Dual-band and differential fed implantable antennas.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6302",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Herbal medicine is a multidisciplinary compilation of topics in herbal medicine that are designed to enlighten all who have a stake in healthcare. In light of the current trends and popularity of herbal medicine, cultural/societal differences and perception, and the relationship with modern healthcare this book presents selected topics to ensure that necessary information on herbal medicine in healthcare is provided. Apart from clarifying certain important complexities and misconceptions on herbal medicine, a general overview of herbal medicine, uses of herbs in the management of diseases, plant secondary metabolites, analytical techniques, applications in stem cell research, use as leads for conventional drug compound development, and research and development of herbal medicines for healthcare are among the major discussions in this book.",isbn:"978-1-78984-783-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-782-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-386-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69412",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"herbal-medicine",numberOfPages:314,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"b70a98c6748d0449a6288de73da7b8d9",bookSignature:"Philip F. Builders",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6302.jpg",numberOfDownloads:47952,numberOfWosCitations:137,numberOfCrossrefCitations:117,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:265,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:519,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 23rd 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 13th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 9th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 8th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 6th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"182744",title:"Dr.",name:"Philip",middleName:null,surname:"Builders",slug:"philip-builders",fullName:"Philip Builders",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182744/images/5533_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Philip Fafowora Builder is a Nigerian born on 12th February 1968 in Ibadan. He attended Baptist Day Primary School Jos and Command Secondary School Jos, Plateau State Nigeria. He obtained the Bachelor of Pharmacy degree (B. Pharm.) from the University of Jos, in 1991 and, Master of Pharmacy (M. Pharm) and Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D- Pharmaceutics) degrees from University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria in 1997 and 2008 respectively. He worked as a research fellow in the Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Raw Materials Development (NIPRD), Abuja, Nigeria from 2002 to 2016. His is currently an Associate Professor and the Head of Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kaduna State University, Kaduna State, Nigeria. He has published several research articles and review papers in many peer review journals as well as book chapters. He has also received several academic awards among which are: Best Graduating Student Forensic Pharmacy, University of Jos, Nigeria 1991; University of Nigeria Vice Chancellor’s Price for Best Ph. D Student, Department of Pharmaceutics, 2008. His areas of research interest are: development of novel biopolymers for drug delivery, dosage form design of conventional drugs and herbal medicines, nano-particulate drug delivery systems, stability and quality assessment of herbal medicines and conventional drugs.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"991",title:"Herbalism",slug:"herbalism"}],chapters:[{id:"62180",title:"Introductory Chapter: Introduction to Herbal Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78661",slug:"introductory-chapter-introduction-to-herbal-medicine",totalDownloads:2374,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Philip F. Builders",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62180",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62180",authors:[{id:"182744",title:"Dr.",name:"Philip",surname:"Builders",slug:"philip-builders",fullName:"Philip Builders"}],corrections:null},{id:"61866",title:"Plants Secondary Metabolites: The Key Drivers of the Pharmacological Actions of Medicinal Plants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76139",slug:"plants-secondary-metabolites-the-key-drivers-of-the-pharmacological-actions-of-medicinal-plants",totalDownloads:8745,totalCrossrefCites:53,totalDimensionsCites:132,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The vast and versatile pharmacological effects of medicinal plants are basically dependent on their phytochemical constituents. Generally, the phytochemical constituents of plants fall into two categories based on their role in basic metabolic processes, namely primary and secondary metabolites. Primary plant metabolites are involved in basic life functions; therefore, they are more or less similar in all living cells. On the other hand, secondary plant metabolites are products of subsidiary pathways as the shikimic acid pathway. In the course of studying, the medicinal effect of herbals is oriented towards the secondary plant metabolites. Secondary plant metabolites played an important role in alleviating several aliments in the traditional medicine and folk uses. In modern medicine, they provided lead compounds for the production of medications for treating various diseases from migraine up to cancer. Secondary plant metabolites are classified according to their chemical structures into various classes. In this chapter, we will be presenting various classes of secondary plant metabolites, their distribution in different plant families and their important medicinal uses.",signatures:"Rehab A. Hussein and Amira A. El-Anssary",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61866",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61866",authors:[{id:"212117",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab",surname:"Hussein",slug:"rehab-hussein",fullName:"Rehab Hussein"},{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}],corrections:null},{id:"59405",title:"Ergastic Crystal Studies for Raw Drug Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74278",slug:"ergastic-crystal-studies-for-raw-drug-analysis",totalDownloads:1146,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Phytochemical constituents are distributed in various parts of plants and their localization is indicative of their therapeutic properties. Ergastic crystals such as calcium oxalate crystals are also found in almost all plant parts, which is an anti–nutrient as the dietary oxalates contributes to human ailments. Several of the medicinally useful plants contain these crystals and consumption of such plant materials in raw form can cause health problems in humans. Ergastic crystals can be an important diagnostic tool for the identification of raw drug as in Costus pictus a medicinal spiral ginger commonly called Insulin plant is devoid of cuboidal crystal but its related Costus speciosus leaves possess characteristic cuboidal shaped crystal in its leaf mesophyll. Gene manipulation technology may be promising in removing such deleterious genes or introduction of altered bio-chemicals to nullify such effects for the future generation.",signatures:"Thara K. Simon and Justin R. Nayagam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59405",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59405",authors:[{id:"211486",title:"Dr.",name:"Justin",surname:"R Nayagam",slug:"justin-r-nayagam",fullName:"Justin R Nayagam"},{id:"220837",title:"Dr.",name:"Thara",surname:"K Simon",slug:"thara-k-simon",fullName:"Thara K Simon"}],corrections:null},{id:"58422",title:"Guidelines for the Development of Herbal-Based Sunscreen",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72712",slug:"guidelines-for-the-development-of-herbal-based-sunscreen",totalDownloads:1523,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sun protection is a complex topic, which involves various classes of compounds. The photoprotective effectiveness of a sunscreen involves many biological activities, such as ultraviolet (UV) radiation filter properties and antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimutagenic effects. Formulation strategy is also a key factor. Several studies have examined the role of natural molecules as photoprotective compounds, and a considerable number of commercially available sunscreens contain herbal extracts but not as sunfilters. Indeed, the process of evaluation of UV-filtering and photoprotective activity of herbal compounds presents certain specific difficulties and needs in vitro and in vivo studies. Nowadays, no natural compound or vegetal extract has been approved by any country as official UV filter for sunscreen. With these premises, the aim of this chapter is to define a set of tests, which can help to evaluate the efficacy of an herbal extract in the field of sun protection; in other words, we propose a rational approach to the discovery of natural UV-filtering extract and molecules. The following electronic databases have been used as a source of information: SciFinder, PubMed, Google Scholar, ISI-Web of Science, and Scopus.",signatures:"Piergiacomo Buso, Matteo Radice, Anna Baldisserotto, Stefano\nManfredini and Silvia Vertuani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58422",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58422",authors:[{id:"212100",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",surname:"Manfredini",slug:"stefano-manfredini",fullName:"Stefano Manfredini"},{id:"212101",title:"BSc.",name:"Piergiacomo",surname:"Buso",slug:"piergiacomo-buso",fullName:"Piergiacomo Buso"},{id:"212102",title:"Prof.",name:"Matteo",surname:"Radice",slug:"matteo-radice",fullName:"Matteo Radice"},{id:"212103",title:"Prof.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Vertuani",slug:"silvia-vertuani",fullName:"Silvia Vertuani"},{id:"220809",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",surname:"Baldisserotto",slug:"anna-baldisserotto",fullName:"Anna Baldisserotto"}],corrections:null},{id:"58270",title:"Toxicity and Safety Implications of Herbal Medicines Used in Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72437",slug:"toxicity-and-safety-implications-of-herbal-medicines-used-in-africa",totalDownloads:3325,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:36,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The use of herbal medicines has seen a great upsurge globally. In developing countries, many patronize them largely due to cultural acceptability, availability and cost. In developed countries, they are used because they are natural and therefore assumed to be safer than allopathic medicines. In recent times, however, there has been a growing concern about their safety. This has created a situation of ambivalence in discussions regarding their use. Some medicinal plants are intrinsically toxic by virtue of their constituents and can cause adverse reactions if inappropriately used. Other factors such as herb-drug interactions, lack of adherence to good manufacturing practice (GMP), poor regulatory measures and adulteration may also lead to adverse events in their use. Many in vivo tests on aqueous extracts largely support the safety of herbal medicines, whereas most in vitro tests on isolated single cells mostly with extracts other than aqueous ones show contrary results and thus continue the debate on herbal medicine safety. It is expected that toxicity studies concerning herbal medicine should reflect their traditional use to allow for rational discussions regarding their safety for their beneficial use. While various attempts continue to establish the safety of various herbal medicines in man, their cautious and responsible use is required.",signatures:"Merlin L.K. Mensah, Gustav Komlaga, Arnold D. Forkuo, Caleb\nFirempong, Alexander K. Anning and Rita A. Dickson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58270",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58270",authors:[{id:"190435",title:"Dr.",name:"Caleb",surname:"Firempong",slug:"caleb-firempong",fullName:"Caleb Firempong"},{id:"212111",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustav",surname:"Komlaga",slug:"gustav-komlaga",fullName:"Gustav Komlaga"},{id:"217045",title:"Dr.",name:"Arnold Forkuo",surname:"Donkor",slug:"arnold-forkuo-donkor",fullName:"Arnold Forkuo Donkor"},{id:"217049",title:"Prof.",name:"Merlin Lincoln Kwao",surname:"Mensah",slug:"merlin-lincoln-kwao-mensah",fullName:"Merlin Lincoln Kwao Mensah"},{id:"217488",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander K.",surname:"Anning",slug:"alexander-k.-anning",fullName:"Alexander K. Anning"},{id:"223959",title:"Prof.",name:"Akosua Rita",surname:"Dickson",slug:"akosua-rita-dickson",fullName:"Akosua Rita Dickson"}],corrections:null},{id:"58431",title:"Application of Herbal Medicine as Proliferation and Differentiation Effectors of Human Stem Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72711",slug:"application-of-herbal-medicine-as-proliferation-and-differentiation-effectors-of-human-stem-cells",totalDownloads:1618,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"One of the main streams of traditional medicine is herbal medicine; a wide range of medicinal plants and their individual parts are used for therapy. Though not scientifically validated, this traditional medicine practice is much popular in countries such as India, China and Sri Lanka and in many other countries in South, Southeast and Eastern Asia due mainly to its healing capabilities. More recently, scientists initiated the chemical analyses of these medicinal plants, obtaining invaluable results. The latest addition to such investigations is studies on effects of herbal extracts on different types of stem cells. An extensive summary of such reported studies is presented in this chapter, mainly categorizing these into proliferation stimulatory effects on stem cells and inhibitory effects on cancer stem cells (CSCs), where both properties are beneficial in cell therapy procedures. At present, standardizing the products and limited knowledge on the mechanisms of action and pathways of these have critically limited the use of herbal extracts in therapeutics. However, we believe that in the near future scientists would be focusing on herbal remedies to replace the use of synthetic stimulants and cancer drugs to overcome the disadvantages of these, such as toxicity, side effects and exorbitant costs.",signatures:"Preethi Vidya Udagama and Vindya Udalamaththa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58431",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58431",authors:[{id:"181671",title:"Prof.",name:"Preethi",surname:"Udagama",slug:"preethi-udagama",fullName:"Preethi Udagama"},{id:"214245",title:"Ms.",name:"Vindya",surname:"Udalamaththa",slug:"vindya-udalamaththa",fullName:"Vindya Udalamaththa"}],corrections:null},{id:"61138",title:"Herbal Medicine Use during Pregnancy: Benefits and Untoward Effects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76896",slug:"herbal-medicine-use-during-pregnancy-benefits-and-untoward-effects",totalDownloads:4168,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The use of herbal medicine has been on an increase over time. The most commonly used herbs are ginger, cranberry, valerian, raspberry leaf, chamomile, peppermint, thyme, fenugreek, green tea, sage, anise, garlic and bitter kola. The use of herbal medicine during pregnancy is associated with educational status of women, income level of household and age of women. Herbal medicines were used during pregnancy to treat nausea and vomiting, reduce the risk of preeclampsia, shorten labour and treat common cold and urinary tract infection. Using herbal medicine occasionally causes trouble. Heartburn, pre-mature labour, miscarriage, increase in blood flow, abortion and allergic reactions are the common troubles of herbal medicine use during pregnancy. Using herbal medicine during the first trimester and the third trimester is unsafe for the foetus. Pregnant women should talk to health professionals before consuming any herbal medicines. The unfortunate consequences of using herbal medicine during pregnancy need further study for various herbs. Therefore, clinical trial research should be done to identify unfortunate consequences of herbal medicine use during pregnancy.",signatures:"Tariku Laelago",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61138",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61138",authors:[{id:"211130",title:null,name:"Tariku",surname:"Ersado",slug:"tariku-ersado",fullName:"Tariku Ersado"}],corrections:null},{id:"58513",title:"Plant-Derived Medicines with Potential Use in Wound Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72813",slug:"plant-derived-medicines-with-potential-use-in-wound-treatment",totalDownloads:2632,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The skin is among the largest and one of the most important organs in the human body. It represents the first line of defence of the body; provides protection from mechanical impacts of the environment, limits the influence of variations in the temperature, prevents entrance of chemicals and microorganisms and restricts radiation effect. Skin damage affects all skin functions; therefore, wounds can compromise patient’s well-being, self-image, working capacity and independence. Due to all mentioned, a good wound management is necessary not only for the individual but also for the community. Herbal medicines have been used to accelerate wound healing since ancient times. Recently, scientists have been able to employ scientific methods to prove efficacy of many of these herbs and to get a better understanding of mechanisms of their actions. The popularity of herbal medicines may be explained by the perception that herbs cause minimal adverse effects. Preparations from traditional medicinal plants in wound management involve disinfection, debridement and the provision of suitable environment for natural healing process. In this chapter, the field of wound healing is briefly introduced. Further, the crucial information regarding plants, which are effectively used as wound healing agents in traditional medicine are gathered.",signatures:"Tina Maver, Manja Kurečič, Dragica Maja Smrke, Karin Stana\nKleinschek and Uroš Maver",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58513",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58513",authors:[{id:"142060",title:"Prof.",name:"Uroš",surname:"Maver",slug:"uros-maver",fullName:"Uroš Maver"},{id:"175361",title:"Dr.",name:"Karin",surname:"Stana Kleinschek",slug:"karin-stana-kleinschek",fullName:"Karin Stana Kleinschek"},{id:"227392",title:"Dr.",name:"Tina",surname:"Maver",slug:"tina-maver",fullName:"Tina Maver"},{id:"227393",title:"Prof.",name:"Manja",surname:"Kurečič",slug:"manja-kurecic",fullName:"Manja Kurečič"},{id:"227394",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragica Maja",surname:"Smrke",slug:"dragica-maja-smrke",fullName:"Dragica Maja Smrke"}],corrections:null},{id:"58115",title:"Plant-Based Ethnopharmacological Remedies for Hypertension in Suriname",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72106",slug:"plant-based-ethnopharmacological-remedies-for-hypertension-in-suriname",totalDownloads:1717,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hypertension is the most important modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and renal diseases which are together among the most frequent causes of morbidity and mortality in the world. Despite the availability of a wide range of effective medicines, many individuals suffering from hypertension use plant-derived preparations for treating their disease. The choice for these alternatives is often associated with the closer relationship of such approaches to specific social, cultural, and religious perceptions about health and disease. However, in most cases, the scientific evidence for clinical efficacy of such medications is scant. The Republic of Suriname is a middle-income country in South America with a relatively high prevalence of hypertension and other cardiovascular diseases. This country harbors descendants of all continents, all of whom have preserved their cultural customs including their ethnopharmacological traditions. As a result, many Surinamese are inclined to treat their diseases including hypertension as they have done for centuries, that is, with plant-based preparations. This chapter has compiled the plants used for treating hypertension in Suriname; extensively evaluates 15 commonly used plants for potential efficacy on the basis of available phytochemical, mechanistic, preclinical, and clinical literature data; and closes with conclusions about their potential usefulness against the disease.",signatures:"Dennis R.A. Mans, Angela Grant and Nicholaas Pinas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58115",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58115",authors:[{id:"193905",title:"Dr.",name:"Dennis",surname:"R.A. Mans",slug:"dennis-r.a.-mans",fullName:"Dennis R.A. Mans"},{id:"219349",title:"BSc.",name:"Angela",surname:"Grant",slug:"angela-grant",fullName:"Angela Grant"},{id:"224838",title:"MSc.",name:"Nicholaas",surname:"Pinas",slug:"nicholaas-pinas",fullName:"Nicholaas Pinas"}],corrections:null},{id:"64851",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80348",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:14029,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:45,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"African traditional medicine is a form of holistic health care system organized into three levels of specialty, namely divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64851",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64851",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",surname:"Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}],corrections:null},{id:"59484",title:"Herbal Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72816",slug:"herbal-medicine",totalDownloads:2332,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Herbal medicine has gained cumulative popularity in today’s medical practice. These treatments are the synthesis of therapeutic experiences of generations of traditional physicians for over hundreds of years. However, most of these applications are unorthodox, with over 80% of the world’s population depending on some form of traditional medicine. The increase in the use of herbal products is due to their cultural acceptability, availability, affordability, efficacy and safety claims. This upsurge has led to the improvements in the quality and analysis of herbal products to be made with clinical research advancements in their safety and efficacy. The World Health Organization has recognized the importance of herbal medicine to the health of many people. Therefore, developing guidelines to evaluate herbal medicine by using modern control procedures and applying suitable standards. The current review aims to describe the present state and the projected future of herbal medicine.",signatures:"Nontokozo Z. Msomi and Mthokozisi B.C. Simelane",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59484",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59484",authors:[{id:"193091",title:"Dr.",name:"Mthokozisi",surname:"Simelane",slug:"mthokozisi-simelane",fullName:"Mthokozisi Simelane"},{id:"195504",title:"Ms.",name:"Nontokozo",surname:"Msomi",slug:"nontokozo-msomi",fullName:"Nontokozo Msomi"}],corrections:null},{id:"58960",title:"Powerful Properties of Ozonated Extra Virgin Olive Oil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73211",slug:"powerful-properties-of-ozonated-extra-virgin-olive-oil",totalDownloads:1752,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Extra virgin olive oil has been mainly produced and consumed in Mediterranean countries since ancient times; olive oil is one of the principal ingredients in the Mediterranean diet, and it constitutes the main source of nutritional fat. Aside from the high nutritional content of olive oil, it is also known for its cosmetic and therapeutic properties. In 1956, Thiers obtained satisfactory results in the treatment of scleroderma, stating that olive oil and its derivatives could be considered “a new group of therapeutic agents.” Hincky reported the beneficial properties of olive oil in the treatment of dry, senescent and sensitive skins. This has opened a new perspective for the use of the olive fruit, thus contributing to the increase in research about new applications. One such application is ozonized olive oil, which combines the properties of ozone with those of olive oil, to obtain a peerless compound. The composition of olive oil makes it a suitable vehicle for cutaneous absorption, as it is able to stabilize ozone, which is a highly reactive molecule. The oxidant power of ozone has interesting effects on microorganism and on wound healing.",signatures:"Elisabetta Carata, Bernardetta Anna Tenuzzo and Luciana Dini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58960",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58960",authors:[{id:"103116",title:"Prof.",name:"Luciana",surname:"Dini",slug:"luciana-dini",fullName:"Luciana Dini"},{id:"206595",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernardetta Anna",surname:"Tenuzzo",slug:"bernardetta-anna-tenuzzo",fullName:"Bernardetta Anna Tenuzzo"},{id:"206596",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisabetta",surname:"Carata",slug:"elisabetta-carata",fullName:"Elisabetta Carata"}],corrections:null},{id:"58339",title:"Taraxacum Genus: Potential Antibacterial and Antifungal Activity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71619",slug:"taraxacum-genus-potential-antibacterial-and-antifungal-activity",totalDownloads:1668,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plants have been used in traditional medicine for centuries as antibacterial and antifungal agents. Taraxacum spp., commonly known as dandelion, is a well-known herbal remedy with a long history; however, limited scientific information is available to explain its traditional use. This review aims to provide current information and a general overview of the available literature concerning the antibacterial and antifungal properties of the Taraxacum genus to support its potential as a powerful herbal medicine. Though Taraxacum has demonstrated that it is capable of inhibiting the growth of a wide range of bacteria and fungi, the technical aspects of methodology lack standardization, and, therefore, the overall results of processing are difficult to compare between studies. Phytochemical composition and antimicrobial activity in Taraxacum are neither directly related, nor does the published data provide sufficient information for identifying the group of unique extraction conditions that are optimal against specific microorganisms. Antimicrobial research indicates that this plant is a promising species for treating several common infections in humans, animals, and plants.",signatures:"María Eugenia Martínez Valenzuela, Katy Díaz Peralta, Lorena\nJorquera Martínez and Rolando Chamy Maggi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58339",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58339",authors:[{id:"165784",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolando",surname:"Chamy",slug:"rolando-chamy",fullName:"Rolando Chamy"},{id:"219869",title:"MSc.",name:"María Eugenia",surname:"Martínez",slug:"maria-eugenia-martinez",fullName:"María Eugenia Martínez"},{id:"219871",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",surname:"Díaz",slug:"katy-diaz",fullName:"Katy Díaz"},{id:"219872",title:"Dr.",name:"Lorena",surname:"Jorquera",slug:"lorena-jorquera",fullName:"Lorena Jorquera"}],corrections:null},{id:"58560",title:"Taraxacum Genus: Extract Experimental Approaches",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72849",slug:"taraxacum-genus-extract-experimental-approaches",totalDownloads:928,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents factors or considerations to be taken into account when selecting the procedure or method for obtaining extracts and bioactive compounds. The genus Taraxacum has proved to have several interesting properties and there are numerous techniques and bioassays used to test the antimicrobial properties of extracts. However, the extraction process is crucial to optimize the final biological outcomes. Extraction procedures that until now have been used are simple and inexpensive, however, we wanted to report a series of studies that group valuable results, which could be useful for future studies, enhancing the research carried out by authors from all over the world and also allowing the interrelated study of this genus.",signatures:"María Eugenia Martínez Valenzuela, Katy Díaz Peralta, Lorena\nJorquera Martínez and Rolando Chamy Maggi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58560",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58560",authors:[{id:"165784",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolando",surname:"Chamy",slug:"rolando-chamy",fullName:"Rolando Chamy"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"542",title:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a805c1d2d8449dcecd52eb7a48d2e6b1",slug:"a-compendium-of-essays-on-alternative-therapy",bookSignature:"Arup Bhattacharya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/542.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"66982",title:"Dr.",name:"Arup",surname:"Bhattacharya",slug:"arup-bhattacharya",fullName:"Arup Bhattacharya"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"631",title:"Quality Control of Herbal Medicines and Related Areas",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ced81d454b4a5ded2a0aa02e0d7621d",slug:"quality-control-of-herbal-medicines-and-related-areas",bookSignature:"Yukihiro Shoyama",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/631.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"35812",title:"Prof.",name:"Yukihiro",surname:"Shoyama",slug:"yukihiro-shoyama",fullName:"Yukihiro Shoyama"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"643",title:"Recent Advances in Theories and Practice of Chinese Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"499a7fabf489d2502de4616a4c7f3da0",slug:"recent-advances-in-theories-and-practice-of-chinese-medicine",bookSignature:"Haixue Kuang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/643.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"44740",title:"Prof.",name:"Haixue",surname:"Kuang",slug:"haixue-kuang",fullName:"Haixue Kuang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5612",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",subtitle:"Back to Nature",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ccf7987200bfc541e2e56bb138de86f3",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",bookSignature:"Hany A. 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In latest years, microwave antennas have performed an important role in implantable biomedical devices. Millions of people around the world improved and saved their lives with the help of implants [1]. Implantable antennas play a role in creating a simulation environment, checking results, and fulfilling diagnostic purposes. With population growth and health awareness, people are more concerned about their health. Implantable medical devices (IMD) play an important role now a days. It is used to continuous monitoring of human body temperature [2], implantable cardioverter defibrillators and pacemakers [3], for continuous glucose monitoring [4], to detect heart failure [5], rectenna [6], and so on. In IMD an antenna is one of the essential parts. To design biocompatible antennas according to parameters, consider the required size, shape, miniaturization, impedance matching, biocompatibility, patient safety, and low power consumption [7, 8].
In the twenty-first century flexible electronics developing towards bio-integrated electronics for curvilinear biological skin, tissue, and organs considering patient’s safety [9]. Diagnosis and treatment are application areas of antenna, diagnosis can be done with help of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), biomedical telemetry, and wireless capsule endoscopy [10]. Integrated implantable antenna plays important role in bi-directional communication for controlling and monitoring external equipment. The implantable antenna must be biocompatible, human tissues are conductive and it can be short circuit while coming into contact with metallization [11].
These are operated in very low frequencies such as medical implants communication system (MICS) band (402–405GHz) & Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) bands (2.4–2.4835GHz) [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. In 1999, Federal Communications Commission (FCC) decided the frequency range of Medical Implant Communications Service (MICS) operating on frequency range 402–405 MHz. It consists of a low-power, high-speed, non-voice transmission that is useful in the manufacture of implantable medical devices [24]. The design of an implantable antenna is challenging due to biocompatibility issues miniaturization, loss of transmission path in the human body, safety issues, and so on.
Biomedical telemetry allows the measurement of physiological signals at some distance, these signals would be wired or wireless communication technologies. It helps to transmit and receive the data in a certain distance range. One of the developments in this field is an IMD. IMD consists of an antenna, electronic circuit, battery, and sensors. The antenna is built-in, it helps to transmit the signal from the human body to the exterior device. For this purpose following types of antennas are preferred.
The medical industry is continuously developing efficient and advanced systems that are suitable for the human body. In previous years, the ISM band was mainly used for antenna design [25], but the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and the European Radio-communications Committee (ERC) allocated a frequency for biomedical telemetry [24, 26]. Communication between implants and the external unit is easy with the MICS band and ISM band used to send the awake signal to an external unit. MICS band is similarly intended for data communication, the ISM band is wilful for startup signals.
To design dual-band, implantable antennas is a shift between sleep and wake-up mode for conserving energy and increasing the lifetime of antennas. The dual-mode operation generally improves the lifetime of the battery [27]. The advantage of a differentially fed dual-band implantable antenna can be connected easily with differential circuits, useful to help eliminate loss introduced by baluns and matching circuits [28, 29]. From the following Table 1, we can observe that Differential feed antenna is generally operated on two nearly frequencies/frequency bands such as 433.9 and 542.4 MHz [28, 34] and MICS (402–405 MHz) and ISM (2.4–2.48 GHz) [35, 36, 38]. Also dual-band antennas operated on two frequency bands such as MICS (402–405 MHz) and ISM (2.4–2.48 GHz) [27, 29, 33, 37, 40] 1.4 and 2.4GHz [39].
Ref. | Title and year of publication | Frequency bands | Antenna type | Antenna dimensions | Application | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dimension | Substrate | εr | Thickness | |||||
[27] | Characterization and testing of skin mimicking material for implantable antennas operating at ISM band (2.4–2.48GHz) (2008) | MICS (402–405 MHz) and ISM (2.4–2.48 GHz). | Dual band | 22.5 × 22.5 × 2.5 mm | Rogers RO3210 | 10.2 | 0.635 mm | Glucose monitoring |
[30] | Dual-band microstrip patch antenna based on the short-circuited ring and spiral resonators for implantable medical devices (2010) | MICS (402–405 MHz) And ISM (2.4–2.48 GHz). | Dual band micro strip patch antenna | 1375.4 mm3 | ARLON1000 | 10.2 | 1.27 mm | Medical application |
[28] | Differentially fed dual-band implantable antenna for biomedical applications (2012) | 433.9and 542.4 MHz | Differential feed dual band antenna | 27 × 14 × 1.27 mm | Rogers 6010 | 10.2 | 0.635 mm | Neural signal recording |
[29] | Compact dual-band antenna for implantable devices (2012) | MICS (402–405 MHz) and ISM (2.4–2.48 GHz). | Dual band antenna | 16.5 × 16.5 × 2.54 mm | Rogers3010 | 10.2 | 1.37 mm | Medical application |
[31] | Dual-band implantable antenna with open-end slots on ground (2013) | MICS (402–405 MHz) and ISM (2.4–2.48 GHz). | Dual band antenna | 19 × 19.4 × 1.27 mm | Rogers3010 | 10.2 | 1.27 mm | Biomedical telemetry application |
[32] | A broadband implantable and a dual-band on-body repeater antenna: design and transmission performance (2014) | Medradio 401–406 MHz & ISM (2.4–2.48GHz) | Dual band
|
|
|
|
| The human trunk |
[33] | Miniaturized dual-band implantable antenna for wireless biotelemetry (2014 | MICS (402–405 MHz) and ISM (2.4–2.48 GHz). | Dual band antenna | 10.2 × 10.2 × 0.675 mm | Rogers3010 | 10.2 | 0.635 mm | Biomedical applications especially human head or human arm implantable wireless communication |
[34] | Design and in vitro test of a differentially fed dual-band implantable antenna operating at MICS and ISM bands (2014) | 433.9and 542.4 MHz | Differential feed dual band antenna | 13.4 × 16 × 0.835 mm | Rogers RO 3210 | 10.2 | 0.635 mm | Wireless medical telemetry services |
[35] | A novel differentially fed compact dual-band implantable antenna for biotelemetry application (2015) | MICS (402–405 MHz) and ISM (2.4–2.48 GHz). | Differential feed dual band antenna | 22 × 23 × 1.27 mm | Roger 3010 | 10.2 | 0.635 mm | Near field biotelemetry |
[36] | Miniaturized differentially fed dual-band implantable antenna: design, realization, and in vitro test (2015) | MICS (402–405 MHz) and ISM (2.4–2.48 GHz). | Differential feed dual band antenna | 27 × 9 × 1.27 mm | Roger 3010 | 10.2 | 0.635 mm | Biomedical application |
[37] | Miniaturized dual-band implantable antenna for wireless biotelemetry (2016) | MICS (402–405 MHz) and ISM (2.4–2.48 GHz). | Dual band | 8.75 × 7.2 × 0.5 mm | Rogers 6010 | 10.2 | 0.25 mm | Wireless telemetry |
[38] | Differentially fed compact dual-band implantable antenna for biotelemetry (2016) | MICS (402–405 MHz) and ISM (2.4–2.48 GHz). | Differential feed dual band antenna | 22 × 23 × 1.27 mm | Roger3010 | 10.2 | 0.635 mm | Biotelemetry |
[39] | Dual-band implantable antenna with circular polarization property for ingestible capsule application (2017) | 1.4 and 2.4GHz | Dual band | Rogers 3010 | 10.2 | 0.635 mm | Ingestible capsule application | |
[40] | Dual-band electrically coupled loop antenna for implant applications (2017) | (2.4 and 4.8 GHz). | Dual band |
|
|
| Implant application | |
[41] | Dual-band (2.4–4.8 GHz) implantable antenna for biomedical telemetry applications | (2.4 and 4.8 GHz). | Dual-band | 12 × 12 mm | Rogers3010 | 10.2 | 0.635 mm | Biotelemetry application |
Dual-band and differential fed implantable antennas.
Implantable antennas can communicate wirelessly with an external device. This is currently a great approach to stored physiological and real-time monitoring systems for biomedical telemetry [42]. Due to the effect of multipath distortion, communication with the help of far-field radio frequency (RF) link telemetry is sometimes affected. Since circularly polarized antenna preferred to the reduction of multipath and improvement of bit-error-rates can be achieved by circular polarization [43]. The design of the circular polarized (CP) antenna is difficult and needs to be miniaturized. Here, good circular polarization is achieved with a limited size [44]. Circular polarization has a special advantage in that it becomes insensitive between transmitter and receiver [45].
An Implantable patch antenna was first described with capacitive loading in [43], its axial ratio bandwidth is below 3 dB is narrow about 1.63%. [43]. In a circularly polarized helical antenna, measured impedance is 40% and axial radial bandwidth is 32.6% [46]. Similarly, in a loop antenna, simulated impedance and axial ratio bandwidth is 18.2%. [44]. Broadband CP implantable antenna exhibits its axial ratio bandwidth is 6.09% and wide impedance is 16.05% [45]. A miniaturized complementary split ring resonator (CSRR) was designed 915 MHz and its axial ratio bandwidth was 2.4% and impedance bandwidth is 12.2% [47]. Recent research on the CP ISM band antenna contained axial ratio −18.2% and impedance bandwidth 6.2% [48]. Recent work of CP ISM band at 915GHz consists axial ratio bandwidth and impedance band with 1.2 and −29% respectively [49]. Table 2 shows all recent information about the circularly polarized antenna.
Ref. | Title and year of publication | Frequency of operation | Depth | Antenna dimensions | Gain [dBi] | Axial ratio BW | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dimension | Substrate | εr | Thickness | ||||||
[43] | Capacitively loaded circularly polarized implantable patch antenna for ISM band biomedical applications (2014) | 2.4GHz | 4 mm skin | 10 × 10 × 1.27 mm | Rogers 3010 | 10.2 | 0.635 mm | −22 | ∼1.63% |
[46] | Circularly polarized helical antenna for ISM-band ingestible capsule endoscope systems (2014) | 2.4GHz | 50 mm muscle | Π × 5.52 mm × 3.81 | Rogers 3010 | 10.2 | 0.635 mm | −32 | ∼32.6% |
[44] | Miniaturized circularly polarized loop antenna for biomedical applications (2015) | 2.4GHz | 2 mm skin | 13 × 13 × 1.27 mm | Rogers 3010 | 10.2 | 0.635 mm | −14 | ∼2.4% |
[45] | Broadband circularly polarized implantable antenna for biomedical application (2016) | 2.4GHz | 5 mm muscle | 10 × 10 × 1.27 mm | Rogers 3010 | 10.2 | 0.635 mm | −22.33 | ∼6.09 |
[47] | A miniaturized CSRR loaded wide-beam width circularly polarized implantable antenna for subcutaneous real-time glucose monitoring (2017) | 915 MHz | 4 mm skin | 8.5 × 8.5 × 1.27 mm | Rogers 3010 | 10.2 | 0.635 mm | −27 | ∼1.5% |
[48] | Miniaturized circularly polarized implantable antenna for ISM-band biomedical devices (2017) | 915 MHz | 3 mm skin | 15 × 15 × 1.27 mm | Rogers 3010 | 10.2 | 0.635 mm | −32 | ∼18.2% |
[49] | Circularly polarized implantable antenna for 915 MHz ISM-band far-field wireless power transmission (2018) | 915 MHz | 4 mm skin | 11 × 11 × 1.27 mm | Rogers 3010 | 10.2 | 0.635 mm | −29 | ∼1.2% |
Circular polarized antennas for biomedical applications.
Capsule endoscopy is a diagnostic technology for gastrointestinal (GI) imaging that complements conventional endoscopy. An ingestible electronic radio telemetry capsule, first developed in 1957, is used to measure pressure and temperature [50]. It consists of the ability to transmit detailed information in real-time like growing heatstroke among the athletes while transmitting information to the receiver it simultaneously monitoring body temperature [51]. The approximate size of the capsule is 11 × 26 mm, in this small size it consists CMOS imager, light-emitting diode, transmitter, batteries, antennas, detailed track of the digestive system. Also, for prevention conditions such as gastroparesis and iron deficiency anemia [52, 53].
Wireless telemetry is used for real-time diagnostics, which is easy for disease diagnosis. The capsule orientation is random, but a robust continuous communication link for biomedical telemetry is quite a challenge to develop stable and secure communication links for capsule devices. The antennas are designed and must be characterized electromagnetically [54, 55]. Figure 1 shows in detail information about a biomedical capsule. It has eight different parts such as optical dome, lens holder, short focal length lens, light-emitting diode, CMOS Imager, batteries, radio telemetry transmitter, and antenna.
Detail digestive track of a biomedical capsule.
Various antenna designs for capsule antennas have been designed and developed in the literature, including multilayer spiral, multilayer helical, dipole, and complementary split resonator antennas. Antenna performance can be done with help of matching, radiation patterns, link budget, and characterization of wireless medical telemetry characterization. Wireless medical telemetry services (WMTS), industrial scientific and medical (ISM) band used for performance evaluation [56]. Table 3 shows design techniques, operating frequency, the radiation performance of capsule antenna.
Ref. | Title and year of publication | Antenna type | Size of capsule | G [dBi] | Approach towards miniaturization | Frequency of operation (MHz) | Phantom Details in (mm) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Size | Shape | Tissue | |||||||
[55] | Conformal ingestible capsule antenna: A novel chandelier meandered design (2009) | Multilayer Spiral | 26 × Ø11 | −26 | Meanders | 1400 | 200 × 350 × 350 | Box | Muscle |
[57] | Design, realization and measurements of a miniature antenna for implantable wireless communication systems (2011) | Multilayer helical | 32 × Ø10 | −29 | Stacking: four layers | Dual-band | 110 × Ø80 | Cylinder | Muscle |
[58] | New flexible medical compact antenna: design and analysis (2012) | Microstrip | 17 × Ø7 | −33 | Meanders, shorting, λ/4 SIR | 434 | Ø200 | Cylinder | εr = 49.6, σ = 0.51 |
[59] | a novel conformal antenna for ingestible capsule endoscopy in the medradio band (2013) | Microstrip | 24 × Ø10 | −30 | Meanders, shorting | 402 | 1003 | Cube | Muscle |
[60] | Circularly polarized helical antenna for ISM-band ingestible capsule endoscope systems (2014) | Loop w/CSRR | 26 × Ø11 | −32 | Stacking: three layers | 2450 | 1003 | Cube | Muscle |
[61] | A broadband flexible implantable loop antenna with complementary splitring resonators (2015) | Assym. Dipole | 25 × Ø10 | −25 | — | Multiband | Ø180 × Ø100 × 50 | Elliptical cylinder | Muscle |
[62] | Bandwidth enhancement of an implantable antenna (2015) | Assym. Dipole | 24 × Ø11 | −37 | Meanders | 402 | 1803 | Cube | Skin |
[63] | Robust ultraminiature capsule antenna for ingestible and implantable applications (2017) | Microstrip | 17 × Ø7 | −22 | Dielectric loading, λ/2 SIR | 434 | Ø100 | Sphere | Muscle |
[64] | Multilayer helical | 30 × Ø10 | −23 | Meanders | 433 | 190 × 190 × 190 | cube | Muscle |
Capsule antennas: Literature.
In [57] capsule is off-entered, the antenna operates in MedRadio 403 MHz and ISM 2.45 MHz bands and gain is for 403 MHz, [58] capsule is off-entered and distance to a surface is 10 mm. The bandwidth almost covers 403Mhz, ISM 434,868, 915, and 2.45GHz bands. The gain is about 434 MHz [61]. In [62] capsule is off-centered and the distance to a surface is 3 mm. The motivation is to improve the transmission range of a miniature in a body, but there are some difficulties such as poor radiation efficiency, strong coupling to biological tissues with loss and scattering, antenna impedance detuning, etc. Capsule antenna also considered for animal biotelemetry, electromagnetic properties of some animal tissue differ from humans. High robustness can reduce impedance detuning [63].
The implantable antenna design expects a small antenna size, broadband, low profile, and efficient antennas that can be used for data transmission, health monitoring, etc. The effective design depends on miniaturization, bandwidth, tuning, biocompatibility, patient safety, etc.
In the case of an implantable antenna, an antenna supposes to be implanted in the human body, therefore the size must be should be minimized. Miniaturization becomes very important today because dimensions of half-wavelength (λ/2) and quarter wavelength (λ/4) antennas at low-frequency bands, ISM, MICS band makes them useless for designing implantable antennas. Generally, for the implantable antenna design MICS (402–405 MHz), ISM (Industrial, Scientific, and Medical 2.4–2.48 GHz) and Med Radio (401–406 MHz) bands are useful. While design, human tissue is designed with high relative permittivity, due to this antenna miniaturization being challenging. When a biocompatible layer with low permittivity is inserted around the antenna, the effective permittivity decreases. Various miniaturization methods are shown below.
One of the techniques for reducing the size of the implantable antenna is to use a high dielectric constant substrate. In general, due to the high permittivity, the effective wavelength is shortened and the resonance frequency changes to a lower frequency. Table 4 shows in detail a list of materials used for the design of the implantable antenna. For reducing the size of the implantable antenna, one can use a high permittivity substrate.
Material | Dielectric constant | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Rogers RO3210 | 10.2 | [27, 32, 34] |
ARLON 1000 | 10.2 | [30] |
Roger 6010 | 10.2 | [28, 37] |
Rogers 3010 | 10.2 | [29, 31, 33, 35, 36, 38, 39, 41, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48] |
FR4 | 4.6 | [32, 40] |
RO4003 | 3.7 | [40] |
RT/Duroid 6002 | 2.94 | [54] |
MACOR | 6.1 | [7] |
Alumina | 9.4 | [65] |
RT/Duroid 6010 | 10.2 | [66, 67] |
Rogers TMM13i | 12.2 | [68] |
List of materials used for implantable antenna design.
Generally, Roger 3010/Roger RO 3210/Rogers6010/ RT/Duroid6010, ARLON1000, Alumina, MACOR, FR4, RO4003, etc. substrate materials utilized for the design of the implantable antenna. The relative permittivity of Roger 3010/Roger RO 3210/Rogers6010/RT/Duroid6010 is 10.2 shown in the table. In [68] miniaturization achieved by high permittivity substrate material used i.e., Rogers TMM13i. (εr = 12.2).
The loading technique is used to improve impedance matching. In [29] the shorting strip is used as an inductive loading and compensates for the capacitive effect on the structure. Inductive loading capacitive loading plays an important part in this method, it is used to offset the imaginary part of the impedance. Therefore, a good impedance match is obtained at the desired frequency [42]. In [44], miniaturization was achieved by loading four patches and high impedance lines to form slow wave propagation, 54.4% miniaturization was achieved. In [61] antenna impedance matching was obtained with help of CSRR, which introduces negative permittivity (capacitance) and reduces the large inductive part of the loop antenna. Hence, less reflection and large radiation occur. In [69, 70] inductive loading techniques are used for miniaturized antenna size. Capacitive loading technique used in [71], antenna size reduced about 72% with help of circularly polarized microstrip patch antenna at the frequency of interest (fixed operating frequency).
Gain reduction can be possible by keeping a high relative dielectric constant of materials and planar inverted F antenna (PIFA) type antenna with structures like meandered, spiral, slot, etc. The longer the path of the radiator, the resonant frequency can be shifted towards a lower resonant frequency. Hence, size can be reduced. In [47] the antenna is square shape (case a), on which the current path is short and the resulting resonant frequency is 4.5GHz. As considering lower resonant frequency, to increase the effective length of the current path four C-shaped slots surrounding the patch edges (case b). CSRR is one of the MTM (Metamaterial) structures, it offers negative permeability values. So, the electrical length of this MTM unit cell is smaller than the wavelength at operating frequency (case3). A circular CSRR is loaded in the center of the patch and resonant frequency shift occurs at 2.45GHz. In [55] meandered dipole structure gives vector current alignment which helps miniaturization.
As we know, a higher operating frequency will result in a shorter wavelength. Hence, an antenna that can be designed at a higher frequency will result in, small volume. In literature implantable antennas works in frequency bands like MedRadio 401–406 MHz [32, 72], MICS (Medical implants communication Service) 402–405 MHz [7, 27, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 36, 54, 65, 70, 71, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80] and ISM (Industrial, Scientific and Medical) 2400–2480 MHz [32, 33]. In literature, it’s reported that the MICS band is more preferably used for the design of the implantable antenna. In [56] an implantable antenna and capsule antenna were designed at wireless telemetry services (WMTS) band 1395–1400 MHz for performance evaluation and it is used for remote monitoring of patient’s health.
Shorting point is another method to miniaturize the size. In this technique, a shorting pin is inserted in between the patch plane and ground plane which increases the effective size of the antenna and reduces physical dimensions. In literature reported as [6, 7, 27, 29, 31, 54, 66, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 81] etc. consists shorting pin. Which helps miniaturize the size of the antenna. In [63] half-wave stepped impedance resonator (SiR) technique with two impedance steps, low-to-high and high-to-low to reduce the size of the antenna. In [67] antenna is miniaturized by adding two kinds of rectangular slots onto the annular ring.
Due to the propagation of electromagnetic field causes rise in temperature in human tissue, to evaluate this heat issue SAR is used. Generally, issues related to patient safety limit maximum allowable power incident on the implantable antenna. The rate of energy deposited per unit mass of tissue is called a Specific Absorption Rate (SAR). SAR is an internationally accepted FCC (Federal Communication Commission) guideline. For example, IEEE C95.1-1999 patient safety standard restricts the specific average of over 1 g of tissue in the shape of a cube to less than 1.6 W/kg ((SAR1g, max
SAR can be defined with the following equation,
where,
Biocompatibility is one of the necessary conditions while designing an implantable antenna to preserve patients’ safety. Human tissues are conductive, if they were allowed direct contact with metallization then there is a chance of short circuit. For long-term implantation, it’s crucial to handle biocompatibility and prevention from short circuits. Most of the materials from Table 4 are not biocompatible materials. There are different biocompatible materials reported in literature like macor [7], alumina [65], PDMS, Parylene C film, polyimide, PEEK (polyetheretherketone), polyethylene, silastic MDX4-4210 [46], etc. For thickness of encased biocompatible coating material can also affect the antenna performance [85].
In the current scenario, an implantable antenna acts as a transmitting device, and an external device acts as receiving device as shown in Figure 2. Assuming far-field communication, the link power budget can be described as in terms of [43, 86, 87],
Wireless communication link between IMD and external device.
Where Pt is transmitted power, Gt is transmitted antenna gain, Lf is path loss in free space, Gr gain of receiving antenna, and N0 is the noise power density. Also, Path loss can be given as,
Where d is the distance between transmitter and receiver.
Impedance Mismatch loss is given as,
Where
For, wireless communication, Link C/N0 must exceed than required C/No, in uplink transmission input power of the transmitter antenna is limited for safety purposes. Received power can be given as,
Where
While designing an antenna one should follow the following characterization of implantable antenna:
Consider, operating frequency bands: MICS (402–405 MHz), ISM (2.4–2.48GHz), MedRadio (401–406 MHz) according to application.
Design a low-profile antenna that fulfills conditions (tissue properties, dielectric constant, conductivity, etc.) of the human body.
Evaluation of simplified geometry for a designed implantable antenna in the human torso.
Further, evaluation and testing of the designed antenna in terms of radiation efficiency, return loss and bandwidth, etc.
Formation of links between transmitter and receiver antennas, estimate the performance of communication links used in an implantable antenna, fulfillment of SAR limitations, and maximum Effective radiating power.
Table 5 shows volume occupied by an implantable antenna in the literature.
Ref. | Simulation tissue | Band (MHz) | Miniaturization technique | Vol. (mm3) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dielectric material | Substrate shape | Dielectric constant | Patch shape | Shorting pin | Patch stacking | ||||
[73] | Skin | 402–405 | Rogers 3210 | Rectangular | 10.2 | Spiral | — | — | 10,240 |
[54] | 2/3 muscle | 402–405 | RT/duroid 6002 | Rectangular | 2.94 | Waffle | Yes | — | 6480 |
[73] | Skin | 402–405 | Rogers 3210 | Rectangular | 10.2 | Spiral | Yes | — | 6144 |
[7] | 2/3 muscle | 402–405 | MACOR | Spiral | 6.1 | Spiral | Yes | — | 3457.4 |
[30] | Skin | 402–405 | ARLON1000 | Square | 6.1 | Meandered | Yes | — | 1375.4 |
[27] | Skin | 402–405 2400–2480 | Rogers 3210 | Rectangular | 10.2 | Meandered | Yes | — | 1265.6 |
[74] | Skin | 402–405 | Rogers 3210 | Rectangular | 10.2 | Spiral | Yes | — | 1200 |
[75] | Skin | 402–405 | Rogers 3210 | Rectangular | 10.2 | Meandered | Yes | — | 1200 |
[66] | 2/3 muscle | 402–405 | RT/duroid6010 | Rectangular | 10.2 | Spiral | Yes | — | 823 |
[81] | Muscle | 402–405 | Rogers 3210 | Rectangular | 10.2 | Yes | — | 791 | |
[31] | Skin | 402–405 2400–2480 | Rogers3010 | Rectangular | 10.2 | Yes | — | 487.8 | |
[76] | Skin | 402–405 | Rogers 3210 | Circular | 10.2 | Hook-slotted | Yes | Yes | 335.8 |
[77] | Vitreous humor | 402–405 | Rogers 3210 | Square | 10.2 | Spiral | Yes | Yes | 273.6 |
[6] | Skin | 402–405 433–435 2400–2480 | Rogers 3210 | Square | 10.2 | Comb and | Yes | Yes | 254 |
[78] | Skin | 402–405 | Rogers 3210 | Circular | 10.2 | Meandered | Yes | Yes | 203.6 |
[79] | Human chest muscle | 401–406 | Rogers 3010 | Square | 10.2 | 1. square patch; 2. square patch with a central square slot 3. meandered square ring 4. meandered square ring with shorting pin | Yes | Yes | 198.4 |
[71] | Skin | 402–405 | Rogers 3210 | Square | 10.2 | Spiral | Yes | Yes | 190 |
[70] | Skin | 402–405 | Rogers 3210 | Circular | 10.2 | Hook slotted | Yes | Yes | 149.2 |
[65] | Skin | 402–405 | Rogers 3210 | Square | 10.2 | Hook slotted | Yes | Yes | 121.6 |
[67] | Skin | 2400–2480 | Roger3010 | Circular | 10.2 | Two rectangle slots onto the annular ring | — | — | 120.69 |
[33] | Skin | 402–405 2400–2480 | Rogers 3210 | Rectangular | 10.2 | Spiral dipole | — | — | 67.8 |
[80] | Skin | 402–405 | Alumina | Circular | 9.4 | Meandered | Yes | Yes | 32.7 |
[37] | Human head model | 402–405 2400–2480 | Rogers 3210 | Rectangular | 10.2 | Serpentine | — | — | 31.5 |
[72] | Skin | 401–406 | Rogers RT/duroid 6010, | Rectangular | 10.2 | l shaded reactive loading | — | — | 18.1 |
Volume occupied by MICS, ISM and medradio band implantable antenna and its miniaturized techniques: A literature.
Following commercial tools are used for designing an implantable antenna such as computer simulation tool (CST) Microwave Studio, High-Frequency Structure Simulator (HFSS), Advanced Designed System (ADS), and XFDTD. In [55] for analyzing electromagnetic characteristics of the implantable antenna inside head and body, Finite-difference-time-domain (FDTD) and Spherical dyadic Green’s function (DGF), etc. functions are applied. In [83] Antenna simulated using FDTD overall efficiency improved and suitable design obtained in minimal time with help of a genetic algorithm.
In general, a one-layer skin model is widely used for implantable antenna design. Although, 2/3 muscle model and three-layer tissue (skin, fat, muscle) mode are also typically for antenna designing. These three models make simulation efficient and measurement easier as this model is made from different materials to active accurate permittivity and conductivity.
In [26] implantable antenna designed with FDTD method including 2/3 muscle model. In [28, 33] antenna simulated in HFSS and CST respectively and a single-layer skin model is used. To design an implantable antenna in a realistic environment then it must evaluate within accurate human body models such as the human Voxel model shown in Figure 3. For neural recording systems and wireless endoscope systems, an accurate human model is required. For different biomedical applications, the implant’s position and depth could be a different and single layer or three-layer modeling used according to application. In Figure 4 one-layer tissue model is shown.
Front and side view of CST human voxel mode used for simulation testing of various antenna.
One layer tissue model.
The meaning of In-Vitro is an outside living organism, this test is relatively easy and practically implementable because testing exists inside the phantom. Phantom is a container (cube or box) with liquid or gel material, it consists of the electrical properties of biological tissue. Fabricated prototype inserted in tissue phantom and measured. Phantoms are generally prepared with the help of deionized water, sugar, salt, etc. If sugar concentration is increased, the permittivity of tissue significantly decreases and conductivity slightly increases and if salt concentration increased, it results in permittivity of tissue decreases and conductivity significantly increases. The mixture must be properly heated and stirred to avoid air bubble formation and poured inside the phantom. In [88] Measurement of liquids electrical properties (εr and μ) was conducted with a dielectric probe kit or open-ended coaxial cable. Generally, reflection coefficient, path loss, communication link, and polarization factor, etc. measured in vitro vest, as observed in the literature. Generally, prototype antennas are connected with a network analyzer through a coaxial cable, inserted in a tissue phantom, and measured.
In-vivo test, testing performed inside animal tissue. There are two methods for Vivo testing, embedding an implantable antenna inside donor animals and surgically implanting an antenna inside a live animal. In [64, 89] dual bands MICS (402–405 MHz) and ISM (2.4–2.48GHz) tested in vivo. A vivo testing protocol must be developed before the experimental investigation. Pre-surgical preparation, anesthesia, etc. should be needed. In [89], two antennas were implanted in three different rats. Due to surgical procedure variation, affect exhibited on return loss frequency response. Dielectric properties of live tissue generally depend on frequency, age, temperature, sex, etc. parameters. In [90, 91, 92, 93] in vivo testing was performed to explore the effect of live tissues on antenna performance. In [91] biocompatible capsule device was implanted inside a live pig body for temperature monitoring. Two circular polarized antennas were tested in rat muscle in [93].
In this paper, microwave antennas for biomedical applications are presented. A brief overview of different antenna types and the needs of the implantable antenna is given. The design of an implantable antenna mainly depends on miniaturization, biocompatibility, wireless communication ability, and patient safety. Different types of antenna, frequency bands for the design of the implantable antenna, miniaturization techniques, etc. were studied. Implantable medical devices now a day are used for physical monitoring, diagnosis purposes. Many other factors will come into the picture when these antennas are integrated with any biomedical device. Low battery power is one of the main constraints. While designing an implantable antenna, dimensions of antenna, patient safety, lower power consumption, efficiency, battery lifetime, etc. should be considered.
Since the early 1920s, iron-based materials, which have an indisputable advantage in the industry, have gradually begun to leave their places to materials with high specific strength like metal matrix composites. Metal matrix composites have interesting physical and mechanical properties. In metal matrix composites, the properties of the matrix material and the properties of reinforcing materials are combined, resulting in higher mechanical and performance properties. Production costs are also an important factor, as well as the physical and mechanical properties of structural materials. Although high technology materials exhibit high physical and mechanical properties, high production costs restrict their use. Metal matrix composites are widely used in aerospace, automobile, military, and biomedical applications because of their high specific strength and considerably low density.
In the fabrication of MMCs, aluminum (Al) is one of the most popular matrix materials because of its low density, good corrosion resistance, and strengthening capability. Aluminum (Al) is a chemical element with the atomic number 13 and symbol Al. It is a non-magnetic and ductile metal that seems a color of silver in the boron group. Al is a metal with an atomic weight of 26.981 g/mol, melting temperature of 660°C and a density of 2.7 g/cm3. The development of new materials will be of greater importance in future technological advances. Aluminum alloys and aluminum matrix composites can combine the beneficial properties of aluminum and other metals, ceramics and production techniques.
The mechanical, physical and chemical properties of aluminum alloys vary depending on the alloy elements and microstructure. Aluminum alloys are divided into two groups as wrought (forged) and cast alloys (Figure 1). This classification is as follows:
Classification of aluminum alloys.
Given the composite materials, it can be said that one of the most important is the method of production. Production methods are classified according to the temperature of the metallic matrix during production. Aluminum matrix composites can be produced by many techniques such, as stir casting, compo casting, powder metallurgy, additive manufacturing, cold spray, friction stir processing, and infiltration, etc. All these methods have different advantages and disadvantages in terms of cost, appropriateness, labor, training, efficiency, time, temperature, and simplicity, etc. Therefore, the production methods of metal matrix composite materials can be divided into four groups;
Liquid phase production methods
Vortex addition technique
Compo-casting
Pressure-less infiltration process
Ultrasonic infiltration
Solid phase production methods
Powder metallurgical methods
Mechanical alloying
Diffusion bonding
Spark plasma sintering (SPS)
Gaseous state fabrication
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
Physical vapor deposition (PVD)
In-situ production method
Internal oxidation process
Unidirectional solidification process
Aluminum matrix composites can be produced with different kinds of reinforcement like MgO, SiC, Al2O3, B4C, CNT and fibers are used to fabricate composites. Figure 2 shows the reinforcement types for aluminum matrix composites. The type and ratio of matrix material and reinforcement and process parameters are some of the most variables in composite fabrication.
Reinforcement types.
The most popular reinforcements for fabrication of aluminum matrix composites are carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and silicon carbide (SiC). For individual MWCNTs, they can achieve an elastic module approaching 1 TPa and tensile strength of 100 GPa. Especially, CNT are used to advance to strength of aluminum alloys. SiC is a material with low thermal conductivity; low thermal expansion coefficient, high thermal shock resistance, hard, semiconductor and greater refractive index value than diamond and is one of the most suitable reinforcement materials to make highly wear-resistant composites. The role of the reinforcement in a composite material is fundamentally one of increasing the mechanical properties. The final properties of the composites reinforcement depend on the individual properties of the reinforcement selected and the matrix.
Aluminum matrix composites are utilized in a wide range of components for advanced manufacturing. Mechanical behavior of aluminum matrix composites can be examined in detail. Increased mechanical properties compared to non-reinforced aluminum enables the applications of these materials in different engineering fields to increase. The low costs of particle reinforced aluminum matrix composites in some applications compared to other composites make them very attractive materials. The fact that these materials exhibit good mechanical behavior in high-temperature applications is another important point for their commercial success.
Thus, it is important to select the optimal levels of the parameters and variables. Therefore, experimental parameter relationships can be accurately predicted and the need for materials and time can be eliminated using these approaches, ANFIS and Taguchi, are widely used on the complicated and nonlinear systems of the different engineering applications. These approaches are widely used in advanced engineering applications as they are a combination of various calculation methods. They also include process design, numerical modeling, estimation and optimization, and the control process. Modeling, estimation and optimization of features are useful and the most important part of engineering to solve complex problem. Important advantages of the calculation techniques are determined during the design and optimization of the process variables to be used during the production phase. These methods are useful for selecting the desired parameters optimally, placing them in systems, analyzing results, digitizing production, minimizing power consumption, and solving real-life problems in the process.
The prediction or optimization methods require large experimental data sets that are expensive to produce. Here we describe methods to discover material parameters in the absence of experimental data. In effect, this algorithm strategy starts with the ability to “learn” and from its experience to accelerate the evolutionary process. This algorithm is tested against several problems and demonstrates that it matches and typically exceeds the efficiency and reproducibility of standard. The success of these methods in a range of problems is to accelerate materials design in the absence of a lack of experimental data.
In addition to experimental effort, modeling with artificial intelligence (AI) is one of the most important approaches to solve the details of the system and make life easier. The purpose of artificial intelligence is to obtain results with high efficiency using knowledge and make it a reality. The most commonly used artificial intelligence techniques to solve complex problems are the adaptive network-based fuzzy inference systems (ANFIS), Taguchi and artificial neural networks (ANN), and these systems are also called soft computing methods. The use of soft computing techniques is powerful modeling techniques related to the statistical approach for predicting parameters.
Over the last decades, the interest of the modeling techniques in different fields of materials science has been increased [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. It is aimed to find the optimum solution with better performance by using human intuition, thinking and decision-making ability, eliminating uncertainties with simple and low-cost solutions and in solving complex and difficult to solve problems. In our previous works, new formulations are developed for the ultimate tension strength (UTS), wettability, critical angle, wear properties of aluminum alloys and composites and welding properties of produced metals using ANN, Taguchi, ANOVA and ANFIS, respectively.
Artificial intelligence is defined in the world of science as the ability of a computer or a computer-assisted machine to perform tasks related to higher logic processes such as human qualities, finding solutions, and understanding, making sense, generalizing and learning from past experiences. Learning ability underlies the logic of artificial intelligence. The greatest contribution of artificial intelligence will be to implement the most correct way they have learned very quickly. Artificial intelligence technologies consist of expert systems, fuzzy logic artificial, neural networks and machine learning and genetic algorithms [8].
ANNs are computer software where basic functions such as generating new data from the data collected by the brain by learning, remembering, and generalizing by imitating the learning path of the human brain. ANN is synthetic structure that mimics biological neural networks. ANNs; inspired by the human brain, it has emerged as a result of the mathematical modeling of the learning process.
Since artificial neural networks are modeling of biological neural networks, first of all, it is necessary to look at the structure of the biological nervous system. The structure of neurons, the basic building block of the biological nervous system, consists of four main parts; dendrite, axon, nucleus and connections (Figure 3a). It has a tree-rooted structure located at the end of the dendrites nerve cell. The task of dendrites is to transmit signals from other neurons or sense organs to which it is attached to the nucleus. The nucleus collects the signals coming from the dendrite and transmits them to the axon. These collected signals are processed by the axon and sent to the connections at the other end of the neuron. Connections transmit newly produced signals to other neurons.
(a) Biological nerve cell and (b) artificial neural network.
Biological nerve cell and artificial neural network simulations are given in Figure 3a and b. As shown in Figure 3b, n data is entered into a cell. The entered data is multiplied by weights and all data are collected and then bias is added, resulting in clear judgment. The net input is passed through the activation function and data output is obtained.
Artificial neural networks are structures formed by the binding of artificial nerve cells. Artificial neural networks are examined in three main layers; input layer, hidden layers and output layer (Figures 3b and 4) [9].
Layers in ANN.
Artificial nerve cells are similar to biological nerve cells. Artificial neurons also form artificial neural networks by bonding between them. Just like biological neurons, artificial neurons have sections where they receive input signals, collect and process these signals, and transmit outputs. An artificial nerve cell consists of five parts;
The weight values are multiplied by the inputs and the net values are calculated by adding together the found values. | |
The weight values are multiplied by the inputs and then the net input is calculated by multiplying the values found by each other. | |
After the weights of n inputs are multiplied by the inputs, the largest of them is considered as net input. | |
After the weights of n inputs are multiplied by the inputs, the smallest of them is considered as net input. |
Transfer function.
Sigmoid function | The sigmoid activation function is continuous and derivable function. It is the most commonly used function in ANN applications due to its non-linearity. The function produces a value between 0 and 1 for each of the input values. | |
Tangent hyperbolic function | Tangent hyperbolic function is a function similar to sigmoid function. In the sigmoid function, the outcome values range from 0 to 1, while the output values of the hyperbolic tangent function range from −1 to 1. |
Activation function.
ANNs have the following key features such as, non-linearity, parallel operation, learning, generalization, error tolerance and flexibility, working with missing data, using multiple variables and parameters and adaptability. Artificial neural networks applications are mostly used in prediction, classification, data association, data interpretation and data filtering processes. In ANNs, according to their structure; artificial neural networks are divided into two as forward and feedback depending on the way the neurons they contain. There is only a link from one layer to the next layers. In contrast to feed-forward (FF) neural networks, feed-out of a cell is not only input to the layer of the cell that comes after it. It can also be linked as input to any cell in its previous layer or its layer. With this structure, feedback neural networks display a nonlinear dynamic behavior. ANNs are divided into three as consulting, advisor-less and reinforced learning according to learning algorithms. Artificial neural networks are divided into two as static and dynamic learning according to learning time. According to layers, single layer networks consist only of input and output. In multilayer sensors, the structure to which many neurons, which are structurally nonlinear activation functions, are connected with certain superiority, are called multilayer sensors.
Although the structure of an ANN and the number of nerve cells vary, there are no accepted rules for the formation of an artificial neural network. While artificial neural networks with less than the required hidden layers are insufficient in solving complicated functions, artificial neural networks with too many hidden layers encounter undesirable instability. The problem encountered after determining the number of hidden layers is in deciding how many neurons will be present in each layer. There is no problem with the input layer; this number is equal to the number of inputs in the system. Likewise, the output layer can be determined by the desired output number. The main problem is to specify the neurons number in the hidden layers. The traditional matrix algorithm says that the matrix dimensions must be either equal to the inputs number or the number of outputs. Unfortunately, there is no mathematical test about how many neurons will be found in the hidden layer in the most efficiently. The decision should be made by applying the trial and error method [10].
In the learning process of artificial neural networks, inputs are received from the external environment; a reaction output is generated by passing through the activation function. This output is again compared to the output given by experience. Errors are found with various learning algorithms and the real output is tried to be approached. In general, 80% of the samples are given to the network and the network is trained. Then the remaining 20% is given and the behavior of the network is examined. Thus, the network is tested.
It is the step of finding examples that have already occurred for the event that the network wants to learn. As the samples are collected for training the network (training set), the samples (test set) must be collected to test the network. After learning the network event, the performance of the network is measured by showing the examples in the test set. His success against the examples he has never seen reveals whether the network has learned well.
ANFIS is a kind of artificial neural network that is based on Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy inference system. The technique is developed in the early 1990s [1]. Various methods have been developed to increase the effectiveness of fuzzy systems and to contribute to the adaptation technique. One of them is the ANFIS technique, in which the identification process is performed with a fuzzy model, the operation of which takes place within the adaptive network structure. Neural adaptive learning techniques allow developing a model that “learns” the system by using the data set for the fuzzy modeling procedure. The fuzzy model to be used in the identification of the system has acquired the ability to update itself by using the environmental information about the system and by utilizing the input and output data related to the system thanks to its adaptive network structure. Essentially, the ANFIS structure consists of the representation of Sugeno fuzzy systems as a network structure with neural learning capabilities. This network consists of a combination of nodes, each placed in layers, to perform a certain function. 52 fuzzy inference system selection of membership functions is arbitrary, it depends on the user. The form of membership functions also depends on the parameters. However, it cannot be easily noticed how some form of membership function should be based on the data in some models [2].
Neural adaptive learning techniques enable to develop a model that “learns” the system by using the data set for the fuzzy modeling procedure. In other words, ANFIS creates a fuzzy inference system (FIS) by editing the membership function parameters using the input/output data set back-propagation (BP) algorithm alone or in combination with the least-squares method. This arrangement allows the system to learn the related system with the help of data modeled by our fuzzy system. In other words, it adapts to the data it will model. It is therefore adaptable. Thanks to its adaptive network structure functioning, it has acquired the ability to update itself by using environmental information about the system as well as utilizing the input and output data related to the system. It also includes advanced data analysis techniques such as ANFIS, numerical grouping and rule sets.
ANFIS consists of six layers. The first layer is called the input layer. Input signals in this layer are transferred to other layers. Layer 2 is the fuzzification layer. Each output consists of membership degrees depending on the input values and the used membership function. Layer 3 is the rule layer; each node in this layer refers to the rules and the number created according to the Sugeno fuzzy logic inference system. Layer 4 is the normalization layer, accepting all nodes and calculating the normalized level of each rule. The 5th layer is the purification layer and the weighted result values of a rule given in each node are estimated. Layer 6 is the total layer with only one node (∑). In this layer, the output value of each node is added and the actual output of the system is obtained.
ANFIS’s learning algorithm is a hybrid learning algorithm that consists of using the least-squares method and the back-propagation learning algorithm. This learning algorithm is based on error back-propagation. There are two parts to a step in the learning process; in the first part, input samples are produced and the preliminary parameters are accepted as constant and the best final parameters are determined with the least mean square method. In the second part, the input samples are reproduced and the preliminary parameters are replaced by the gradient descent method, with the final parameters considered constant. This process is repeated later [3].
Taguchi design is a set of methodologies that take into account the variability inherent in the material and manufacturing processes at the design stage. Taguchi has not brought theoretical innovations to experimental design. However, it has made innovations in applications in production and has enabled the method to be accepted in the manufacturing sector with successful applications.
Traditional experimental designs are difficult to use, especially when dealing with a large number of experiments and increasing the number of processing parameters. Therefore, the Taguchi experimental design method ensures that more than one factor is taken into account at the same time, but it also ensures that the most optimum result is obtained by performing fewer experiments Design of experiment (DOE) in Taguchi is used to design the experimental run layout, to study the effect of level change in the process parameters on the output performance, because any change in the input parameters affects the output functional performance. It is important to know that all factors do not effect on the performance in the same manner [4].
Taguchi employs the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio as its preferred sort characteristic. S/N ratio is employed as a finite value in place of a standard deviation. In its simplest form, the S/N ratio is the ratio of the mean (signal) to the standard deviation (noise). S/N ratio properties can be divided into three categories as shown in Table 3.
The lowest is the best. | In such problems, the target value of Y is zero. The smallest value represents the signal to noise ratio for its best condition. | |
The biggest is the best. | In this case, the value of Y is a non-negative measurable property with an ideal goal as infinity. The greatest value refers to the signal/noise ratio for the best case. | |
Nominal is the best. | In this case, the nominal value is the target when we have a characteristic with double tolerance. So if all the parts are brought to this value, the variation is zero and the best. The target value represents the signal to noise ratio for its best condition. |
S/N ratios.
y = response value, y′ = mean of the response value, s = standard deviation, and n = number of trails for given experiment.
Regardless of the sort characteristic category, a higher S/N ratio comes up to better sort characteristics. Hence, the optimum degree of process variables is the degree by the highest S/N ratio.
The initiative of the Taguchi technique is to fix the sort characteristic to be optimized. The sort characteristic is a variable that has an important effect on the product class of the variation. It is the output value to be sighted. The next step is to describe noise values that can harm system performance and class. Noise values are parameters that cannot be checked or are very expensive to check. The third feature is the definition of control parameters that are considered to have important effects on quality features. Control variables are conception factors that can be adjusted and continued. The levels of each test are determined at this stage. The level number of each parameter defines the test area. The matrix experiment and the analysis procedure should be identified. First, the suitable orthogonal array for noise and check variables are selected. Taguchi has provided many standard orthogonal arrays for this aim. After choosing the proper arrays, a procedure must be defined to simulate the change in class characteristic owing to noise factors. Taguchi suggest an orthogonal array-based simulation to interpret the mean and variance of a product’s output owing to alterations in noise factors. The next step is to make a matrix experiment and record the outcomes. The Taguchi technique can be employed in any situation in which there is a checkable operation. The checkable operation can be a real equipment test, mathematical equation, or computer pattern that can adequately pattern the reply of many yield or operation. After the experiments are made, the configuration of the most suitable parameter in DOE should be designated. To check up on the outcomes, the S/N ratio which is a calculation of performance to select the check levels that can deal with noise and considers both average and variability is employed as a performance criterion in the Taguchi technique. As a last step, experimental validation is made using the optimum levels predicted for the examined check variables. We can say that the Taguchi method is a powerful tool that can provide simultaneous improvements in quality and cost.
Taguchi technique cannot judge and designate influence of individual factors on all operation, while the importance level and the contribution of individual factors can be very well specified by ANOVA [6]. Analysis of variance is a statistical instrument that is used to designate the difference or similarity between two or more data groups. ANOVA formally helps to find the significance of all main variables by comparing the mean square versus a calculation of the test faults at a specific class of confidence. The goal of experimentation is to find possible methods to reduce the deviation of the required quality as much as possible. This can be reached by identifying those parameters which play a significant role in the performance characteristic [5, 6].
The effects of temperature, time, and the additions of magnesium and copper on the wetting behavior of Al/TiC are studied theoretically [7]. The R values of training and test sets are 0.911 and 0.903, respectively. The formulation is presented in explicit form. The proposed model shows good agreement with test results and can be used to find the wetting behavior of Al/TiC. The contribution of input parameters on the output is revealed with sensitivity analysis is shown in Figure 5. In the input parameters, the time and temperature have a stronger effect on the wetting of TiC system.
Sensitivity of the input parameters for Al/TiC system.
Effects of friction stir processing (FSP) parameters and reinforcements on the wear behavior of 6061-T6 based hybrid composites are investigated [11]. The different neuron numbers are used to determining the optimal architecture of the system. The system parameters affect the learning rate and so the prediction rate. It is obtained with 17 neurons through MSE, MAE and R values. The R2 values of training and test sets are 0.998 and 0.995 which are quite high. The sensitivity analysis for the studied AMCs is given in Figure 6. The change in the applied load will be affected the wear volume loss of the composites. The applied load increases the wear in the composites.
Sensitivity of the input parameters for 6061 AMCs.
A mathematical formulation is derived and given clearly to calculate the wear volume loss of the composites. The influence of input variables on the wear volume loss of the composites is also investigated using the prepared formulation. The wear volume loss of the composites significantly enhanced with increasing sliding distance and tool traverse and rotational speeds. A minimum wear volume loss for the hybrid composites with complex reinforcements is specified at the inclusion ratio of 50% TiC +50% Al2O3 because of improved lubricant ability, as well as resistance to brittleness and wear. It is clear that the formulation can be used in prediction of wear loss of the composites and so, the time and production cost can be reduced.
The effects of FSP parameters and hybrid ratio on the UTS of Al matrix (5083) hybrid composites are investigated in detail [12]. The numbers of different neurons in one hidden layer (10–15) are used to determine the optimum model architecture. The optimal model architecture is conducted with 15 neurons. The MSE, MAE and MAPE are utilized as error-evaluation criteria, and the correlation coefficient (R) is chosen to estimate the performance of the proposed model. The maximum R and minimum error values are obtained with 15 neurons. A mathematical formulation is derived, and test results are compared with those of the model. In Figure 7, the error percentage of the composites is showed. The average error is 11% for training set and 4% for test set. This shows that the prediction ability of the proposed model can be accepted.
Error values of the composites: (a) training set and (b) test set.
The effects of factors influencing strength, such as tool rotational and traverse speeds, and volume fractions of, carbon nanotube (CNT), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), graphite (Gr), silicon carbide (SiC) and zirconium oxide (ZrO2) are also studied using the proposed formulation. Test results showed that the UTS of these composites significantly increased with increasing CNT, tool rotational and traverse speeds. In addition, the effects of complex reinforcements with different volume fractions on the 5083 AMHCs are examined. A maximum tensile strength for the hybrid composites is found at the inclusion ratio of 10% Gr + 5% ZrO2.
The effect of different alloying elements on the ultimate tensile strength of Al-Mg2Si composites is studied using ANN [13]. The input variables are Al, Mg, Si, copper, manganese, chromium, phosphorus, beryllium, boron, lithium, yttrium and sodium wt.% and the output is UTS in unit of MPa. Three different neuron numbers in one hidden layer (12, 13 and 14) are used. The training data set (70%) the validation data set (15%) and test data set (15%) are used. The optimal architecture is found to be 12-12-1 architecture with logistic sigmoid transfer function. The R, MSE and MAE values are used as the error criteria. The minimum MSE and MAE and the maximum R values are obtained in test set. The sensitivity of input vectors on UTS of Al-Mg2Si composites is given in Figure 8. It is clear that Mg has more impact on UTS of Al-Mg2Si composites because there are a linear relation between the size and morphology of the Mg2Si phases and the mechanical properties of the composites containing Mg and Si elements. The results showed that all the data sets have quite high correlation and accuracy and therefore, the proposed mathematical function can be used in ANN studies.
Sensitivity of the input parameters for the alloy [
The UTS of unrefined Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys and refined the alloys by Al-5Ti-1B and Al-5Zr master alloys are calculated with ANN [16]. There is no well-defined procedure to determine the optimal model structure, so the different neuron numbers in one hidden layer (5–20) are used with the trial and error approach. The optimal structure for this works is the 15-17-1 with logistic sigmoid transfer function. The R, MAE and MSE are used for the performance of datasets. The sensitivity results (Figure 9) display that the Mg element and heat treatment have the higher effect on the UTS of the Al-Zn-Mg-Cu Alloy. Because alloying elements interact with other metals and form intermetallic compounds, and these compounds are precipitated by heat treatment, resulting in high strength. The mathematical formula is obtained and the influences of scandium and carbon contents are researched using the formulation. The optimum additions of scandium and carbon rates are observed to be 0.5 Sc and 0.01 C wt.% to obtain the maximum UTS value. The prediction model with the obtained formulation has a high reliability rate.
Sensitivity of the input parameters for the Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy.
The UTS, ductility, porosity, hardness and density of Al-Mg-Ti alloys are studied by ANN. The influences of input parameters are examined by the sensitivity analysis. The Mg element within all input variables has the highest effect on the UTS and hardness of the alloys while the Ti element has the density and ductility. The linear correlation values for all variables are higher than 0.91 that the model accuracy is very high (Figure 10).
Sensitivity analysis of the Al-Mg-Ti alloys.
Satyanarayana et al. [17] researched the influence of reinforcement and deformation on volumetric wear of aluminum matrix composites the reinforced with red mud nano-particles using ANN and regression model. Authors used the activation function of sigmoid function, the RMSE and MAPE, four input parameters, two hidden layers with seven and six neurons, one output parameter that is volumetric wear 124 data for training set and 20 data for test set in the ANN model. The R2 and MAPE values of regression and ANN models are 0.9775 and 0.989, and 12.96 and 7.30%, respectively, and RMSE for ANN models is 0.3177. They observed that ANN approach predicted the wear rate of the composites with excellent agreement than mathematical regression model and it could be useful to decrease time, effort and cost.
The hardness, ultimate tensile strength (UTS), and yield strength (YS) of A413/B4C composites that are produced with squeeze casting route are modeled using ANN and statistical modeling [18]. Authors used the 18 data for training, 9 data for testing, the hyperbolic tangent sigmoid function (TANSIG) and the linear transfer function (PURELIN) for the activation function, the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm (TRAINLM) and the gradient descent with a momentum BP algorithm (TRAINGDM) for the training algorithm. There are layers of three inputs, three output and 50 + 50 neurons in two hidden layers. The data are normalized within the range (0–1) before training and testing. MSE, R and prediction percentage error are used the performance criteria of the system. They observed that the optimal architecture is 3-2-2-3 (the numbers of hidden layers and neurons are 2) with Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm and the results are in good agreement with experimental values. The R is 0.96 for hardness, 0.95 for UTS and YS, and MAPE is 1.42 for hardness, 0.62 for UTS and 0.59 for YS. It can be concluded that the cost and time could be saved with the proposed model. The full design of 33 (three levels and three factors) factorials are used to design connection between the input and outcome variables, and the design of experiment (DOE) with ANOVA is used to determine the significance of each factor on the responses. The pressure is 70, 105 and 140 MPa, preheating temperature of die is 150, 225 and 300°C, and B4C rate is 4, 8 and 12 wt.%, respectively. The R2 is 95.25% and the adjusted R2 is 93.83% that shows a high effect of the model. The squeeze pressure with contributing of about 44–46% has a powerful effect on mechanical properties, while B4C wt.% has about 33–43% and preheating temperature of die has about 9–16%. All P-values of the response are lower than 0.005. The optimal ratio of the pressure, B4C rate and preheating temperature of die are seen to be 140 MPa, 12 wt.% and 225°C, respectively, to obtain the maximum mechanical properties.
The process parameters and experimental variables Al5059/SiC/MoS2 composites are optimized by ANN and Taguchi [19]. The five input and the six output variables and 27 data are used in the ANN model for training and testing. The performance of output variables is determined by R2 which is 98.12% surface roughness, 98.63% for temperature, 96.98% for radial force, 98.54% for feed force, 99.34% for material removal rate (MRR) and 98.71% for tangential force. The L27 orthogonal array (three levels and five factors) with “smaller is better” criteria for Taguchi design is performed. The optimum S/N ratios for surface roughness are found to be 5% SiC, 40 cutting speed of 1000 rpm, μm particle size, 200 mm/min feed and 0.5 mm depth of cut, respectively. For the temperature, all values are the same but cutting speed are 500 rpm. The optimum values varied for radial force, feed force, material removal rate and tangential force. The significance and influence of process variables on the quality are studied analysis of variance (ANOVA). Authors reported that the best important variable in all input parameters on the milling operation is silicon carbide addition (wt.%) in the composite followed by the feed rate, depth of cut, cutting speed and particle size of SiC.
Al2219 alloy reinforced with TiC+Al2O3 + Si3N4 is produced by squeeze method [20]. The melt temperature, die temperatures, stirring speed, feed rate and stirring time (min) are varied. To optimize the mechanical properties of hybrid composites, a statistical investigation is performed by ANFIS-gray wolf optimizer (ANFIS-GWO) and ANFIS-K-nearest neighbor (ANFIS-KNN) algorithms. They observed that the optimization results predicted the most suitable process parameters to obtain aluminum hybrid composites with high mechanical properties, and experimental and optimization results showed an optimal combination of hybrid and process parameters.
The flow stress values of 6061 Al-15% SiC metal matrix composites are predicted by an ANFIS [21]. The hot compression tests are applied to composites at various strain rates and temperatures. In the used ANFIS model, there are 17 rules with 17 membership functions (MF) which is Gaussian type for input MF, and linear parameters are 68 and non-linear parameters are 102. The samples of training and checking data are 88 and 12, respectively. The percentage mean error (PME) and RMSE are used to performance criteria. The predicted PME value of the flow stress by the ANFIS is less than 1.4%. Author declared that ANFIS with a hybrid learning algorithm can accurately be estimated the flow stress for the composites. In order to find the number of hidden nodes, there is not any way to obtain a highly system performance. The flow stress of 6061 Al-15% SiCp for plastic deformation can.
The impact resistance (IR) of Al-epoxy laminated composites by 2, 5 and 10-layers and has notch tip configuration with crack divider and crack arrester is predicted using ANFIS [22]. The experimental results of 126 are conducted for ANFIS model. The structure of ANFIS is obtained by seven input variables and the triangular and Gaussian membership functions (MFs). In this ANFIS model, the system is trained using 103 data and tested using 23 data. The best R2 value of the Gaussian MFs model is 97.73% for training set, and the minimum R2 value is 91.95% in the test dataset with the triangular MFs model. They concluded that both models had high R2 values and strong potential, and IR of Al-epoxy laminated composites could be predicted by highly accurately with the proposed model under the given condition.
Kandpal et al. [23] optimized the EDM process parameters of AA6061/10% Al2O3 aluminum matrix composites casted by stir casting method using Taguchi route with ANOVA. The three factors with three levels in design of experiment section are set thus orthogonal array of L9 “larger is better” criteria is selected chosen. The input parameters are current and time of pulse and duty factor and the output factor is material removal rate (MRR). Authors declared that the current is the most affecting parameter on material removal rate and the optimal variables are 14 A for pulse current, 200 μs for the pulse on time and 50% for duty factor to obtain the maximum MRR.
The wear behavior (SWR: specific wear rate) of LM25/fly ash composite materials produced with stir casting route is optimized using Taguchi design of experiment with ANOVA [24]. The experimental design is carried out by the orthogonal array of L27 (three levels and four factors) “smaller is better” criteria in which sliding speed, load, reinforcement and sliding distance are input factors. The change in load compared to the other input variables would more be affected the SWR. Authors observed that the used optimization model reduced the specific wear rate and confirmed the increasing of wear resistance of the composites by the proposed optimum parameters. They also said that the Taguchi method is useful in optimizing the specific wear rate.
Table 4 shows the advantages and disadvantages of the model used. It is clear that each method has different advantages and disadvantages. ANN, ANFIS and FL techniques use the experimental results but Taguchi is used for the experiment design which provides the maximum output with the minimum experiment.
Method | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
ANN | Function approximation Data classification Data processing System control The solution of nonlinear problems Prediction Explicit formulation Storing information throughout the network Ability to work with missing knowledge Having error tolerance Having distributed memory Gradual deterioration Machine learning Parallel processing ability Detecting all possible interactions between variables | Training for each problem Large volumes data requirement Hardware requirement Failure to explain the behavior of the network Determining the appropriate network structure (topology) Difficulty displaying the problem to the network Not knowing the training time of the network Problem must be numerical Extremely addictive to data and applications Selecting of appropriate input variables |
ANFIS | Numerical grouping Rule setting Prediction Better learning ability A much smaller convergence error Fewer adjustable parameters Parallel computation A well-structured knowledge representation A better integration Linguistic expressiveness of inaccurate inputs and system outputs Adaptability The ability to process information simultaneously Calculation to be efficient Working with linear techniques To be successful with optimization and adaptive techniques Continuity guarantee of the output Suitable for mathematical analysis There is no vagueness Reaching to the target faster The solution of nonlinear problems Function approximation Data classification Data processing System control | Training for each problem Hardware requirement Large volumes data requirement Selecting of appropriate input variables Low accuracy when there are not enough training data Cannot handle multiple output systems Long run time when the number of membership functions is large |
Taguchi | Experimental design (system, tolerance, parameter) The possibility of calculating the inter-factor interactions not possible in the experimental design by changing one factor at a time Showing which factor is important Finding all available compositions | High fault tolerance Difficulty of calculating the effects of unexpected changes in experimental conditions Randomization, repetition and blocking of experiments Exponentially increasing the size of the experiments with the number and levels of factors Difficulty in explaining the high level of interactions |
Advantages and disadvantages of the model.
Table 5 shows the decision matrices for ANN, ANFIS and Taguchi approaches. In the decision matrices, weighting factor (WF) is designated using the information in Table 4. The score values where ANFIS has the highest score value are close each other. For example, ANN runs with higher data volume compared to ANFIS. This shows why ANN has the score 3 while ANFIS has the score 4. The Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) method is used for the more detailed analysis in shown in Table 6.
WF | 1 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 3 | Score |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Method | Time | Features | Predicting | Volume | Design | |
ANN | 3 | 5 | 5 | 3 | 1 | 57 |
ANFIS | 3 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 1 | 59 |
Taguchi | 4 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 56 |
Decision (score) matrices.
WF | 0.05 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.15 | 0.2 | Volume and design (min) | Volume and design (max) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Method | Time | Features | Predicting | Volume | Design | Si+ | Si− | Ci | Si+ | Si− | Ci |
ANN | 3 | 5 | 5 | 3 | 1 | 0.014 | 0.043 | 0.754 | 0.038 | 0.024 | 0.391 |
ANFIS | 3 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 1 | 0.007 | 0.044 | 0.861 | 0.039 | 0.021 | 0.354 |
Taguchi | 4 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 0.043 | 0.014 | 0.245 | 0.024 | 0.038 | 0.608 |
TOPSIS matrices.
The main purpose of TOPSIS, which is a multi-criteria decision making method, is to enable the organization, interpretation and analysis of information in decision making. TOPSIS method reveals the distances to positive and negative ideal solutions, revealing ideal and non-ideal solutions. In the TOPSIS, the parameters are normalized (Eq. (1)), calculated weighted normalized matrix (Eq. (2)), ideal the best and worst values, Euclidean distance from ideal best and worst (Eqs. (3) and (4)), and performance (Eq. (5)), respectively, using following equations;
The ideal best and worst values are the determining of the minimum or maximum values in the given ranges. The Ci values show the ranks of ANN, ANFIS and Taguchi methods. The maximum and minimum Ci values for the minimum data volume and design and the maximum data volume and design are observed at ANFIS and Taguchi approaches, respectively. This explains that if the analysis of broad features such as the solution of nonlinear problems, data classification, data processing, system control, or prediction will be performed, ANFIS or ANN techniques should be applied. If an experiment design with different variables will be executed, the Taguchi method should be used. So, experiment variables and its effects with less experimental study can reveal easily.
The key parameters are determined by executing the artificial neural network (ANN), adaptive-neuro fuzzy inference systems (ANFIS) and Taguchi with ANOVA. The nonlinear problems, the function approximation, data classification, data processing and system control etc., in engineering applications of AMCs can be easily carried out by soft computing approaches. Although many different methods are used for this purpose, we can say that the most popular and the most widely used methods are Taguchi, ANN and ANFIS approaches due to factors such as the minimum error, maximum accuracy, fast, cost, and time in forecasting, decision analysis, optimization, modeling and solution of complex problems and etc. One of the most important tasks in ANN and ANFIS is the determination of the number of layers, neuron, hidden layer, learning algorithm, and transfer function because there is no well-defined procedure to find the optimal parameter settings and network architecture. These variables affect the learning and forecasting abilities of the system with high accuracy. In the ANN, datasets must be normalized. ANFIS has the advantage to combine both ANN and Fuzzy knowledge. So ANFIS is more precise in term of efficiency even though ANN may outperform ANFIS model. ANFIS algorithm has a hybrid learning approaches in its structure. This helps the algorithm to be faster and more precise in term of efficiency than most of ANN algorithm.
The models have an important advantage coming from their ability to generate mathematical equations that can be easily programmed and used in applications in the production process. The theoretical analysis of material parameters is quite complicated due to various factors. The explicit formulations are proposed using these methods for estimating the parameters of composites. The training requirement for ANN includes large amounts of data, but this does not apply to ANFIS. The calculations can be made with the mathematical formulation obtained from the ANN which is an important advantage of ANN compared to the other methods. ANFIS and Neural Networks must be trained for each problem. The compatibility of experimental and theoretical results is researched by MSE, MAE, MAPE, RMSE, R and R2 criteria because the minimum error criteria and maximum correlation coefficient are expected. The sensitivity of input parameters on the output in the stated studies, and the decision and TOPSIS matrices for three approaches are derived and discussed. Also, the advantages and disadvantages of the methods are tabulated. It can be concluded that ANFIS and ANN approaches can be used to solve the many complex problems with minimum error, control system, detect the interactions between variables, reach the target faster, predict and optimize the results with the maximum accuracy. The Taguchi is an experimental design method and provides the optimum results with fewer experiments using multiple results at the same time. The system, parameter and tolerance design is the special interest of the Taguchi.
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Govindarajan and Giovanni Benelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5527.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:18,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"31812",doi:"10.5772/32521",title:"Soft Ticks as Pathogen Vectors: Distribution, Surveillance and Control",slug:"soft-ticks-as-pathogen-vectors-distribution-surveillance-and-control-",totalDownloads:6426,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:null,book:{id:"1692",slug:"parasitology",title:"Parasitology",fullTitle:"Parasitology"},signatures:"Raúl Manzano-Román, Verónica Díaz-Martín, José de la Fuente and Ricardo Pérez-Sánchez",authors:[{id:"91813",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Sánchez",slug:"ricardo-perez-sanchez",fullName:"Ricardo Pérez-Sánchez"},{id:"120373",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Manzano-Román",slug:"raul-manzano-roman",fullName:"Raúl Manzano-Román"},{id:"120375",title:"Ms.",name:"Verónica",middleName:null,surname:"Díaz-Martín",slug:"veronica-diaz-martin",fullName:"Verónica Díaz-Martín"},{id:"120378",title:"Dr.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"De La Fuente",slug:"jose-de-la-fuente",fullName:"José De La Fuente"}]},{id:"54154",doi:"10.5772/67338",title:"Staphylococcus aureus: Overview of Bacteriology, Clinical Diseases, Epidemiology, Antibiotic Resistance and Therapeutic Approach",slug:"staphylococcus-aureus-overview-of-bacteriology-clinical-diseases-epidemiology-antibiotic-resistance-",totalDownloads:7096,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus is an important human pathogen that causes wide range of infectious conditions both in nosocomial and community settings. The Gram-positive pathogen is armed with battery of virulence factors that facilitate to establish infections in the hosts. The organism is well known for its ability to acquire resistance to various antibiotic classes. The emergence and spread of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains which are often multi-drug resistant in hospitals and subsequently in community resulted in significant mortality and morbidity. The epidemiology of MRSA has been evolving since its initial outbreak which necessitates a comprehensive medical approach to tackle this pathogen. Vancomycin has been the drug of choice for years but its utility was challenged by the emergence of resistance. In the last 10 years or so, newer anti-MRSA antibiotics were approved for clinical use. However, being notorious for developing antibiotic resistance, there is a continuous need for exploring novel anti-MRSA agents from various sources including plants and evaluation of non-antibiotic approaches.",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Arumugam Gnanamani, Periasamy Hariharan and Maneesh Paul-\nSatyaseela",authors:[{id:"192829",title:"Dr.",name:"Arumugam",middleName:null,surname:"Gnanamani",slug:"arumugam-gnanamani",fullName:"Arumugam Gnanamani"},{id:"204388",title:"Dr.",name:"Periasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Hariharan",slug:"periasamy-hariharan",fullName:"Periasamy Hariharan"},{id:"204389",title:"Dr.",name:"Maneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Paul-Satyaseela",slug:"maneesh-paul-satyaseela",fullName:"Maneesh Paul-Satyaseela"}]},{id:"32282",doi:"10.5772/33983",title:"Bacteriophages of Ralstonia solanacearum: Their Diversity and Utilization as Biocontrol Agents in Agriculture",slug:"bacteriophages-of-ralstonia-solanacearum-their-diversity-and-utilization-as-biocontrol-agents-in-agr",totalDownloads:3730,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:null,book:{id:"555",slug:"bacteriophages",title:"Bacteriophages",fullTitle:"Bacteriophages"},signatures:"Takashi Yamada",authors:[{id:"98151",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Yamada",slug:"takashi-yamada",fullName:"Takashi Yamada"}]},{id:"32276",doi:"10.5772/34642",title:"Bacteriophages and Their Structural Organisation",slug:"bacteriophages-and-their-structural-organisation-",totalDownloads:12391,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:null,book:{id:"555",slug:"bacteriophages",title:"Bacteriophages",fullTitle:"Bacteriophages"},signatures:"E.V. Orlova",authors:[{id:"101052",title:"Prof.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Orlova",slug:"elena-orlova",fullName:"Elena Orlova"}]},{id:"53782",doi:"10.5772/66645",title:"Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in Food- Producing and Companion Animals and Food Products",slug:"methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa-in-food-producing-and-companion-animals-and-food-pr",totalDownloads:2728,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has become a growing concern in companion and food-producing animals. The presence of multidrug-resistance with a wide range of extracellular enterotoxin genes, virulence factors, and Panton-Valentine leukocidin (pvl) cytotoxin genes confer life-threatening traits on MRSA and makes them highly pathogenic and difficult to treat. Clonal complex 398 (CC398), a predominant clonal lineage of livestock-associated-MRSA in domestic animals and retail meat, is capable of infecting humans. In order to monitor and prevent MRSA contamination, it is critical to understand its source and transmission dynamics. In this review, we describe MRSA in food-producing animals (pig, cattle, chicken), horses, pet animals (dogs, cats), and food products (pork, beef, chicken, milk, and fish).",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Jungwhan Chon, Kidon Sung and Saeed Khan",authors:[{id:"189634",title:"Dr.",name:"Kidon",middleName:null,surname:"Sung",slug:"kidon-sung",fullName:"Kidon Sung"},{id:"190400",title:"Dr.",name:"Jungwhan",middleName:null,surname:"Chon",slug:"jungwhan-chon",fullName:"Jungwhan Chon"},{id:"190401",title:"Dr.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"saeed-khan",fullName:"Saeed Khan"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69731",title:"Isolation and Purification of Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria",slug:"isolation-and-purification-of-sulfate-reducing-bacteria",totalDownloads:1501,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) are a widespread group of microorganisms that are often isolated from the anoxygenic environments (lake depths, soil, or swamps), and they are also present in the human and animal intestines. This group is often detected in patients with inflammatory bowel disease, including ulcerative colitis. That is why new rapid methods for their isolation, purification, and identification are important and necessary. In this chapter, the methods of mesophilic SRB isolation from various environments are described. Particular attention is paid to the purification of mesophilic SRB since they can be in close interaction with other microorganisms (Clostridium, Bacteroides, Pseudomonas, etc.), which are their frequent satellites. Moreover, the main methods of mesophilic SRB identification based on their morphological, physiological, biochemical, and genetical characteristics are presented.",book:{id:"8997",slug:"microorganisms",title:"Microorganisms",fullTitle:"Microorganisms"},signatures:"Ivan Kushkevych",authors:[{id:"252191",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Kushkevych",slug:"ivan-kushkevych",fullName:"Ivan Kushkevych"}]},{id:"65773",title:"Life Cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi in the Invertebrate and the Vertebrate Hosts",slug:"life-cycle-of-em-trypanosoma-cruzi-em-in-the-invertebrate-and-the-vertebrate-hosts",totalDownloads:1393,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi) is a protozoan parasite that causes Chagas disease, a zoonotic disease that can be transmitted to humans by blood-sucking triatomine bugs. T. cruzi is a single-celled eukaryote with a complex life cycle alternating between reduviid bug invertebrate vectors and vertebrate hosts. This article will look at the developmental stages of T. cruzi in the invertebrate vector and the vertebrate hosts, the different surface membrane proteins involved in different life cycle stages of T. cruzi, roles of different amino acids in the life cycle, carbon and energy sources and gene expression in the life cycle of T. cruzi. The author will also look at extracellular vesicles (EV) and its role in the dissemination and survival of T. cruzi in mammalian host.",book:{id:"8806",slug:"biology-of-em-trypanosoma-cruzi-em-",title:"Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi",fullTitle:"Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi"},signatures:"Kenechukwu C. Onyekwelu",authors:[{id:"245368",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenechukwu C.",middleName:null,surname:"Onyekwelu",slug:"kenechukwu-c.-onyekwelu",fullName:"Kenechukwu C. Onyekwelu"}]},{id:"54154",title:"Staphylococcus aureus: Overview of Bacteriology, Clinical Diseases, Epidemiology, Antibiotic Resistance and Therapeutic Approach",slug:"staphylococcus-aureus-overview-of-bacteriology-clinical-diseases-epidemiology-antibiotic-resistance-",totalDownloads:7096,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus is an important human pathogen that causes wide range of infectious conditions both in nosocomial and community settings. The Gram-positive pathogen is armed with battery of virulence factors that facilitate to establish infections in the hosts. The organism is well known for its ability to acquire resistance to various antibiotic classes. The emergence and spread of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains which are often multi-drug resistant in hospitals and subsequently in community resulted in significant mortality and morbidity. The epidemiology of MRSA has been evolving since its initial outbreak which necessitates a comprehensive medical approach to tackle this pathogen. Vancomycin has been the drug of choice for years but its utility was challenged by the emergence of resistance. In the last 10 years or so, newer anti-MRSA antibiotics were approved for clinical use. However, being notorious for developing antibiotic resistance, there is a continuous need for exploring novel anti-MRSA agents from various sources including plants and evaluation of non-antibiotic approaches.",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Arumugam Gnanamani, Periasamy Hariharan and Maneesh Paul-\nSatyaseela",authors:[{id:"192829",title:"Dr.",name:"Arumugam",middleName:null,surname:"Gnanamani",slug:"arumugam-gnanamani",fullName:"Arumugam Gnanamani"},{id:"204388",title:"Dr.",name:"Periasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Hariharan",slug:"periasamy-hariharan",fullName:"Periasamy Hariharan"},{id:"204389",title:"Dr.",name:"Maneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Paul-Satyaseela",slug:"maneesh-paul-satyaseela",fullName:"Maneesh Paul-Satyaseela"}]},{id:"55437",title:"Biological Control of Parasites",slug:"biological-control-of-parasites-2017-07",totalDownloads:4229,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Parasites (ectoparasites or endoparasites) are a major cause of diseases in man, his livestock and crops, leading to poor yield and great economic loss. To overcome some of the major limitations of chemical control methods such as rising resistance, environmental and health risks, and the adverse effect on non‐target organisms, biological control (biocontrol) is now at the forefront of parasite (pests) control. Biocontrol is now a core component of the integrated pest management. Biocontrol is defined as “the study and uses of parasites, predators and pathogens for the regulation of host (pest) densities”. Considerable successes have been achieved in the implementation of biocontrol strategies in the past. This chapter presents a review of the history of biocontrol, its advantages and disadvantages; the different types of biological control agents (BCAs) including predators, parasites (parasitoids) and pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses and virus‐like particles, protozoa and nematodes); the effect of biocontrol on native biodiversity; a few case studies of the successful implementation of biocontrol methods and the challenges encountered with the implementation of biocontrol and future perspectives.",book:{id:"5527",slug:"natural-remedies-in-the-fight-against-parasites",title:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites",fullTitle:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites"},signatures:"Tebit Emmanuel Kwenti",authors:[{id:"191763",title:"Dr.",name:"Tebit Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Kwenti",slug:"tebit-emmanuel-kwenti",fullName:"Tebit Emmanuel Kwenti"}]},{id:"70336",title:"Plastics Polymers Degradation by Fungi",slug:"plastics-polymers-degradation-by-fungi",totalDownloads:1383,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The studies on plastic degradation are very important for the development of biodegradable plastics, and for reduction of pollution, since plastic waste can remain in the environment for decades or centuries. We have showed the degradation of oxo-biodegradable plastic bags and green polyethylene by Pleurotus ostreatus. This fungus can also produce mushrooms using these plastics. The plastic degradation was possibly by three reasons: (a) presence of pro-oxidant ions or plant polymer, (b) low specificity of the lignocellulolytic enzymes, and (c) the presence of endomycotic nitrogen-fixing microorganisms. In this chapter, the plastic bags’ degradation by abiotic and microbial process using the exposure to sunlight and the use of a white-rot fungus will described. The physical, chemical, and biological alterations of plastic were analyzed after each process of degradation. The degradation of plastic bags was more effective when the abiotic and biotic degradations were combined.",book:{id:"8997",slug:"microorganisms",title:"Microorganisms",fullTitle:"Microorganisms"},signatures:"José Maria Rodrigues da Luz, Marliane de Cássia Soares da Silva, Leonardo Ferreira dos Santos and Maria Catarina Megumi Kasuya",authors:[{id:"217699",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Da Luz",slug:"jose-maria-da-luz",fullName:"Jose Maria Da Luz"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"151",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"79935",title:"Salmonellosis and Campylobacteriosis, Emerging Zoonosis in the World and Current Situation in Mexico",slug:"salmonellosis-and-campylobacteriosis-emerging-zoonosis-in-the-world-and-current-situation-in-mexico",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101875",abstract:"Salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis are the furthermost common zoonotic infections around the world that are transferred. The spread of Salmonella enterica serotypes Enteritidis (SE) and Typhimurium (ST) has increased dramatically in the last 50 years due to the consumption of food contaminated and the emergence of SE and ST infections with multiple antibiotic resistance. Retrospective investigations imply an epidemiological link between people and poultry. It has been argued that farm modernization and global exports of progenitor birds have had a vital role in spreading SE and ST. On the other hand, campylobacteriosis is more common than salmonellosis in affluent countries. Campylobacter jejuni has been identified as the primary cause of acute diarrheal illnesses, frequently associated with animal-derived foods, particularly poultry meat. The current review examines immunological and molecular biological techniques that allow for the quick detection of asymptomatic animal carriers, as well as recent characterizations of relevant taxonomic and pathogenic characteristics of these organisms. We further urge epidemiological research to evaluate the incidence of human diseases arising from poultry eating, based on preliminary non-publisher findings implying a prevalence of salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis in Mexican poultry farms comparable to other nations.",book:{id:"10536",title:"Campylobacter",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10536.jpg"},signatures:"Adriana del Carmen Gutiérrez-Castillo, Leopoldo Henri Paasch-Martínez and Norma Leticia Calderón-Apodaca"},{id:"76534",title:"Health Care Associated Infections (HCAIs) a New Threat for World; U-Turn from Recovery to Death",slug:"health-care-associated-infections-hcais-a-new-threat-for-world-u-turn-from-recovery-to-death",totalDownloads:224,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97193",abstract:"Health care associated infections also termed as nosocomial infections are notable cause of morbidity and mortality especially in resource limited countries like Pakistan. Newborns and aged people have more probability of being infected by Health care associated infections because of immunosuppressant. Central line associated blood stream infections (CLABSI) are considered as one of the promising negotiator associated with Health Care associated infections. Improper health care setting and unaware medical staff play a championship protagonist in prevalence of health care associated infections. Standard hygienic measures should be adopted to reduce risk of Health care associated infections. So, there is a pressing need to take on control policies by Government to handle this dilemma. This chapter gives new intuition to healthcare associated microbes, infections and provides comprehensive detailed on ironic precaution to scientific community.",book:{id:"10536",title:"Campylobacter",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10536.jpg"},signatures:"Ayesha Noor, Ali Raza Ishaq, Laila Jafri, Faiza Jabeen, Rehana Rani, Bushra Hafeez Kiani, Nosheen Akhtar, Zeeshan Javed, Tahira Younis and Fatima Jalal"},{id:"75880",title:"Conventional and Molecular Detection Methods of the Opportunistic Bacterial Pathogen Campylobacter concisus",slug:"conventional-and-molecular-detection-methods-of-the-opportunistic-bacterial-pathogen-campylobacter-c",totalDownloads:148,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97004",abstract:"Campylobacter concisus is an emerging pathogen that causes gastroenteritis and is a suspected cause of inflammatory bowel diseases. Its importance is enhanced by the chronic sequela that results from acute infection. This bacterium has been under-diagnosed in intestinal infectious diseases, and its clinical importance has not been determined yet. In order to establish the implication of this emerging bacterial species in human gastroenteritis and other infections, different approaches and procedure have been performed, where molecular typing methods have played a central role. The chapter provides a comprehensive past and recent updates on the detection of C. concisus by biochemical and molecular methods.",book:{id:"10536",title:"Campylobacter",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10536.jpg"},signatures:"Mohsina Huq and Taghrid Istivan"},{id:"75751",title:"The Role of Immune Response and Microbiota on Campylobacteriosis",slug:"the-role-of-immune-response-and-microbiota-on-campylobacteriosis",totalDownloads:229,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96755",abstract:"Million cases of campylobacteriosis and complications of post-Campylobacter jejuni infection occur every year around the world with huge life losses and economic burdens of billions of dollars. Few therapy options, such as antibiotics, are available to relieve severe cases of the enteritis. The slow progression on new intervention discovery and application is partially resulted from limited mechanistic understanding on campylobacteriosis pathogenesis. As a type of intestinal disorders, campylobacteriosis shares many common features with other intestinal diseases such as inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) and Clostridium difficile infection. In pace with the advancement of the gastroenterology field, a large body of knowledge is accumulating on the factors influencing campylobacteriosis onset, development, and outcomes, including host immune response, intestinal microbiota, and its metabolites. In this chapter, we review the intestinal immune system, intestinal microbiome, and microbiome modulation of inflammation in the development of campylobacteriosis. The interplay between immunity, microbiota, and its metabolites may play essential roles on campylobacteriosis pathogenesis and the finding on the interaction may lead to new prevention and treatment options. The purpose of this chapter is to provide updated knowledge on the role of host–microbe interaction and the therapeutic potential on campylobacteriosis.",book:{id:"10536",title:"Campylobacter",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10536.jpg"},signatures:"Ying Fu, Tahrir Alenezi, Ayidh Almansour, Hong Wang, Zhenquan Jia and Xiaolun Sun"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:4},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:289,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). 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He has taught at Thompson Rivers University, Canada; University of Paris-Est, France; Osnabruck University of Applied Science, Germany; and Shanghai Institute of Technology and Tianjin University of Technology, China. He has published research in Research Policy, Applied Economics, Review of Economic Philosophy, Strategic Change, International Journal of Logistics, Sustainability, Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Global Information Management, Journal of Cleaner Production, M@N@GEMENT, and more. He is a member of CEDIMES Institut (France), Academy of International Business (AIB), Strategic Management Society (SMS), Academy of Management (AOM), Administrative Science Association of Canada (ASAC), and Canadian council of small business and entrepreneurship (CCSBE). He is currently the director of the Research Group on Contemporary Asia (GERAC) at Laval University. He is also co-managing editor of Transnational Corporations Review and a guest editor for Electronic Commerce Research and Journal of Internet Technology.",institutionString:"Université Laval",institution:{name:"Université Laval",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"189147",title:"Dr.",name:"Hailan",middleName:null,surname:"Salamun",slug:"hailan-salamun",fullName:"Hailan Salamun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/189147/images/19274_n.jpeg",biography:"Hailan Salamun, (Dr.) was born in Selangor, Malaysia and graduated from Tunku Ampuan Jamaah Religious High School at Shah Alam. Obtained a degree from the International Islamic University (UIA), Gombak in the field of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Heritage. Next, I furthered my studies to the professional level to obtain a Diploma in Education at UIA. After serving for several years in school, I furthered my studies to the Master of Dakwah and Leadership at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi. 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