\r\n\tAlthough the microorganism was later described by several other researchers with multiple synonyms, Escherich was recognized as the first, establishing the definitive name of the microbe as Escherichia coli in 1954.
\r\n\tIn 1933, Alfred Adam showed that certain serotypes of "dyspepsia Koli" (as he called the diarrheagenic E. coli strains) were implicated in epidemics of pediatric diarrhoea. In 1944, Kauffman proposed a classification scheme that is still in use today for the purpose of differentiating commensal types from pathogens and subclassifying them.
\r\n\tEscherichia coli, in its natural habitat, lives in the intestines of most healthy mammals. It is the main facultative anaerobic organism of the digestive system. In healthy individuals, that is, if the bacterium does not acquire genetic elements that encode virulent factors, the bacterium acts as a commensal forming part of the intestinal microbiota and thus helping the absorption of nutrients.
\r\n\tIn humans, E. coli colonizes the gastrointestinal tract of a neonate by adhering to the mucus of the large intestine within a few hours of birth. Since then, it remains in a relationship of mutual benefit. However, these commensal strains can cause infections in immunosuppressed patients.
\r\n\r\n\tPathogenic strains of E. coli, on the other hand, as soon as they colonize a healthy host, can cause infections of varying severity in the intestine, urinary tract, meningitis, and sepsis, among other infections.
\r\n\tDiarrhea caused by pathogenic strains of E. coli is an important cause of death in children under 5 years of age, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, where it is one of the four most important causes of moderate and severe diarrhea, potentially lethal An increase in mortality is associated with enteropathogenic strains.
\r\n\tUrinary tract infections are more common in women because of the short length of the urethra (25 to 50 mm) compared to men (about 15 cm). Among the elderly, urinary infections tend to be of the same proportion between men and women.
\r\n\tBecause the bacteria invariably enter the urinary tract through the urethra (an ascending infection), poor hygiene habits can predispose to infection; however, other factors become important, such as pregnancy, benign or malignant hypertrophy of the prostate, and in In many cases, the initiating event of the infection is unknown. Although ascending infections are the cause of lower urinary tract infections and cystitis, this is not necessarily the cause of upper infections such as pyelonephritis, which may have a hematogenous origin.
For thousands of years, man has survived living in arid regions of the world solely by skillfully managing that vital but scarce resource called water [1]. Out of the two, the surface water and the groundwater, the groundwater has always been more important for survival due to its intrinsic quality of natural preservation. Groundwater is a vital source of fresh water for domestic, agricultural, and industrial use. Currently contribution of groundwater is almost 34% of the total annual water supply. Water consumption is increasing day by day due to continuous development of the economy, industrialization, and changes in life patterns, which cumulatively results in shortage of usable water.
\nTo meet the increasing water demands, reliance on groundwater has been rapidly increasing, especially in the arid and semiarid regions leading to water exhaustion and overconsumption of groundwater, causing ecological problems such as decreased water levels, water pollution, seawater intrusion, and deterioration of water quality. The recharge of groundwater occurs both naturally and artificially. The natural recharge occurs through the process of infiltration where water percolates from the surface to the bed of the aquifer. But due to rapid development and stupendous growth of population in the recent past, the areas for natural infiltration have been lessening day by day; hence the scope for natural recharge of the groundwater is also declining [2].
\nThe combination of decreasing water availability and increasing water demand can lead to drastic water shortages. Groundwater exploration involves knowledge of hydrological properties of various geological materials such as porosity, permeability, storage coefficient, transmissivity, and specific yield or in other words holding and discharge capabilities of geological materials.
\nIn the nature, water resources and water demand are unevenly distributed both spatially and temporally. It is these uneven distributions that make the groundwater hydrology more complex and dynamic in its nature and form. Ironing out of the variations and equitable juxtaposition of haves and have-nots in both demand and resource is the ultimate goal of all hydrological knowledge.
\nThese variations in the groundwater levels are with respect to physical location and space. Physical properties including type of soil, groundwater depth, porosity of vadose zone, rainfall patterns, and hydrogeology tend to vary the groundwater recharge spatially. Fluctuations in the groundwater levels are generally greater in the areas of low drainage density than those in regions of moderate to high drainage density. The factors like weathering intensity, presence of fractures, and drainage density control the quantity of groundwater. In such regions groundwater flow and quantity are not controlled by highly weathered dykes in shallow unconfined aquifers. The phenomena like fracturing, weathering, and faulting increase the permeability of rocks and the recharge which controls the fluctuations in groundwater levels. For the fluctuations in groundwater levels in terrains of hard rocks, several studies have been carried out. Fractured and weathered rocks carry the groundwater under unconfined conditions, and the major source for groundwater recharge is rainfall. Due to downward seepage of rainfall, the unconfined aquifers are recharged in the unsaturated zone [3].
\nVariations in the phreatic levels, chemical concentration levels, biological concentration levels, and fluid properties of the groundwater may be described with respect to time as seasonal variations and secular variations.
\nSuch variations are periodic. The changes in the water level due to some seasonal happenings such as rainfall, storms, and irrigation pumping are referred to as seasonal variations. Water-level fluctuation in summer and winter is also considered under the same type. The lowest variations in water levels occur in winter season, while the highest occur during late spring. At the end of the irrigation season in an irrigated area, the lowest variations in water levels normally occur where frozen ground is not a factor. \nFigure 1\n shows the variations in the water levels for frozen ground areas in winter are periodic [4].
\nSeasonal variations [
Such variations are nonperiodic and show the change in the water level over several years, which cover the dry and wet seasons and the related groundwater fluctuations. Long-term fluctuations in water levels are produced when rainfall is above or below the mean, during alternating a series of dry and wet years. \nFigure 2\n shows the long records of groundwater levels and rainfall and illustrates that rainfall is not an accurate indicator of variations in groundwater levels [4].
\nSecular variations [
Groundwater, as the world’s most vital natural resource for the reliable provision of potable water supply, is affected by urbanization. Due to rapid urbanization and increasing industrial activities, the need for fresh water has increased in the past few decades. Almost 50% of the world population lives in urban areas, and the proportion is expected to increase in the coming decades. Urbanization brings many benefits such as increased job and education opportunities, cultural activity, and economic diversification. However, unplanned urban growth is also leading to challenges such as the overexploitation of water resources. Furthermore, land-use changes and anthropogenic activities such as surface sealing due to streets and buildings, flood control, forest management, and irrigation modify the infiltration and movement of water. The authors [5] have shown that due to urbanization, built-up area increased by 271%, water bodies decreased by 46%, and bare land decreased by 129% in the study area. These modifications linked with urbanization often lead to groundwater resource deterioration [6].
\nThere are many conditions which interrupt the subsurface water balance, and as a result groundwater levels are lowered. A few of such conditions are listed below:
Groundwater recharge is reduced by paving the surface areas and building the storm sewers. When the surface area is paved, it stops the surface water entry into the ground, and as a result the groundwater recharge is reduced. Also when storm sewers are built, they store the amount of surface water, stop the water entry into the ground, and result in reduction of recharge.
Pumping wells increase the groundwater discharge which results in lowering of groundwater table.
Collection of wastewater in sanitary sewers also decreases the groundwater recharge.
Huge reduction in groundwater recharge occurred nowadays due to excess plastic wastage.
Groundwater is our major source of water. Due to climate change, rapid urbanization, industrial activities, and intensive agricultural practices have put a tremendous pressure on groundwater. Groundwater depletion occurs when the pumping rates are excessively higher than the rate of replenishment.
\nThe extreme use of groundwater resources can have serious concerns, such as uplifting and seismic activities, ecological environment deterioration, land subsidence, vegetation degradation, livelihoods for rural poor, and food security implications. In view of the shrinking groundwater resources, it is important to develop effective techniques and methods to study the trend of groundwater storage (increase/decrease) and its recharge-discharge relationship, which can support the mitigating measures of overpumping shallow groundwater to ensure the sustainable utilization of groundwater resources [7].
\nFluctuations in groundwater due to meteorological phenomena are caused by atmospheric pressure, rainfall, wind, and frost. As stated by [8], aquifers are inherently very resilient to atmospheric variations above ground, but climate adversely alters the aquifer’s groundwater recharge, thus introducing uncertainties in spatial pattern definitions.
\nVariations in atmospheric pressure produce fluctuations in wells penetrating confined aquifers. There is an inverse relationship between atmospheric pressure and water levels. It means that increase in atmospheric pressure will decrease the water levels and vice versa. If the changes in the atmospheric pressure are expressed in terms of a column of water, then the ratio between changes in water levels and pressure is known as barometric efficiency of an aquifer. This efficiency is expressed by the following equation:
\nwhere B = barometric efficiency of an aquifer, γ = specific weight of water [981 N/m3 or 62.4 lb/ft3], ∆h = change in piezo-metric levels, and ∆pa = change in atmospheric pressure.
\nDiscussions related to the effect of atmospheric pressure on confined and unconfined aquifers assume that no delay occurs in the balance of pressure between the aquifer and well. But in reality, the time required for movement of a finite volume of water between the surrounding aquifers and well delays the transmission of atmospheric pressure change between the aquifer and well. This delay in time depends on the properties of aquifer (i.e., storability and transmissivity) and conditions of existing boreholes (i.e., well skin effects and well bore storage). Due to imbalance of pressure between an aquifer and a well, at the instance of pressure change, previous investigators have observed that these temporary imbalances in the pressure can be treated as individual step changes in pressure applied at the well [9]. Due to travel time for percolation and surface and subsurface losses, rainfall is not considered as an accurate indicator for groundwater recharge. The travel time for vertical percolation may vary from a few minutes for permeable formations with shallow water tables to several years for low permeable formations with deep water tables. The regions that lie between semi-humid and semiarid zones with seasonal climatic conditions observe zero recharge in the groundwater due to rainfall [4].
\nIn arid and semiarid regions, due to heavy rainfalls, groundwater recharge tends to occur unlike those regions which are a combination of constant rate and periodic behavior. Physical properties including type of soil, groundwater depth, porosity of vadose zone, rainfall patterns, and hydrogeology tend to vary the groundwater recharge spatially [10].
\nWind blowing over the top of wells generates minor fluctuations in water levels. It works on the principle of vacuum pump. When wind is blowing over the top of a well casing, the air pressure within the well lowers down suddenly due to which the water level rises quickly. Once the wind passes, the air pressure within the well rises and water level falls [4].
\nIt has been observed in the regions of extreme frost that shallow water tables are reduced during the winter season and increased in early spring. These fluctuations are observed due to the presence of frost layer above the water table. Due to capillary action and transfer of vapors to the frost layer, water moves upward from water table during winter. Thermal gradient and the fact that at 0°C vapor pressure over liquid water is greater than that over ice play an important role in the migration of vapors. When mean air temperature reaches 0°C in early spring, the frost layer begins thawing from the bottom due to which meltwater percolates down in the water table [4].
\nGroundwater is an important source of fresh water with high quality for coastal communities worldwide. These sources of fresh groundwater in the coastal communities are highly affected by intrusion of seawater caused by excessive groundwater extraction and rises in sea levels. Globally increasing population will lead to rising demands of fresh water in the coming decades and will result in a decline of groundwater sources gradually. Coastal flooding will also be increased due to rise in sea levels, which may lead to seawater intrusion and coastal erosion, and as a result it will affect the biodiversity and losses of wetland [11].
\nIn response to the tides, sinusoidal fluctuations of groundwater levels occur in the coastal aquifers which are in contact with the ocean. If a simple harmonic motion varies the sea levels, a pattern of sinusoidal waves is propagated inland from the submarine outcrop of the aquifer. The time lag of given maximum increases, and inland amplitude of waves decreases with respect to distance [4].
\nIn coastal regions, tidal forces acting on an adjacent groundwater are a common feature and can be important pore water phenomena in tidal and saturated zones. Near the top of the water table, the entry of saltwater and variations in the concentration of solutes can be increased due to tidal forces in shallow unconfined aquifers. Comparative studies between tidal and water-level variations show that increase in the height of tide will increase the corresponding water levels [12].
\nFluctuations produced by the attraction of sun and moon on the crust of the earth are a result of earth tides. The following observations are analyzed based on well record:
Fluctuations occur twice in a daily cycle due to moon about 50 min later each day.
Retardation of cycle on average daily bases matches with that of moon’s transit closely.
At the lower and upper peaks, the moon’s transits and the troughs of water levels on daily bases are coincided.
Periods of full and new moon coincide with the periods of large regular fluctuations, while the periods of the first and third quarters of moon coincide with periods of small irregular fluctuations [4].
Forces of sun and moon which produce tides act in the same direction at the time of new and full moon, causing ocean tides to be greater than the average range. But at the time of the first and third quarter of moon, the forces of sun and moon which produce tides act perpendicular to each other, causing ocean tides to be smaller than the average range. At the time of coincidence of the moon’s transit with time of low water, the tidal attraction will be maximum; therefore, the load on the aquifer is reduced which allows the aquifer to expand slightly [4].
\nHistory reveals that there are varieties of effects of earthquakes on groundwater. Fluctuations like sudden rises and falls of water levels in wells, variations in spring discharges, formation of new springs, and venting of mud and water out of the ground are observed due to earthquake shocks. Such fluctuations produced due to earthquake shocks are known as
Seismic waves generated by earthquakes affect the groundwater in two major ways. One is that oscillations are produced in the groundwater levels, and second is that permanent changes occur in the groundwater levels. As groundwater remains in contact with the surface water, some variations in surface water flows are also observed. Half to one year long time variations in water level have been observed due to the response of earthquakes at a great distance from the monitoring locations [13].
\nResponse of groundwater to earthquakes is somehow complex and can be observed by different processes on varying time scales. The impact of earthquake on the groundwater is considered in three parts: before, during, and after an earthquake event. Before an earthquake, in the area of a fault zone, there will be an increase or decrease in pore pressure due to poroelastic deformation caused by variations in stresses. Increase in pore pressure will occur in compressional regime, while decrease in pore pressure will occur in extensional regime. In a confined aquifer of high permeability or in an unconfined aquifer, the variations in pore pressure will be dissipated quickly, and no significant changes in surface water flow or groundwater will be observed. Ground deformation resulted from the passage of seismic waves during an earthquake event will change the pore pressure in an aquifer. These changes occur at different frequencies, and excess pore pressure is not allowed through groundwater flow.
\nThe processes involved between an earthquake and groundwater are shaking of ground, stresses in the crust, mobilization of fines, microfractures, liquefaction, storability release, pore pressure, change in porosity, and change in permeability. Summary of relationships between earthquakes and groundwater processes is described in \nFigure 3\n.
\nRelationship between earthquake and groundwater processes.
Groundwater resources are not managed properly in different parts of the world. For the proper management of groundwater resources, simple and effective rules and regulation must be adopted. The governing regulations may be based on knowledge and practical experiences of the local region supported by scientific and field information. The groundwater management strategies are recommended to be planned such that:
Groundwater withdrawal will be adjusted as per forecasted supply and demand requirements of the future.
The renewable character of potential aquifers must be considered with optimum aquifer pump rates, well locations, and relative priority of each sub-aquifer unit within the integrated management system of the entire aquifer field.
Water quality, effect of urbanization, intensive agricultural practices, economy, social impact, and local administrative strategies should also be considered.
Recommended groundwater management practices need to scientifically determine different hydrogeological parameters such as porosity, specific yield, and hydraulic conductivity for actual water volume calculations. It is preferable to obtain estimated parameter by field techniques like the aquifer tests and their proper interpretations.
For strategic planning of groundwater reservoirs that may be replenished, the groundwater quality is significant not only for management but also for controlling the excessive exploitation possibilities. Naturally existing groundwater does not have homogenous but heterogeneous properties within the same storage. Generally, the bottom layers are saline, and, therefore, during pumping operations, the up-coning must be avoided.
Private well owners must be convinced to allow for groundwater strategic planning by avoiding haphazard and unnecessary exploitations.
Implementation of artificial recharge system in order to compensate the present deficit. Increasing groundwater recharge could counteract the projected effects of climate changes on the groundwater system.
Construction of new management system helps in monitoring the groundwater system in terms of quantity and quality.
Wheat (
Wheat is one of the most widely cultivated cereal crops with the production of 760.93 million tons and an area of 219.01 million hectares of farmland worldwide [7] which is a 15.4% arable area globally. Its production has increased since green revolution in 1961 from 222.35 million tons to an estimated 775.3 million tons in 2021 [8]. In 2017, the global production of wheat was 751.99 million metric tons however it was increased by 8 million tons in 2018 with the total estimated production of 758.02 million metric tons. A similar trend was observed in 2019 where wheat production was 765.76 million metric tons however the global consumption of wheat assessed by World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates (WASDE), was 791.1 million tons for the year 2021 [9]. It has been projected that the wheat demand in developing countries will be increased up to 60% by 2050 which is a stern concern related to food security [10]. Wheat is the main rabi crop in Pakistan covering 38% of the cultivated area and accounts for 13.1% of value agricultural products and because of its staple food status, it occupies a central position in agricultural policies. Pakistan ranks 8th in terms of wheat area and production and 58th in terms of average yield (2805.9 kg ha−1) [11]. Wheat productivity is globally increasing only at 1.1% per annum (p.a.) which is not enough to reach the predicted increase in wheat demand at 1.7% (p.a.) rate until 2050, and even in some regions, the productivity is stagnant [12].
Global wheat demand is skyrocketing in recent years because of many factors; change in eating habits, population trends, socio-economic conditions, especially in Asia and Africa. Among these, population explosion and climate change are the most pressing challenges to food availability in the present and future eras. Fast-rising population levels are putting pressure on land due to urbanization and fuelling global food demand [13]. Economic growth and access to food are important factors in alleviating poverty and hunger (hidden and chronic), although mere access to food is not enough to accelerate the reduction in malnutrition and hidden hunger [14]. Another most important factor is the changing climate and extreme weather conditions which are reshaping the whole picture of food security.
To overcome the drastic effects of climate change there is a need to develop such a plant type that can fight the battle against climate change. In this review, we will through light on some classical and advanced techniques which can be helpful to develop a better wheat plant that can win the war against climate change.
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) climate change refers to “any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity”. However, according to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, it is referred to as a change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere [15]. Climate change cause very harsh direct, indirect and socio-economic effect on environment, more importantly on crop grown under this type of environment. Different stresses including high temperature, drought, increased salinity level and flooding arise as the result of climate change. These stresses are the most influencing factors which affect the natural system, human health and agricultural production, especially in developing countries [16]. The expeditious increase in world population indirectly affects the demand and supply chain of food which is a great concern for global environment stability [17].
Climate change is a global phenomenon; however, the noticeable changes in rainfall and temperature in recent years have had an impact on wheat productivity. The elevated temperature will change the plant life cycle by inducing early flowering and fruit sets which will shorten the growth period and the developed seeds would be deficient in nutrients due to increased respiration rate. For each °C rise in temperature 6–13% reduction in the potential yield of wheat will happen. Although the exact consequences of climate change are impossible to predict, the general view is that global crop production will be negatively affected [18, 19]. To overcome this pressure and to meet the future demand for wheat international initiatives were taken [20]. Different international policy-making organizations “The Agricultural Ministers of G20” and “the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) research centers” keep climate change and food security a key priority area and motivate the need to further see the sights how one key staple food may be influenced by efforts to make the food system more resilient [21, 22].
Adverse effects may happen through increasing levels of CO2, temperature, pests and diseases [23], and deteriorating quality and yield attributes [24]. The frequency of extreme weather events such as droughts and floods also increase in the response to changing climate [25]. One of the main reasons for changing climate and continuous elevation of CO2 is deforestation; the level of CO2 elevated from 280 μmol−1 to 400 μmol−1 and the prediction tells that might grow into two folds (800 μmol−1) up to the end of this century [26].
Food insecurity is an emerging issue of today’s era that is a result of climate change. Almost 815 million people around the globe are facing hunger and malnutrition, hampering viable development programs to accomplish the worldwide goal of stamping out hunger by 2030 [27]. The adverse climatic conditions, mainly elevated temperature, is causing a threat to food security and agricultural yield [28] The inhabitants are likely to grow up to 9 billion by 2050 and food supplies are expected to accelerate by about 85% [29]. Environmental supremacy is going from bad to worse comprising low variation and high application of inputs, and unbalanced output due to climatic variations in crops [30]. The escalated spells of drought and heavy precipitation, elevation in temperature, salinity, and disease attacks are expected to decrease crop production and leads to higher threats of famine [31]. The best possible way to tackle this problem is the development of climate-smart cultivars.
In recent years, the environment has been significantly affected due to climate change, the most expected area is agriculture, or the agriculture crops grown in these environments. As a result of climate change, the elevation in CO2 and temperature was observed by different scientists [32]. These are major limitations that develop a gap between the supply and demand of food and lead most researchers into looking for good adaptation strategies for plants under these conditions [33], by developing climate-smart crops that are resilient against climate change [34]. Sensitivity to this kind of stress causes a serious effect on the plants; like disruption in the plant metabolism processes, thereby resulting in the reduction in felicity and quality of agricultural crop production [35]. There are two types of stresses: biotic and abiotic. Biotic stress in plants occurs by the infestations of living entities like viruses, bacteria, nematodes, fungi, insects and weeds, however, abiotic stresses include drought, eminent CO2, temperature (low and high) [36], waterlogging, high precipitation, increased sunshine intensity and chemical factors (heavy metals and pH).
When we talk about the wheat crop, different biotic factors (including diseases and pests) come under consideration which limits wheat production. These insect pests and diseases are distributed worldwide and some of these exist in major wheat-growing areas which are destructive for wheat production. Karnal bunt and Russian wheat aphid are more dangerous and cause a heavy loss in yield in their hotspot [37]. Main wheat diseases include yellow rust/stripe rust, tan spot and leaf rust/brown rust caused by
Abiotic stresses like drought [41], heavy metal stress [42], and salinity significantly affects the average yield of crops including wheat [43]. Approximately 9% area of the globe is under cultivation and 91% of that is affected by different stresses. Statistical models predict that a 10% reduction in wheat yield is due to extreme weather, global warming, resulting in increased evaporation rate and reduction in precipitation [44], and more specifically because of drought [45]. Abiotic stresses contribute 50% loss in yield of different crops which includes temperature (20%), salinity (10%), drought (9%), cold (7%), and other stresses (4%) [46]. Water scarcity is a global issue that takes place in any wheat-growing region which causes osmotic stress. In United states, the losses due to drought reached up to $6–8 billion per year which is a threat to global food security [44, 47]. The most frequent spells of drought are the result of global warming, which is a serious concern for wheat yield [44]. Temperature plays a key role in balancing normal crop growth and development which ultimately regulates the crop yield [48]. Wheat survives in a broad range of temperatures, the upper and lower limits of temperature for wheat survival are −17 ± 1.2°C to 47.5 ± 0.5°C, respectively [49]. The daily high surge in temperature is 25–35°C crossways the world wheat-growing areas [50]. The most affected growth stage by temperature stress is flowering followed by germination which is delayed under heat stress due to the alternation in metabolic activities of nearby soil temperature [51]. The result of a delay in germination is low crop density. The most adverse effect of heat stress occurs during the anthesis and seed setting stage and leads towards significant yield loss [52]. An increase in salt accumulation in soil cause physiological drought which decreases the ability of plants to take up water from the soil, [53]. Similarly, heavy metals also affect wheat plants from germination to growth as well as biochemical mechanism and ultimately the reduction of yield. All above-mentioned stresses in wheat-growing areas bring decisive yield loss of wheat.
Climate change is a major challenge for wheat productivity, which includes declining water availability, increased temperature and different insect pests which cause a serious reduction in the crop. The first step to mitigate climate change is to assess the possible damages and adaptation strategies to accomplish the size and nature of these effects on crop productivity. As wheat is the staple food of many countries its importance is amplified concerning food security, so, it is a need of time to measure the response of wheat to changing climate. The response of wheat plants to changing climate is different with different stages of growth and development including germination, growth and maturity. High temperature is an imperative variable to study which affects the wheat crop throughout the growth cycle. Similarly, rainfall also has an important positive effect if it occurs at proper time with a proper amount at critical stages of growth. Therefore, the estimation of the effect of climate change on wheat productivity can provide important visions for adaptation [54].
Germination is the most sensitive stage in the whole wheat life cycle which affects crop density and uniform maturation, which eventually expedite an important role in yield. Extreme alternation in the immediate environment of a germinating seed can inhibit germination processes, eventually leading to possible yield loss due to a drop in cropping density [52]. Different studies suggested that under salt-affected soil, the germination rate of wheat decreased and the seed took more time than normal to germinate. The scientific reason behind that phenomenon is the reduction in osmotic potential of germination media, which restrict seed imbibition. Salinity also destroys the food reserve of the seed by imbalancing the hormonal status of the seed [55]. Other factors impelling germination include seeds’ dormancy, age, seed coat hardness, vigor, polymorphism, temperature, light and gases [56]. The delay in germination may leave crops vulnerable to heat stress at the end of growing seasons or promote uneven maturation of crops [57]. Wheat seed is also sensitive to different chemical and physical conditions such as the presence of heavy metals in the rhizosphere which cause a reduction in germination and affects seedling vigor [58]. Recent studies have documented that heavy metals inhibit the storage of food mobilization, stunt the radical formulation, disrupt the cellular osmoregulation and degrade the proteolytic activities, eventually causing inhibition of seed germination and seedling development [59].
Physiology plays an important role in the growth of any plant. Photosynthesis is an important physiological process for plant development and survival that is greatly affected by environmental conditions. Higher accumulation of salts resulting from climate change primarily lessens the water potential and store Na+ and Cl− ions in the chloroplast, which inhibit the photosynthesis process [55]. According to Arfan et al. [60] transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, net CO2 assimilation and sub stomatal CO2 concentration were decreased by salinity stress at 150 mM NaCl. Similar to the salt stress, drought/osmotic stress disrupt the photosynthesis process of wheat plants, can damage sugar synthesis essential to drive yield in wheat crops but also leads to stomata closure by turgor loss through reduction of internal water contents. It leads to death of plant by disturbing metabolism [61, 62]. Plant physiological processes are also sensitive to a higher temperature, heat stress cause the deactivation of Rubisco enzyme, reduced photosynthetic capacity, assimilated translocation reduces, brings premature leaf senescence, decrease chlorophyll content and ultimately decrease in yield [63]. High temperature also affects the starch and protein content in grain and induce the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which cause a change in membrane stability along with lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation and damage to nucleic acids [64]. Thus, all the stresses are significant variables that emphasis the scientific community to develop climate-smart wheat varieties to tackle food security issues.
All the biotic and biotic stresses such as high temperature, water scarcity and frost abate the wheat yield by reducing grain number, grain size and single grain weight. However, how and which yield component will get affected by certain stress depends upon its duration, intensity and timing [65]. For example; if the stress occurs before and during anthesis it reduces the number of grains per ear due to an increased seed abortion. However, when stress occurs after anthesis it does not influence the grain number but effect grain size by shrinking the grain and single grain weight by inhibiting grain filling [66]. Wheat grain yield and number of tillers decreased 53.57% and 15.38% respectively under heat stress [67]. The influence of heat stress is highly significant during the reproductive phase. The increase of 1°C average temperature during the reproductive stage may lead to a higher loss in grain yield [64]. It is also important to note the importance of the flag leaf when looking at yield and grain filling [68]. The flag leaf contributes approximately 30–50% of seed carbohydrates; therefore, any damage to the flag leaf would negatively impact yield [69]. When we talk about the wheat yield loss due to biotic stresses, then the leaf rust (LR) is the main widely spread biotic stress. In the United States, economic losses of $350 million were attributed to LR between 2000 and 2004. In China, annual yield losses due to LR are estimated at 3 million tons [39]. According to a recent estimation, annual yield reductions of 5.47 million tons of wheat are attributable to yellow rust disease, which is equivalent to annual losses of $979 million [70]. A detailed analysis of wheat grain yield and its yield component is crucial to identify genomic regions responsible for grain yield and stress tolerance [71].
The fluctuation in climatic conditions directly affects morphology, phenology and physiology of plants and indirectly affects the productivity by alteration in soil biota, fertility, and water and nutrients availability. Keeping in view the current status of wheat production, it is predicted that the wheat productivity will be 1 t/ha short to meet the global demand by 2050. Variation in climate, change in pest and a pathogens life cycle and new variants will further aggravate the situation by threatening global food security. Thus, in future, food security will face a four-fold challenge: upward pressure on demand with downward pressure on supply and the need for sustainable production [72]. All these factors are interlinked and their collective reinforcement will amplify the burden on food demand and require a revolutionized food system [73]. Climate change in short affects plants, their environment and society at large. Breeding for disease-resistant, climate stress-tolerant and potentially high yielding wheat will improve productivity to meet future demands.
Conventional breeding achieves incremental yield gains by recombining alleles mainly from within elite materials and selecting among thousands of progeny per cross for expression of appropriate agronomic traits, resistance to a spectrum of prevalent diseases and yield based on multi-location trials [1]. Crossbred through conventional breeding is only possible between the same or closely related species. The absence of gene of interest (GOI) in the natural gene pool puts limitations on the introgression for the creation of varieties with desirable traits. Therefore, hunting for an alternate source of GOIs in distantly related plant species and even in microorganisms is necessary [74]. Plant breeding programme’s success strongly depends on the climate, market demand and trends. Genomic selection helps in multiple quantitative traits prediction in genotypes from breeding pipelines [75] and by attaining historical phenotypes and adding high-density genotypic information.
In wheat, hybrid cultivar and commercial seed production are still limited to a specific sector as compared to other cereal crops like rice or maize [76]. Conventional breeding by backcrossing is a method to improve an elite line by adding a new trait. An F1 hybrid is obtained by crossing a donor line carrying GOI with an elite line and then F1 hybrid is recurrently back-crossed with the elite line until 5-8th generation. The final genotype will be a product of characteristics of the elite line and will carry the introgressed GOI [77]. Wheat is a self-pollinated crop with an out-crossing rate of <1%, so, execution of effective cross-pollination techniques between the wheat elite lines that can overcome the autogamous mode is needed. This can be achieved by crossing between a male-sterile female plant with good pollen recipient properties and a male plant with good pollen shedding properties. Efforts have been made to develop maternal plants with cytoplasmic male-sterility (CMS) for wheat breeding e.g. CMS systems were identified in wheat (i.e.
Ever since the epoch-making discoveries made by Muller and Stadler [84], the application of mutation techniques by using different chemical and physical agents have played a significant role in modern plant breeding and genetic studies by generating a vast amount of genetic variability [85]. The narrow genetic diversity of the cultivars imposes the prime challenge in the development of varieties with high yield, stress tolerance, and improved traits like early maturity, seed size and nutrition value [86]. Hugo De Vries coined the term mutation, to indicate a sudden change in the genotype that is heritable [87] and these genetic variations provide the raw material for evolution. The rate of spontaneous mutation is relatively very low i.e. 10−6 or one out of a million for an individual gene [88], therefore, artificial mutations are necessary to increase the percentage of genetic diversity. The process of inducing desirable mutations and exploiting them for crop improvement is called mutation breeding, which comprises three main steps; using mutagens, screening of mutant candidates for desirable traits, and official release of the new variety [89]. The widespread use of induced mutants in plant breeding programmes across the globe has led to the official release of 265 wheat plant mutant varieties in more than 24 countries throughout the world (Figure 1).
Wheat mutant varieties released during 1960–2018 [
According to [82], mutation breeding has a major advantage over other methods is that in this process no genetic material is lost, rather only mutation is induced in the preexisting genome. It offers the possibility of inducing such unique desired traits that were either lost during evolution or do not exist naturally.
The shuttle breeding concept was originally developed by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center’s (CIMMYT) wheat breeding program and was popularized by Nobel laureate Dr. Norman Borlaug. This system allowed an extra generation to be advanced each year by using different field locations. CIMMYT used two contrasting locations with diverse environmental conditions in Mexico for wheat shuttle breeding: Ciudad Obregón, an irrigated dessert located in Northern Sonora Valley and Central Mexican highlands (2249 m altitude). Since the beginning of this programme in Mexico, segregating populations have been “shuttled” about 130 times representing 200,000 crosses. Off-season breeding activities through shuttle breeding has the advantages of screening segregating material in contrasting locations for developing high yielding, disease-resistant, widely adapted and photoperiod insensitive genotypes of wheat within a limited period [91]. Additionally, Borlaug and his team noticed two more advantages of shuttle breeding: first, breeding in locations with different environmental conditions, soil types and stresses allow selection of breeding materials for broad range disease resistance; secondly, photoperiod-sensitive material is screened and eliminated. In this way, the resulting photoperiod-insensitive germplasm permitted CIMMYT’s semi-dwarf high yielding and disease resistant lines to adapt in multi-range environmental conditions worldwide. Shuttle breeding was the foundation of the success of what we today call “the Green Revolution” [92].
In the second half of the twentieth century, the emergence of doubled haploid (DH) technology revolutionized the generation of genetically pure and homozygous lines and led to the direct production of completely homozygous lines from heterozygous plants in a single generation. Double haploids production by chromosome doubling, spontaneous or by using colchicine, of haploid cells like pollen grains, which greatly shortens the line fixation stage, at least three to four generations of self-pollination, is a means of accelerating the wheat breeding for development of true breeding lines with desirable traits [93]. This technique includes two main steps: haploid induction and chromosome doubling. Haploid induction attempts to regenerate haploids or spontaneous DH plants, which can be achieved by gynogenesi, androgenesis or parthenogenesis, depending on the species. Antimitotic compounds are used for the chromosomal doubling step, which is mandatory if spontaneous doubling does not occur in haploid plants [94].
This process is performed in tissue-culture laboratories and applies to species that are responsive to tissue culturing this technique could complement the conventional breeding programs to accelerate the release of new varieties. In wheat various methods are employed to develop DHs including; isolated microspore culture (IMC), haploid gene inducer, meiotic restitution genes, doubling chemicals, ovule culture, chromosome removal using hybridization, wide hybridization and anther culture [95]. AC and wide hybridization methods are frequently used in applied research and breeding programs [96] while IMC is still under development [97].
Omics approaches are useful in deciphering the whole mechanism and thus providing insight into modification at the molecular level which results from changes in environmental conditions. Omics is a diverse branch that includes genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and their interactions with each other. The period of omics has been commenced with the advent of automated sequencing approaches which lead to the first whole-genome sequencing of model plant i.e.,
Genomics aims at exploring the genome physical structure, studying the whole constitution of the genome including genes and regulatory network. A major milestone in the wheat genome has been achieved in 2012 with the complete de-novo sequencing of bread wheat. Sequencing revealed that A, B and D wheat genomes consist of 28,000, 38,000, and 36,000 genes respectively [98].
Upon the advancement in genomics and the advent of the molecular markers era, myriads of shortcomings of conventional breeding approaches are resolved as they are not impacted by environmental factors and can expose variations at the DNA level. Classical breeding is based on the phenotypic selection of genotypes. Genotype X Environment (GE) interaction is the main constraint including the time-consuming and costly procedure of phenotypic selection. By employing molecular markers, desirable genotypic selection can be done at the early generation of the breeding program without the influence of environmental factors. Breeders use molecular markers to enhance the precision of the selection of genetic resources for the best trial combination.
The first study based on molecular markers was initiated in the 1990s when restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers were used for identifying genetic diversity, homologous chromosome identification and wheat-rye identification [99]. The use of RFLP is to be sure very successful in the development of linkage groups in wheat. However, it was not so much intriguing due to time consuming, laborious, low frequency and high cost. With more improvement in the marker system, researchers, later on, focused on PCR-based markers including Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR) due to their mapping friendly and cost-effective features. Among PCR-based markers, RAPD was not used extensively due to the availability of scanty information about the location in the genome and lack of reproducibility [100]. Compared to RFLP, SSR markers are reproducible and have a specific location in the genome thereby, more applicable in genome-specific studies. In wheat, the first SSR markers system was reported in 1998 which opens up a new direction for identifying new genetic loci and better yield traits [101]. With time, researchers focused on single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and developed trait linked SNP markers. It has higher accuracy than SSR markers. A variety of trait linked DNA markers for wheat were identified for disease resistance and quality of grain. For example, Cre resistance genes (Cre3, Cre1) are used in marker assisted selection (MAS) program of wheat to identify cereal cyst resistant genotypes [102].
Identification of gene function is a long-standing goal of biology which provides important information for crop improvements. So far, forwards genetics has been the prime approach in which first we mutate the plant, followed by phenotypic screeing to identify the gene function. The identification of genes with major effect is easy as comparision to the gene with minor effect. To overcome this barrier, association mapping (AM) and bi-parental quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping was introduced with ability to identify genes with subtle effects [103]. Subsequent aim of genetic is to identify a link between a phenotypic function and genotypic data, and AM is one of the approaches to link the phenotype with genotypes. Revolutionary AM orianted approaches were carried out in last decade [169]. Genome-wide association study (GWAS) varies from bi-parental QTL mapping because it is performed on a natural population with a wide genetic base and this wide track of natural variation provides finer resolution of QTL location [103]. The basic apprehension of AM is to identify superior associations (false positive) that can result from population stratification and enigmatic relatedness [104, 105]. To control this issue different statistical methods have been adopted, a mixed linear model (MLM) with population structure and kinship matrix incorporation efficiently eliminate false positive in association mapping [106, 107]. Sequenced-based GWAS has successfully been applied for mapping the agronomic traits and identified the candidate genes inside the significant agronomic regions of wheat [108]. GWAS is a powerful tool to identify the genomic region linked with different traits (linked with biotics and abiotic stress tolerance) in different crops including wheat. It generally highlights linkage among SNPs and traits and is based on GWAS design, genotyping tools, statistical models for examination, and results from interpretation [109]. Using GWAS, Sukumaran et al. [110] detected multiple significant QTL associated with yield and its linked traits of durum wheat grown under drought and heat stress. Similarly, some other studies identified QTL associated with heat and drought tolerance related traits at the seedling stage in wheat [109, 111]. However, limited studies on drought tolerance of wheat have been conducted at the seedling stage.
One of the important technologies utilized in the improvement of the plant is genomic selection along with doubled haploid production, sequencing, QTL mapping, association mapping, genome editing and formation of transgenic plants is genomic selection. In genomic selection, genome-wide markers are used to identify the genotype of a plant and subsequently phenotyped for a particular trait by selection. Contrary to the marker-assisted selection, which utilizes a small number of markers associated with major QTL, GS involves genome-wide markers along with phenotyping data to evaluate genomic estimated breeding values (GEBVs) in one population that will previse the performance of lines in another population only using markers. This technique avoids multiple testing and there is no need to identify marker-trait associations based on arbitrarily chosen significance threshold [112].
Due to the complex genetic makeup of wheat, it requires 10–15 years to transfer new genes into elite germplasm. Genomic selection makes it possible to select parents purely before enter in field trials and nurseries based on genomic estimated breeding values. Annual genetic gain through GS is predicted to be double or triple that of conventional selection due to alleviation in the selection cycle. However, there is still little information regarding GS application in wheat. Improved predictive ability to target traits is cardinal to successful implementation of GS [113]. It is considered that item-based collaborative filtering (IBCF) could be used alternative to conventional predictive model for important target traits in a wheat breeding program [114].
RNA sequencing technologies give abundant transcriptomic data which requires expertise in bioinformatics. The wheat hexaploid genome has one of the largest genomes in different crop species constituting 17 Gb in size. Until now, approximately 76% of the wheat genome has been sequenced (International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium [IWGSC], [115]. Functional annotation of the wheat genome by homology is becoming very useful but is far from complete as compared to model plants. Transcriptomics in wheat has been facing many challenges due to its complicated genome. Furthermore, RNA sequencing and proteomics study will help in the production of markers associated with particular traits to improve the breeding program. Okada et al., [116] reported that the transcriptional profile of wheat was very useful in the development of molecular markers and was used for the study of wild relative of wheat (Ae. Umbellulata) for population genetics studies. Moreover, many biotic and abiotic stresses can also be studied using expression profiles like drought tolerance mechanisms of two cultivars (Alpowa and Idaho) were studied by Alotaibi [117] using RNA sequencing profiling tool. They identified that differentially expressed genes were 2.32 and 3.9 times more up-regulated and down-regulated respectively in Alpowa as compared to Idaho.
Proteins play a cardinal role in stress responses, therefore, proteome alterations at different stressed conditions need to be deciphered for the comprehensive understanding of related mechanisms. Stress sensing is the initial pathway to respond to stress conditions followed by the signaling process. For a better understanding of stress coping mechanisms of plants, isolation and characterization of stress-responsive proteins is required. Further, comprehension of post-translational modifications is also needed in plants under stressed conditions. Proteomics plays a very important role in the fine-tuning of pathways that are involved in stress alleviation [42]. For the comprehensive understanding of functional proteomics, there is a dire need to focus on the subcellular proteomics of wheat. To this end, the isolation of proteins from a target organelle is challenging. The conventional approach for the fractionation of subcellular organelles is differential and density gradient centrifugation. Free-flow electrophoresis is also used for the subcellular fractionation based on the isoelectric point of proteins. Despite the diverse application of various proteomics techniques, various subcellular proteins including both stress-induced proteins and housekeeping proteins, remain unclassified. Thus, wheat proteomics data will address the physiological role of the plant under stressed conditions [118].
Improvement in genetics is required for the development of new wheat varieties that can work efficiently under stressed conditions. Improvement in the genetics of wheat cultivars would lead to changes in physiological and biochemical responses. Likewise, their change in the metabolic profile that is related to a particular phenotype would result in the development of metabolic markers. Wheat is a crop of higher latitude, therefore, heat stress changes the metabolites in the wheat plant during early summer and terminal heat [119]. Physiological and morphological traits are also important, but they cannot provide the overall picture of the underlying mechanism with changes in metabolic profile under stress conditions. With the advancement in omics techniques, mass spectrometry provides the metabolic profiles of crop genotypes [120]. The metabolic profile of wheat revealed that highly branched amino acids are intolerant in water-deficit stress conditions [121]. It is also reported that different groups of peroxidase genes (TaPrx112-D, TaPrx113-F and TaPrx111-A) were induced by cereal cyst nematodes in some of the resistant wheat lines [122]. Taken together, an amalgamation of wheat “Omics” data including genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics with advanced bioinformatics tools is required to construct a mathematical model that will provide a deep insight into the underlying mechanism of plant undergoing stress condition.
Gene transformation is a technique through which the foreign DNA/gene is transferred into target species using molecular methods. Transformation efficiency depends on regeneration frequency of donor tissue (e.g. shoot), the procedure utilized and embryogenesis from somatic or pollen tissue [123]. In monocots, the main challenges for gene transformation are regeneration of explant and difficulties in DNA delivery using monotonous methods of gene transformation [124]. Improvement in DNA delivery methods and advancement in protocols for developing transgenes have led to the expansion of wheat genome sequence information, high-density molecular markers mapping and cloning of several wheat genes [125]. The gene transformation methods can be classified into direct and indirect gene transformation methods (Figure 2) [126].
Gene transformation methods (direct and indirect).
The first successful wheat transformation was reported using particle bombardment of embryogenic callus. Particle bombardment, also known as ‘Biolistic transformation”, is a physical means of forcing DNA molecules into the plant cells and is a most ideal method, only next to
Wheat offers only a few suitable explant tissues for regeneration through tissue culture. The most common explant of choice is the “scutellum” surface of immature embryos, which is responsive to DNA uptake through both AMT and biolistics and can readily form embryogenic callus through regeneration. An integrated method of gene transformation called Agrolistics, have also been reported, that combines biolistics and
A successful AMT depends on the nature of the explant,
In-planta transformation method was developed to avoid the problems associated with regeneration and tissue-culture based transformation. This method allows direct introduction of exogenous DNA into intact plant tissue and has been applied in various plant species such as; tomato (
Razzaq et al. [141] developed a rapid and improved in-planta based transformation protocol for wheat variety GA-2002.
Pollen tube-mediated gene transfer (PTT) was first reported by Zhou et al. [142] in cotton (
In VIAAT, plant tissues are submerged in a liquid suspension of
Zale et al. [147] devised an efficient in-planta method specifically for wheat to address the regeneration problems. Uninucleated young, mid and late-stage microspores from spikes were immersed in a suspension containing
In this method, the inflorescence of plants is submerged at the early stages of flowering in an
Genome editing is one of the most advanced technologies for crop improvement. The basic mechanism is almost the same in all types of these editing technologies. These technologies involve the generation of double-strand breaks (DSBs) at a target site in a genome using programmable sequence-specific nucleases (SSN) followed by the exploitation of endogenous DSB repair mechanisms to generate a mutation at a particular site. There are two endogenous mechanisms to repair DSBs i.e., non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and homologous recombination (HR) [152]. In NHEJ, the two broken strands are re-ligated with the generation of insertion and/or deletion. It is error-prone and does not require a homologous template. HR requires a homologous template and is more reliable [153]. However, SSNs use NHEJ frequently as a repair mechanism [153]. Three types of SSNs introduce DSB at a specific site [154]. These include Zinc-Finger Nucleases (ZFN), Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs) and CRISPR/Cas9.
ZFNs are artificial endonucleases and consist of designed (according to the target site) zinc finger DNA binding protein (ZFP) fused to the cleavage domain of FokI restriction enzyme. ZFP is generally composed of 3–4 zinc finger arrays. Each array can recognize 3 bp long sequence. The two ZFN monomers are designed in such a way that can recognize 6 bp sequence of a target site and allow the FokI monomer to form an active dimer that can generate DSB at a specific site. Using this genome editing technique, mutation at desirable sites can be created which would lead to the improvement of the plan. However, the presence of very few target sites, difficulty in the engineering of specific zinc finger domains and frequent off-target effects are the main constraint in the application of ZFNs [155].
Another DNA binding protein exclusive to plant pathogens is Transcription Activator -Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs). It consists of 33–35 long tandem repeats of amino acids followed by 20 amino acids known as “half repeat” and FokI cleavage domain. IN the TALEN monomer, 12th and 13th position impart specificity to nucleotide recognition. Due to the specificity of these two residues (at 12th and 13th position), these are termed as repeat variable di-residues (RVDs). TALENs works similarly as ZFNs do. They can generate DSBs and introduce mutation at a specific site. Engineering of TALENs is much easier than ZFNs. However, their large size of repetitive sequences, high cost and labor for the construction of novel TALENs are the major drawbacks of this technology.
CRISPR/Cas9 is simple, cheap and more efficient in contrast to ZFNs and TALENs that require specifically tailored DNA binding protein (Figure 3). There are two important components of CRISPR system: guide RNA (gRNA) and CRISPR associated (Cas9) protein. gRNA consists of two components: CRISPR RNA (crRNA) and Trans-activating CRISPR RNA (tracrRNA). crRNA is 18–20 bp in length confers specificity to target DNA. However, trcrRNA is a stretch of loop and acts as a binding scaffold for Cas9. Cas9 protein is an endonuclease consisting of two subparts: 1) Recognition part 2) Nuclease part. The recognition part of Cas protein has two domains i.e., REC1 and REC2 which are responsible for binding with gRNA. Whereas the Nuclease part consists of RuvC, HNH and Protospacer Adjacent Motif (PAM) interacting domain. Former two domains (RuvC and HNH) play role in the cutting of single-stranded DNA. Later domain (PAM interacting domain) confers PAM specificity and initiate the process of binding to target DNA. PAM sequence is 2-5 bp sequence [156]. The mechanism of CRISPR/Cas9 is divided into three steps: recognition, digestion, and repair. gRNA recognizes the specific site on template DNA followed by the generation of DSB at a site 3 bp upstream of the PAM by Cas9. Cas9 can recognize the PAM sequence at 5′-NGG-3′ (where N can be any nucleotide). Finally, DSB is repaired by either NHEJ or HR [157].
CRISPR consists of sgRNA and Cas9 protein. Cas 9 protein guided by sgRNA produces double strand break. It would lead to DNA repair either by non-homologous end joining method (NHEJ) or by homology recombination (HR) which require template DNA strand.
Base editing and prime editing are the modified versions of CRISPR/Cas9. In base editing approach, point mutation is created without DSB, foreign donor template or involvement of any repair mechanism. This technique comprises gRNA and catalytically inactive Cas9 (Cas9 nickase) fused with single-stranded DNA deaminase. gRNA directs modified Cas9 deaminase to bind to the locus which produces ssDNA R-loop that exposes the DNA to deaminase. Deaminases are of different types. Based on the type of deaminase, base editing is categorized into two types: Cytidine Base Editor (CBE) and adenine base editor (ABE) [158].
CBE edit cytidine into uridine. This system is comprised of gRNA, Cas9 nickase (D10A) that is fused with two more proteins viz. cytosine deaminase (CD) and uracil DNA glycosylase inhibitor (UGI) (Figure 4). Guided by gRNA, CD converts C into U which is then repaired by the base excision repair pathway and generates C to T substitution. ABE edit adenine into inosine which is treated as guanosine by the polymerase (Figure 5). This system is comprised of gRNA, Cas9 nickase fused with adenosine deaminase and also works in the same way as CBE. However, it converts A (Adenosine) into I (Inosine) which is treated as G (Guanine) by DNA polymerase thus generating A to G substitution. Both CBE and ABE can change the base from one purine to another purine or one pyrimidine to another pyrimidine. This is the main shortcoming of this system that purine cannot be replaced by pyrimidine and vice versa [158].
Cytidine Base editor (CBE) consists of sgRNA, nCas9, cytosine deaminase (CD) and uracil glycosylase inhibitor (UGI). CD causes the deamination of cytosine (C) to uracil (U) which is followed by DNA repair with a result of changing from C:G > T:A.
Adenine base editor (ABE) consists of sgRNA, nCas9 and adenosine deaminase (AD). AD causes the deamination of adenosine (a) to inosine (I) which is treated as guanosine (G) by DNA polymerase. Deamination is followed by DNA repair with a result of changing from a:T > G:C.
To address this issue, prime editing method was introduced (Figure 6). This method consists of Cas9 nickase (H840A) which is fused with reverse transcriptase and prime edited guide RNA (pegRNA). Guided by pegRNA, reverse transcriptase prime new DNA containing the desired editing at the target site. After attaining flat equilibrium, excision, ligation and repairing, DNA is stably edited with desirable incorporation [158]. The main application of CRISPR/Cas9 in wheat was demonstrated in suspension cultures and protoplast. Variety of genes were targeted in wheat protoplast and suspension culture after the publication of the original principle of CRISPR/Cas9 [159]. Generally,
Prime editing is comprised of Cas9 nickase (H840A) which is fused with reverse transcriptase and prime edited guide RNA (pegRNA). Guided by pegRNA, reverse transcriptase primes new DNA containing the desired editing at the targeted site. After flap equilibration, cleavage, ligation, and DNA repair, the desired editing is incorporated.
In eukaryotes, the regulatory mechanism of gene expression is commonly depends upon RNAi. To study functional gene analysis or the development of novel phenotypes, RNAi is a robust tool. This technique involves the expression of antisense or hairpin RNAi constructs to direct gene silencing in a sequence-specific manner [160]. The first wheat gene that was targeted by RNAi was the vernalization gene (TaVRN2). The suppression of this gene provided insight for comprehending the molecular mechanism of flowering time and requirement of vernalization in wheat which is ultimately helpful in varying environments in which wheat can be grown [161].
Climate change is a complex of many factors and alarming the world by its destructive effects on crops. Climate change has devastating effects on wheat plant growth and yield. Plants mainly suffer from abiotic stresses. To cope with changing environmental conditions, an integrated management programme is required in addition to crop improvement through conventional and non-conventional methods. To develop better plants under changing climate conditions some bottleneck molecular and physiological encounters present in plants need to be resolved. The rise in temperature and fluctuations in rain fall patterns are very important indicators of climate change. To tackle, this problem different advanced approaches need to be adopted to secure the agriculture future. Climate-resilient crops should be developed using basic breeding approaches. Marker-assisted breeding, omics and proteomics approaches, Genome-wide association studies (GWAS), genomic selection (GS) genetic modification genome editing, CRISPR/Cas9 and RNA interference techniques all are noteworthy in identifying the different genes linked to tolerance against different stresses. Genetic engineering is a good tool to develop a transgenic plant with improved resistance against stress. CRISPR/Cas9 is the best suitable approach to develop eco-friendly genome-edited wheat plants In future to fight a battle against climate change.
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He is the author of several scientific articles, book chapters, and books.",institutionString:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Morocco"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7060",title:"Gingival Disease",subtitle:"A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b81d39988cba3a3cf746c1616912cf41",slug:"gingival-disease-a-professional-approach-for-treatment-and-prevention",bookSignature:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7060.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7497",title:"Computer Vision in Dentistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1e9812cebd46ef9e28257f3e96547f6a",slug:"computer-vision-in-dentistry",bookSignature:"Monika Elzbieta Machoy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7497.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:34,seriesByTopicCollection:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],seriesByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"18416",doi:"10.5772/16475",title:"Dental Implant Surface Enhancement and Osseointegration",slug:"dental-implant-surface-enhancement-and-osseointegration",totalDownloads:18689,totalCrossrefCites:38,totalDimensionsCites:100,abstract:null,book:{id:"179",slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"S.Anil, P.S. Anand, H. Alghamdi and J.A. Jansen",authors:[{id:"25232",title:"Prof.",name:"Sukumaran",middleName:null,surname:"Anil",slug:"sukumaran-anil",fullName:"Sukumaran Anil"},{id:"28373",title:"Prof.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Jansen",slug:"john-jansen",fullName:"John Jansen"},{id:"77058",title:"Dr.",name:"Seham",middleName:null,surname:"Alyafei",slug:"seham-alyafei",fullName:"Seham Alyafei"},{id:"82073",title:"Dr.",name:"Subhash",middleName:null,surname:"Narayanan",slug:"subhash-narayanan",fullName:"Subhash Narayanan"}]},{id:"18415",doi:"10.5772/16936",title:"Osseointegration and Bioscience of Implant Surfaces - Current Concepts at Bone-Implant Interface",slug:"osseointegration-and-bioscience-of-implant-surfaces-current-concepts-at-bone-implant-interface",totalDownloads:12534,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:42,abstract:null,book:{id:"179",slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Mustafa Ramazanoglu and Yoshiki Oshida",authors:[{id:"26726",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoshiki",middleName:null,surname:"Oshida",slug:"yoshiki-oshida",fullName:"Yoshiki Oshida"},{id:"29841",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Ramazanoglu",slug:"mustafa-ramazanoglu",fullName:"Mustafa Ramazanoglu"}]},{id:"48165",doi:"10.5772/60010",title:"3D Scanning, Imaging, and Printing in Orthodontics",slug:"3d-scanning-imaging-and-printing-in-orthodontics",totalDownloads:6567,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:null,book:{id:"4574",slug:"issues-in-contemporary-orthodontics",title:"Issues in Contemporary Orthodontics",fullTitle:"Issues in Contemporary Orthodontics"},signatures:"Emilia Taneva, Budi Kusnoto and Carla A. Evans",authors:[{id:"96409",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla",middleName:null,surname:"Evans",slug:"carla-evans",fullName:"Carla Evans"},{id:"96472",title:"Prof.",name:"Budi",middleName:null,surname:"Kusnoto",slug:"budi-kusnoto",fullName:"Budi Kusnoto"},{id:"172854",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilia Taneva",middleName:null,surname:"Taneva",slug:"emilia-taneva-taneva",fullName:"Emilia Taneva Taneva"}]},{id:"18426",doi:"10.5772/18746",title:"Factors Affecting the Success of Dental Implants",slug:"factors-affecting-the-success-of-dental-implants",totalDownloads:17504,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:null,book:{id:"179",slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Carlos Nelson Elias",authors:[{id:"32438",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Elias",slug:"carlos-elias",fullName:"Carlos Elias"}]},{id:"32161",doi:"10.5772/38059",title:"Caries Through Time: An Anthropological Overview",slug:"caries-archaeological-and-historical-record",totalDownloads:6550,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:null,book:{id:"1742",slug:"contemporary-approach-to-dental-caries",title:"Contemporary Approach to Dental Caries",fullTitle:"Contemporary Approach to Dental Caries"},signatures:"Luis Pezo Lanfranco and Sabine Eggers",authors:[{id:"115399",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Pezo-Lanfranco",slug:"luis-pezo-lanfranco",fullName:"Luis Pezo-Lanfranco"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"61046",title:"Optical Diagnostics to Improve Periodontal Diagnosis and Treatment",slug:"optical-diagnostics-to-improve-periodontal-diagnosis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:7339,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The performance of clinicians undertaking periodontal assessment or periodontal therapy can be improved by using optical methods as adjuncts to visual inspection and periodontal probing. Subtle changes that occur over time in periodontal tissues that are below the detection limit of visual examination or periodontal probing can be found and tracked accurately over time using 3D imaging, fluorescence spectroscopy, and optical coherence tomography. During debridement of teeth and dental implants, the effective removal of subgingival microbial biofilms and dental calculus deposits can be enhanced using magnifying loupes and operating microscopes and by novel methods based on the interactions of light with bacterial deposits, such as differential reflectometry and light-induced fluorescence. While such techniques can also be used using initial case assessment, their primary purpose is for checking debridement procedures, since the point when bacterial deposits are no longer present represents an endpoint for treatment. The concept of real-time feedback has been developed, using fluorescence readings to control the removal of deposits. Overall, optical methods can support traditional periodontal diagnosis and improve treatment planning and clinical periodontal care.",book:{id:"7244",slug:"periodontology-and-dental-implantology",title:"Periodontology and Dental Implantology",fullTitle:"Periodontology and Dental Implantology"},signatures:"Fardad Shakibaie and Laurence Walsh",authors:[{id:"179467",title:"Prof.",name:"Laurence",middleName:null,surname:"Walsh",slug:"laurence-walsh",fullName:"Laurence Walsh"},{id:"235443",title:"Dr.",name:"Fardad",middleName:null,surname:"Shakibaie",slug:"fardad-shakibaie",fullName:"Fardad Shakibaie"}]},{id:"24363",title:"Biomechanics of Tooth-Movement: Current Look at Orthodontic Fundamental",slug:"biomechanics-of-tooth-movement-current-look-at-orthodontic-fundamental",totalDownloads:26816,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"277",slug:"principles-in-contemporary-orthodontics",title:"Principles in Contemporary Orthodontics",fullTitle:"Principles in Contemporary Orthodontics"},signatures:"Joanna Antoszewska and Nazan Küçükkeles",authors:[{id:"50158",title:"Prof.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Antoszewska",slug:"joanna-antoszewska",fullName:"Joanna Antoszewska"}]},{id:"71271",title:"Flap Techniques in Dentoalveolar Surgery",slug:"flap-techniques-in-dentoalveolar-surgery",totalDownloads:2628,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Most dentoalveolar procedures involve the reflection of mucosal flaps. This step is crucial for exposure or removal of impacted teeth, implant bed preparation, exposure of the alveolar bone for augmentation, periodontal surgeries, and repair of mucosal soft tissue defects, such as oroantral fistula. Because of the rich vascularity of the oral mucosa, great freedom is allowed for flap design, but it tends to result in carelessness and lack of thoughtful planning, which may lead to uneventful outcomes or/and complications. In this chapter, we review oral anatomy, classification, indications, and complications of common oral flap techniques; common flap designs are illustrated, and their fundamental principles are highlighted. The review has covered various flap designs based on their indications. Yet the common flap’s principles are fundamental for all types of flaps regardless of their application, namely, it should provide wide exposure, clear vision, good access, and assure rich vascularity and good final aesthetic outcome.",book:{id:"9387",slug:"oral-diseases",title:"Oral Diseases",fullTitle:"Oral Diseases"},signatures:"Randa Abdulmoein AlFotawi",authors:[{id:"308701",title:"Dr.",name:"Randa",middleName:"Abdulmoein",surname:"Alfotawi",slug:"randa-alfotawi",fullName:"Randa Alfotawi"}]},{id:"65088",title:"Evaluation and Management of Mandibular Fracture",slug:"evaluation-and-management-of-mandibular-fracture",totalDownloads:2903,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The mandibular bone is an important component of the facial bone, which has a unique role in digestive system, speech, and facial esthetics. For these important functions of mandibular bone, it is vital that surgeons should not only treat function but also consider the esthetics together. Mandibular fractures are among the most common traumatic injuries of the maxillofacial region. Even though treatment modalities are well established and being practiced for a long time, untreated and postoperative complications still decrease the patient’s quality of life. This chapter aims to describe the cause, clinical presentations, diagnoses, and current treatment methods on the basis of resent literature.",book:{id:"7572",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry"},signatures:"Guhan Dergin, Yusuf Emes and Buket Aybar",authors:[{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin"},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes"},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar"}]},{id:"56461",title:"Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Incisors",slug:"permanent-maxillary-and-mandibular-incisors",totalDownloads:2715,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The permanent incisors are the front teeth that erupt between 6 and 8 years of age. They are eight in number, four upper and four lower, two centrals and two laterals. They have sharp biting surfaces designed for shearing and cutting of food materials into small chewable pieces. They are the teeth most visible to the others during eating, smiling and talking, and thus, they have high aesthetic value for the individuals. The unique characteristics, arch position, function, development and chronological age of each tooth will be highlighted. In addition, the different aspects with their geometric outlines, outlines and surface anatomy of these teeth will be described. A brief explanation about the pulp cavity, tooth socket and normal occlusion for each tooth will be included.",book:{id:"5814",slug:"dental-anatomy",title:"Dental Anatomy",fullTitle:"Dental Anatomy"},signatures:"Mohammed E. Grawish, Lamyaa M. Grawish and Hala M. Grawish",authors:[{id:"82989",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:"E",surname:"Grawish",slug:"mohammed-grawish",fullName:"Mohammed Grawish"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"174",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"80964",title:"Upper Airway Expansion in Disabled Children",slug:"upper-airway-expansion-in-disabled-children",totalDownloads:44,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102830",abstract:"Breathing is essential for life in all of its stages. Cellular, mitochondrial respiration requires an adequate supply of oxygen, provided by the air we breathe, after airway conduction, treatment by the lungs, and transport to tissues. At different stages of life, pediatric dentists and orthodontists can intervene in the upper airway, expanding it, which helps with ventilation. The greater airway space, if used, contributes in different ways to the child’s development and the recovery of respiratory problems and should always be present as a weapon that physicians and the population should know. The value of the techniques becomes even more important when applied to children and young people with disabilities who can significantly improve their development and performance. Rapid Maxillary Expansion and Extraoral Traction Appliances are two important pediatric resources to treat these children. Clinical practice of the authors, is discussed, emphasizing the importance of early intervention and the need for multi and interdisciplinary collaboration in the follow-up of disabled people.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"David Andrade, Joana Andrade, Maria-João Palha, Cristina Areias, Paula Macedo, Ana Norton, Miguel Palha, Lurdes Morais, Dóris Rocha Ruiz and Sônia Groisman"},{id:"80963",title:"Pain Perception in Patients Treated with Ligating/Self-Ligating Brackets versus Patients Treated with Aligners",slug:"pain-perception-in-patients-treated-with-ligating-self-ligating-brackets-versus-patients-treated-wit",totalDownloads:33,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102796",abstract:"This study compared the perception of pain experienced by patients undergoing orthodontic treatment with conventional, self-ligating brackets and aligners, and investigated the impact that pain had on their daily lives. 346 consecutive patients were included in the study: 115 patients treated with conventional brackets, 112 Patients treated with self-ligating brackets, and 119 patients treated with aligners. The quantitative aspect of pain was assessed using the Visual Analogue Scale, while the qualitative aspect of pain was evaluated using the Moroccan Short Form of McGILL Pain questionnaire. In all three groups experienced pain after activation tended to decrease in the following week. This pain was greater in patients with conventional braces and less in patients with aligners. Using the M-SF-MPQ to describe the qualitative aspect of the pain revealed that the “cramping مزير,” “aching تيألم ” aspect was most accentuated in the 3 groups. Medication intake was correlated with the intensity of pain experienced in all 3 systems. As for the impact of pain on daily activities, patients in groups of conventional and self-ligating braces showed more pain than those in the aligners group. Overall, aligners were less painful than conventional and self-ligating appliances. Patients did not suffer from an alteration in their quality of life due to orthodontic treatment.",book:{id:"10780",title:"Current Trends in Orthodontics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10780.jpg"},signatures:"Farid Bourzgui, Rania Fastani, Salwa Khairat, Samir Diouny, Mohamed El Had, Zineb Serhier and Mohamed Bennani Othmani"},{id:"80839",title:"Herbs and Oral Health",slug:"herbs-and-oral-health",totalDownloads:69,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103715",abstract:"Herbal medicine has long been used to prevent and control disease, and it can minimize the potential side effects of chemical products. However, side effects from herbs do exist. Most of the challenges with herbal medicine revolves around inadequate information about the effect of herbs in the oral cavity, the mechanism of action, and potential side effects. There are several herbs described in this chapter have anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-fungal in oral micro-organisms. It includes aloe vera, ginger, clove, cinnamon, garlic, neem, miswak, turmeric, tulsi, green tea, chamomile, fenugreek, anise plant, peppermint, bloodroot, caraway, eucalyptus, phyllanthus emblica, black seed, myrrh, rosemary, sage, and thyme; some may act as an alternative management option to current treatments for oral conditions such as caries prevention, gingivitis, periodontitis, oral burn, ulcers and inflammation, after extraction, dry mouth, pain reduction, anesthesia, intracanal medications, ill-fitting dentures, peri-implant mucositis and peri-implantitis. It can be used in several forms such as mouthwashes, toothpastes, topical agents or local drug delivery devices. However, more research is needed to understand their mechanisms and potential side effects.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"Zuhair S. Natto"},{id:"80441",title:"Periodontitis and Heart Disease: Current Perspectives on the Associative Relationships and Preventive Impact",slug:"periodontitis-and-heart-disease-current-perspectives-on-the-associative-relationships-and-preventive",totalDownloads:66,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102669",abstract:"Due to the important advancement and the accumulation of new evidence on the periodontitis-cardiovascular disease (CVD) relationship as well as the major medical, economic and social burden caused by both diseases this chapter aims to review existing epidemiological and pathogenetic links related to this topic. Also, this chapter aims to highlight the impact of the periodontitis-CVD relationships on clinical practice and on the preventive approaches targeting to decrease the impact of periodontitis on CVD. Periodontitis is an infectious disease eliciting local and general inflammation, which leads to periodontal destruction and systemic involvement. Several pathways could explain the link between periodontitis and CVD such as bacteraemia, chronic persistent systemic inflammation and oxidative stress. The first step in the treatment of periodontitis addresses the elimination of microbial components, which lead to a decrease in local and systemic inflammation. Periodontal therapy seems to positively impact CVD. Specialists should inform patients with CVD on the negative impact of periodontitis on their systemic status and refer patients to the periodontist for an extensive examination as routine management of CVD. Some possible risks of periodontal therapy should be considered in patients undergoing antithrombotic medication.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"Alexandra Roman, Andrada Soancă, Bogdan Caloian, Alexandru Bucur, Gabriela Valentina Caracostea, Andreia Paraschiva Preda, Dora Maria Popescu, Iulia Cristina Micu, Petra Șurlin, Andreea Ciurea, Diana Oneț, Mircea Viorel Ciurea, Dragoș Alexandru Țermure and Marius Negucioiu"},{id:"79498",title:"Oral Aspects and Dental Management of Special Needs Patient",slug:"oral-aspects-and-dental-management-of-special-needs-patient",totalDownloads:113,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101067",abstract:"Individuals with special needs are the most underserved regarding healthcare needs in almost all populations. Special needs patients with intellectual disability have muscle coordination disorder, impaired oral motor function, drooling, weak muscles that cause chewing and swallowing problems. Also, soft diet consumption makes this population more prone to dental disease. They have more caries, missing teeth, orthodontic and periodontal problems. Besides more difficulties obtaining professional dental care than other segments of the population. Though many countries developed community-based systems to improve oral health for people with special needs, providing good oral health mainly depends on the effort of the families. Therefore the education of the caregiver about oral hygiene provision is also critical for the special needs patient to enjoy a lifetime of oral health the same as other members of the society.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"Pinar Kiymet Karataban"},{id:"79699",title:"Metabolomics Distinction of Cigarette Smokers from Non-Smokers Using Non-Stationary Benchtop Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Analysis of Human Saliva",slug:"metabolomics-distinction-of-cigarette-smokers-from-non-smokers-using-non-stationary-benchtop-nuclear",totalDownloads:56,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101414",abstract:"Implementations of high-field nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) facilities into metabolomics studies are unfortunately restricted by their large dimensions, high costings, and specialist technical staff requirements. Therefore, here the application and practical advantages offered by low-field (60 MHz), compact NMR spectrometers for probing the metabolic profiles of human saliva was explored, as was their value in salivary metabolomics studies. Saliva samples were collected from cigarette smoking (n = 11) and non-smoking (n = 31) human participants. 1H NMR spectra were acquired on both low-field (60 MHz) and medium-field (400 MHz) spectrometers. Metabolomics analyses were employed to evaluate the consistencies of salivary metabolite levels determined, and their abilities to distinguish between smokers and non-smokers. Low-field 1H NMR analysis detected up to 15, albeit permitted the reliable quantification of 5, potentially key diagnostic biomolecules simultaneously (LLOQ values 250–400 μmol/L), although these were limited to those with the most prominent resonances. Such low-field profiles were also found to be suitable for salivary metabolomics investigations, which confirmed the successful discrimination between smoking and non-smoking participant sample donors. Differences observed between these groups were largely ascribable to upregulated salivary levels of methanol, and its metabolite formate, in the smoking group, but higher smoking-mediated concentrations of acetate, propionate and glycine may arise from a diminished salivary flow-rate in these participants. In conclusion, determination of salivary biomolecules using low-field, benchtop 1H NMR analysis techniques were found to be valuable for bioanalytical and metabolomics investigations. 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Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). He is the author of several scientific articles, book chapters, and books.",institutionString:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Morocco"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7060",title:"Gingival Disease",subtitle:"A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7060.jpg",slug:"gingival-disease-a-professional-approach-for-treatment-and-prevention",publishedDate:"October 23rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",hash:"b81d39988cba3a3cf746c1616912cf41",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Gingival Disease - A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",editors:[{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"July 3rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6668",title:"Dental Caries",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6668.jpg",slug:"dental-caries-diagnosis-prevention-and-management",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan",hash:"b0f7667770a391f772726c3013c1b9ba",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Dental Caries - Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",value:2,count:3},{group:"subseries",caption:"Oral Health",value:1,count:6}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:229,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"344229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sankeshan",middleName:null,surname:"Padayachee",slug:"sankeshan-padayachee",fullName:"Sankeshan Padayachee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315727",title:"Ms.",name:"Kelebogile A.",middleName:null,surname:"Mothupi",slug:"kelebogile-a.-mothupi",fullName:"Kelebogile A. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",slug:"arli-aditya-parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life 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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. 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Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation"},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"11650",title:"Aquifers - New Insights",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"27c1a2a053cb1d83de903c5b969bc3a2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Abhay Soni and Dr. Prabhat Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11650.jpg",editedByType:null,submissionDeadline:"July 12th 2022",editors:[{id:"271093",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",middleName:null,surname:"Soni",slug:"abhay-soni",fullName:"Abhay Soni",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/271093/images/system/271093.jpg",biography:"Dr. A.K. Soni, Ph.D., graduated with a degree in Mining Engineering from Ravishankar University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, in 1983. He completed his post-graduate studies at the Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS), Rajasthan, India, and obtained a Ph.D. in Environmental Science and Engineering from the Centre of Mining Environment, Indian School of Mines (ISM), Dhanbad, India, in 1998. \n\n\n\nDr. Soni is currently working as Chief Scientist at CSIR-Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research (CSIR-CIMFR) at Nagpur Research Centre and engaged in research work on 'mine environment and allied areas.” His area of research interest is 'geo-hydrological problems related to mines.” He has more than 33 years of experience working in the Indian mining industry. As part of his research work, he has visited the United States and the United Kingdom and traveled widely across India. As a research scientist and technical administrator, he has more than 115 technical publications on mining and environmental topics to his credit. Dr. Soni has authored one book, Mining in the Himalayas: An Integrated Strategy. He has also written technical papers in the Hindi language. \n\n\n\nDr. Soni has handled more than 100 R&D projects in the capacity of project coordinator and principal investigator. He is actively associated with professional societies in India, including the Mining Engineers Association of India (MEAI), Institution of Engineers (India), Indian Society for Rock Mechanics and Tunneling Technology (ISRMTT), and International Mine Water Association (IMWA). Dr. Soni has received many honors and awards for his contributions. He is presently a member of the international advisory board for the Journal of Mine Water and Environment. He is also a member and chairman of important committees, and a subject area expert, advisor, and evaluator responsible for several noted professional assignments at the national level. He has been invited by academic institutes and Indian universities to deliver lectures and conduct examinations for post-graduate students. Dr. Soni was associated with the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) in the capacity of member and has experience organizing several technical events.",institutionString:"Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences"},selectedSubseries:{id:"41",title:"Water Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",slug:"yizi-shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yizi Shang is a pioneering researcher in hydrology and water resources who has devoted his research career to promoting the conservation and protection of water resources for sustainable development. He is presently associate editor of Water International (official journal of the International Water Resources Association). He was also invited to serve as an associate editor for special issues of the Journal of the American Water Resources Association. He has served as an editorial member for international journals such as Hydrology, Journal of Ecology & Natural Resources, and Hydro Science & Marine Engineering, among others. He has chaired or acted as a technical committee member for twenty-five international forums (conferences). Dr. Shang graduated from Tsinghua University, China, in 2010 with a Ph.D. in Engineering. Prior to that, he worked as a research fellow at Harvard University from 2008 to 2009. Dr. Shang serves as a senior research engineer at the China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research (IWHR) and was awarded as a distinguished researcher at National Taiwan University in 2017.",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences"}}},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. 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