be compromised by incomplete orthodontic treatment and yield unfavorable outcomes in orthognathic surgery or functional occlusal imbalance following treatment (Figure 8). [8]
Successful surgical correction of dentoskeletal cases is determined by both pre- surgical-orthodontic treatment (which eliminates dental compensation), correct surgical planning, and postoperative orthodontic therapy applied to refine the patient\'s occlusion. Fixed appliances are normally used in both of these orthodontic stages.
Figure 8.
The aim of surgical correction is to achieve the right occlusal and skeletal relationships and correct esthetics simultaneously.
In orthognathic surgery cases, orthodontic treatment objectives are for the most part different from those used in conventional orthodontics. The purpose of pre-surgical orthodontics is to position the teeth to the most desirable position in preparation for surgery, to restore the anteroposterior and vertical positions in addition to coordinating incisors. Two main elements must prevail during this first phase: Incisors decompensation and transverse and dental arch coordination. [1, 9]
4.1.1. Anteroposterior dental decompensation
In the presence of a bone gap, teeth manage to maintain an occlusion with dental compensation in three dimensions.
In the sagittal plane, overjet does not represent magnitudes of bone gap. However, during surgery, bone bases are mobilized to allow dental occlusion [10] in this context, it is clear that the relationship between anterior and posterior bases of incisors determines the magnitude of anterior-posterior relocation of the bone base. [11]
Presurgical orthodontic treatment aims to decompensate incisor inclination toward normal values. It is therefore necessary to define beforehand the objective of the "terminal incisor position”. Therefore In the case of skeletal class II, the lower incisors are proclined while the upper incisors are lingual retroclined (Figure 9). In Class III, the reverse pattern is observed; upper incisors are proclined while the lower incisors are retroclined (Figure 13). Bone gap is compensated for by teeth inclination [10] presurgical intra-arch objectives include positioning of the incisors in “ideal” positions, establishment of correct torque, and elimination of tooth-size discrepancies so as to permit the establishment of Class I canine and molar relationships after surgery. In orthognathic surgery cases, extraction patterns, and types of mechanics used are frequently the reverse of those used in conventional orthodontics. [11] Very often in skeletal Class II, the first premolars are extracted in order to cover mandibular incisors and obtain a Class I canine relationship. Extraction of the second premolars allows in recovery of the upper incisors and the mesial movement of upper molars. The ultimate goal is to achieve a Class I molar relationship (Figures 10- 12).
Figure 9.
Dental compensation in skeletal Class II malocclusion
Figure 10.
Direction of incisor decompensation in Class II malocclusion: the lingual inclination of the lower incisors is increased and in some cases (Class II.1 malocclusion), the upper incisors retroclined
Figure 11.
Classic pattern extraction of 15, 25, 34 and 44 in order to increase the overjet and presurgically decompensate for the malocclusion. The presurgical position of the teeth dictates the teeth removal and the surgical movement of the jaws and ultimately the soft tissue facial balance.
Figure 12.
Extraction of 34 and 44 only can be justified
As for skeletal Class III, extraction of upper first premolar is enacted to reposition upper incisors and obtain Class I canine relationship. (Figure 14) Extraction of the 2nd premolars is not systematic given that therapeutic Class II molar is tolerated from an occlusodontic perspective. (Figures 15, 16) In fact, presurgical objectives in the sagittal plane focus on removal of dental compensations. However, decompensation represents security for stable occlusion and improved aesthetics.
Figure 13.
Dental compensation seen in skeletal Class III malocclusion
This may require the use of Class III elastics in Class II cases (and vice versa), thus allowing for maximal surgical correction of the underlying skeletal deformity.
Figure 14.
Direction of incisor decompensation in Class III malocclusion: the labial inclination of the lower incisors is increased and the upper incisors reduced
Figure 15.
Classic pattern extraction of 14, 24, 35 and 45 in order to increase the negative overjet and presurgically decompensate for the malocclusion. Correct planning of the orthodontic tooth positioning before surgery will enhance the surgical potential and, hence, the esthetic result.
Figure 16.
Extraction of 14 and 24 is often sufficient and molar Class II acceptable.
4.1.2. Transverse arch coordination
One goal of presurgical orthodontics is that maxillary and mandibular transverse diameters coincide for a reasonable intercuspation after surgery. [10] It is clearly established that both vertical and horizontal recurrence correlate with dental arches in coordination and the persistence of occlusal interferences. The resulting occlusal imbalance is closely related to orthodontic preparation, sometimes without extraction [12] in the transverse plane; differentiation of skeletal from dental problems as well as identification of relative and absolute discrepancies should be carried out presurgically. Orthodontic or surgical expansion should be used, depending on individual circumstances (Figure 17). [11]
Figure 17.
Dental arch width must be assessed preoperatively by measuring and comparing the distance between the mesiolingual cusps of the maxillary first molars versus the central fossae of the mandibular first molars. In this case, there are skeletal transverse deficiencies which must be corrected by surgical maxillary expansion.
In the absence of a major transverse problem, arch compatibility is generally achieved by coordination. [11] This is true for class II cases, where transverse shift goes unnoticed as revealed by the manipulation in the corrected position. This is a favorable orthodontic work so that both arches engage properly when the surgical mandibular advancement is performed.
Surgical disjunction or surgically assisted expansion can help to prevent transverse recurrence related to excessive teeth release. [10] Study casts carried out at the end of orthodontic preparation are essential; they allow rectifying any condition that may potentially lead to complications, and thus affects the success and stability of the surgical procedure. [13]
4.2. Surgical phase
The order of importance begins with the direction and amount of skeletal movement, the type of fixation used, and finally, the surgical technique. [3, 14] Other factors were also stated, namely, the maxillomandibular order or surgery-orthodontics[15- 17]
4.2.1. Direction and amount of surgical movement
In a report on the hierarchy of stability in orthognathic surgery, Proffit ranked isolated maxillary advancement as the second most stable orthognathic surgical procedure after maxillary upward positioning; the latter was performed more than maxillary advancement with or without mandibular setback. [13, 14]
4.2.1.1. Maxillary upward
Maxillary impaction is recommended in the case of patients with dolichofacial condition and vertical maxillary excess. Excellent skeletal stability is achieved in 90% of the cases, irrespective of the type of osteosynthesis used. [14] Such stability is due to the physiological occlusal adaptation related to mandible rotation. Interocclusal space is then maintained. [14, 18]
In asymmetry correction of the maxilla characterized by the inclination of the occlusal plane, surgery combines maxillary impaction and mandibular surgery. The maxillary component of this asymmetry correction is considered stable [19]
4.2.1.2. Mandibular advancement
Sagittal split ramus osteotomy (SSRO) is a well-established procedure for correcting mandibular retrognathism. [20] The literature contains a number of studies on postoperative changes after SSRO. At retention phase, relapse occurred due to the increase in mandibular plane and ANB angle, and an increase in overjet. [19, 21] The etiology of relapse is multifactorial, involving the proper seating of the condyles, the amount of advancement, the soft tissue and muscles, the mandibular plane angle, the remaining growth and the skill of the surgeon. [3, 8, 21] It is believed that orthosurgical treatment for the correction of Class II with mandibular advancement could be stable, provided the amount of skeletal movements and the circumjacent soft tissues are respected. Advancements over 10mm lead to horizontal relapse. [14, 21, 22] In systematic review that evaluate horizontal relapse in bilateral sagittal split advancement osteotomy, it was shown that advancements in the range of 6 to 7 mm or more predispose to horizontal relapse. [3]
4.2.1.3. Maxillary advancement
Maxillary advancement could be stable, provided that skeletal movements, as recommended by some others, were under 6, 8 or 10mm. In fact, the use of rigid fixation and bone grafting for good stability of maxillary advancement up to 6 mm showed no recurrence. [14, 19, 23- 25] For a maxillary advancement of less than 8mm, it was suggested that the maxillary maintain its horizontal postsurgical position (less than 2 mm) in 80% of the cases; a risk of recurrence between from 2 and 4 mm can be seen in 20% of the cases. [25]
4.2.1.4. Mandibular setback
The sagittal split ramus osteotomy (SSRO) and the intraoral vertical ramus osteotomy (IVRO) are well-established procedures for correcting mandibular prognathism. Both techniques have advantages and disadvantages; include bony contact between the distal and mesial segments and application for both advancement and retraction and the duration of intermaxillary fixation (IMF). Orthognathic surgeons must weigh up these advantages and disadvantages when deciding which surgical treatment to use in cases of mandibular prognathism. Another important factor for surgeons to consider is postoperative stability. While the literature contains a number of studies on postoperative changes after SSRO, a few reports concern post- operative stability after IVRO.
IVRO is a relatively simple technique, which is applicable for only retraction of the mandible. The postoperative changes and stability tend to be influenced by the surgical techniques employed and the skills of the surgeons. In the short term after IVRO, clockwise rotation was observed due a less bony contact between the proximal and distal segments during surgery. After this period of adaptive rotation, the mandible showed a slight tendency to relapse with forward movement up to 2 years after IVRO. [20] With bilateral sagittal split osteotomy setback (BSSO), the relapse is more frequent than vertical osteotomy. However, it is an effective treatment of skeletal class III and a stable procedure in the short and long term. Analyzing the different relapse rates in systematic review showed that main relapse mostly takes place immediate after surgery and in the short term. [2, 14] From the reviewed literature, it was conclude that skeletal relapse is very frequent and was influenced by the magnitude of surgical correction and the inclination of the ramus after surgery. But, compared with mandibular advancement BSSO, the amount of setback was correlated less frequently with the amount of relapse. Opinions differ and generally speaking, the father the distal segment is set back (more than 10mm), the greater the tendency for the proximal segment to rotate. Furthermore, maintaining the initial inclination of the ramus could therefore reduce the tendency to relapse. [2, 14, 22, 26] Other research suggested that post-operative relapse in mandibular setback surgery may relate to the pre-surgical skeletal pattern of each patient and the perimandibular connective tissue action. Additionally, some vertical mandibular relapse after setback surgery may be affected by the postural changes of the tongue and hyoid bone [26] However, it was reported that the role of suprahyoid muscles is less important after a mandibular setback than after advancement or a closing gap.[26,27] Correcting the open bite by orthognathic surgery directed only at the mandible has a high risk of relapse because of mandibular up-repositioning in a counter-clockwise rotation. A mandibular backward repositioning is equally performed to prevent open bite relapse. [28]
4.2.1.5. Maxillary advancement combined with mandibular setback
The mandibular setback is frequently combined with Le Fort I osteotomy for maxillary advancement when there is a greater discrepancy between the maxilla and mandible and greater labial projection. Surgical correction of Class III malocclusion after combined maxillary and mandibular procedures appears to be a fairly stable procedure for maxillary advancements up to 5 mm, independent of the type of fixation used to stabilize the mandible. Likewise, no statistically significant differences have been observed between the procedures conducted on both jaws versus the lower jaw only. [21, 29- 31] Over the past few years, the number of patients with mandibular prognathism as a component of a skeletal Class III problem who were treated with mandibular setback alone decreased remarkably, compared with outcomes in patients with two- jaw surgery. A number of reasons to explain such a tendency are listed below: [32, 33]
Restricting the amount of mandibular setback by simultaneously advancing the maxilla contributes to stability.
Facial appearance was better if simultaneous maxillary advancement allowed a smaller mandibular setback;
Large setbacks lead to airway reduction
The outcomes of isolated mandibular setback surgery were shown to be less predictable and less stable than desired.
The better control of the ramus position when 2-jaw surgery is performed
4.2.1.6. Maxillary expansion
Transverse maxillomandibular discrepancies are a major component of several malocclusions. The correction of skeletal transverse deficiency of the maxilla may be achieved surgically. [34]
The segmental maxillary osteotomy (SMO) is recommended when a moderate transverse defect of the maxillary bone in the amount of 5 to 6mm require correction. To increase the transverse diameter of the maxilla, maxillary expansion is simultaneously performed with Lefort I planned to correct all maxilla-mandibular discrepancies (vertical and sagittal repositioning). It consists at least to two osteotomy lines, one on either side of the palatine raphe, performed after orthodontic preparatory stage. [34, 35] Maxillary expansion is relatively simple, but treatment stability remains a common problem. Overcorrection and rigid osteosynthesis are recommended. In addition, the corrected maxilla should be reinforced with intraoral retention provided by a preformed palatal bar or splint. [14, 35]
The Surgically assisted rapid palatal expansion (SARPE) is used in cases of severe deficit estimated at more than 6 to 7mm; surgically-assisted maxillary expansion, which depends on osseous distraction osteogenesis the separating of segments of bone to create new bone and the movement of whole groups of teeth and their periodontium. This technique works by release of the maxilla bone resistances and assures excellent stability.
4.2.1.7. Genioplasty
The chin is subject to morphological anomalies in the sagittal (retrogenia or progenia), vertical (excess or insufficient height), or transversal (laterogenia) axes. Genioplasty, used alone or in conjunction with other maxillomandibular osteotomies, is an important and reliable technique for the esthetic treatment of the lower facial skeleton. It can be a powerful procedure to improve the facial profile by modifying the position of the chin bones in three planes. Genioplasty is a stable surgical procedure when used in conjunction with rigid internal fixation. So there is no significant relapse after genioplasty and bilateral sagittal split osteotomy or genioplasty alone after 12 months. In fact, the changes are minimal and hard to detect clinically. [36]
4.2.2. Osteotomy fixation (type and materials)
Osteotomy fixation technique is one of the factors that determine the horizontal and vertical postsurgical relapse potential. The short- and long-term outcomes of different fixation techniques are a topic of interest in the orthodontic literature. [37] In earlier years, maxillary osteotomies were stabilized using intraosseous wires. In the 1980s, rigid internal fixation of osteotomy segments using miniplates and/or screws were introduced in an attempt to decrease postsurgical relapse and to allow earlier mobilization of the mandible. In fact, miniplates were introduced for fixation in BSSO, and have several advantages compared with bicortical screw osteosynthesis, because of the stretching of the musculature and paramandibular tissues, the bilateral compound joints, the masticatory forces, and occlusion. [27, 37] A number of studies that addressed the value of rigid internal fixation reported that 50% of the total forward relapse of mandible occurred during the 6 weeks after surgery. In contrast, with wire fixation and maxillomandibular fixation, the mandible maintained its position or moved posteriorly during MMF fixation. [33] On the other hand, in study which investigates biomechanical stability of RIF, the relationship between screw placement configurations and stability was demonstrated. It was concluded that bi-cortical screws with a 2.3-mm diameter and triangular configuration were considered as a sufficient fixation tool for BSSO than the linear configuration. [38] However, there is a trend toward increase in relapse from short-term to long-term studies when bicortical screws are used. [3] Bicortical screws of titanium, stainless steel, or bioresorbable material show little difference regarding skeletal stability compared with miniplates in the short term. A greater number of studies with larger skeletal long-term relapse rates were evident in patients treated with bicortical screws instead of miniplates. [3] The use of bicortical screws or mono-cortical screws, together with plates, is the most demanding fixation procedure of the craniofacial skeleton when used in mandibular advancement patients. [8] It was also shown that the use of BSSO of the mandible with or without counterclockwise rotation of the occlusal plane for anterior open bite correction, increases stability in the vertical direction. [39] Thus, some of the limitations of metal plates and screws used for the fixation of bones have led to the development of plates made from titanium. Such a technique has been in use in orthognathic surgery for about two decades, because of their high biocompatibility and resistance to corrosion. In addition, titanium fixation produces stability for the osteotomy site and allows patients to use their masticatory system functionally immediately after surgery. [40] The development of bioresorbable osteosynthesis devices made it possible to avoid second surgery to remove titanium plates linked sometimes to palpability, infectious complications or allergies; although they are rare. However, concerns remain about the stability which was related to the movements in orthognathic surgery. [26, 40] The systematic reviews of bioresorbable versus titanium fixation for orthognathic surgery, have shown that bioresorbable fixation systems produce reliable skeletal stability. [40] However, it suggested no statistically significant difference for plate and screw fixation using either titanium or resorbable materials. There are a few studies about the stability of biodegradable devices osteosynthesis and it was recommended that these materials should be used with caution for bony movements of greater magnitude until their usefulness is evaluated in studies with large maxillary advancements. [30]
4.3. Postsurgical orthodontics
Postsurgical orthodontic treatment involves finalization of the occlusion and retention. Working wire and light up and down elastics or slightly Class II or Class III elastics ensures the refinement of the occlusion. This final stage is equally important to ensure stable results. It is not enough to place orthodontic retainers at the end of treatment. It is appropriate to finalize and fine-tune the occlusion with a view to achieve stability, function, and facial balance. [1, 41]
4.3.1. Functional balance conditions
Neutralizing the functional matrix at the end of treatment contributes significantly to stability of results. It is important to note that mastery of the neuromuscular environment is an important element of skeletal and dentoalveolar modeling of each patient. The stability of the result after treatment is therefore based on the diagnosis of muscle behavior, and functional rehabilitation.
This final phase of treatment is the best time to prescribe exercises for normalizing orofacial muscles and harmonizing skeletal relationships making rehabilitation more effective.
4.3.2. Occlusion balance conditions
The finishing and detailing phase, the last stage of active orthognathic surgery treatment, makes it possible to improve the occlusion, by adopting a number of criteria as defined by various authors; the ultimate goal is to improve the esthetic result, on the condition that treatment objectives during the pre-planning phase have been met.
Dental balance should be considered both statically and dynamically. Indeed, intra-arch condition inter-arch relationships, and balance provides functional comfort and lasting results.
Treatment stability depends in part on obtaining a "functional occlusion" consistent with the physiology of TMA. The quality of finishing for some researchers (Tweed) is sufficient as a natural retainer tool.
4.3.2.1. The sequence of ortho-surgical treatment
The sequence of steps of ortho-surgical treatment is illustrated through a clinical case: A 16-year-old patient reported aesthetic and psychological discomfort related to severe skeletofacial discrepancy. The patient also complained of functional difficulty during mastication and expressed concern at his inability to bite using the anterior sector of the dentition. In face and profile views, skeletal class III due to underdevelopment of the upper jaw and to mandibular deformity in frontal, vertical and sagittal dimension was noticed (Figure 18).
Intraoral examination showed severe molar and canine Class III, the absence of overbite and the marked negative overjet. The crowding of the superior incisors was confirmed in occlusal view. The position of the incisors had evidently compensated for the skeletal malocclusion (Figure 19).
The lateral teleradiogram and relative cephalometric values confirmed the diagnosis of serious skeletal Class III (Figure 20).
Figure 18.
Frontal view, profile and smile of the patient before treatment showing long and narrow face, concave profile, lack of upper lip support, with maxillary anteroposterior deficiency and mandibular anteroposterior excess. Clinically significant deviation of the mandible to the right is present.
Figure 19.
Pretreatment intraoral photographs: frontal, lateral and occlusion The Class III malocclusion is characterized by an anterior and posterior crossbites. Crowding is present in both arches (palate-position of maxillary lateral incisors) due to narrow maxillary dental arch and compensated mandibular incisors
Figure 20.
Pretreatment orthopantomogram and lateral teleradiogram of the skull. The orthopantomogram shows and impacted 18 and 28 that must be removed. The maxillomandibular disharmony and incisor compensations were evident. Both teleradiogram and cephalometric values showed lingual inclination of mandibular incisors and protrusion of maxillary incisors.
Given the severe skeletal disharmony, the treatment plan suggested was orthognathic surgery to improve both esthetic and functional problems. The surgery was followed by presurgical preparation of dentition. The treatment plan consisted of extraction of the first maxillary premolars to align the anterior arch, eliminate compensations and to establish ideal incisor, and second mandibular premolars position (Figure 21). The outcome of this preparation is evident in the postorthodontic presurgical intraoral and profile photographs and composite cephalometric tracing. The patient felt his profile was getting worse (Figures 22, 23)
Figure 21.
Intraoral views after presurgical orthodontic preparation The objective of presurgical treatment should be to create a harmonious form of the maxillary and mandibular dental arches independently. The use of class III elastics is necessary to increase the labial inclination of the lower incisors and the negative overjet and presurgically decompensate for the malocclusion.
Figure 22.
Pretreatment and presurgical profile views: The worsening of the profile was due to dental decompensation, with the incisors positioned on the bony bases as adequately as possible.
Figure 23.
Pretreatment and presurgical lateral teleradiographies and composite cephalometric tracing of the patient. Note the values illustrating the decompensation of incisors and the increase of Witts.
Surgical visual treatment objectives are shown in Figure 24. Two-jaw surgery was performed in this case. The maxilla was advanced and mandible setback with counterclockwise rotation by means of Lefort I maxillary and sagittal split osteotomies.
The postoperative views show the resolution of the main issues, the establishment of a bilateral molar and canine Class I relationship and correct overjet and overbite. The satisfactory aesthetic result in terms of profile appearance and smile line is evident from the extraoral photographs, which also show correct upper incisor exposure and normalization of the position of the bony bases. The curve in the contour line is more harmonious after surgical advancement of the maxilla and mandibular setback. (Figures 25- 27)
Figure 24.
Lefort maxillary osteotomy to superiorly reposition and advance the maxilla to allow the mandible to auto-rotate and close the openbite.
Figure 25.
Immediate postoperative intraoral views: the use of surgical arch wires along with controlled elastic therapy and exercise programs after fixation, greatly facilitate treatment.
Figure 26.
Clinical appearance and post surgical orthopantomogram and lateral teleradiogram of skull. Note the immediate postoperative changes and the osteosynthesis of the maxilla and the mandible with titanium miniplates and screws. The Witts and the ANB values illustrate the re-harmonization of the maxillomandibular relationship..
Figure 27.
Pretreatment and post-surgery composite cephalometric tracing illustrating the soft tissue, skeletal and dental changes.
The end results of treatment were gratifying (Figure 28).
Figure 28.
The changing profile during treatment and intraoral views after debonding
5. Conclusion
Stability of results depends on overall treatment plan. Successful treatment depends on a rigorous diagnosis and a treatment, a close collaboration between all the different members involved; all of which deal within predefined objectives using a highly personalized approach. Moderate to severe skeletal deformities often require a combined orthodontic and surgical approach for optimal function and best esthetic results. Indeed, given the development of orthodontic and surgery techniques, this approach becomes a fully-fledged form of treatment which belongs, quite naturally, in the arsenal of treatment we can offer our adult patients. Orthognathic surgery has created new and exciting opportunities in the treatment of patients with dentofacial deformities and has relieved the orthodontist of having only compromised treatment to offer patients with skeletal disharmony.
One needs to be fully convinced that ortho-surgical treatments should be in no way viewed as a game of chance. The main focus of orthodontic treatment should be on obtaining and maintaining long-term clinically satisfactory stability results. Without stability, the achievement of good function and satisfactory aesthetics is obviously not successful.
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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Stability criteria of ortho-surgical treatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. Preliminary patient evaluation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.1. Preoperative age",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.2. Soft tissue and muscles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.3. Presurgical skeletal pattern",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Defining treatment objectives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Surgical treatment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1. Preoperative / pre-surgical orthodontic phase",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"4.1.1. Anteroposterior dental decompensation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"4.1.2. Transverse arch coordination",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.2. Surgical phase",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.2.1. Direction and amount of surgical movement",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_4",title:"4.2.1.1. Maxillary upward",level:"4"},{id:"sec_12_4",title:"4.2.1.2. 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Stability after bilateral sagittal split osteotomy setback surgery with rigid internal fixation: a systematic review. J Oral maxillofac Surg. 2008; 66; 1634-43'},{id:"B3",body:'Jos CU, Vassalli IM, Stability After Bilateral Sagittal Split Osteotomy Advancement Surgery With Rigid Internal Fixation: A Systematic Review. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2009; 67; 301-13'},{id:"B4",body:'Guglielmi M1, Schneider KM, Iannetti G, Feng C, Martinez AY. Orthognathic surgery for correction of patients with mandibular excess: don\'t forget to assess the gonial angle. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2013; 71 (6) 1063-72.'},{id:"B5",body:'Jacobs JD, Sinclair PM. Principles of orthodontic mechanics in orthognathic surgery cases. American Journal of Orthodontics. 1983, 84 (5) 399-407'},{id:"B6",body:'Brunel JM, Garcia C. Orthodontic – surgical synergy. International Orthodontics. 2006; 4; 155-97'},{id:"B7",body:'Noguchi N, Tsuji M, Shigematsu M, Goto V. An orthognathic simulation system integrating teeth, jaw and face data using 3D cephalometry. Int. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg. 2007; 36: 640–45.'},{id:"B8",body:'Costa F, Robioni M, Polti M. Stability of sagittal split ramus osteotomy used to correct class III malocclusion : review of literature. Int J Adult Orthod Orthognath Surg 2001;16 (2) 121-29.'},{id:"B9",body:'Kim CS, Lee SC, Kyung HM, Park HS, Kwon TG. Stability of mandibular setback surgery with and without presurgical orthodontics. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2014; 72 (4) 779-87'},{id:"B10",body:'Sabri R. Objectifs orthodontiques en chirurgie orthognathique. Rev Orthop Dento Faciale 1995;29; 319-35.'},{id:"B11",body:'Proffit WR, White RP. combined surgical orthodontic treatment: who does, what, when?. Surgical orthodontic treatment: Mosby; 1991.'},{id:"B12",body:'Nam-Ki Lee, Young-Kyun Kim Jrba. Evaluation of post-surgical relapse after mandibular setback surgery with minimal orthodontic preparation, Journal of Cranio-Maxillo-Facial Surgery. 2013; 41 (1) 47- 51'},{id:"B13",body:'Ariane Hohoff A, Meier N, Stamm T, Ehmer U, JoosU. Optimizing presurgical orthodontic planning by means of the transverse coordinate simulation system (TCSS). Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery. 2002; 30; 75–86.'},{id:"B14",body:'56- Proffit WR, Turvey TA, Phillips C. Orthognathic surgery: a hierarchy of stability. International Journal of Adult Orthodontics and Orthognathic Surgery. 1996;11; 191-204.'},{id:"B15",body:'Béziat JL, Babic B, Ferreira S, Gleizal A. Justification for the mandibular-maxillary order in bimaxillary osteotomy. Rev Stomatol Chir Maxillofac. 2009;110; 323-326.'},{id:"B16",body:'Kim JY. Postoperative stability for surgery-first approach using intraoral vertical ramus osteotomy: 12 month follow-up. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2014: 1-6 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bjoms.2014.03.011'},{id:"B17",body:'Liou EJW, Wang YC, Huang CS. Surgery-first accelerated orthognathic surgery: postoperative rapid orthodontic tooth movement. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2011; 69; 781-85.'},{id:"B18",body:'Proffit WR, Phillips C, Turvey TA. Stability following superior repositioning of the maxilla by LeFort I osteotomy. American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics. 1987; 92: 151-61.'},{id:"B19",body:'Bailey LTJ, Cevidanes LHS, Proffit WR: Stability and predictability of orthognathic surgery. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 2004; 126: 274-77.'},{id:"B20",body:'Nihara J, Takeyama M, Takayama Y, Mutoh Y, Saito I. Postoperative changes in mandibular prognathism surgically treated by intraoral vertical ramus osteotomy. Int. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg. 2013; 42: 62–70.'},{id:"B21",body:'De Lir ALS, de Moura W L, Ruellas A C O, Souza MMG, Nojima LI. Long-term skeletal and profile stability after surgical-orthodontic treatment of Class II and Class III malocclusion. Journal of Cranio-Maxillo-Facial Surgery. 2013; 41; 296- 302.'},{id:"B22",body:'Eggensperger N. Skeletal relapse after mandibular advancement and setback in single jaw surgery. J oral maxillofac surg. 2004; 62 pages'},{id:"B23",body:'Bailey LT, Proffit WR, White RP. Trends in surgical treatment of Class III skeletal rela tionships. International Journal of Adult Orthodontics and Orthognathic Surgery. 1995; 10: 108-18.'},{id:"B24",body:'Arpornmaeklong P, Heggie AA, Shand JM. A comparison of the stability of single- piece and segmental Le Fort I maxillary advancements. Journal of Craniofacial Surgery. 2003; 14: 3-9.'},{id:"B25",body:'Proffit WR, Phillips C, Prewitt JW, Turvey TA. Stability after surgical-orthodontic correction of skeletal Class III malocclusion. 2. Maxillary advancement. International Journal of Adult Orthodontics and Orthognathic Surgery. 1991; 6: 71-80'},{id:"B26",body:'Kim YK, Kim YJ, Yun PY, Kim JW. Evaluation of skeletal and surgical factors related to relapse of mandibular setback surgery using the bioabsorbable plate. Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery. 2009; 37: 63-68.'},{id:"B27",body:'Kraft T, Bouletreau P, Raberin M, Etienne C, Breton P, Freidel M. Severe class III skeletons: long-term stability. Retrospective analysis of 12 cases. Rev Stomatol Chir Maxillofac, 2004 ; 105 (3) 153-59.'},{id:"B28",body:'Ito G, Koh M, Fujita T, Shirakura M, Ueda H, Tanne K. Factors related to stability following the surgical correction of skeletal open bite. Aust Orthod J. 2014; 30 (1) 61-6.'},{id:"B29",body:'De Haan IF, Ciesielski R, Nitsche T, Koos B. Evaluation of relapse after orthodontic therapy combined with orthognathic surgery in the treatment of skeletal class III. J Orofac Orthop. 2013; 74: 362-369.'},{id:"B30",body:'Costa F, Robiony M, Zorzan E, Zerman N, Politi M. Stability of skeletal Class III malocclusion after combined maxillary and mandibular procedures: titanium versus resorbable plates and screws for maxillary fixation. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2006; 64 (4) 642-51.'},{id:"B31",body:'Politi M, Costa F, Cian R, Polini F, Robiony M. Stability of skeletal class III malocclusion after combined maxillary and mandibular procedures: rigid internal fixation versus wire osteosynthesis of the mandible. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2004; 62 (2) 169-81'},{id:"B32",body:'Proffit WR, Phillips C, Turvey TA. Stability after mandibular setback: mandible-only versus 2-jaw surgery. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2012, 70: 408-14.'},{id:"B33",body:'Proffit WR, Phillips C, Dann Ct, Turvey TA. Stability after surgical-orthodontic correction of skeletal Class III malocclusion. I. Mandibular setback. International Journal of Adult Orthodontics and Orthognathic Surgery. 1991; 6 :7-18.'},{id:"B34",body:'Suri L, Taneja P. Surgically assisted rapid palatal expansion: A literature review. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 2008; 133: 290-302.'},{id:"B35",body:'Bouletreau P, Paulus C. Surgical correction of transverse skeletal abnormalities in the maxilla and mandible. International Orthodontics. 2012 ; 10 : 261-73.'},{id:"B36",body:'Talebzadeh N., Pogrel MA. Long-term hard and soft tissue relapse rate after genioplasty. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2001; 91(2) 153-6.'},{id:"B37",body:'Solano-Hernández B, Stylianos Antonarakis G, Scolozzi P, Kiliaridis S. Skeletal Anterior Open-Bite Malocclusion: A Systematic Review on Vertical Stability. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2013; 71: 98-109.'},{id:"B38",body:'Ming-Yih L, Chun-Li L, Wen-Da T, Lun-Jou L. Biomechanical stability analysis of rigid intraoral fixation for bilateral sagittal split osteotomy. Journal of Plastic Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery. 2010; 63: 451-55'},{id:"B39",body:'Nieblerova J, Folta R, Hanzelka T, Pavlìkovà G, Vik M, Klìma K, SamsonyanL. Stability of the miniplate osteosynthesis used for sagittal split osteotomy for closing an anterior open bite: an experimental study in mini-pigs. Int. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg. 2012; 41; 482–88.'},{id:"B40",body:'Yang L, Xu M, Jin X, Xu J, Lu J, Zhang C, Li S, Teng L. Skeletal stability of bioresorbable fixation in orthognathic surgery: A systemic review. Journal of Cranio-Maxillo-Facial Surgery. 2013, 1- 6'},{id:"B41",body:'Fourquet L, Göttle M, Bounoure G. Finishing and detailing, stability and harmony. Orthod Fr. 2014 ; 85 (1) 93-125.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Sana Alami",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Dento-facial Orthopedics, Faculty of Dental Medicine, Hassan II Ain Chok University in Casablanca, Morocco
Department of Dento-facial Orthopedics, Faculty of Dental Medicine, Hassan II Ain Chok University in Casablanca, Morocco
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1. Introduction
In obedience to the European Regulation CE 1493/99 [1], sparkling wines differ from still wines in the level of internal pressure of carbon dioxide that must be higher than three bars. Sparkling wines are classed in the function of the CO2 origin in two main categories: gasified wines when the carbon dioxide is from an exogenous source and natural sparkling wines when it comes from endogenous fermentation.
Gasified wines are produced simply by injecting carbon dioxide until reaching the desired internal pressure. Normally, these gasified wines have no geographical references, are very cheap and have much lower sensory quality than natural sparkling wines. Given their small interest in their sensory point of view they will not be considered in this chapter. In contrast, natural sparkling wines are obtained using a natural fermentation keeping all or a great proportion of the carbon dioxide inside the vessel in which it has been fermented.
There are different elaboration methods of natural sparkling wines depending on the type of vessel (bottle or tank), time of lees contact, the procedure of eliminating the lees, or if they have had one or two alcoholic fermentations. Moreover, some of these natural sparkling wines are protected by Appellations d’origine contrôlées (AOC) such as Champagne, Cava, Francia Corta, Prosecco, Asti, Crémant de Borgougne, etc.… In that case, each AOC determines the elaboration method, authorized varieties and aging time.
Sparkling wines considered as top quality, such as Champagne, Francia Corta and Cava, are mainly produced by the traditional method, also called for Champagne AOC “méthode champenoise”. The main characteristic of the traditional method is that after a first fermentation to obtain the base wine, a second fermentation, also called “prise de mousse”, is performed inside a closed bottle [2, 3]. This second fermentation inside the bottle, and especially the aging time in contact with the lees, completely transform the sparkling wine composition and represents therefore the main differential factor regardless of other sparkling wines produced using other methods [4, 5, 6]. During the time of contact of the wine with the lees, several processes occur (Figure 1) that explain why the sparkling wines produced by the traditional method generally have higher quality and complexity and are much better considered by the consumers.
Figure 1.
Influence of the lees on sparkling wine composition.
Briefly, once the second fermentation is completed, yeast autolysis begins [7]. Autolysis consists of the degradation process of yeast cell structures [8]. Autolysis involves the participation of hydrolytic enzymes, which, by degrading cell structures, cause the release of many substances such as amino acids, peptides, lipids, proteins, nucleotides, proteins, mannoproteins and polysaccharides [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. The release of peptides, proteins, mannoproteins and polysaccharides favors the integration of carbon dioxide, which improves the perception of effervescence in the palate and increases the foam stability [6, 16]. Mannoproteins and polysaccharides also play a positive sensory role by improving mouthfeel [17], whereas some peptides and proteins can contribute to wine sweetness [18]. Some amino acids, peptides and nucleotides are also reported to participate in the umami taste [19] and to be flavor enhancers. Finally, amino acids and lipids have been described as aroma precursors [20] that contribute to the aromatic complexity of sparkling wines.
It has been also reported that yeast lees exert antioxidant activity [21] and recently it has been demonstrated the ability of the lees to consume oxygen [22]. The mechanism by which the lees consume oxygen is not clear but it could be related to the oxidation of membrane lipids [23] or with their content in glutathione [24]. Regardless of the mechanism by which lees consume oxygen, it is clear that their presence slows down the oxidative evolution of the wine by consuming the oxygen that permeates the crown cap. This oxygen consumption by lees is probably the main reason why sparkling wines can usually age for a longer time than still white wines.
In synthesis, yeast autolysis completely modifies the composition of the sparkling wine and therefore also its sensory quality. For all these reasons, the most important AOC (Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée) for sparkling wines has established minimum ageing times to ensure that autolysis exerts an effect on their composition and quality. For the AOC Cava, the minimum ageing time is 9 months, though its premium sparkling wines are usually aged for longer. The AOC Cava contains two other categories of sparkling wines with extended ageing times. These are the Reserva and Gran Reserva, whose minimum ageing times are 15 and 30 months, respectively. Certain prestigious wineries produce Cavas with an even longer ageing time.
It appears, therefore, that autolysis favors the quality of sparkling wines, at least during the first few years. However, other phenomena take place in parallel—such as aromatic and color oxidation or an excessive lees flavor—which can damage the sensory qualities of these wines [22]. Therefore, we can ask ourselves until what time of aging the quality of the product is favored.
The chapter aims is to synthesize the main results that our research group has obtained on the influence of yeast autolysis on the composition and quality of sparkling wines. This study was carried out studying nine consecutive vintages and was developed in the PhD thesis of Pere Pons entitled “Yeasts autolysis on the manufacture of sparkling wines; influence of aging time on the release of polysaccharides and proteins and the consumption of oxygen by the lees” [25] that was part of the projects GLOBALVITI (global solution to improve wine production against climate change based on robotics, IT technology and biotechnological strategies and vineyard management) and CAVAWINNER (Study and Technological Improvement of the Traditional Processes for the Production of Cava) funded by the Spanish Centre for the Development of Industrial Technology (CDTI - CIEN program). To our knowledge, this is the longest time ever studied about sparkling wines from the AOC Cava.
2. Materials and methods
Figure 2 illustrates the experimental design. Briefly, this study was carried out using sparkling wines from nine consecutive vintages (2008–2016) from the Juve & Camps winery (AOC Cava, Sant Sadurní d’Anoia, Barcelona, Spain). All these sparkling wines were produced with grapes from the same vineyards and were elaborated as similarly as possible. The youngest sparkling wine (2016) was disgorged 3 months after “tirage” and the sparkling wines from the other vintages were also disgorged 3 months after having completed 1–8 years of aging, respectively. In all the cases the lees were recovered, washed, resuspended in a model wine solution and bottled for subsequent analysis. These bottles were inserted with a pill for measuring dissolved oxygen by luminescence (Nomasense TM O2 Trace Oxygen Analyzer). Aliquots of the lees from the nine consecutive vintages were also used for ultrastructural observation using scanning electron microscopy [15]. Consequently, this study was performed with sparkling wines and lees from the first to the ninth years of aging.
Figure 2.
Experimental design.
The sparkling wines were used for color [26], polysaccharides [27] and proteins [28] analysis, for measuring the foaming properties [29] and for tasting. In parallel, the oxygen concentration was measured periodically in the bottles in which the lees were transferred [22]. Exactly 1 year later the solution was centrifuged and used for polysaccharides and protein analysis [27, 28].
3. Results and discussion
Table 1 shows the CIELab coordinates of the sparkling wines. As expected, the blue-yellow CIELab component (b*) clearly increased as the aging time increased. These data confirm a fact that is well known by winemakers: the intensity of the yellow color progressively increases over time. Table 1 also shows the foaming properties of these sparkling wines. Both the maximal height of the foam (foamability [HM]) and the stable height of the foam (foam stability [HS]) showed a similar tendency, they increased between the first and second year of aging and decreased progressively afterward.
Aging time (years)
Lightness (L*)
Green-red component (a*)
Blue-yellow component (b*)
Foamability-Hs (mm)
Foam stability-Hs (mm)
1st
98.0
±
0.2
C
−0.88
±
0.06
CD
6.88
±
0.12
A
87
±
1
C
71
±
3
C
2nd
98.1
±
0.1
C
−1.02
±
0.04
BCD
7.69
±
0.08
B
170
±
1
E
93
±
3
E
3rd
97.9
±
0.1
C
−1.11
±
0.02
AB
8.78
±
0.07
C
110
±
5
D
81
±
1
D
4th
97.7
±
0.2
BC
−1.11
±
0.07
AB
8.66
±
0.21
C
80
±
4
BC
72
±
2
C
5th
97.4
±
0.0
B
−1.09
±
0.08
AB
9.87
±
0.13
E
76
±
4
BC
68
±
1
BC
6th
97.6
±
0.1
BC
−1.25
±
0.08
A
9.59
±
0.07
DE
61
±
1
A
53
±
3
A
7th
96.8
±
0.5
A
−1.05
±
0.03
ABC
9.39
±
0.02
DE
73
±
1
ABC
58
±
2
A
8th
97.6
±
0.1
BC
−1.00
±
0.10
BCD
10.77
±
0.19
F
71
±
4
AB
54
±
1
A
9th
97.4
±
0.2
B
−0.92
±
0.10
BCD
10.99
±
0.34
F
74
±
1
ABC
59
±
1
AB
Table 1.
CIELAB coordinates and foaming properties of the sparkling wines of different aging time.
Results are expressed and as mean ± standard deviation of three replicates. Different letters indicate the existence of statistical difference (p < 0.05).
Figure 3 shows the polysaccharide concentration of the sparkling wines of the nine consecutive vintages. In general, no clear trend was detected either in the total concentration of polysaccharides or in any of its different fractions of different molecular weight. This lack of tendency seems to contradict what should be expected from yeast autolysis, as it should theoretically increase its concentration over time. Nevertheless, other authors also found no clear trend in the evolution of the polysaccharide fraction during the aging of sparkling wines on lees [13, 30, 31].
Figure 3.
Changes in the polysaccharide content of sparkling wines over ageing time. LMW, low molecular weight fraction (40–7.5 kDa); IMW, intermediate molecular weight fraction (180–40 kDa); HMW, high molecular weight fraction (>180 kDa). Adapted from Pons-Mercadé et al. [15].
A possible explanation for this lack of trend maybe that polysaccharides are simultaneously released and removed from the media. Yeast autolysis may be a source of polysaccharides and mannoproteins [32]. However, polysaccharides can also disappear by precipitation [13], absorption by the riddling agents [33] and enzymatic degradation [30]. In addition, the variability among vintages may overlap making it very difficult to detect any tendency.
Figure 4 shows the protein concentration of the sparkling wines of the various vintages. Similar to what happened with polysaccharides, no clear trend was observed throughout aging time, neither in the concentration of total protein nor in any of its fractions of different molecular weight. Once again, these results may appear to contradict what is expected from yeast autolysis. However, other authors have also reported a similar erratic behavior [34, 35, 36].
Figure 4.
Changes in the protein content of sparkling wines over ageing time. LMW, low molecular weight fraction (50–25 kDa); IMW, intermediate molecular weight fraction (75–50 kDa); HMW, high molecular weight fraction (>75 kDa). Adapted from Pons-Mercadé et al. [15].
Similar to what happened with polysaccharides, this lack of tendency may be related to a balance between the proteins released from yeast autolysis and those that disappear due to bentonite absorption and enzymatic degradation [9, 34, 35, 37]. Furthermore, the variability in the protein concentrations of each vintage can make it difficult to conclude.
Since no tendency was observed for either polysaccharides or proteins, it was decided to study the release of these macromolecules from the lees using a different approach consisting of analyzing the wine model solutions that had been in contact with the lees for a year. Figure 5 shows the obtained results. The polysaccharides released in this model wine solution by the lees (Figure 5A) increased between the first (roughly 4 mg/L) and the second (roughly 6 mg/L) year of aging while decreasing progressively in the later vintages, reaching a minimum value in the ninth year of ageing (roughly 0.90 mg/L). The mannose concentration obtained from the hydrolysis of this polysaccharide (Figure 5B) showed very similar, which would confirm that they were mainly mannoproteins.
Figure 5.
Changes in the polysaccharide and protein content of sparkling wines over ageing time. A. Total polysaccharides; B. Mannose; C: Total protein; D. Polysaccharides released by lees; E: Proteins released by lees. Adapted from Pons-Mercadé et al. [15].
The total protein concentration released from the lees of different aging times in a model wine (Figure 5C) showed a similar pattern to that of the polysaccharides reaching a maximal value in the third year (roughly 0.32 mg/L) and a minimum value in the ninth year of aging (roughly 0.17 mg/L).
To reproduce the cumulative release effect of polysaccharides and proteins over the lees aging time, the concentrations of both macromolecules released from the first to the ninth year were added (Figure 5D and E). This simple approach shows a clear increase in the accumulated concentrations of both macromolecules over the ageing time. The total accumulation of polysaccharides at the end of the 9 years was 26.6 mg/L, while that of proteins was 2.4 mg/L. These values should be taken with caution since they reflect just one approach. Nevertheless, this data indicates that the release of polysaccharides and proteins from the lees during the ageing process was much lower than the usual concentrations present in these sparkling wines.
Another approach was carried out to illustrate the distribution of polysaccharides and proteins according to their origin (from the autolysis of lees or base wine) throughout the aging time. Figure 6 shows the percentage of polysaccharides (A) and proteins (B) from lees autolysis or base wines for total concentration in the sparkling wines. This figure clearly shows that the percentage of polysaccharides and proteins from lees autolysis was extremely low in the young sparkling wines. That means that during the first year of ageing, sparkling wine had only 2% of proteins and 3% of polysaccharides from the lees. These percentages increased as the ageing time increased and reached maximal values in the seventh year of ageing (14% for polysaccharides and 16% for proteins).
Figure 6.
Distribution of proteins and polysaccharides of sparkling wine according to their origin. Adapted from Pons-Mercadé et al. [15].
It is necessary to point out that only 88% of sparkling wines from AOC Cava are aged between 9 and 15 months and 78% of champagnes are aged between 12 and 36 months (data from the regulatory councils). Consequently, the majority of sparkling wines produced by the traditional method have percentages of polysaccharides and proteins from lees autolysis below 7%, and this value should even be lower in the youngest sparkling wines, especially those not produced by the traditional method.
As it was explained above, the bottles, in which the lees extracted from the sparkling wines were resuspended in a model wine solution, had been inserted with a pill for measuring dissolved oxygen by luminescence. The content of these bottles was saturated in oxygen and the oxygen concentration was monitored periodically for a year. Figure 7 shows the oxygen consumption kinetics of the lees from sparkling wines from the first to the ninth year of aging time [22]. The oxygen consumption of the Control-A model wine solution (without adding lees) and the oxygen intake in Control-B (solutions without lees and oxygen) were very low and can be considered negligible (data not shown). In contrast, the oxygen consumption of all the samples containing lees increased over time, demonstrating that the lees can consume oxygen.
Figure 7.
Oxygen consumption by lees extracted from sparkling wines of different aging times. Adapted from Pons-Mercadé et al. [22].
Moreover, this graph clearly shows that the lees of the first 3 years, especially those of the second year, consume much more oxygen than the lees of later years. It, therefore, seems clear that the ability of the lees of sparkling wines to consume oxygen increases between the first and second year and after tends to decrease throughout the aging period. The kinetic model proposed by Pascual et al. [38] was applied to these data to determine more precisely the total oxygen consumption capacity of the lees of these sparkling wines. Figure 8 shows that the lees from the second year are capable of consuming nearly the double oxygen than those of the first or third year. Subsequently, the annual oxygen consumption decreases drastically in the older lees.
Figure 8.
Total oxygen consumed in 1 year by the lees extracted from sparkling wines of different aging times. Adapted from Pons-Mercadé et al. [22].
The higher oxygen consumption of the lees of the second year could be related to the described progress of the autolysis process which, according to some authors, starts slightly after 4 months and is more intense during the second year [7, 32, 39, 40]. It should also be noted that the maximal oxygen consumption-ability of the lees of the second-year match with the maximal polysaccharide and protein release and with the maximal levels of the foaming parameters [15]. All of these data seem to indicate that autolysis is at its peak during the second year of aging.
In any case, it seems that the oxygen consumption by the lees decreases drastically after 3 years of aging whereas the entrance of oxygen inside the sparkling wine through the crown cap seems to be constant [41]. As long as the lees’ oxygen consumption ability is greater than the oxygen permeation, the sparkling wine will be protected against oxidation. However, we can wonder what would happen when the lees stop consuming enough oxygen? When this happens, oxygen will be consumed by other wine components, especially by phenolic compounds, which will cause browning and the appearance of hydrogen peroxide that will oxidize other wine compounds in the absence of free sulfur dioxide, especially aroma compounds. Oxidation will be greater or lesser depending on the composition of the sparkling wine, which is largely dependent on the vintage and the production process.
Figure 9 try to illustrate this complex balance showing the accumulated oxygen consumption by the lees in comparison with the oxygen intake across the crown cap considering the minimal value of oxygen permeability reported by Valade et al. [41]. The comparison of the two curves is just a theoretical approximation, but even so, it provides very interesting information.
Figure 9.
Accumulation of oxygen consumed by the lees in comparison with the oxygen permeability of the crown cap. Adapted from Pons-Mercadé et al. [22].
According to this approach, the oxygen permeability across the crown cap remains below the accumulated oxygen consumed by the lees during the first 3 years of aging time and exceeds it at roughly three and a half years. More exactly the interception point is at 3 years and 7 months. This data indicates that after this aging time, the oxygen consumed by the lees would not be high enough to compensate for the oxygen entrance which would probably lead to wine oxidation. It should be taken into account that this calculation was done considering the minimal value of permeability reported for crown caps and that any increase in this permeability would therefore entail an earlier point of intersection in time. For instance, with a 20% higher permeability the intersection would take place just after 2 years of aging. As aforementioned, this is only a theoretical approach based on our results but it is very useful to illustrate what happens during sparkling wine aging.
All these sparkling wines were tasted by a trained panel and the main results are synthetized in Figure 10. The panel was asked to blindly classify sparkling wines based on their age. The panel successfully appreciated the chronological order of these sparkling wines since established four statistically significant groups depending on their sensory perception of their aging time: Group A, which the panel considered the youngest (first year of aging); Group B (second and third year of aging); Group C (fourth to sixth years of aging) and Group D (seventh to ninth years of aging).
Figure 10.
Sensory analysis of the sparkling wines of the nine consecutive vintages. Adapted from Pons-Mercadé et al. [15].
All panelists considered the five youngest vintages of sparkling wines as “acceptable” for consumption under their qualitative sensory criterion. However, some of them considered that after this aging time the sparkling wines were “unacceptable”. These data indicate that after 5 years the sparkling wines began to be affected by excessive ageing. It should be pointed out that these sensory data match well with the previous considerations about the balance between the oxygen consumption by the lees and the oxygen permeability across the crown cap. According to these results, the oxygen consumed by the lees started to be not enough to compensate for oxygen intake through the crown cap after 3 years and 7 months of ageing. After this time, the sparkling wine does not have enough defense against oxidation. Under these conditions, its sensory quality may begin to deteriorate, though the effects of this oxidation will also depend on its chemical composition and storage conditions. In the present study, sensory deterioration seems to begin after the 5th year of aging.
Finally, some photographs of the yeasts were taken using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) [15] to visualize the yeast autolysis process in the sparkling wines aged by up to 9 years (Figure 11). These pictures show how the structures of the yeast cells are progressively degraded, folded and deflated. In the first image, which shows the yeast of the starter culture used for the second fermentation of the last vintage (2016), the yeast cell seems very healthy since it is elongated, ovoid and turgid without any wrinkle or folds. Several bud scars can even be identified. The second image shows what happens after the second fermentation (3 months later): the yeast cell has lost some turgor and is beginning to display wrinkles and folds. Two-years later, in the third year of ageing, the yeast cell is even more degraded and wrinkled and begins to deflate. At the fifth year of ageing, the yeast cell is completely flattened at the edges and retains only a little turgor in the middle, which is full of wrinkles and folds. In the seventh year of ageing, the yeast cell is even more degraded and deflated and the center of the cell has crumbled, wrinkled and flattened. Finally, in the ninth year, the yeast cell has completely collapsed and some of its structures are broken.
Figure 11.
Monitoring yeast autolysis overtime using scanning electron microscopy. Adapted from Pons-Mercadé et al. [15].
4. Conclusions
It can be concluded that the lees of sparkling wines elaborated using the traditional method have a real capacity to release proteins and polysaccharides. However, the proportion of polysaccharides and proteins from lees autolysis is very low in the young sparkling wines, roughly only 2–3% in the first year of ageing and around 7% in the third. This suggests that the real impact of polysaccharides and proteins from lees autolysis in the sparkling wines disgorged before the end of the first year should be very low. Wine producers should bear this conclusion in mind since most sparkling wines elaborated by the traditional method are aged for less than 1 year and those made by other methods are aged even less. Consequently, only sparkling wines aged for longer would therefore benefit from a greater presence of polysaccharides and proteins from yeast autolysis.
It can also be stated that lees consume oxygen and therefore they protect sparkling wine against oxidation. However, the lees’ capacity to consume oxygen decreases drastically after 3 years of aging, reaching values lower than those of the theoretical oxygen permeability of the crown cap after about 3 years and a half of aging. Producers of sparkling wines should also bear in mind because after this time the ability of the lees to protect against could not be enough. Some panelists considered that the quality of the sparkling wines was negatively affected after 5 years of aging due to excess oxidation. These data explain what AOC Cava winemakers know empirically. Only some high-quality sparkling wines made using the traditional method can age more than 3 years without being affected by oxidation, and in this case, sparkling wines reach an extraordinary level of complexity that only long aging can provide.
Acknowledgments
This research was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, Interministerial Commission for Science and Technology (CICYT - project RTI2018-095658-B-C33) and Centre for the Development of Industrial Technology (CDTI - CIEN program, projects GLOBALVITI and CAVAWINNER).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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As a result of this yeast autolysis, sparkling wines benefit from better integration of carbon dioxide and a clear sensory improvement, especially in the case of long aging. This chapter synthetizes the main results that our research group has obtained about the influence of yeasts autolysis on sparkling wines composition and quality during last years, making special emphasis on the capacity of the lees to release proteins and polysaccharides as well as on their capacity to consume oxygen and thus protect the sparkling wines from oxidation.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79500",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79500",signatures:"Pere Pons-Mercadé, Pol Giménez, Glòria Vilomara, Marta Conde, Antoni Cantos, Nicolas Rozès, Sergi Ferrer, Joan Miquel Canals and Fernando Zamora",book:{id:"10901",type:"book",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Grapes and Wine",slug:"grapes-and-wine",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-642-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-641-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-643-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"429540",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Zamora",fullName:"Fernando Zamora",slug:"fernando-zamora",email:"fernando.zamora@urv.cat",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"439843",title:"Dr.",name:"Pere",middleName:null,surname:"Pons-Mercadé",fullName:"Pere Pons-Mercadé",slug:"pere-pons-mercade",email:"pponsmercade@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"439844",title:"Mr.",name:"Pol",middleName:null,surname:"Giménez",fullName:"Pol Giménez",slug:"pol-gimenez",email:"pol.gimenez@urv.cat",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"439845",title:"Ms.",name:"Glòria",middleName:null,surname:"Vilomara",fullName:"Glòria Vilomara",slug:"gloria-vilomara",email:"gloria.vilomara@juveycamps.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"439846",title:"Ms.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Conde",fullName:"Marta Conde",slug:"marta-conde",email:"marta.conde@juveycamps.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"439847",title:"Mr.",name:"Antoni",middleName:null,surname:"Cantos",fullName:"Antoni Cantos",slug:"antoni-cantos",email:"toni.cantos@juveycamps.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"439848",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolas",middleName:null,surname:"Rozès",fullName:"Nicolas Rozès",slug:"nicolas-rozes",email:"nicolasrozes@urv.cat",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"439849",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergi",middleName:null,surname:"Ferrer",fullName:"Sergi Ferrer",slug:"sergi-ferrer",email:"sergi.ferrer@uv.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"439851",title:"Dr.",name:"Joan",middleName:null,surname:"Miquel Canals",fullName:"Joan Miquel Canals",slug:"joan-miquel-canals",email:"jmcanals@urv.cat",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"94",type:"subseries",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",keywords:"Environmental protection, Socio-economic development, Resource exploitation, Environmental degradation, Climate change, Degraded ecosystems, Biodiversity loss",scope:"
\r\n\tSustainable development focuses on linking economic development with environmental protection and social development to ensure future prosperity for people and the planet. To tackle global challenges of development and environment, the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. SDGs emphasize that environmental sustainability should be strongly linked to socio-economic development, which should be decoupled from escalating resource use and environmental degradation for the purpose of reducing environmental stress, enhancing human welfare, and improving regional equity. Moreover, sustainable development seeks a balance between human development and decrease in ecological/environmental marginal benefits. Under the increasing stress of climate change, many environmental problems have emerged causing severe impacts at both global and local scales, driving ecosystem service reduction and biodiversity loss. Humanity’s relationship with resource exploitation and environment protection is a major global concern, as new threats to human and environmental security emerge in the Anthropocene. Currently, the world is facing significant challenges in environmental sustainability to protect global environments and to restore degraded ecosystems, while maintaining human development with regional equality. Thus, environmental sustainability with healthy natural ecosystems is critical to maintaining human prosperity in our warming planet.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11978,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/42605",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"42605"},fullPath:"/profiles/42605",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()