Comparative characteristics of ontogenesis of a sexual individual and a biological species.
\r\n\tWe are living in a particularly challenging historical moment. People have learned that no matter how much they control their lives, their environment, and their relationships, everything can be changed instantly, at the fancy of a virus that does not respect age, nationality, ancestry, intelligence, or skills. People learned that the limitless power of science and technology was purely illusory, in the face of an absolute and overwhelming force of nature that was almost no longer recognized. After all, the balance of forces between Nature and science and technology was inevitably shaken and the certainties with which people built their lives were jeopardized by an unpredictable and constantly changing reality. Uncertainty is one of the biggest challenges we face today. Never, as today, people management can make such a difference in their future, both personally and professionally.
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\r\n\tCHROs need to decide where to focus their resources and attention, select their action priorities. This book will aim to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the new challenges of people management and provide keys to (re)think about the new/renewed challenges that the new times, the new “normals” place on those who manage people. From the strategic management of HR to people analytics and HR IT architecture and operation, through the new practices of remote work, this book aims to reflect on the future(s) of people management, illuminating trends and reflecting on potential risks or promising achievements.
The Universe consists of discrete entities: elementary particles, atoms, molecules, planets, stars, galaxies. That is there are a limited number of configurations of matter that are fairly stable and lasting, the intermediate ones being volatile. The Universe is structuralized. It means that the world components and the Universe itself resist chaos. They are far from thermodynamic equilibrium. They exist. The existence is resistance to chaos. Many will agree that thermodynamic equilibrium means death for a biological entity, but it is true for any system as well. It may sound funny today that the Darwinian natural selection, acting by accumulation of tiny heritable changes, was initially supposed to produce an even continuum of the living beings. This expectation was never corroborated. The creationists still keep using the absence of this continuum as evidence against biological evolution. But the biological world follows the same global principle: organisms, populations, species are discrete stable entities, the intermediate configurations being volatile. Biological evolution cannot retain and does not retain everything that randomly emerges. The existence of the Universe depends on the mutual affinity of its constituents, their ability to interact with each other, thus resisting the general aspiration for evenness. This is, however, only one side of the coin. The interaction should prevent the dissipation, but not more than this. Any existence implies a balance between two opposite forces – dissipating and compressing, repulsion and attraction. Too strong interaction leads to collapse, disappearance in singularity.
There are two major forms of existence: inanimate and animate. Any existence is not perpetual. The second law of thermodynamics predicts final dissipation or destruction in collapse of everything in the Universe. What is the dissipating force? Generally speaking, it is energy. Why does the Universe not dissipate immediately? The components of the Universe
It gets increasingly evident that life is not a physical process. It is not just extended physics and chemistry. It is absolutely different form of existence, the higher form. The swallow, building its nest in my shed near Moscow, flies to South Africa and returns strictly to the same shed every year. I hope nobody will try to calculate the probability of such event proceeding from the physical causality and stochasticity. It is evident that swallow knows the route, there and back. Just as I know the route from my home to my work and back. And this knowledge is only a trifling part of the total knowledge any organism enjoys. This total knowledge is knowledge how to reproduce itself. I beg pardon of those who cannot stand anthropomorphisms. Human beings are biological entities and they share many defining characteristics with other living entities (and vice versa). Knowledge is one of them.
The autocracy of physics ends at the border between the inanimate world and the biosphere, where the world of sense and knowledge begins, and behavior of matter becomes expedient. The words: knowledge, memory, coding, transcription, translation, function, signaling, recognition, decision-making, governing, creation, which are impossible and needless in describing inanimate nature, become not only acceptable but unavoidable in the description of living systems [4].
An organization is a complex system that can perform certain functions by virtue of its particular assemblage of parts [7]. Organized systems must be distinguished from the ordered ones. Neither system is random, but the ordered systems are generated according to a simple algorithm and therefore lack complexity, whereas the organized systems must be assembled element-by-element according to an external program or plan. Organization is complexity endowed with function. It is not random due to design or selection, rather than to the necessity of crystallographic order [8]. Living entities (cells, organisms, populations, and species), and only living entities Machines may also be organizations but they are human made creatures.
“Life is based on semiosis, i.e., on signs and codes” [9], and it cannot be adequately described by means of physics and chemistry. Everything essential in biology is determined not by physical causality but by semantic rules and goal-directed programs. This principle operates on all levels of biological organization. Coding is not limited by the coding of polypeptide sequence by the nucleotide sequence. The entire life cycle is carried out by sequential development of the organic codes and interpretation rules for stepwise self-manufacturing of the entity. In contrast to the objects of the inanimate world that come into being as a result of stochastic interactions, the living entities and their components are
We are used to think that all the entire stuffing of the Universe is presented by two interconvertible essences: energy and substance or matter. Latterly, several bold guys [6,9,12-17] started talking about the third fundamental essence – organic information, which is neither energy nor matter. It is an attribute of life and only life. I think the term “information” may not be the most suitable one. It may be confused with the homonym used in the information theory. Shannon’s information is devoid of meaning whereas the meaning is just what we are interested in in context of biology. Most importantly, “the third fundamental essence” is not just information but behavior, which includes internal and external signaling, their interpretation and implementation in the form of organization with a function of survival. I think adequate name for this third fundamental essence would be “mind”. Four fundamental physical interactions prevent immediate dissipation of the inanimate world yet they cannot explain existence of living entities. The living world resists chaos by means of
In inanimate nature, all the processes are directed from a less probable state to a more probable state: movement to equilibrium. Life is a movement to a low-probable state. It is a river flowing upward. A stone falling down from a mountain is an example of a physical process; an alpinist climbing up a mountain is an example of a biological process. It needs not only energy, but intention (will) and knowledge; it needs mind. The laws of physics are not violated during this "climbing up". Instead, they are harnessed by the goal-directed programs of life in such a way that low-probable, virtually impossible events become the most probable. Hence, life is a form of existence that differs radically from any form of inanimate existence.
A living entity may disappear for two reasons: it may die or it may change. In both cases the previous entity ceases its existence. To exist means to exist long. Biological species know how to exist long. This is a miraculous knowledge because living entities are improbably complex things. It is not complexity in itself that is miraculous but the fact that the biological complexity is
The basic form of the biological existence is a cell. Prokaryotic cell is a minimal biological entity. Though any separate thing may be named “entity” in English, it would be heuristically important to name living or biological entity only the organization with the function of survival. The components of a cell (proteins, nucleic acids, membranes, ribosomes, viruses and the like) possess only particular functions, so they are not
The eukaryotic cell is a much more complex entity. It appeared on the Earth about one billion years ago as a result of cooperation between several prokaryotic cells [22,23]. As such, they created the enormous and abundant world of unicellular eukaryotes.
The high complexity of the eukaryotic cells enabled further cooperation and appearance of multicellular organisms. The multicellular organism is a monad. Providing it is asexual, it is substantive entity (see below) that can reproduce itself acting alone.
It occurred that the higher multicellular organisms with large genomes and complex development fail to reproduce themselves reliably across generations. This impediment brought about further cooperation: creation of
In accord with the above definition of living or biological entity, I am going to use here the notions of “substantive” and “attributive” existence. Substantive existence implies autonomy and self-sufficiency of the entity in its reproduction and evolution. Substantive entity is a sovereign player on the stage of life. Attributive existence implies existence as a part of a higher rank entity (host). Its survival and evolution is causally linked to survival and evolution of the host. In case of asexuality, an organism is a substantive entity, whereas a sexual individual is an attributive entity that exists as a part of a higher rank entity – deme. The attributive existence is a ubiquitous form of biological existence. For example, hepatocytes are entities that exist as an attribute of the animal organisms. They represent a class of polyphyletic entities. Hepatocytes of the different animals are much more similar to each other than, for example, to neurons or any other cells of the same organism. While demonstrating transspecific “epigenetic consanguinity”, they reproduce and evolve as an attribute of the host and for the good of the host. Other good instances of the attributive existence are organelles (mitochondria, plastids). I find the concept of substantive and attributive existence useful for description and understanding of biological organization and evolution. In context of this book, it must be quite important to keep in mind that the existence of a sexual individual organism is attributive.
As was stated above, evolution of the Universe automatically leads to replacement of ephemeral forms with more lasting ones. This result is inevitable in the ever changing world. Inanimate entities are the most probable configurations of matter at a given situation; their lasting is provided by their physical durability that is provided by the balance of dissipation and attractive power. Organisms are low-probable configurations of matter; they are physically flimsy, extremely complex, low-entropy systems. They cannot withstand entropy growth perpetually. The homeostatic mechanisms cannot be absolutely perfect. They make errors and they lose their robustness. Absolutely perfect homeostasis would require infinite energy expenses. Organisms inevitably die even in the most favorable environment, in the absence of any competition, with an abundance of energy and substance. They perish because of entropy.
It looks like organism as a form of existence reached the thermodynamic limit and is unable to further improve its homeostatic facility. The accuracy of the cell processes is tuned to the point where it is optimal. Both too little and too much accuracy will adversely affect organismal vitality. The energy expenses are concentrated on fidelity of DNA reproduction. And it is really high: one incorrect nucleotide is incorporated only once in 108–1010 events. Transcription and translation proceed with a much lower fidelity, with misincorporation rates of 1 in 104 and 1 in 103–104, respectively [24,25]. With this error rate, significant proportion of newly made polypeptides contains amino acid substitutions [26]. And it is not the whole problem. All biopolymers and supramolecular structures are continuously damaged and the defects are accumulated with time. Accumulation of errors must have self-accelerating dynamics inevitably leading to catastrophe. Living systems bypass the catastrophe by means of reproduction. They reproduce to avoid death. Sometimes, single-cell organisms are referred to as immortal. It is misunderstanding. They also save themselves by reproduction [27]. Even for the apparently symmetrically dividing cells of Escherichia coli, it was shown that the two supposedly identical cells produced during division are functionally asymmetric. The old pole cell should be considered an aging parent repeatedly producing rejuvenated offspring [28].
A characteristic property of life is that its stability is dynamic. Living entities continuously change during lifespan. In essence, this changing is self-regeneration, self-manufacturing, self-renewal. This is the content of life. Organisms and generations of species continuously reproduce themselves through the time. They are transient, renewable forms of existence. The lasting forms of biological existence are lineages and species. An individual organism and a generation of species is a transient link in the existence of lineage or species.
The reproduction may be coupled with multiplication, with increasing the number of organisms. This expansion is an important but contingent factor of species survival. The essence of the reproduction is the replacement of an old, worn-out body by a new one. It may not and, in a standard situation, should not lead to the increasing of the number of organisms to avoid the resource exhaustion. The genuine evolutionary success is stable reproduction [4].
Why does the reproduction, a more complex phenomenon than the simple existence of the individual, prevent entropy from growing up? The point is that reproduction is always coupled with selection. Natural selection is a quality control of reproduction. Imperfect copies are rejected while novelties have a chance to be saved This saving is memorizing new knowledge.
Ideally, reproduction should be precise; otherwise, the goal of immortalization is not got. Template-directed synthesis was the first and major invention of nature, from which life itself started. It is clear that the precision of DNA replication must be such that most progeny received unaltered genetic information. The real fidelity of DNA replication is remarkably high [33]. For unicellular organisms, the attained fidelity of DNA replication is enough for potential immortality of the lineages. However, in multi-cellular organisms with large genomes and complex development, the number of mutations per genome per generation is unacceptably high, up to three orders of magnitude higher than, for example, in yeast [34-35]). I.e.,
Why did the replication fidelity not evolve to a higher level? The matter is that faithful replication is a costly process. High accuracy needs too much energy. It looks like a further increase in fidelity of genome reproduction was not possible. Hence, higher organisms have to be able to fulfill ontogenesis successfully, and species must be able to persist in time despite never-ending mutational perturbations. This problem has no solution in the frame of asexual (“homeogenomic”) lineages. They would rapidly degrade and become extinct or blurred out in the course of the reckless evolution.
Earlier [4], I discussed what other means, besides the high fidelity of genome replication and purifying selection, were invented by evolution to avert or evade the fatal outcome of the mutational deluge. The phenomenon of canalization or robustness [36,37] is directly related to the problem. Robustness is generally defined as a property that allows a system to maintain its functions despite external and internal perturbations. In case of biological systems, it is an ability to perform successful ontogenesis despite environmental and mutational perturbations. Robustness is the retaining of function (meaning) despite changes in structure and environmental impacts. The resources of robustness are derived from all levels of biological organization. Global degeneracy of the link between structure and function is one of the definitions of canalization: there are more genotypes than phenotypes. Function, not structure, is selected during evolution. Different genotypes may correspond to the same phenotype. This principle operates on various levels of biological organization, including operation of multiple pathways leading to the same final result. This is possible owing to the fact that biological processes are determined not by physical causality but by semantic rules and goal-directed programs. Simple organisms, reproducing their genomes with high fidelity, have rather simple semantics with relatively simple hermeneutics. The language of higher organisms is much more complex, with rich synonymy and complex, context-dependent, hermeneutics. This helps to provide resistance of development to mutational and environmental perturbations.
Nevertheless, we have to admit that for the higher organisms with large genomes and complex development all these salutary efforts have appeared insufficient: they fail to reproduce themselves reliably across generations. Their lasting needed another instrument. This instrument was sexual reproduction, the creation of
For a long time, the problem of emergence and maintenance of sexual reproduction attracted little attention from evolutionists. The matter probably seemed too obvious. No one doubted Weismann\'s idea that sexual reproduction, creating genetic variability, produces material for natural selection and enhances the evolutionary potential of the species. A possibility of the acceleration of evolution at amphimixis was quantitatively substantiated by Fisher [23] and H.J. Muller [24]. The conception of the evolvability is still popular among population geneticists. It is frequently assumed that the capability for rapid and diverse evolution is a positive trait supported by natural selection, while a shortage of the evolutionary potential is fraught with extinction. The notion of evolvability as a selectable trait is in evident contradiction to the known efforts of evolution aimed at creating genetic stability of organisms and lineages [2-4]. It is obvious that the evolvability cannot be easily taken as a species homeostatic mechanism. Direct selection for evolvability is impossible conceptually, so the transition to sexuality needs another explanation, independent of the evolvability. Though sexual reproduction and genetic recombinations are a source of combinative variation in populations, they do not produce new alleles but only new combinations of the extant ones, which are, moreover, doomed to be destroyed in the next generation. If to think that the sexual reproduction was invented for acceleration of evolution (Lamarckian thought, by the way) than the continuous shuffling of the genomes (heedless of their merits) looks more than strange. I think we should not assume special mechanisms for the acceleration of evolution created by evolution. These would be suicidal mechanisms. A species with accelerated evolution would not exist long. All the organisms populating our earth today belong to species resistant enough to further evolution. Evolution is inevitable because the systems created by evolution for protection against evolution, species homeostasis, are not absolutely perfect, and the entropy pressure overcomes them now and then. All the species are capable of evolving just because they originated from the ancestors that were capable of evolving and inherited their imperfection, their "original sin". It is hard to avoid evolution.
There is some complication in delineating the self-reproducing unit in case of sexual reproduction. Two individuals of different sexes are enough to produce progeny. But it is known that the stable reproduction needs a rather large interbreeding population – deme. Small populations have low robustness because of inbreeding that leads to considerable homozygotization. The homozygous individuals usually have a drastically reduced vitality, and the populations they form also have low robustness because of lack of polymorphism and weak genotypic plasticity. Small population size is fraught with the risk of extinction. On the other hand, a species may consist of many demes with rare interdeme genetic exchanges because of geographical impediments or habitual preferences. Different species have various forms of intraspecies organization and sexual relationships. So the borders of a self-reproducing unit must be of necessity fuzzy. In context of this paper, this complication seems not to be principal. All the existential advantages of sexual reproduction are fully realized on the level of deme at any form of sexual relationships. The rare interdeme genetic exchanges may complicate the picture for the evolutionary theorists but not change it principally. Though demes are not completely closed entities, they are closed enough to depend in their survival primarily on the merits of their own.
The early group selection models were flawed because they assumed that genes acted independently, whereas now it is apparent that gene interaction, and more importantly, genetically based interactions among individuals, were an important source of the response to group selection. As a result many are beginning to recognize that group selection is potentially an important force in evolution. So I will try to avoid here the painful discussion related to group selection. I limit myself by the statement that a unit of selection and a unit of substantive reproduction are strictly the same units, the same monads. The notorious replicator/interactor discrimination was invented to save the selfish gene theory which I regard as erroneous. There are two great delusions in the evolutionary theory: gene as an ideal replicator and individual organism as a quintessential unit of selection. Gene is not a substantive entity. I am not even sure that ontologically it is an entity at all because it is definitely not organization. It even lacks any defining characters of an autonomous thing. It is a product of cell activity, even if the very important product. Functionally, it is a piece of text that acquires meaning only in context of the whole organism. It is getting clear that the concept of a selfish gene is not based on real premises. The linkage "one gene - one trait - one selection vector" is not observed: one gene may affect several traits, and most traits depend on many genes [12]. On the other hand, a sexual individual is not a self-replicating entity either, so it cannot be selected as such. Organisms are unique, inimitable parts of species manufactured as piece-goods during species reproduction. The selective meaning of an individual organism is appreciated in context of population via inclusive fitness. Generation of deme is a minimal entity that reliably reproduces itself with a high fidelity (according to the Hardy-Weinberg law). Deme and species are ontologically comparable entities. They differ only in the size and degree of cohesiveness. So we may say that generation of species is a self-reproducing unit. In most contexts, I use “deme” and “species” as equivalent terms.
Thus, substantive sexual entity is a generation of deme or generation of species. The term “generation” may need some clarification. Deme (and species) is a lasting form of existence; generation is a transient (extant) form of a species existence. Now and here we deal only with generation. I think it is heuristically useful to keep in mind that actually living spatiotemporally restricted entity is a generation, not a lineage, which is in fact a historical phenomenon. A lineage could be even comprehended as existing only in our consciousness. However, there must be something more substantial, more existential in the lasing existence than our human perception of the historical reality. “The defining characteristic of a living organism is that it is the transient material support of an organization” [36]. This definition is fully applicable to a species generation as well. The material support is transient. But what is lasting? According to Merser, organization is lasting. I.e., mind is lasting. The knowledge how to reproduce itself is lasting. Exactly and only this knowledge is transmitted from generation to generation. And of course, this knowledge is not just DNA sequence. Only entire substantive entity is a carrier of this total knowledge, not only genes and brains. I would like to stress that the “material support” and the mind are not separate things like the hardware and software of a computer (organism is not a Turing machine) [16]. They are aspects of the same whole [17].
A real extant population may contain organisms of different age, from new-born to mature to old individuals (overlapping generation) or it may be more or less synchronous. The lifespan of a generation is equal to the average lifespan of individual organisms that comprise the generation. The extant entity is an individual organism in case of asexuality and a generation of deme in case of sexual reproduction. When we speak that a species lives million years we may mean that an entity very similar to the extant entity lived million years ago and it is directly connected with the extant entity via sequence of reproductions.
Sexual organisms are constituents of a higher rank entity – biological species. The transition to sexuality, like all other major evolutionary transitions, is cooperation. Individual organisms forfeited their ability to autonomous reproduction and autonomous evolution. They exist and evolve as a part of biological species. Their existence is attributive. The transition to sexuality is ascension to a new and a higher quality. Sexual population is a coherent system able to self-reproduction. Species reproduction should not be confused with speciation. Species reproduction is not formation of another (daughter) species. Reproduction is a way of species existence. The reproduction must be precise. In case of stably existing species, the reproduction is really precise. One generation may somewhat differ from another generation in accord with the environmental variations owing to a species’ genotypic plasticity and the phenotypic plasticity of the organisms. These changes are reversible manifestations of species robustness. They are not evolutionary changes [12]. By the same token, speciation is not species reproduction, not continuation of the given species. Speciation is a macroevolutionary event that should not be confused with the reproduction. Reproduction is an essentially conservative process. Reproduction is renewal of the same whereas speciation is creation of the new. Similar to a sexual organism, a species is unique: it emerges on one occasion in the history of biosphere and never appears again. Therefore, it is not correct to regard a species as a segment of a species level lineage, as is suggested by De Queiroz [39]. There are no “species level lineages” just as there are no “organism level lineages” in case of sexuality. Lineage is a sequence of generations. In its totality, it represents species ontogenesis [12]. Speciation is not a pre-programmed stage in the species existence. Speaking metaphorically, the species is never “interested” in speciation. For the extant species, begetting a “daughter” species means begetting a competitor. Note that allopatry is a precondition for survival of a new-born species [40].
Reproduction of asexual and sexual organisms differs in many respects (Table). Asexual organism (typically it is a cell) is a self-reproductive unit by itself. Its ontogenesis is relatively simple, typically, the way from the young cell to the mature cell. The reproduction is perfect. It is precise and reliable. Prokaryotic lineages seem to exist billions of years [21]. The ordinary (i.e. reductionistic) viewpoint ascribes this stunning longevity to the high fidelity of DNA replication. According to the ontologically right (holistic) viewpoint, a prokaryotic cell
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Founding | \n\t\t\tBy fusion if two gametes | \n\t\t\tUsually, by geographic or ecological isolation of a small group of the individuals of different sex (founder) | \n\t\t
Probability of abortion | \n\t\t\tLow | \n\t\t\tExtremely high | \n\t\t
Process of ontogenesis | \n\t\t\tIndividual development | \n\t\t\tMicroevolution | \n\t\t
Genetic basis | \n\t\t\tNon-evolving genome | \n\t\t\tEvolving gene pool | \n\t\t
Contents of the ontogenesis | \n\t\t\tEmbodiment of the ontogenetic intention. | \n\t\t\tCreation of species robustness | \n\t\t
Causal mode | \n\t\t\tTeleonomy. Downward causation. The final result is determined by ontogenetic intention (boundary conditions) within the limit of the norm of reaction of the genotype | \n\t\t\tGroup selection The final result is not determined. The process is limited by the initial conditions (historical constrains) and by a necessity to create perfect species organization | \n\t\t
Unit of self-reproduction | \n\t\t\tSelf-reproduction is impossible | \n\t\t\tGeneration of a deme | \n\t\t
General attractor | \n\t\t\tAdult organism | \n\t\t\tStasis (ceasing of evolution) | \n\t\t
Ending of ontogenesis | \n\t\t\tObligatory death (probably programmed) | \n\t\t\tExtinction. Potential immortality is not excluded | \n\t\t
Comparative characteristics of ontogenesis of a sexual individual and a biological species.
Many give an import to the fact that asexual organisms can exchange genetic material now and then. However, the biological sense of such exchanges is quite different. There is sex but no sexual reproduction. Asexual entities do not form biological species sensu Mayr-Dobzhansky, an entity of a higher rank. They have no need in this complication just because they reproduce themselves with high fidelity acting alone. If a mutated individual survives, it initiates a new lineage that may compete with the previous lineage and may swap it.
Metaphysics of a biological species as an individual is an intricate philosophical and epistemological problem and its discussion has rather long history [12,39-55]. Here, I am interested in the ontological aspect of the problem: species as a form of existence. As the basic definition of species, I take that of Ernst Mayr [49]: "Species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups". Both traits “interbreeding” and “reproductively isolated” are obligatory.
Many, including me, regard biological species as an ontological individual. This view was clearly formulated by Michael Ghiselin [43]. Similar to an individual organism, a species has ontogenesis: birth, infancy, adolescence, maturity, aging, and death [12]. This lasting existence is carried out as a sequence of generations. This sequence is commonly known as microevolution that may be confusing because the essence of the species ontogenesis is not an evolution. In case of success, a species’ ontogenesis culminates in stasis (i.e. cessation of evolution) that may last dozens of millions of years and more [4]. Theoretically, the potential immortality cannot be excluded. Generation of deme is a self-reproducing entity. It means that generation of deme, not the deme, is the ontological individual. So a deme is equivalent to an asexual individual organism in its role in survival and creation of the lasting entity, which is a lineage, sequential row of self-reproducing entities, sequential raw of generations of deme.
Species is organization. Bonding of the intra-species components (individual organisms) is carried out by means of behavior. I suggested the term "behavioral bond" to designate the interaction between organisms by analogy with ionic, covalent, hydrogen, etcetera bonds [12]. Behavioral bonds provide cohesiveness of species. Species-specific behavior implies operating of special connections between the individuals, which transform the species into organization with the function of survival. Primarily, these are the connections accountable for the interbreeding and reproductive isolation, which make a species a genetically closed monad. Reproductive isolation is determined by the mutual affinity of organisms. The affinity is not limited by choosing a mating partner; it includes all the intraspecies interactions as distinct from the interspecies ones. Reproductive isolation and preventing inbreeding are two opposite “forces”, analogous to the attraction and repulsion, the proper balance of which is a necessary precondition for a species existence. Both inbreeding and promiscuous sexual behavior are destructive for a species. What is “the proper balance”? What is the final state this balancing is aimed at? It is an optimal species gene pool.
Genetically, a species as a whole is a closed system. Parts of the species (groups, demes) are potentially capable for substantive existence in nature. This capability is analogous to the capability of plants and lower animals to regenerate the whole body from the parts. As such, this is not speciation. The absence of the physical skin hampers us to grasp a species as a unity. But it is only a matter of habit and imagination. Behavioral bonds are common in biology. They unite families, groups, tribes, armies, companies, states, and humankind.
The transition from genome to genetic pool is far from being the whole story. Genetic pool, similar to genome, is not a substantive entity. It is reproduced by a generation of the deme as its part, its attribute. The necessity to reproduce a genetic pool drastically changes the biological status of the individual organisms. An asexual organism is a self-sufficing sovereign player on the stage of life. It is a monad. It can reproduce itself through generations acting alone. A sexual individual is a law-obedient citizen of the multi-organismic realm. It has to cooperate. This cooperation is not limited by the finding of a sexual partner and rearing a progeny. The final goal is transmitting an
The above consideration makes it clear that Darwinian selection of individual organisms, the conquerors in the intraspecies competition, does not work in case of sexuality. There are a lot of objections to “the selection of the best”, and this one is one more: such selection would lead to the virtual annulling of the diversity.
A crucial feature of sexual reproduction is manufacturing individual genomes by picking them over from the continuously shuffled population gene pool instead of the direct copying of the ancestor’s genome. The main advantage of this way of reproduction is quite evident. Though large genomes cannot be precisely replicated, there always exists a possibility to manufacture one errorless genome from the two with errors. Moreover, degeneracy of the link structure-function implies that the functionally robust genomes may have various sequences.
This is the basic level of cooperation – genetic. Though the genome of a sexual organism cannot be replicated with an adequate accuracy, a genetic pool can be reproduced with an adequate accuracy. All the well-known complications and troubles of the sexual reproduction are justified by this capacity for an accurate reproduction because only accurate reproduction provides longevity.
The “picking over” mechanism of genome reproduction supports the diversity of genomes and individuals. It is evident, however, that this diversity inevitably includes a high proportion of genomes (and corresponding individuals) of low vitality doomed to perdition. Unfortunately, this was interpreted in the classic Darwinism (and in Neo-Darwinism as well) in the spirit of Malthus’s idea of exponential growth of populations leading to the competition for resources: struggle of everyone against everybody. The very idea of natural selection was based on the assumption that organisms produce more offspring than can survive. Organisms, therefore, have to compete with each other. This competition was construed as a moving force of biological evolution leading to continuous perfecting of the biological entities. It was stressed that a most fierce struggle must be between the individuals of the same species because they have identical needs.
This misleading interpretation begot most malignant forms of social Darwinism and, as a counterbalance, an antievolutionary attitude of many intellectual and spiritual leaders. In reality, the seemingly "extra" progeny is a compensation for the poor fidelity of genome reproduction and for random death of the organisms At r-strategy of reproduction the random death, i.e. associated neither with competition nor with genetic defects, may be massive.
The stability of the biotic entities is determined not merely by their physical durability but by their expedient behavior especially. They are organizations with the function of survival. The Universe evolves via the interaction and cooperation of the entities, whence its complexity and hierarchical structure come from. The major transitions in biological evolution (prokaryotic cell → eukaryotic cell → multicellular organism → biological species) are the steps of cooperation. Though a complex entity consists of the other simpler ones, it is not just an aggregate of the included entities. It is a qualitatively new form of existence; it is an organization of a higher rank. Hierarchy in biology doesn’t mean just complexity or heterogeneity. It implies a functional predestination of their parts for the sake of the whole. Survival of the parts crucially depends on survival of the whole. Hence, constituent entities are to be included into the higher entities only in an appropriately transformed configuration. The operating principles of the organization of the higher rank are not necessarily related to or derivable from the properties of the parts or to their internal operating principles. That is the principles organizing an upper rank are novelties. They are not necessarily predictable from the rank below. On the other hand, the organizing restrictions of the living entities, being emerged as a frozen chance, cannot be deduced from any general principle or law. They can be understood only retrospectively, in the context of their history. The above statements imply that the evolution of a higher entity cannot be adequately presented as self-sufficing evolution of its constituents. The prosperity of the whole is the vector of selection for the constituent entities.
Neo-Darwinism defines altruistic behavior of an individual organism as a behavior that diminishes its own fitness and enhances the fitness of other individuals. In its turn, fitness is defined as a relative fecundity of the individual. According to the same paradigm, “Evolution is based on a fierce competition between individuals and should therefore reward only selfish behavior. Every gene, every cell, and every organism should be designed to promote its own evolutionary success
Meanwhile, an altruistic behavior, which is ubiquitous among people and other animals, keeps being a headache for the evolutionary biologists. Hamiltonian pill has helped to alleviate the headache but the phenomenon remains enigmatic and gives food to unending and mostly fruitless discussions. It is really difficult not to see the numerous and various forms of cooperation, mutual aid, friendship, and love at every turn. For this, one must specially train his/her imagination in the reductionistic logics or reject the phenomenon ironically as did Michael Ghiselin [44]: “Scratch an ‘altruist,’ and watch a ‘hypocrite’ bleed”. Meanwhile, the problem of origin and maintenance of altruism is just a seeming problem begotten by the gene-centered point of view and reductionistic philosophy. The reductionistic methodology is not an adequate tool for operation with the hierarchically organized world of life.
The idea of gene as a replicator is bewildering. Gene is not a living entity. It is not a self-replicator. It is replicated. It is a replica or a template. Genes are manufactured by cell, just like all the other cell constituents: RNAs, polypeptides, organelles. Only self-reproducing substantive entity can serve as a unit of selection. By this I say of course in favor of deme (or group) selection as the only meaningful level of selection for obligatory sexual organisms. Deme is the lowest substantive entity that reproduces itself with a high fidelity. Opponents of the group selection reject it as a too slow process A successful species ceases to evolve [4]
The idea of multilevel selection has now received a substantial support [63]. It is a step in the right direction. However, I think that here remains some inconsistency. Given that the higher level of selection operates, the selection at the lower levels must be forbidden because it can produce nothing but casualties like a parasitic DNA or a malignant cell. The so called ultra-selfish genes are factual parasites with a net harmful effect on the host. They, along with other parasites and harmful mutations, are representatives of the destructive force of nature. Evolution in action is an unending struggle against this force. And the most productive way of this struggle is cooperation. Biological species is organization, which is the cooperation of individual organisms. A hierarchical organization presumes submitting behavior of parts in favor of the whole. Selection presumes the selection of genes but the vector of selection is “for the good of species”, not “for the good of gene”! Just because a gene is not a living entity, not organization with the function of survival! It is strange for me to insist on such a self-evident statement. These two goods coincide. If they not coincide, the gene will be rejected “for the good of species”. The reverse (rejection of species for the good of gene) is nonsense. For more discussion, see [12].
Once we took a population as a self-reproducing unit, once we have grasped the biological species as an individual of a higher rank, we see no enigma in altruistic behavior. It is simply inevitable. We do not wonder why cells of our body, e.g. those of skin, living only several days, do not fight for unlimited proliferation. We know very well what follows if they do. Let us define altruistic behavior as behavior of parts for survival of the whole. Sexual organism lost its status as a substantial biological entity. It places its genes into the common gene pool hereby demonstrating the hundred-per-cent altruism at the most basic genetic level. Organisms are unable to reproduce themselves. They are reproduced by species as a class of entities. So they just have to be altruistic or they will disappear along with the whole. This statement may look contra-intuitive. The vernacular understanding of altruism as disinterested aid to other organisms hampers us to see the altruism as a multifaceted biological phenomenon. Faces of the altruism are numerous and they may look unexpected. I remind that an altruistic behavior is the behavior for the good of group. It may sometimes look unfriendly, hostile, and cruel in relation to the other individuals, still being altruistic.
This nontrivial comprehension helps to interpret inter-individual relationships as largely altruistic. True selfish behavior of an individual organism would be a mistake, similar to the behavior of a cancer cell. Normal behavior of the parts is always aimed at survival of the whole. Let me present one example of apparently selfish behavior that is actually behavior for the good of group. Fighting for leadership is often presented as an example of a fierce struggle. Though the picture is slightly spoiled by the ritual character of such battles, the scene remains to be impressive. But is this fighting really selfish behavior? It is hard and dangerous. The transmitting of genes to the next generation does not look as a final cause. Every genome is unique and it is not transmitted as a whole. The semantic content of genetic information depends on the combination of genes. But the combination is not transmitted. Meanwhile, the meaning of the fighting is quite evident. A proper leader is extremely important for survival of the group. And if we give up our human envy to leaders, we will be able to recognize that the life of leaders is fairly altruistic. It is completely devoted to the group survival and often has a sacrificial character. The essence of interindividual conflicts in population is not the fighting for power but the verifying of the relative status. The correct status is an extremely important parameter for a proper organization of the population. An individual that lost in this fighting still did not lose in life. The correct status is important for getting a
Hence, altruism, as defined above, is not something special. The balance of two counter-forces is a prerequisite of any existence. In case of species, these two forces are behavior of the parts for survival of the whole and behavior of the parts for their own survival. They are two aspects of the sensible behavior, of which a disinterested aid of one individual to another is only a particular type of altruism. Classic Darwinism proclaimed the struggle for existence. And it was implied that it is mainly the struggle between individual organisms of the same species for resources. But a lack of resources is not the common cause of organism\'s death. The universal enemy of life, which acts everywhere and always, is entropy. And the only force that helps to resist it is the sensible behavior.
What do we mean when we speak about the behavior of such a complex entity as a deme? The overall content of this behavior is self-reproduction. The deme is a substantive entity. Its behavior is aimed at its own survival. So it is selfish (by definition).The behavior of all its parts, including individual organisms, which is aimed at survival of the whole, is
Suicide is the most common form of altruistic behavior. It operates on all the levels of biological organization, from molecules to organisms. One example of molecular altruism is the DNA damage repair by enzyme O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase, which transfers the methyl group of the damaged base to one of its own cysteine residues in a suicide reaction [64]. Numerous and diverse forms of cellular suicide are well known.
The evolution of the “picking over" mechanism of genome formation was necessarily coupled with the evolution of the intrinsic or internal selection. The intrinsic selection is a purifying selection. It begins to operate long before the organism is tested by the environment or came across the other members of population. Moreover, it starts operating even before the appearance of the individual, during the formation of generative cells (sperm and eggs). The overwhelming majority of the generative cells and their predecessors undergo programmed death. This mass suicide is aimed at selecting robust generative cells [31,65-68]. For example, in the testis of mice, the mutation rate declines five-fold during spermatogenesis: the heavily mutated cells commit suicide. During ontogenesis of multicell organisms, cells with damaged DNA also commit suicide (apoptosis). It is really suicide, not a killing. This behavior prevents malignisation.
One more phenomenon, inconceivable from the individual-centered view, is phenoptosis, the programmed death of organisms. In the most expressive form, it occurs in salmon: death of the adult individuals after spawning. It looks probable that an aging is a slurred form of the phenoptosis. The existence of a programmed altruistic ageing and death was suggested in [69]: “The similarities between the molecular pathways that regulate ageing in yeast, worms, flies and mice, together with evidence that is consistent with programmed death in salmon and other organisms, raise the possibility that programmed ageing or death can also occur in higher eukaryotes”.
The different longevity of the individual life is a manifestation of the same phenomenon. Both, mouse and man are mammals. Why does a mouse live only two years, while a man lives up to hundred years? The answer is: individual longevity must be optimal for the species survival. And this optimum is the integral constituent of the general strategy of species survival. The phenomenon of frustration may also be construed as a type of altruistic phenoptosis. From the individual point of view, frustration looks strange: it is evidently a programmed reaction to a stress, and it is definitely contra-adaptive, especially the destruction of the immune system. May be it is also a case of altruistic suicide, a form of intrinsic selection, self-elimination of the individuals with inadequate reaction to stress.
The intrinsic selection keeps operating over entire ontogenesis: in the process of fertilization, during embryo implantation, embryogenesis, at birth, during infancy, adolescence, maturity, aging. I would like to stress that this intrinsic selection, though it may look cruel and relentless, may have little relation to the competition between individual organisms. The doomed entities die primarily because of their own imperfection.
The intrinsic selection controls robustness of the individual organisms, their healthiness. This is the first, immediate quality control at the level of an individual. The final quality control is carried out at the level of generation of deme where robustness of the generation as a whole, perfection of the deme organization is checked. It is not easy to define specifically what a “good organization” is. The most evident parameters are diversity and genetic plasticity, which are crucially important for the stability of the deme reproduction. Real success is not maximal but optimal fecundity. So that even infertile individuals may occur useful for the population survival.
The general tendency in progressive evolution is diminishing fecundity. Ideally, one female should provide two healthy offspring, not less and not more. Only during a relatively short initial period of the species founding (during creation of the species robustness and territorial expansion), the exponential Malthusian increase of population in the number makes sense. A matured species needs stable reproduction. The principal "the more the better" stems from the capitalistic psychology that is well known to lead to economic crisis. Natural selection is wiser than the human leaders. Biological species know how to control their numerical strength and thus exist long. The numerical strength should not exceed the resources. The reproductive rate in most species had evolved through group selection to ensure populations remained below the threshold of over-exploitation of resources [70].
While the competition between asexual lineages or between different demes and species may be sometimes a real combating, such combating between the organisms of the same deme would be self-destructive. I do not discard competition, but I only think that its biological meaning should be reconsidered: it is an instrument for creating, fine-tuning and maintaining species organization, which is cooperation. A species is organized hierarchically. The hierarchy is continuously checked. This checking may look as a conflict or struggle for survival yet it is not. To make emphasis on the fierce struggle means to create the problem in theory that does not exist in reality. Scratch antagonism and you find
Other forms of altruism may look much more attractive: parental care, friendship, mutual aid, and other examples of the uninterested aid. They are well-known. I only would like to raise an objection against an opinion that an altruistic individual always fails in conflicts with a selfish one. This was postulated in the ”dove-hawk model” by Price and Maynard Smith [71]. I stress that it was not based on empirical observations. It was assumed. “Selfishness beats altruism within groups. Altruistic groups beat selfish groups. Everything else is commentary” [72]. It is a good phrase in favor of group selection. But in my opinion, the authors over-appreciate the selfish individuals. Why to think that an altruist is always a looser and an egoist is always a winner? I think opposite. A weak individual just cannot afford altruistic behavior. He needs a help itself. Let me cite a rhyme by Theodor Sologub (in my word for word translation):
Who could dare to respond to this call in the dead of night? Who will leave his warm and safe dwelling and help? Loser? By no means. Hero or Saint. They may not leave progeny of their own, yet they are certainly not losers, not weak and cowardly. Monks do not have children by definition; however, they are stably produced by the human populations during many centuries; quite similar to the stable production of, for example, hepatocytes or neurons, or worker bees though these entities never cross the frontier of generations. Altruists are stably reproduced across generations even if they happen to have no offspring of their own. It looks most probable that the altruistic/selfish phenotype of an individual is determined by numerous genes, and a population is characterized by a broad continuum of individuals, from the “pure altruistic” to the “pure selfish”. This distribution is a “species trait”. Owing to the gene pool shuffling, it is totally transmitted to the next generation, even if the extreme altruists do not produce their own offspring while extreme egoists have too little concern for their offspring. During evolution, the form of this distribution is optimized for the species survival. Of course, it is species-specific and must be coordinated with the
What about competition and struggle between the groups? Group is a substantive entity and its behavior is selfish. As such, this does not presume the survival at the expense of other groups of the same species. Groups also prosper or shrink in accord to the merits of their own. However, competition and struggle is possible and sometimes it may be really fierce. Unfortunately, evolution of Homo sapiens included such struggle in the most extreme forms. The history of humankind was the fighting of the tribes that often acquired a character of genocide. But this is quite another story.
Years ago, I asked once my fellow student about meaning of sexual reproduction. She was a romantic person and she quickly replied: "possibility of the love". And we both laughed at the joke. But now, being an old and wise man, I take it quite seriously. The love is a rather good term for designation of the intraspecific interactions not only between the sexual partners or the parents and children, but for intraspecific interactions in general. The sexual reproduction is a real cooperation not only at the level of gene pool, but at the level of entire inter-individual relationships. The apparent hostility and competition should not hide the basically cooperative character of intraspecific bonds that we would not expect for the asexual organisms that are self-sufficing sovereign players on the stage of life Lover\'s tiffs end in kisses.
There are two major forms of existence: inanimate and animate. No existence is perpetual. The second law of thermodynamics predicts final dissipation of everything in the Universe. The Universe does not dissipate immediately because its components
Loose connective tissue disorders include lipedema, Dercum’s disease (DD), familial multiple lipomatosis (FML) and multiple symmetric lipomatosis (MSL). All these disorders share many similarities with lipedema including painful lipomas, obesity, fibrosis, a risk of developing lymphedema and difficulty in losing the abnormal fat through diet and exercise. There are clinical characteristics specific for lipedema, including the onset of the disease, fat location and associated health issues (\nTable 1\n) [1, 2].
\nCharacteristic | \nLipedema | \nDD | \nMSL | \nFML | \nMSL | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abnormal fat location | \nLegs, arms, abdomen | \nGlobal | \nUpper; can be global | \nArms, thighs, trunk, abdomen | \nUpper; can be global | \n
Diet-resistant fat | \nYes | \nYes | \nYes | \nYes | \nYes | \n
Lipomas | \nYes | \nCommon | \nCommon in men | \nCommon | \nCommon in men | \n
Time fat change | \nPuberty; 3rd decade | \nChild-adult | \nAdult; child rare | \nChild-adult | \nAdult; child rare | \n
Painful fat | \nYes | \nYes | \nNot usually | \nLipoma | \nNot usually | \n
Sex predominance | \nFemale | \nFemale | \nMale | \nMale = female | \nMale | \n
Lymphatic dysfunction | \nYes | \nYes | \nYes | \nYes | \nYes | \n
Prevalence | \nPossibly common | \nPossibly common | \nRare | \nRare | \nRare | \n
Associated conditions | \nLymphedema | \nAutoimmune; diabetes | \nNeuropathy | \nMoles; neuropathy | \nNeuropathy | \n
Inheritance pattern | \nAutosomal dominant; incomplete penetrance | \nAutosomal dominant; sex-specific influence | \nAutosomal dominant or recessive | \nAutosomal dominant | \nAutosomal dominant or recessive | \n
Lipedema is often misdiagnosed as lifestyle-induced obesity that affects ~10% of women of European descent as well as other populations [3, 4]. Although both disorders are considered inflammatory diseases due to the presence of increased macrophages and hypertrophic adipocytes, there are significant differences between the two disorders. Among these is the location of the fat, primarily abdominal or spread widely over the body in obesity compared to the symmetric distribution in the lower extremities in lipedema, the texture of the skin (thin and soft in lipedema and thicker in obesity), easy bruising and pain upon the introduction of pressure in lipedema [5, 6].
\nThe focus of this review will be on the disease of lipedema, different stages and types, diagnosis and treatment, pathogenesis and current research in the field.
\nLipedema also referred to as lipedema, is a painful loose connective tissue disorder first described in 1940 by Allen and Hines [7]. Lipedema is characterized by symmetric enlargement of the buttocks, hips and legs due to deposition of loose connective tissue that includes fascia, adipocytes, immune cells and other structures; arms are also affected in 80% of patients [3, 4]. Feet are typically spared, but ankle cuffs are often noted in advanced stages of lipedema where the risk of lymphedema is also high [8, 9]. Patients with lipedema experience mobility issues, psychosocial distress, anxiety, eating disorders, sleep apnea and depression [1, 10].
\nLipedema is considered a hormone-related disorder affecting almost exclusively women during puberty, childbirth or menopause. Case reports of men with lipedema have been described in literature. Men with lipedema have elevated estrogen level and low to absent testosterone levels resulting in cirrhosis, gynecomastia and hypogonadism [11, 12, 13]. While the exact etiopathogenesis of this disease is unknown [10, 14], many studies have demonstrated that inflammatory cells, hypertrophic adipocytes, abnormal blood vessels and lymphatic dysfunction are associated with tissue damage and development of a fibrotic disease [14, 15, 16, 17].
\nLipedema consists of three stages characterized by the texture of skin and tissue formation. Stage 1 involves smooth skin over pearl-sized nodules in a hypertrophic fat layer; Stage 2 has skin indentations over a hypertrophic fat structure of pearl-to-apple-size masses; and Stage 3 includes pearl-sized nodules and much larger fat masses causing lobules of skin and fat to form mainly on the hips, thighs, and around the knees. Lymphedema, causing fluid accumulation in the limbs, may develop during any stage of lipedema and is referred to as lipo-lymphedema [1, 3, 10, 18, 19].
\nHealthcare providers often misdiagnose women with lipedema as they do not take into account the disproportionate size of the legs compared to trunk especially in Stage 1 and 2 along with the inability to lose fat from areas affected by lipedema. It is possible to confuse women with Stage 3 lipedema as having lifestyle-induced obesity due to fat involving more areas of the body.
\nIn addition to stages of lipedema, lipedema is also characterized by types determined by the area of the body that is affected. There are five types of lipedema; types I, II, and III are the most common. In Type I, fat is deposited in the areas of the buttocks and hips resembling saddle bags. In Type II, fat extends to the knees from the buttocks area with the formation of folds of fat around the inside of the knee. In Type III, fat spreads all over the lower body from the hips to the ankles. In Type IV, upper arms are affected causing difficulty in lifting the arm and stress on the shoulder. In Type V, fat is restricted to the lower legs. It is worth noting that patients with lipedema can clinically present with a mixture of types [3, 10].
\nPain, tenderness, bruising easily, symmetrical swelling of the legs, heaviness of affected limbs, burning sensations in the skin and fat, soft skin, negative stemmer’s sign and hypermobile joints are among the common symptoms observed in lipedema patients [2, 3, 6, 13]. Hypermobility in women with has been reported to contribute to joint damage and increase the risk of cardiovascular disease as seen in Ehlers Danlos Syndrome-Hypermobility Type (EDS-HT) with Beighton score higher than 5 [2, 3, 20, 21]. Thus, hypermobility causes structural changes in lipedema tissue resulting in increased fibrosis, dysfunction of blood vessels and accumulation of interstitial fluid.
\nWomen with lipedema also experience emotional symptoms due to unexplained weight gain including embarrassment, anxiety and depression that impact their overall quality of life [22, 23]. Symptoms may progress in advanced stages of lipedema that might be associated with increased cardiovascular and renal diseases. A study conducted by Herbst el al. in 2015 provides a detailed list of symptoms experienced by lipedema patients [3].
\nDiagnosis of lipedema involves a comprehensive physical exam based on the criteria listed by Wold and colleagues in 1951, [4] medical and surgical history, list of medications that might affect weight or fluid retention and family history. A physical examination includes assessment of the enlarged lower extremities carefully noting the texture of the affected areas such as velvety soft skin that can be found in hypermobility, nodular fat, pain when applying pressure, tenderness upon palpation and accumulation of fluid such as pitting or non-pitting edema which may indicate lymphedema [18, 24]. Bruising caused by increased capillary fragility [6], spider veins and telangiectasia showing on the surface of the skin due to venous insufficiency are also observed in lipedema patients [4, 10].
\nAlthough, there is no cure for lipedema, treatments like liposuction (tumescent and water jet) [25], complete decongestive therapy that includes manual lymphatic drainage [26, 27], compression garments, a healthy diet, physical activity, medications and supplements (statins, selenium, diosmin, amphetamines and butcher’s broom) have been shown to reduce pain, improve lymphatic function, decrease leakage from blood vessels, lessen inflammation and fibrosis and maintain a healthy gut [24, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34].
\nLiposuction is by far the most effective treatment to decrease the fibrotic lipedema fat and thereby maintain mobility which is essential for the welfare of women living with lipedema [35, 36, 37]. Water jet-assisted liposuction has been proven to be as effective as tumescent liposuction. Damage to the lymph vessels has not been show as evidenced in a histological study conducted by Stutz et al. on lipoaspirates collected from lipedema patients [32]. Nevertheless, special care should be taken with lipo-lymphedema patients, where accumulated lymph and or fibrotic tissue should be removed first. Furthermore, follow-up and compression therapy are advised for successful and effective treatment.
\nDeep tissue massage has also been demonstrated to improve the quality of subcutaneous adipose tissue by decreasing pain, fibrosis and fat tissue in women with lipedema [29, 38].
\nAdditionally, a healthy non-inflammatory diet is highly recommended, even though it will not reduce the lipedema tissue, but it might slow the progression of the disease by reducing inflammation and pain, lessen the swelling and ultimately improve quality of life. No one plan works for everyone but a ketogenic diet with low processed carbohydrate and mild physical exercises like walking, swimming, Pilates, yoga and other home excise programs are suggested by lipedema specialists. These activates will help the function of lymphatic pump and maintain a normal metabolism.
\nFinally, it is very important to detect and treat lipedema at early stages thus preventing the complications that might occur due to the progression of disease. These complications comprise eating disorders, sleep apnea, diabetes mellitus, arthritis, hypertension, cellulitis, cardiac and renal disease.
\nThere are distinctive criteria for lipedema which are absent in lymphedema including a negative Stemmer’s sign, minimal pitting edema, thin skin, easy bruising, tenderness and pain [14, 39, 40]. Although lymphatic microaneurysms might develop in the later stages of lipedema leading to secondary lymphedema, imaging techniques like high-resolution cutaneous ultrasonography and magnetic resonance imaging showed no defects in the lymphatic system in early stages [24, 41, 42, 43]. Other methods have also been successfully used to differentiate lipedema from lymphedema which includes tissue dielectric constant and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry techniques [44, 45, 46, 47, 48].
\nDysfunction of lymphatic vessels results in accumulation of interstitial fluid (edema) in adipose tissues triggering inflammation by the recruitment of macrophages resulting in fibrosis and difficulty with weight loss. As a consequence, adipose tissue loses its elasticity suggesting that lipedema might be a connective tissue disorder [15, 49]. Studies have also indicated that edema might induce growth of lipedema fat as well as hypoxia resulting in adipocyte cell death [50].
\nFurther, morphologic changes in lymphatic vessels and accumulation of interstitial fluid are present in some women with lipedema, with no change in transport of lymphatic fluid, which suggests these individuals might have a higher risk of progressing to lipo-lymphedema especially in advanced stages of lipedema [15, 51]. Accurate diagnosis of lipedema in association with lymphedema is essential for treating and following up of lipedema patients.
\nHormones, genetic factors, leaky blood vessels, dysfunctional lymphatics system, inflammation, hypertrophic adipocytes and interstitial thickening are among the factors that contribute to the pathogenesis of lipedema [10, 12, 15].
\nHormones play an essential role in the etiology of the lipedema, but how they affect the metabolism and function of adipocytes function is still unknown. Studies have shown that hormones, like estrogen and progesterone, have a direct effect on lipogenesis, insulin levels and adipose tissue distribution in the body. Dysregulation of hormonal levels lead to fat dysregulation, impairment of the lipogenesis-lipolysis mechanism, hypertension, insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia [13, 52, 53]. Hormones might also have an impact on the nervous system which might explain the pain experienced by lipedema patients. Szél et al. hypothesized that alteration in estrogen (or estrogen receptors) maybe involved in the pathogenesis of lipedema by suggesting a link between accumulation of adipose tissue, imbalanced estrogen levels and inflammation of the peripheral and sympathetic nerves of the disease [13].
\nLipedema fat tissue is characterized by hypertrophic adipocytes, inflammatory immune cells, dilation of subdermal blood and lymphatic vessels. We and others have shown a high number of infiltrating macrophages in lipedema adipose tissue detected by the CD68 marker and observed as around blood vessels or as crown-like structures surrounding necrotic adipocytes. In addition to macrophages, mast cells and T-lymphocytes were detected in hyper-vascular areas mainly around blood vessels in lipedema fat tissue which might contribute to capillary permeability and accumulation of interstitial fluid [15, 16, 54].
\nAn article published in 2004 by Taylor et al. showed that accumulation of mast cells in lipedema tissue contributed to increased interstitial fluid, deterioration of adipocytes and potentially elastic fiber fragmentation due to the release of elastase [55], confirming that lipedema is a connective tissue disorder. Adding to that, direct cell-cell interaction between hypertrophic adipocyte and macrophages as well as secreted paracrine factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), a marker of angiogenesis, previously reported in the blood of women with lipedema [56] might be associated with increase in the number of blood vessels, dilation of capillaries, hypoxia, inflammation and tissue fibrosis found in lipedema patients [15, 18, 57].
\nAdipose tissue-derived stem cells are widely studied for their immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, anti-fibrotic, anti-apoptotic and pro-angiogenic effects [58, 59, 60], but how ASCs contribute to the development of lipedema has not been investigated yet. Due to their high therapeutic potential, ASCs are now considered an indispensable tool in regenerative medicine [61, 62, 63, 64]. Studies have shown the successful treatment with ASCs for many disease including graft-versus-host disease [65], wound healing [66], cardiovascular [67], inflammatory bowel disease [68], diabetes mellitus [69] and several injuries including kidney and spinal cord [70], bone and craniofacial reconstruction [71, 72], liver cirrhosis [73], multiple sclerosis [74]. In addition to their self-renewal ability, ASCs have the ability to differentiate into multiple lineages, including adipocytes, osteoblasts, chondrocytes, and endothelial cells [75, 76]. Thus, ASCs might play a role in lipedema adiposity by inducing the expansion and differentiation of progenitor adipose-derived stem/progenitor cells (pre-adipocytes) into mature adipocytes (hyperplasia). Suga el at. have shown an increase in proliferation of adipose-derived stem/progenitor cell proliferation using Ki67 and CD34 markers suggesting an increase in adipogenesis, hypoxia, and adipocyte necrosis, at least in one case [16].
\nAdding to that, inflammatory cytokines secreted by hypertrophic adipocytes and factors in the interstitial fluid could stimulate ASC differentiation into mature adipocytes. Alternatively, ASCs produce a plethora of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines that might contribute to angiogenesis and inflammation resulting in leaky and fragile blood vessels [77, 78]. Priglinger et al. have characterized lipedema ASCs isolated from liposuction samples and showed an increasing number of endothelial/pericytic cells using CD146 marker in lipedema patients compared to healthy individuals proposing that this increase might be a marker of repair of leaky blood and lymphatic vessels in lipedema tissues [54].
\nAlthough, ASCs might induce adipogenesis in lipedema an in-depth characterization of ASCs is required to confirm this theory. Otherwise, if ASCs prove to have anti-inflammatory, anti-fibrotic or pro-angiogenic effects, then they might be used to lessen tissue damage caused by leaky vessels; hence autologous treatment might be a promising tool for lipedema patients.
\nLipedema is a painful fat disease that should be differentiated from obesity and lymphedema. It is the responsibility of the healthcare provider to determine the accurate diagnosis of the disease for successful treatment and management. Liposuction, hands-on therapy, exercise, and a healthy eating plan are recommended for lipedema patients. Although the etiology of lipedema is complicated, hypertrophic adipocytes, inflammatory cytokines, and macrophages, hypoxia, leaky vessels and accumulation of interstitial fluid contribute to the pathogenesis of the disease and may also help guide treatment.
\nThis work was funded by a grant from the Lipedema Foundation.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\\n\\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\\n\\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
\\n\\nZadržavamo pravo vlasništva nad cjelokupnom stranicom www.intechopen.com i nad svim materijalom na toj stranici. Koristeći se našim uslugama, slažete se da maknete sve poveznice na našu stranicu odmah nakon što to od vas zatražimo. Također, zadržavamo pravo da ove Odredbe i uvjete, i politiku o poveznicama izmjenimo u bilo koje vrijeme. Koristeći se poveznicama na naše stranice slažete se s ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\\n\\nAko smatrate da je bilo koja poveznica na našoj stranici sumnjiva iz bilo kojeg razloga, molimo vas da nas kontaktirate. U tom slučaju razmotrit ćemo micanje poveznice s naše stranice, iako nismo obvezni to napraviti.
\\n\\nBez prethodne privole i izričite pisane dozvole, ne možete stvarati okvire oko naših stranica ili koristiti druge tehnike koje na bilo koji način mogu promijeniti prezentaciju ili izgled naše stranice.
\\n\\nIntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
\\n\\nOve Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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\n\nOsim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\n\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\n\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
\n\nZadržavamo pravo vlasništva nad cjelokupnom stranicom www.intechopen.com i nad svim materijalom na toj stranici. Koristeći se našim uslugama, slažete se da maknete sve poveznice na našu stranicu odmah nakon što to od vas zatražimo. Također, zadržavamo pravo da ove Odredbe i uvjete, i politiku o poveznicama izmjenimo u bilo koje vrijeme. Koristeći se poveznicama na naše stranice slažete se s ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
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\n\nBez prethodne privole i izričite pisane dozvole, ne možete stvarati okvire oko naših stranica ili koristiti druge tehnike koje na bilo koji način mogu promijeniti prezentaciju ili izgled naše stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
\n\nOve Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"856",title:"Risk Management",slug:"environmental-sciences-environmental-health-risk-management",parent:{id:"129",title:"Environmental Health",slug:"environmental-sciences-environmental-health"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:26,numberOfWosCitations:111,numberOfCrossrefCitations:83,numberOfDimensionsCitations:191,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"856",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"5184",title:"Environmental Health Risk",subtitle:"Hazardous Factors to Living Species",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aa20266ad595ce73a9396f4ab0f8112e",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5184.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"50482",doi:"10.5772/63094",title:"Pesticides, Environmental Pollution, and Health",slug:"pesticides-environmental-pollution-and-health",totalDownloads:6912,totalCrossrefCites:50,totalDimensionsCites:115,abstract:"In recent years, people have been exposed to several types of substances with broad spectrum due to the rapidly evolving technology. One of these chemical substance groups are pesticides. Pesticides have been an essential part of agriculture to protect crops and livestock from pest infestations and yield reduction for many decades. Despite their usefulness, pesticides could pose potential risks to food safety, the environment, and all living things. Concern about the environmental impact of repeated pesticide use has prompted research into the environmental fate of these agents, which can emigrate from treated fields to air, other land, and water bodies. The importance of agricultural pesticides for developing countries is undeniable. However, the issue of human health and environmental risks has emerged as a key problem for these countries in accordance to a number of studies. In the last five decades, pesticide usages increased the quantity and improved the quality of food. However, with the increasing amounts of their usage, concern about their adverse effects on nontarget organisms, including human beings, has also grown. The purpose of this publication is to explain the nature of pesticides and their history, classification, risks, and effects on health and the environment.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"Arzu Özkara, Dilek Akyıl and Muhsin Konuk",authors:[{id:"5974",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhsin",middleName:null,surname:"Konuk",slug:"muhsin-konuk",fullName:"Muhsin Konuk"},{id:"179732",title:"Dr.",name:"Dilek",middleName:null,surname:"Akyıl",slug:"dilek-akyil",fullName:"Dilek Akyıl"},{id:"179733",title:"Dr.",name:"Arzu",middleName:null,surname:"Özkara",slug:"arzu-ozkara",fullName:"Arzu Özkara"}]},{id:"49818",doi:"10.5772/62049",title:"Amoxicillin in the Aquatic Environment, Its Fate and Environmental Risk",slug:"amoxicillin-in-the-aquatic-environment-its-fate-and-environmental-risk",totalDownloads:3149,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:"Amoxicillin is a broad-spectrum antibiotic widely used for treating both human and animal diseases, and it belongs to a group that are excreted unchanged within urine and faeces; therefore, it is possible to find traces of this drug or its degradation products in environmental water bodies. In water, it is rapidly degraded by biotic and abiotic factors, yielding different intermediate products; these are suspected of being more resistant to degradation, and potentially more toxic, than the parent compound. In the water bodies, these compounds may produce toxic effects on the aquatic organisms from different trophic levels and produce an ecological imbalance. Amoxicillin may bioaccumulate in fish muscle tissues, with the possibility of the occurrence of these drugs in food, leading to a passive consumption of this antibiotic resulting in undesirable effects on consumer health such as immunoallergic responses. However, the main problem related with the presence of this antimicrobial compounds in fish tissues is the possibility of inducing bacterial resistance genes. At present, the available scientific knowledge is less than what is needed to fully assess the risks that amoxicillin pose to the environment, and it is still necessary to conduct large amount of research works before a thorough understanding of this severe environmental issue.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"Armando Elizalde-Velázquez, Leobardo Manuel Gómez-Oliván,\nMarcela Galar-Martínez, Hariz Islas-Flores, Octavio Dublán-García and Nely SanJuan-Reyes",authors:[{id:"179818",title:"Dr.",name:"Leobardo Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez-Oliván",slug:"leobardo-manuel-gomez-olivan",fullName:"Leobardo Manuel Gómez-Oliván"}]},{id:"50234",doi:"10.5772/62455",title:"Environmental Effects of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals: A Special Focus on Phthalates and Bisphenol A",slug:"environmental-effects-of-endocrine-disrupting-chemicals-a-special-focus-on-phthalates-and-bisphenol-",totalDownloads:2828,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Several environmental chemicals are classified as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Many of them have an impact on reproductive functions and sex hormones because of their estrogenic and/or antiandrogenic properties. Phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) are two well-known EDCs. They are abundant in the environment. Phthalates are usually classified as antiandrogens, whereas BPA is considered as estrogen-like EDC and xenoestrogen. Other than their endocrine-disrupting effects, these two chemicals are also known to have genotoxic and epigenetic effects. Besides, they are hepatotoxic and have substantial effects on other organs/systems (thyroid, kidney, neuroendocrine system, immune system, etc.). In this chapter, we will mainly focus on the toxic effects of different phthalate esters and BPA by discussing their availability in the environment, mechanism and mode of actions, their biotransformation and reproductive effects, and their effects on other systems (hepatic, renal, etc.). Besides, we discuss epidemiological studies that are conducted to reveal their effects on the reproductive and endocrine systems. This chapter provides the readers a compact piece of knowledge on these abundant substances and helps them to understand the action of these substances at the molecular and cellular levels.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"Pinar Erkekoglu and Belma Kocer-Gumusel",authors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu"},{id:"185037",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Kocer-Gumusel",slug:"belma-kocer-gumusel",fullName:"Belma Kocer-Gumusel"}]},{id:"50341",doi:"10.5772/62456",title:"Soil Contamination Health Risks in Czech Proposal of Soil Protection Legislation",slug:"soil-contamination-health-risks-in-czech-proposal-of-soil-protection-legislation",totalDownloads:1500,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"A new system of soil contamination limit values proposed for Czech legislation is described. The system is based on the hierarchical limit values system with two levels. The first one—prevention limit—defined background values of risk elements (REs) and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in Czech agricultural soils supported by the data from soil monitoring system. The second one—indication limit—is defined for human health protection by two principles, the protection of food chain and the protection of direct human health risks by inhalation, dermal and oral intake of RE and POPs in soil particles on the field. The practical application of limit values proposal was applied in the project focused on soil contamination influence on health and environmental risks in fluvial zones of Czech important river basins. The floodplain soils belong to the most contaminated soils in Europe generally and the project defined the potential fluvial areas with increased human health risks.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"Radim Vácha, Milan Sáňka, Jan Skála, Jarmila Čechmánková and\nViera Horváthová",authors:[{id:"85483",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Radim",middleName:null,surname:"Vacha",slug:"radim-vacha",fullName:"Radim Vacha"}]},{id:"50264",doi:"10.5772/62486",title:"Occupational Exposure to Coal, Genotoxicity, and Cancer Risk",slug:"occupational-exposure-to-coal-genotoxicity-and-cancer-risk",totalDownloads:1940,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Coal is a heterogeneous mixture containing large quantities of organic and inorganic matter, including carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, and organometallic forms. The presence of mineral matter in coal may result in a number of environmental and human health problems related to its mining, preparation, and combustion. During coal mining activities, large quantities of coal dust, ashes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heavy metals are released into the environment, forming a complex mixture. This mixture becomes one of the most important occupational risks for the health and safety of workers due to its synergistic, additive, and enhancing effects. Once inside the organism, this cocktail-like mixture can interact with cellular mechanisms related to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and can cause damage in important macromolecules such as DNA, lipids, and proteins. In this review, human populations exposed to coal and coal burning were analyzed. Data from different studies were evaluated in relation to the effect of complex mixture exposure on DNA damage and mechanisms, and the background factors, such as gender, age, or smoking habit. The high temperatures that occur in combustion processes affect the characteristics of the resulting particles. The coal fly ash is released by combustion and its composition varies depending on the coal type and the method of collection used such as electrostatic precipitators. Compounds such as PAHs once activated by the organisms have been shown to have mutagenic and carcinogenic activity due to its ability to form adducts with purines. Moreover, metals that commonly are evaporated during the cooling process increase its toxicity. The particles when inhaled can pass from the alveoli into the bloodstream and affect extrapulmonary organs. Several studies have described the inflammatory cascade that triggers exposure to coal and coal fly ash particles; they have a complex composition capable of generating a persistent inflammatory process, resulting in diseases widely described as emphysema, bronchitis, pneumoconiosis, asthma, and cancer. Several human biomonitoring studies have been conducted evaluating the inflammatory process and the release of cytokines, polymorphisms involved in detoxification mechanisms, different biomarkers associated with occupational exposure, DNA damage, and the influence of oxidative stress in disease development. The relationship between chronic exposure to coal and coal ash particles and cancer is still widely debated. This review gave us a broad assessment about the associated mechanisms between cancer and exposure to coal and different findings around the world.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"Grethel León-Mejía , Milton Quintana Sosa , Paula Rohr , Katia\nKvitko, João Antonio Pêgas Henriques and Juliana da Silva",authors:[{id:"170192",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:null,surname:"Kvitko",slug:"katia-kvitko",fullName:"Katia Kvitko"},{id:"170193",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Da Silva",slug:"juliana-da-silva",fullName:"Juliana Da Silva"},{id:"180743",title:"MSc.",name:"Grethel",middleName:null,surname:"Leon-Mejia",slug:"grethel-leon-mejia",fullName:"Grethel Leon-Mejia"},{id:"180880",title:"Dr.",name:"Milton",middleName:null,surname:"Quintana",slug:"milton-quintana",fullName:"Milton Quintana"},{id:"181198",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",middleName:null,surname:"Rohr",slug:"paula-rohr",fullName:"Paula Rohr"},{id:"181199",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Pegas Henriques",slug:"jose-antonio-pegas-henriques",fullName:"Jose Antonio Pegas Henriques"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50482",title:"Pesticides, Environmental Pollution, and Health",slug:"pesticides-environmental-pollution-and-health",totalDownloads:6903,totalCrossrefCites:50,totalDimensionsCites:114,abstract:"In recent years, people have been exposed to several types of substances with broad spectrum due to the rapidly evolving technology. One of these chemical substance groups are pesticides. Pesticides have been an essential part of agriculture to protect crops and livestock from pest infestations and yield reduction for many decades. Despite their usefulness, pesticides could pose potential risks to food safety, the environment, and all living things. Concern about the environmental impact of repeated pesticide use has prompted research into the environmental fate of these agents, which can emigrate from treated fields to air, other land, and water bodies. The importance of agricultural pesticides for developing countries is undeniable. However, the issue of human health and environmental risks has emerged as a key problem for these countries in accordance to a number of studies. In the last five decades, pesticide usages increased the quantity and improved the quality of food. However, with the increasing amounts of their usage, concern about their adverse effects on nontarget organisms, including human beings, has also grown. The purpose of this publication is to explain the nature of pesticides and their history, classification, risks, and effects on health and the environment.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"Arzu Özkara, Dilek Akyıl and Muhsin Konuk",authors:[{id:"5974",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhsin",middleName:null,surname:"Konuk",slug:"muhsin-konuk",fullName:"Muhsin Konuk"},{id:"179732",title:"Dr.",name:"Dilek",middleName:null,surname:"Akyıl",slug:"dilek-akyil",fullName:"Dilek Akyıl"},{id:"179733",title:"Dr.",name:"Arzu",middleName:null,surname:"Özkara",slug:"arzu-ozkara",fullName:"Arzu Özkara"}]},{id:"50298",title:"Environmental Factors in Causation of Diabetes Mellitus",slug:"environmental-factors-in-causation-of-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:2355,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Environmental factors play a role in etiopathogenesis of diabetes. Environmental factors include polluted water, soil, unhealthy diet, stress, lack of physical activity, vitamin D deficiency, exposure to enteroviruses, and damage to immune cells.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"P.G. Raman",authors:[{id:"179146",title:"Dr.",name:"Poondy Gopalratnam",middleName:null,surname:"Raman",slug:"poondy-gopalratnam-raman",fullName:"Poondy Gopalratnam Raman"}]},{id:"50234",title:"Environmental Effects of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals: A Special Focus on Phthalates and Bisphenol A",slug:"environmental-effects-of-endocrine-disrupting-chemicals-a-special-focus-on-phthalates-and-bisphenol-",totalDownloads:2827,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Several environmental chemicals are classified as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Many of them have an impact on reproductive functions and sex hormones because of their estrogenic and/or antiandrogenic properties. Phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) are two well-known EDCs. They are abundant in the environment. Phthalates are usually classified as antiandrogens, whereas BPA is considered as estrogen-like EDC and xenoestrogen. Other than their endocrine-disrupting effects, these two chemicals are also known to have genotoxic and epigenetic effects. Besides, they are hepatotoxic and have substantial effects on other organs/systems (thyroid, kidney, neuroendocrine system, immune system, etc.). In this chapter, we will mainly focus on the toxic effects of different phthalate esters and BPA by discussing their availability in the environment, mechanism and mode of actions, their biotransformation and reproductive effects, and their effects on other systems (hepatic, renal, etc.). Besides, we discuss epidemiological studies that are conducted to reveal their effects on the reproductive and endocrine systems. This chapter provides the readers a compact piece of knowledge on these abundant substances and helps them to understand the action of these substances at the molecular and cellular levels.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"Pinar Erkekoglu and Belma Kocer-Gumusel",authors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu"},{id:"185037",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Kocer-Gumusel",slug:"belma-kocer-gumusel",fullName:"Belma Kocer-Gumusel"}]},{id:"50193",title:"Risks of Environmental Genotoxicants",slug:"risks-of-environmental-genotoxicants",totalDownloads:1686,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Humans have throughout their development been exposed to various environmental genotoxicants through food, air, water, and soil. Environmental exposure to genotoxic compounds may induce damage to human health and thereby increase risks of human cancers and other diseases. Environmental genotoxic chemicals have the ability to induce mutations. Such mutations can give rise to cancer in somatic cells. However, when germ cells are affected, the damage can also have an effect on the next and successive generations. Because of the potential health hazard represented by exposure to genotoxic chemicals, it is important that all chemicals for which there is possible human exposure be screened for genotoxic activity. If genotoxic hazard is detected, then the risks of exposure can be assessed and the use of the chemical controlled and when appropriate eliminated from the market and the environment. In this chapter, a general overview of the genotoxicity and the genotoxicity of some environmental genotoxicants are discussed. This is followed by a description of the genotoxic properties of some environmental genotoxicants such as bisphenols and mycotoxins, which are prominent environmental contaminates, and is believed to be genotoxic agents that contribute to the high incidence of carcinogenicity among populations.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"Sabry M. Attia and Gamaleldin I. Harisa",authors:[{id:"178995",title:"Prof.",name:"Sabry",middleName:null,surname:"Attia",slug:"sabry-attia",fullName:"Sabry Attia"},{id:"180300",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamaleldin",middleName:null,surname:"Harisa",slug:"gamaleldin-harisa",fullName:"Gamaleldin Harisa"},{id:"190926",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Abd Allah",middleName:null,surname:"Gamil",slug:"m.-abd-allah-gamil",fullName:"M. Abd Allah Gamil"}]},{id:"50769",title:"Assessment of DNA Damage by Comet Assay in Buccal Epithelial Cells: Problems, Achievement, Perspectives",slug:"assessment-of-dna-damage-by-comet-assay-in-buccal-epithelial-cells-problems-achievement-perspectives",totalDownloads:1905,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"DNA damage risk assessment in comet assay by the use of buccal mucosa cells has great advantages in comparison with other cell type sample due to more safely, easier, cheaper, and non-invasive method for in vivo studies. According to the OECD Guidelines, the in vivo mammalian alkaline comet assay is well-established and validated method for measuring DNA strand breaks in single eukaryotic cells. Considering exposure to xenobiotics and endogenous damage inductors, buccal mucosa cells are the first to be in direct contact after exposure and this makes them an ideal biomatrices in evaluation of the level of individual genotoxicity to several compounds already mentioned. Their clinical diagnostic applicability confers a potential use in patients across time. However, the number of publications referring to the human buccal comet assay is low in the last two decades. This low growing interest may be explained by several factors, including its relative technical problems. Different procedures have been used in collecting and processing the samples. In order to have widespread acceptance and credibility in human population studies, the comet assay in buccal cells requires standardization of the protocol, of parameters analyzed, and a better knowledge of critical features affecting the assay outcomes, including the definition of the values of spontaneous DNA damage. There is a need for further collaborative work as in the HUMN (micronucleus assay on lymphocytes) and HUMNxL (micronucleus assay on buccal cells) collaborative projects. The creation of a network of laboratories will allow more focused validation studies, including the design of a classic, historic, prospective cohort study in order to explore the link between measures of genetic instability in the buccal mucosa and the risk of cancer and other chronic-degenerative diseases. One such network connection will start in 2016 as a COST project under the name “hCOMET—The comet assay as a human biomonitoring tool” launched by Prof. Andrew Collins.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"J. Sánchez-Alarcón, M. Milić, S. Gómez-Arroyo, J. M. R. Montiel-González and R. Valencia-Quintana",authors:[{id:"15052",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Arroyo",slug:"sandra-gomez-arroyo",fullName:"Sandra Gomez-Arroyo"},{id:"40591",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirta",middleName:null,surname:"Milić",slug:"mirta-milic",fullName:"Mirta Milić"},{id:"179537",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Valencia-Quintana",slug:"rafael-valencia-quintana",fullName:"Rafael Valencia-Quintana"},{id:"180673",title:"MSc.",name:"Juana",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Alarcón",slug:"juana-sanchez-alarcon",fullName:"Juana Sánchez-Alarcón"},{id:"185133",title:"MSc.",name:"J Mariano R",middleName:null,surname:"Montiel-González",slug:"j-mariano-r-montiel-gonzalez",fullName:"J Mariano R Montiel-González"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"856",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 19th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",slug:"fernando-jose-andrade-narvaez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",slug:"rajeev-tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",slug:"ricardo-izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"188219",title:"Prof.",name:"Imran",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid",slug:"imran-shahid",fullName:"Imran Shahid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188219/images/system/188219.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Umm al-Qura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"214235",title:"Dr.",name:"Lynn",middleName:"S.",surname:"Zijenah",slug:"lynn-zijenah",fullName:"Lynn Zijenah",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSEJGQA4/Profile_Picture_1636699126852",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zimbabwe",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"178641",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel Ikwaras",middleName:null,surname:"Okware",slug:"samuel-ikwaras-okware",fullName:"Samuel Ikwaras Okware",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178641/images/system/178641.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Uganda Christian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}}]}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"81793",title:"Canine parvovirus-2: An Emerging Threat to Young Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104846",signatures:"Mithilesh Singh, Rajendran Manikandan, Ujjwal Kumar De, Vishal Chander, Babul Rudra Paul, Saravanan Ramakrishnan and Darshini Maramreddy",slug:"canine-parvovirus-2-an-emerging-threat-to-young-pets",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81271",title:"The Diversity of Parvovirus Telomeres",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102684",signatures:"Marianne Laugel, Emilie Lecomte, Eduard Ayuso, Oumeya Adjali, Mathieu Mével and Magalie Penaud-Budloo",slug:"the-diversity-of-parvovirus-telomeres",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"79909",title:"Cryopreservation Methods and Frontiers in the Art of Freezing Life in Animal Models",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101750",signatures:"Feda S. 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Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain. She is a Full Professor at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery at the same University. She developed her research activity in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry and Immunology of horses. She is a scientific reviewer of several international journals : American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Comparative Clinical Pathology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology. Since 2014, she has been the Head of the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the Hospital Clínico Veterinario from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University.",institutionString:"CEU-Cardenal Herrera University",institution:{name:"CEU Cardinal Herrera University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"345713",title:"Dr.",name:"Csaba",middleName:null,surname:"Szabó",slug:"csaba-szabo",fullName:"Csaba Szabó",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"345719",title:"Mrs.",name:"Márta",middleName:null,surname:"Horváth",slug:"marta-horvath",fullName:"Márta Horváth",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"420151",title:"Prof.",name:"Novirman",middleName:null,surname:"Jamarun",slug:"novirman-jamarun",fullName:"Novirman Jamarun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Andalas University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"420149",title:"Dr.",name:"Rusmana",middleName:"Wijaya Setia",surname:"Wijaya Setia Ningrat",slug:"rusmana-wijaya-setia-ningrat",fullName:"Rusmana Wijaya Setia Ningrat",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Andalas University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"339759",title:"Mr.",name:"Abu",middleName:null,surname:"Macavoray",slug:"abu-macavoray",fullName:"Abu Macavoray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Njala University",country:{name:"Sierra Leone"}}},{id:"339758",title:"Prof.",name:"Benjamin",middleName:null,surname:"Emikpe",slug:"benjamin-emikpe",fullName:"Benjamin Emikpe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ibadan",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"339760",title:"Mr.",name:"Moinina Nelphson",middleName:null,surname:"Kallon",slug:"moinina-nelphson-kallon",fullName:"Moinina Nelphson Kallon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Njala University",country:{name:"Sierra Leone"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"5",type:"subseries",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. 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