\r\n\tApplied and basic studies - Field studies and lab assays of fungicides can be discussed. We also look for examples of application methods, which may include timing of application, tools for application, fungicide compatibility, phytotoxicity, etc. Field trials have to have at least two years of data;
\r\n\tAdaptation of Integrated Plant Disease Management - How the IPM practice has been adapted in the field. Application of disease risk models, or use of fungicide application aids, which can be hardware or software. The introduction of a new tool for growers can also be included;
\r\n\tNovel fungicides - In addition to the traditional chemical approach, alternative materials (enzymes, oils, extracts, etc.), biological control agents, or plant defense activators can be discussed;
\r\n\tAdaptation of new technologies - Examples will be the use of unmanned vehicles, sensor technologies, advanced sprayers, or disease forecast systems for precision agriculture;
\r\n\tFungicide resistance - Unfortunately, we cannot ignore the fact that fungicide-resistant strains are widespread. Documentation of fungicide-resistant strains, the introduction of new technologies and methods can be discussed.
Bone regeneration is a complex, well-orchestrated physiological process involving a number of cell types and intracellular and extracellular molecular signaling pathways [1]. Bone grafts provide a structural framework for clot development, maturation and remodeling that supports bone formation in osseous defects. These materials must possess biocompatibility and osteoconductivity, as well as the properties that support osteogenesis. The ideal characteristics of a bone graft are that it must be nontoxic, non-antigenic, resistant to infection, easily adaptable, readily and sufficiently available to stimulate new attachment and able to trigger osteogenesis [2].
Osseous defects in the oral cavity have been successfully managed with a variety of biological and synthetic materials, including autografts, allografts, xenografts and alloplastic materials. Although autografts are unequivocally accepted as the gold standard, donor site morbidity and limitations on the quantity of bone that can be harvested demand that clinicians seek alternatives [3]. In light of the immunological and disease transfer risks from allogeneic bone, research has focused extensively on developing alloplastic bone substitutes that are predominantly based on ceramics, such as calcium phosphates (CaP), calcium sulfates, and bioactive glasses [4]. In general, these ceramic materials are renowned for their osteoconductive and bioactive properties [5]. The most commonly used ceramics are the CaP-based ceramics hydroxyapatite (HA) and beta tricalcium phosphate [6].
Considering engineered grafts, the most important factor is to prepare a three-dimensional structure consisting of biodegradable material, generally called a scaffold [7]. The nature and structure of the scaffold should support cell proliferation and differentiation, accelerating the process of tissue regeneration. Furthermore, the growth factor providing a scaffold to an injury site should enhance progenitors, causing inflammatory cells to migrate and activate the healing process [8, 9]. However, among the basic challenges for scaffold implantation is to control infection due to bacterial load, which can create immune problems and finally result in implant rejection. To overcome implant-related infection and bacterial load on the scaffold, antibiotic drug incorporation and its controlled release have been suggested as a promising strategy [10]. Bone is among the few tissues of the human body that has high endogenous healing capacity. Various concepts for local drug delivery to bone have been developed in recent decades to overcome such healing deficits.
Several methods are used for drug loading and release from scaffolds. However, the basic aim for drug release is to reduce infections and bacterial load to the site of implant, but if the drug is released too quickly, there could be a chance of infection because the entire drug has drained from the scaffold in the initial time itself. Similarly, if there is too much delay to drug release, infection can set in further, making it more difficult to manage the healing of wounds. Hence, better options for drug release would incorporate higher antibiotic release at the initial time and sustained release at an effective rate to inhibit the risk of infection from bacteria in the scaffold at an effective level [11]. Different techniques have been used for drug loading to the scaffold, and controlled release has been studied. One of the simplest strategies is the application of biodegradable polymer coatings loaded with specific drugs onto the scaffold structure. The other methods reported for coating the drug-loaded polymer have included solvent casting, thermally induced phase separation, evaporation, freeze drying and foam coating. Among these methods, an interesting approach for drug loading and release consists of combining drug-loaded microspheres with a macroporous scaffold `matrix’ [12-15].
In a recent study, a biodegradable nanoporous bioceramic system was used as a highly bioresorbable matrix for drug delivery. This study emphasized the efficacy of hydroxyapatite-based material having interconnected nanoporosity as a vehicle for a therapeutic agent. An in vitro experiment was conducted with the goal of assessing this material and comparing it with commercially available gentamicin-loaded PMMA cement. It was found that the nanoporous bioceramic granules could act as antibiotic carriers, exhibiting a high initial burst effect followed by sustained low-level release for 3 weeks. It was very effective, confirming that the concentration of drug eluted was greater than that needed to maintain bactericidal levels [16].
In addition to the above-mentioned technique, magnetic nanoparticle-incorporated materials have also been used as a bone regeneration scaffold, and they are schematically represented in figure 3 [17]. To obtain homogenous dispersion of magnetic particle loading and surfactant, a porous structure generated by ceramic crystals, the in-situ method was followed. Further, it was made to a specific shape, and the specific drug was loaded via dip loading or other methods. The drug-loaded scaffold was placed at the defective site in the presence of a magnetic field (MF), which facilitated easy drug release from the scaffold, helping to protect it from bacterial colonization, and the MF stimulated the scaffold for cell proliferation. Recently released in vitro results support MF-induced bone regeneration [18-20].
Engineered biomaterials combined with growth factors, such as bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2), have been demonstrated to constitute an effective approach in bone tissue engineering because they can act both as a scaffold and as a drug delivery system to promote bone repair and regeneration. Despite the substantial progress made in developing porous materials as bone substitutes, the realization of synthetic structure able to harness fully bone’s capability of regenerating and remodeling itself and to mimic the complicated physiochemical attributes of bone continues to present challenges.
In the following sections of this chapter, the materials and drug delivery techniques used to enhance bone regeneration and to control infection are discussed. The methods to enhance the surface of titanium implants to promote osseointegration are also detailed.
The calcium phosphates have been widely studied due to their biocompatibility, tailorable bio-absorbability and bioactivity. Calcium phosphates have been used as novel delivery carriers for antibiotics, anti-inflammatory agents, analgesics, anticancer drugs, growth factors, proteins and genes [21, 22]. Furthermore, they can be synthesized using simple methods, and these drugs can easily be incorporated via different routes, such as wet chemical processes, solid state reactions, hydrothermal and micelle-mediated processes, etc. [23, 24]. Most of the polymeric systems show an acidic nature, and their degradation by-products can alter drug activity. The major advantages of CaPs, compared with other biodegradable polymeric systems, is that the degradation ions are Ca2+ and PO43- ions, which already exist in the body in higher concentrations [25].
Nanotechnology-derived calcium phosphates have also successfully maintained a sustained and steady drug release over time. Calcium phosphate scaffolds not only provide initial structural integrity for bone cells but also direct their proliferation and differentiation and assist in the ultimate assembly of new tissue. Therefore, ceramic nanoscaffolds are usually 3-D and porous, although in some cases they consist of 2-D coatings or films. They mimic the in vivo environment of cells more completely than nanoparticles.
Therefore, most drug-eluted ceramic nanoscaffolds serve multiple functions, such as drug delivery, directing cell growth or tissue generation, and mechanical support. Indeed, the mechanical support provided by ceramic scaffolds far exceeds that provided by polymeric scaffolds. Studies have shown that drug-release kinetics could be further controlled by tailoring calcium phosphate nanoparticle grain size, surface area and calcium-to-phosphorus ratios [26]. Hollow silica nanospheres have been fabricated into well-controlled shapes and sizes using self-templating molecules [20]. For example, studies have shown that hollow silica nanospheres were capable of entrapping an eight-fold greater quantity of drug species than solid silica nanospheres. Time-delayed multiple-stage release profiles were also possible with these hollow silica nanospheres [27].
The micromorphology (SEM) of calcium sulfate-phosphate injectable cement.
Calcium phosphate-based bioceramics, such as hydroxyapatite (HA), are known for their excellent biocompatibility due to their similarity in composition to the apatite found in natural bone [28]. Various forms of HA bone grafts, such as dense and porous blocks, dense and porous granules, and powder forms, are available as bone substitutes [29]. The porous matrices enable cell migration and provide favorable conditions for nutrient transport, tissue infiltration, and vascularization [30, 31]. The spherically shaped particles are suitable for implantation as injectable bone cements, and the inter-granular space promotes cell migration and the growth of extracellular matrix [32, 33].
Porous HA is produced using methods such as ceramic slip foaming [34], positive replication of reticulated foam scaffolds [35], burnout of sacrificial porogens, such as polymer beads [3], and techniques that exploit naturally occurring porous calcium-based structures, such as the hydrothermal conversion of either coral or bone [36, 37]. Porous spherical HA granules can be used for drug delivery systems. The various pore and channel structures of spherical granules were obtained by adjusting the ratio of water to HA powder and the amount of sodium chloride (NaCl). Earlier studies focused on the use of anti-inflammatory or anti-bacterial drug release from HA, to control inflammation and infection at the site of implantation [38]. Currently, several drugs have been found to enhance bone formation, and the loading of HA with these drugs and agents could be a very effective method for enhancing bone formation at the site of implantation [39, 40]. Research is under way to control the drug release rate using the complex micro-channel structures of HA granules [41].
Scanning electron microscopic images of: a) polycaprolactone polymer microspheres; and b) magnetic hydroxyapatite-loaded polycaproctone polymer microspheres.
Bone void fillers, such as demineralized bone matrix (DBM), offer a broad range of materials, structures and delivery systems to use in bone grafting procedures. Allogenic DBM possesses osteoinductive properties and could serve as an ideal drug delivery device for prophylactic treatment in a variety of different anatomical locations [42, 43]. The use of DBM would allow for the release of the entire quantity of antibiotic as the material is being remodeled.
Growth factors (GFs), such as bone morphogenetic protein, transforming growth factor-beta, fibroblast growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, and insulin-like growth factor, are proteins secreted by cells that act on the appropriate target cell or cells to perform specific actions. A variety of so-called bone-graft substitutes, including demineralized bone matrix, calcium phosphate-containing preparations and Bioglass (BG), are also potential carriers for recombinant proteins [44]. Bioglass and calcium phosphate-based materials, such as hydroxyapatite, coralline hydroxyapatite, and tricalcium phosphate, have been shown to be biocompatible and to provide osteoconductive scaffolds that could potentially be combined with GFs to enhance bone repair [45].
Demineralized bone matrix preparations are particularly attractive as potential carriers for growth factors because they are osteoconductive and can have some osteoinductive potential as well. The disadvantages of these materials include poor handling characteristics and concerns about their overall bio-resorbability, as well as limited potential for remodeling and an unclear understanding of their effects on bone strength [46]. Recombinant bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) has been used to enhance the bone regeneration in graft and implant osseointegration in dentistry [47]. Recombinant human BMP-2 (rhBMP-2) has been shown to be effective in bone regeneration [48].
Among surface modification techniques, coating the implant surface with bone stimulating agents, such as GFs, is very promising. The most commonly used GFs include bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP-2), TGF-β1, platelet-derived growth factor, insulin-like growth factor and combinations [47, 49]. The actual mechanisms of GF combinations are not fully understood. From early reported studies, after implantation, both GFs (TGF-β and BMP) could directly increase the local pool of osteoprogenitor cells by stimulating their migration [50]. The circulation of pathways acts as a source of osteoprogenitor cells throughout ectopic BMP-induced bone regeneration. Similarly, the presence of both TGF-β1 and BMP-7 cooperatively interact to increase angiogenesis and vascular invasion after their co-administration increased vessel constitution [51]. The results demonstrated that the presence of GF associated with implant surfaces improved bone regeneration, vascular invasion and angiogenesis. Research is under way to optimize the carrier properties and the characteristics of the GF and its dose to maximize the regeneration potential.
The application of nanotechnology for drug delivery and the use of nanometer scale materials has helped to develop innovative approaches in this field. At this scale, materials display different physicochemical properties due to their small size, surface structure and high surface area. The nanoparticles based ceramic scaffolds have also demonstrated great potential for controlled drug delivery and is currently a fast growing research area. The ceramic nanoscaffolds have several advantages such as high porosity, high volume-to-area ratios, high surface area, high structural stability and long degradation times. These properties make them potent systems for controlled release of drugs. At the implantation sites drugs/chemical agents are applied for decreasing infection, reducing inflammation, and increasing bone growth on titanium surfaces. The nanotubular titania and calcium phosphate-based nanoscaffolds have showed good potential for drug and growth factor delivery.
Schematic presentation of engineered magnetic scaffold preparation and implantation.
Superparamagnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have been progressively explored for their potential in biomedical applications and in particular as contrast agents for diagnostic imaging, for magnetic drug delivery and, more recently, for tissue engineering applications [52-54]. MNPs have been used for biomedical applications, such as in hyperthermia [55], as a contrast agent for diagnostic imaging [56], for magnetic drug delivery [57, 58] [13], and for cell mechanosensitive receptor manipulation to induce cell differentiation [59].
The most popular MNPs used in medicine and biotechnology are iron oxide-based phases, but their potential as a tissue engineering scaffold has not yet been fully assessed [60]. Although Fe is a vital element in the human body, its concentration within hard tissue is low, and its presence into the body scarcely affects bone remodeling [61]. In contrast, the biocompatibility and bioactivity of HA are already well established [62-64], and, in fact, more than 60% of the currently available bone graft substitutes involve calcium phosphate-based materials [65]. Hence, a Fe-HA phase endowed with superparamagnetic ability could be used as an active scaffold for bone and osteochondral regeneration or as a nontoxic, biodegradable, magnetic nanocarrier [17, 66, 67].
Chitosan is considered an appropriate functional material for biomedical applications because of its high biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-antigenicity and adsorption properties [68, 69]. The mechanical and biological properties of chitosan scaffolds could be improved by the incorporation of bioceramics, such as HA, β-tricalcium phosphate and calcium phosphate biomaterials, such as gelatin alginate, or inorganic material, such as wollastonite [70, 71]. Chitosan scaffolds are osteoconductive and can enhance bone formation both in vitro and in vivo [72]. Currently, the development of chitosan-nanohydroxyapatite (nHA) composites through in situ hybridization by ionic diffusion processes, freezing and lyophilization, stepwise co-precipitation, and mineralization via double diffusion are being undertaken successfully [73-75].
The long-term success of dental implants also depends on the complex
a) Scanning electron microscopic pictures of HAP microspheres; b) high-resolution SEM picture showing interconnected nanopores.
Nanotubular titania structures can be readily fabricated via direct anodization of titanium implants into an electrochemical cell that uses the titanium as an anode and platinum as a cathode in the presence of fluorine-based electrolytes [78, 79]. Penicillin-based antibiotics could be loaded to the nanotubular titania as a drug delivery platform by co-precipitating the drug and calcium phosphate crystals onto the nanostructures [80, 81].
Anodic oxidation has many advantages for surface modification, such as its ability to fabricate porous TiO2 films through dielectric breakdown, the changeability of the crystalline structure and the chemical composition of the oxide film depending on the fabrication conditions, and it has been suggested to provide storage room for the delivery of GFs, such as rhBMP-2, to enhance osseointegration [82, 83]. In vitro studies have suggested that a dose response could be produced with appropriate period of delivery of the GF to the cells [84].
Scanning electron microscopic image of an anodized titanium implant surface showing uniform nano-tubules of titanium oxide throughout the surface.
a) An anodized titanium implant; b) An anodized titanium implant coated with hydroxyapatite.
Coating of titanium implant surfaces with HA has shown better integration with bone. HA can be coated to the surface by plasma spraying, sputtering, pulse laser deposition and electrostatic multilayer assemblies, fabricated using the layer-by-layer technique [85]. HA coatings enhance new bone formation on implant surfaces with a line-to-line fit, in areas with gaps of 1-2 mm between the coated implant and the surrounding bone. The coating also helps to prevent the formation of fibrous tissue that would normally result due to the micro-movements of an uncoated titanium implant [86].
HA coatings have been used as a method for the delivery of GFs, bioactive molecules, and DNA [85, 87, 88]. HA coatings augmented with bone morphogenetic protein-7 (BMP-7), placed on segmental femoral diaphyseal replacement prostheses, improved bone ingrowth in a canine extra-cortical bone-bridging model. Titanium alloy plasma-sprayed porous HA coatings, infiltrated with collagen, recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein (rhBMP-2) and RGD peptide, improved mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) adhesion, proliferation and differentiation in vitro and increased bone formation in ectopic muscle and intra-osseous locations in vivo [85].
Another group used hydroxyapatite nanoparticles complexed with chitosan into nanoscale non-degradable electrostatic multilayers, which were capped with a degradable poly(b-amino ester)-based film incorporating physiological amounts of rhBMP-2 [89]. Plasmid DNA, bound to calcium phosphate coatings deposited on poly-lactide-co-glycolide (PLG), was shown to be released in vitro according to the properties of the mineral and solution environment [87]. These methods of delivery of bioactive molecules extended the function of HA as a coating to enhance new bone formation around implants.
Hydroxyapatite-coated titanium implant.
The initial adhesion and colonization of bacteria to an implant surface are considered to play key roles in the pathogenesis of infections related to biomaterials [90]. Two recent strategies are: (1) coating implants with antibiotics; and (2) covalently attaching antimicrobial molecules onto the implant surface. The objective of these bioactive surfaces is to disrupt the colonization of the microbes or to prevent bacterial adhesion to the implant and subsequent development of biofilm [91]. Hydrophilic surfaces have been shown to be less prone to become infected with microorganisms than hydrophobic surfaces [92]. The topical application of antibiotics on the implant surface might be more efficient because bacteria are killed locally directly upon binding, before the formation of biofilm. Local delivery of antibiotics has long been applied in bone cements used to repair orthopedic and dental implants [93].
Antibiotics such as gentamicin are incorporated into the cement, which slowly releases the drugs after setting
Nanoporous implants are suitable for the incorporation of antibiotics to obtain controlled release of drugs [98]. Nanostructured surfaces play a major role in advanced biomedical implant design because these surfaces have been studied for their enhanced bioactive properties, as well as their antagonistic behavior toward bacterial colonization. To maintain sustained drug elution properties and better bone bonding ability, significant efforts have been undertaken to develop bioactive hollow nanostructures on implant surfaces [99]. In this context, one of the implant titania nanotubular surfaces created via anodization showed enhanced bioactivity, conjugated with the capacity to store diverse compounds and control their elution. The anodization technique could create porous structures with controlled sizes of three-dimensional networks on metallic surfaces [100].
Anodization followed by HA coating was adopted as a surface modification technique to make drug-loadable Ti implants for dental applications. Self-organized titania nano-tubes were grown on titanium substrate as drug-carrying vehicles by coating HA ceramic using laser deposition. Nanostructured surfaces were achieved on titanium via anodization in a glycerol-NH4F electrolyte system, followed by annealing. The nano-tubules were then capped with HA deposited with pulsed laser ablation. HA-coated polished titanium, nano-structured titanium and hydroxyapatite coated nano-structured titanium were analyzed for their drug-carrying capacity using gentamicin sulfate. The ceramic-coated anodized substrates were found to be most efficient among the aforementioned three compounds in controlled delivery for longer than 160 h, with drug content of 0.5 μg/cm2, compared to the anodized substrate, which delivered the whole drug within 140 h. It was thus evident that laser deposition facilitated the controlled release of drug, compared to the anodized and bare substrates. This study proposed the application of laser deposition of bioceramics, such as HA, over nano-structured titanium for drug-eluting metallic implants [101].
Due to the risk of the development of antibiotic resistance associated with antibiotic-loaded coatings, non-antibiotic agents in the coating have been used as alternatives. Among the various dopants, silver nanoparticles are among the most popular agents used due to their inhibition of bacterial adhesion, broad anti-bacterial spectrum, long lasting anti-bacterial effects, and propensity for being less prone to the development of resistance. Ag and Cu are known to be efficient antibacterial agents because of their specific antimicrobial activity and the nontoxicity of active Ag and Cu ions to human cells [102, 103]. Sputter coating of Ag, along with HA, resulted in an antibacterial-bioactive coating, which inhibited bacterial attachment without cytotoxic effects [104]. TaN-Ag nano-composite coating of titanium dental implants also showed significant antibacterial properties without any cytotoxic effects. Hence, it could be concluded that coating of titanium implants with materials having antimicrobial properties might be useful in preventing infection [105].
Bisphosphonates (BPs) constitute a group of drugs that inhibit osteoclast action and the resorption of bone, and they are used to treat metabolic diseases such as osteoporosis, Paget’s disease, hypercalcemia of malignancy and multiple myeloma [106]. The nitrogen-containing BPs are more potent, and they accumulate in maximum concentrations in the matrix and osteoclasts [107]. BPs have a high affinity for bone minerals and bind strongly to HA, resulting in selective uptake to the target organ and high local concentrations in bone, particularly at sites of active bone remodeling. The BPs have similar chemical structures to pyrophosphate, but their chemical stability is greater. In pyrophosphates, the phosphate group is bonded through phosphoanhydride bond (P-O-P), whereas in BP, P is bonded through a germinal carbon atom (P-C-P); hence, these bonds are resistant to hydrolysis under acidic conditions [108]. The affinity of BP to Ca2+ ions helps to target specific bony sites, and BP can be coupled with a gamma-emitting radioisotope, such as technetium, for simultaneous bone scanning [109]. BPs inhibit osteoclast differentiation, reduce their activity, and induce their apoptosis [110]. The nitrogen-containing BPs bind to and inhibit farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase (FPPS), a key enzyme of the mevalonate pathway, thereby preventing the prenylation and activation of small GTPases, which are essential for the bone-resorption activity and survival of osteoclasts [111].
Systemic and local delivery of BPs improved the osseointegration of dental implants in osteoporotic animal models [112-116]. Improved osseointegration and the mechanical stability of titanium implants were reported in ovariectomized rats supplemented with alendronate [112]. Kurth et al [113] showed enhanced integration of HA-coated titanium implants via the administration of ibandronate to osteoporotic rats. Similar observations of enhanced osseointegration have been reported in other studies via the local release of BPs (pamidronate and zoledronic acid) from the surface coatings of implants [115, 116]. An experimental study in an ovariectomized rabbit model showed that systemic zoledronic acid (ZA) administration improved the osseointegration of titanium implants [117].
Statins are prescribed to decrease cholesterol biosynthesis by the liver, thereby reducing serum cholesterol concentrations and lowering the risk of heart attack. A liposoluble statin, simvastatin, could induce the expression of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) 2 mRNA and, as a result, promote bone formation on the calvaria of mice following daily subcutaneous injections [118, 119]. Another study showed that the topical application of statins to alveolar bone increased bone formation and concurrently suppressed osteoclast activity at the bone healing sites [120]. Yang et al [119] demonstrated that simvastatin-loaded porous titanium surface potently increased ALP activity and the extracellular accumulation of proteins, such as osteocalcin and type I collagen, in mouse preosteoblast MC3T3-E1 cells. Du et al [121] demonstrated that administration of simvastatin resulted in significant improvement in the osseointegration of titanium implants in osteoporotic rats. This finding could be attributed to the increased expression of bone morphogenic protein 2, which stimulates osteoblast differentiation [118]. Statins are known to enhance the expression of VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor), a bone anabolic factor, in osteoblasts and to regulate osteoblast function by increasing the expression of bone sialoprotein (BSP), osteocalcin (OCN), and type I collagen (COL-I), as well as suppressing the gene expression of collagenases, such as matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1 and MMP-13 [122, 123]. Thus the competitive inhibition of simvastatin interferes with the malevonate pathway, leading to decreased protein prenylation, which is necessary for normal osteoclast function [118].
A trabecular implant that could be used to load drugs.
Calcitonin (CT), produced by the C-cells of thyroid tissue, has been reported to stimulate hard tissue formation [124]. It acts on bone tissue via the suppression of osteolysis and the induction of Ca2+ release. It was reported that CT inhibited osteoclastic bone resorption by binding to specific cell surface receptors [125]. This hormone favors bone formation, inhibits osteoclastic activity and prevents osteopenia [126-128]. In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that this hormone stimulates the growth of bone tissue [40, 129, 130]. Calcitonin also showed increases in the amount and rate of bone formation, as observed in rat calvaria and extraction sockets in dogs [131].
A class of substituted benzimidazoles known as proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) have been shown to promote bone regeneration and peri-implant healing. Examples of these drugs include omeprazole and pantoprazole, which are employed clinically in the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disorder (GERD). PPI-loaded calcium phosphate cements demonstrated not only inherent biocompatibility and osteoconductivity but also the ability to retard bone resorption through a drug delivery mechanism [132, 133]. Pantoprazole-loaded calcium phosphate cements inhibited osteoclastic resorption without interfering with the peri-implant bone resorption rate in a study performed rat femoral condyles [134]. Another advantage of the addition of omeprazole is that it inhibits osteoclastic acidification, which help to inhibit bone resorption and increases the lifespan of osteoclasts [135]. The drugs were dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide to the desired concentration and were added to the liquid phase of the calcium phosphate.
Drug delivery systems (DDS) targeting specific organs and tissues and their bioavailability at specific sites have become critical issue in modern medicine. Local drug delivery systems in bone could be used to promote regeneration, prevent infection, or treat post-surgical pain. The quest for new bone scaffold materials to overcome the shortcomings of existing materials, such as ceramics and polymers, is undertaken to overcome the limited mechanical properties required for temporary bone substitutes. Mixing of polymers, natural or synthetic, and inorganic components, such as HA, TCP and BG, might help to develop better composite scaffolds that combine the advantages of both biodegradable polymers and bioactive ceramics [136].
If DDS are used in combination with implants, the coating strategies should allow for the choice of a drug or combination of drugs and their doses, localization and release due to intra-operative considerations. HA coatings on titanium implants themselves provide an osteoconductive and an osteoinductive approach for the enhancement of bone formation. These biological properties could be augmented further by adding growth factors and other molecules to produce a truly osteoinductive platform.
Proteins or glycosaminoglycans, such as collagen and chondroitin sulfate, provide a biomimetic coating on the surface of an implant, which can improve osseointegration [137]. Biomolecules such as GFs are also widely used for implant coatings, to modulate cellular functions, such as decreasing inflammation, enhancing stem cell differentiation, inducing blood vessel formation, or acting as chemoattractants for circulating osteoprogenitors [138, 139]. Although the implant materials available for the reconstruction of craniofacial bone defects have shown favorable results in most craniofacial and dental applications, the presence of complications related to infection and poor osseointegration still represent challenges in the biomedical field.
The current trend in the field of bone repair indicates that the tissue engineering field is moving toward the development of biomaterials with improved surfaces that will stimulate bone formation and avoid infections through the incorporation of surface modification techniques and antibacterial coatings and agents, as well as the incorporation of GFs, stem cells and other pharmacological drugs.
Microfluidic modules have broad application prospects in chemical analysis, biomaterial analysis, fuel cell, and medical [1, 2]. In the microfluidic system, the fluid pump is the core to realize small and accurate liquid delivery and distribution [3, 4]. Therefore, a variety kinds of micropumps have been developed [5, 6, 7, 8]. Because of its simple structure, high energy density and simple control, piezoelectric pump has potential application prospects in drug delivery, chemical analysis, micro refrigeration system and micro spacecraft propulsion [9, 10, 11].
According to the driving components, piezoelectric pump can be divided into piezoelectric stack pump and piezoelectric diaphragm pump. The piezoelectric diaphragm pump owns superiorities of small volume and low power consumption. This chapter will take the piezoelectric diaphragm pump as the example to introduce the piezoelectric microfluidic technology.
The piezoelectric pump with single chamber is the basic form of piezoelectric pump. The one-way fluid drive of piezoelectric pump is realized by matching with check valves. The common piezoelectric pumps with single chamber are that with single wafer, bimorph and double actuator.
Figure 1 shows the structure and working principle of the piezoelectric pump with single chamber and single wafer (PPSCSW). Single wafer piezoelectric vibrator, pump body and two check valves (inlet and outlet) constitute a closed pump chamber. The volume of the pump chamber changes with the reciprocating motion of piezoelectric diaphragm driven by AC voltage signal. The inlet valve and outlet valve are opened and closed periodically to form suction and discharge. At the suction stage, the volume of the pump chamber increases, the inlet valve opens, the outlet valve closes, and the fluid enters the pump chamber. When discharging, the volume of the pump chamber is reduced, the outlet valve is opened, the inlet valve is closed, and the fluid is discharged from the pump chamber. This circulation enables one-way flow of fluid.
The structure and working principle of PPSCSW [
Figures 2 and 3 show the three-dimensional structure and prototype of PPSCSW. The shell and pump body are made of the polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), which has superiorities of easy processing and transparent material. The dimension of upper, middle and bottom shells is 40 mm × 40 mm × 5.5 mm. The diameter of outlet pipe and inlet pipe is Φ7 mm. The inlet and outlet check valves made of rubber umbrella are installed in the same place, with the size of Φ10 mm × 0.5 mm. By adjusting the overall size to 40 mm × 40 mm × 16.5 mm, PPSCSW can precisely control the fluid output flow rate and pressure.
The three-dimensional structure of PPSCSW [
The prototype of PPSCSW [
Figure 4 is the relationships between output flowrate of PPSCSW and the driving voltage and frequency. When the driving voltage is fixed at 150 Vpp and 75 Vpp, the maximum flow rates of 5.42 ml/min and 26.55 ml/min are obtained at 20 Hz and 30 Hz, respectively. When the driving frequency is fixed at 15 Hz and 30 Hz, the flow rate increases with the increase of the driving voltage. When the driving voltage increases to 210 Vpp, the output flow rate of PPSCSW reaches 26.55 ml/min.
The relationship between flowrate and driving frequency and voltage [
As the name implies, the bimorph actuator is composed of two PZT disks with mechanical serial and parallel structure. Figure 5 shows the structure of a piezoelectric pump with single chamber and a bimorph actuator (PPSCBA). The working principle of PPSCB is similar to that of PPSCSW in Figure 1. However, compared with single wafer piezoelectric pump, double piezoelectric actuators usually have symmetrical structures. In theory, PPSCBA can monitor the output performance by using a PZT disk as a monitor, which will make it more widely application.
The structure of PPSCBA [
In order to study the PPSCBA, the three-dimensional structure and prototype of PPSCBA have been designed, as shown in Figures 6 and 7. A bimorph is used as the actuator and sensor. The check valve is an umbrella valve made of rubber. The material of pump body is PMMA. The overall dimension of PPSCBA is 40 mm × 40 mm × 17 mm. When one PZT disc is used as the driver and the other as the monitor, the monitor of output flow rate is achieved.
The three-dimensional structure of PPSCBA [
The prototype of PPSCBA [
As shown in Figure 8, when one piezoelectric wafer of the bimorph piezoelectric vibrator is used as the driver and the other as the sensor, the relationship between the output flow rate and the sensing voltage of PPSCBA and the driving frequency and voltage is analyzed. When the driving voltage is fixed at 150 Vpp, the peak values of sensing voltage and output flow, 6.88 Vpp and 3.12 ml/min, are obtained at 21 Hz. Therefore, the optimal frequency of PPSCBA is able to realize self-sensing. When the driving frequency is fixed at 21 Hz, the flow rate and sensing voltage increase with the increase of driving voltage, and the increasing trend is similar. When the driving voltage increases to 300 Vpp, the output flow rate and sensing voltage reach the maximum, which are 28.71 ml/min and 28.0 Vpp respectively. Therefore, PPSCBA can realize the self-sensing of output flow rate.
The relationship between flowrate and driving frequency and voltage [
In order to improve the drive ability of pump chamber, the piezoelectric pump with single chamber and double piezoelectric actuator (PPSCDPA) is proposed. Figure 9 shows the structure of PPSCDPA. PPSCDPA consists of an inlet, two piezoelectric diaphragm, two check valves, a pump chamber, a pump body and an outlet. The vibration of the two piezoelectric diaphragms is the same, that is, their driving voltage signals are the same. In the process of suction, two piezoelectric diaphragms bend out of the chamber at the same time; while discharging, the two piezoelectric diaphragms bend to the chamber at the same time. Combined with the unidirectional characteristic of the check valve, the PPSCDPA can realize the one-way transportation of fluid from the inlet to the outlet under the AC voltage signal drive.
The structure of PPSCDPA [
The three-dimensional structure and prototype of PPSCDPA with the overall dimension of 65 mm × 40 mm × 12 mm are shown in Figures 10 and 11, respectively. The check valves are umbrella valve made of rubber. The material of pump body is PMMA. The performance test platform of PPSCDPA is established, and the output performance of piezoelectric pump is tested. The experimental results show that the maximum flow rate of 45.98 ml/min is achieved when the driving parameters are 15 Hz and 200 Vpp.
The 3-D structure of PPSCDPA [
The prototype of PPSCDPA [
The output performance of the piezoelectric pump can be improved by increasing the number of chambers. When the pump chambers are connected in series, the pressure of the piezoelectric pump increases; when the pump chambers are parallel, the flow rate of the piezoelectric pump increases.
As shown in Figure 12, the piezoelectric pump with single actuator and double chamber (PPSADC) includes a piezoelectric bimorph vibrator, two chambers (chamber A and B), four check valves and a pump body. Chamber A has inlet 1 and outlet 1, and chamber B has inlet 2 and outlet 2. The chamber A and chamber B of the piezoelectric pump can be connected in series or in parallel, which can improve the applicable range of the pressure and flow. Figure 12(a) shows the series connection of chambers A and B. In the process of working, the fluid enters the chamber B from the inlet 2, and the outlet 2 is connected with the inlet 1, and the liquid enters the chamber A through the inlet 1, so that chamber B and chamber A are in series, which can make the piezoelectric pump obtain high pressure. Figure 12(b) shows the parallel connection of chamber A and B. In the process of working, the fluid enters the chamber A and B from the inlet 1 and 2, and flows out from the outlet 1 and 2, so that the chamber A and B form a parallel connection, which can obtain a large flow rate.
The structure and working principle of PPSADC. (a) Serial connection. (b) Parallel connection [
Figure 13 is the three-dimensional structure of PPSADC with the overall dimension of 41 mm × 41 mm × 25 mm. Figure 14 is the prototype of PPSADC. Chamber A and chamber B are symmetrical. The upper and lower O-rings are used to seal the chambers, which realizes the flexible support of the piezoelectric vibrator. The flexible support can amplify the displacement of the piezoelectric vibrator. The structure of check valve is umbrella valve. The material of pump body is PMMA. The series and parallel switching of chamber A and chamber B is realized through the connection transformation of rubber tube.
The 3-D structure of PPSADC [
The prototype of PPSADC [
Figure 15 shows the relationship between the output flow rate and the driving voltage when the driving frequency is 100 Hz. It can be seen from the Figure 15 that the output flow increases with the increase of the driving voltage. When the driving voltage is increased to 250 Vpp, the output flow rate of the two chambers in series and in parallel is 17 ml/min and 32 ml/min respectively. The PPSADC can achieve high energy conversion efficiency.
The relationship between flow rate and driving voltage [
Figure 16 is the structure of piezoelectric pump with five actuators and five chambers (PPFAFC). Five piezoelectric actuators and five chambers constitute five pumps in series, which improves the output pressure. Ai (i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) represents five piezoelectric actuators; Cj (j = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) represents five chambers; Vk (k = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) represents 6 check valves (Figure 16).
The structure of PPFAFC [
Figure 17 shows the working principle of PPFAFC. PPFAFC is driven by an AC voltage signal, and the driving voltage of the adjacent piezoelectric vibrator has a phase angle of 180°. As shown in Figure 14(a), during the suction process, A1/A3/A5 bends outwards of the cavity and A2/A4 bends into the cavity. Then the volume of the chamber C1/C3/C5 increases, and the volume of the chamber C2/C4 decrease, valve V1/V3/V5 opens, valve V2/V4 closes; as shown in Figure 14(b), during the discharge process, A2/A4 bends outwards of the chamber and A1/A3/A5 bends towards the chamber, then the volume of the C2/C4 increases, the volume of C1/C3/C5 decreases, the valve V2/V4 opens, and the valve V1/V3/V5 closes. When it is driven by an AC voltage signal, the suction and discharge processes are alternately performed to achieve continuous fluid output (Figure 17).
Working principle of PPFAFC. (a) Suction. (b) Discharge [
Figure 15 shows the three-dimensional structure and prototype of PPFAFC. A prototype of PPFAFC was designed, manufactured and assembled. The performance of PPFAFC is tested. The pump body is made of PMMA and sealed by O-ring. It was driven by five piezoelectric actuators. PPFAFC can achieve high output performance at low voltage, where it can meet the needs of different applications (Figure 18).
The three-dimensional structure and prototype of PPFAFC [
As shown in Figure 19, when the driving voltage is 180 Vpp, the relationship between the output flow rate and backpressure of PPFAFC and the driving frequency is analyzed. It can be seen from Figure 19 that the output flow rate increases with the increase of the driving frequency. When the driving frequency increases to 400 Hz, the flow rate increases to 279.2 ml/min. When the driving frequency is 90 Hz, the maximum output pressure of 10.8 kPa is obtained. PPFAFC owns high output performance.
The relationship between flow rate and backpressure and excitation frequency [
Figures 20 and 21 show the three-dimensional structure and working principle of piezoelectric pump with five actuators and ten chambers (PPFATC). PPFATC is composed of five groups of single vibrator double chamber piezoelectric pumps in series, forming two group of five-chambers mechanisms. When PPFATC is connected in parallel, two groups of five-chambers mechanisms are formed in parallel, which can make the outlet obtain continuous fluid output without fluctuation; when PPFATC is connected in series, two groups of five-chambers mechanisms are formed in series, namely ten chambers in series, which can make the output pressure increase. In the working process, the phase of the driving voltage signal of the adjacent piezoelectric vibrator is 180 degrees, that is, the vibration direction of the adjacent piezoelectric vibrator is opposite in the working process. Combined with the function of check valve, the continuous one-way fluid output of PPFATC is formed under the driving of AC voltage signal.
The structure and working principle of PPFATC in parallel connection [
The structure and working principle of PPFATC in serial connection [
Figure 22 is the three-dimensional structure and prototype of the PPFATC. A prototype of the PPFATC is fabricated, and then carried out its output performance test and water cooling test with the PPFATC as the power source, as shown in Figure 23. The experiment shows that when the driving voltage is 60 Vpp, the maximum flow rate of the PPFATC in parallel is 251.1 ml/min and the maximum output pressure is 60.2 kPa. In series, the PPFATC can achieve 186.2 ml/min and 109.9 kPa, respectively. The water cooling system with PPFATC can obtain good cooling performance under low driving voltage. When the driving voltage is 60 Vpp, the PPFATC can reduce the chip temperature from 107.8–51°C.
The three-dimensional structure and prototype of PPFATC [
The experimental platform of PPFATC and chip water-cooling system [
Piezoelectric microfluidic technology is currently undergoing a period of prosperous development, partly motivated by the demands for pumping devices in the fields of drug delivery, biological fluid handling, micro total analysis systems, electrophoresis detection, liquid cooling of microelectronics and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). To meet various application requirements, quite a few novel principles and configurations have been presented over the last two decades, including liquid micropump, air micropump, single-chamber micropump, multi-chamber micropump, single-actuator micropump, multi-actuator micropump. This work mainly presented the structure and operating principle of single-chamber and multi-chamber piezoelectric micropumps and demonstrated an application in the field of chip water-cooling system. Some influencing factors on the performance of the piezoelectric micropumps were tested by the experimental frequency and voltage responses. Experimental results showed that there was an optimal driving frequency to maximize the flowrate of the piezoelectric micropump. Basically, the output flowrate was enhanced with the increasing driving voltage. It was helpful to increase the flowrate and backpressure of micropumps through combining the pumping chamber in parallel and serial, respectively. In this work, a maximum flowrate of about 280 ml/min could be achieved by combining five chamber in serial as well as the maximum output pressure approximately approached 11 kPa. Therefore, this work can be used as a reference and guideline for the design and application of piezoelectric microfluidic technology.
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Shamshiri"}]},{id:"850",doi:"10.5772/5452",title:"Real-Time Evolutionary Algorithms for Constrained Predictive Control",slug:"real-time_evolutionary_algorithms_for_constrained_predictive_control",totalDownloads:2325,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"3600",slug:"frontiers_in_evolutionary_robotics",title:"Frontiers in Evolutionary Robotics",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Evolutionary Robotics"},signatures:"Mario Luca Fravolini, Antonio Ficola and Michele La Cava",authors:null},{id:"847",doi:"10.5772/5449",title:"Cellular Non-Linear Networks as a New Paradigm for Evolutionary Robotics",slug:"cellular_non-linear_networks_as_a_new_paradigm_for_evolutionary_robotics",totalDownloads:2496,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"3600",slug:"frontiers_in_evolutionary_robotics",title:"Frontiers in Evolutionary Robotics",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Evolutionary Robotics"},signatures:"Eleonora Bilotta and Pietro Pantano",authors:null},{id:"871",doi:"10.5772/5473",title:"Evolutionary Motion Design for Humanoid Robots",slug:"evolutionary_motion_design_for_humanoid_robots",totalDownloads:2515,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"3600",slug:"frontiers_in_evolutionary_robotics",title:"Frontiers in Evolutionary Robotics",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Evolutionary Robotics"},signatures:"Toshihiko Yanase and Hitoshi Iba",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"63775",title:"Fundamental Research on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles to Support Precision Agriculture in Oil Palm Plantations",slug:"fundamental-research-on-unmanned-aerial-vehicles-to-support-precision-agriculture-in-oil-palm-planta",totalDownloads:2910,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Unmanned aerial vehicles carrying multimodal sensors for precision agriculture (PA) applications face adaptation challenges to satisfy reliability, accuracy, and timeliness. Unlike ground platforms, UAV/drones are subjected to additional considerations such as payload, flight time, stabilization, autonomous missions, and external disturbances. For instance, in oil palm plantations (OPP), accruing high resolution images to generate multidimensional maps necessitates lower altitude mission flights with greater stability. This chapter addresses various UAV-based smart farming and PA solutions for OPP including health assessment and disease detection, pest monitoring, yield estimation, creation of virtual plantations, and dynamic Web-mapping. Stabilization of UAVs was discussed as one of the key factors for acquiring high quality aerial images. For this purpose, a case study was presented on stabilizing a fixed-wing Osprey drone crop surveillance that can be adapted as a remote sensing research platform. The objective was to design three controllers (including PID, LQR with full state feedback, and LQR plus observer) to improve the automatic flight mission. 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Balasundram, Desa Ahmad, Cornelia Weltzien and Muhammad Yamin",authors:[{id:"182449",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:"A.",surname:"Hameed",slug:"ibrahim-hameed",fullName:"Ibrahim Hameed"},{id:"203413",title:"Dr.",name:"Redmond R.",middleName:null,surname:"Shamshiri",slug:"redmond-r.-shamshiri",fullName:"Redmond R. Shamshiri"}]},{id:"869",title:"Emotional Intervention on Stigmergy Based Foraging Behaviour of Immune Network Driven Mobile Robots",slug:"emotional_intervention_on_stigmergy_based_foraging_behaviour_of_immune_network_driven_mobile_robots",totalDownloads:2017,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"3600",slug:"frontiers_in_evolutionary_robotics",title:"Frontiers in Evolutionary Robotics",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Evolutionary Robotics"},signatures:"Diana Tsankova",authors:null},{id:"64615",title:"Multimodal Classification of Mangoes",slug:"multimodal-classification-of-mangoes",totalDownloads:1001,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Grading, sorting, and classification of agricultural products are important steps to ensure a profitable and sustainable food industry. Human-intensive labors are replaced with better devices/machines that can be used in-line and generate sufficiently fast measurements for a high production volume. Most previous works focused on only one of the external quality parameters, such as color, size, mass, shape, and defects. In this work, we proposed an integrated machine vision system that can grade, sort, and classify mangoes using multiple features including weight, size, and external defects. We found that weight estimation using our proposed algorithm based on visual information was not statistically different from that of a conventional weight measurement using a static digital load cell; the estimation error is relatively small (4–5%). We also constructed an artificial neural network model to classify mango having multiple types of external defect; the classification error is less than 8% for the worst possible case. The results indicate that our system shows a great potential to be used in a real industrial setting. Future work will aim to investigate other features such as ripeness and bruises to increase the effectiveness and practicality of the system.",book:{id:"7270",slug:"agricultural-robots-fundamentals-and-applications",title:"Agricultural Robots",fullTitle:"Agricultural Robots - Fundamentals and Applications"},signatures:"Son V.T. Dao",authors:[{id:"252669",title:"Dr.",name:"Vu Truong Son",middleName:null,surname:"Dao",slug:"vu-truong-son-dao",fullName:"Vu Truong Son Dao"}]},{id:"62785",title:"Hybrid-Powered Autonomous Robots for Reducing Both Fuel Consumption and Pollution in Precision Agriculture Tasks",slug:"hybrid-powered-autonomous-robots-for-reducing-both-fuel-consumption-and-pollution-in-precision-agric",totalDownloads:1038,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Environmental contamination and the resulting climate change are major concerns worldwide. Agricultural vehicles that use fossil fuels emit significant amounts of atmospheric pollutants. Thus, this study investigates techniques to reduce fuel consumption in robotic vehicles used for agricultural tasks and therefore reduce atmospheric emissions from these automated systems. A hybrid energy system for autonomous robots devoted to weed and pest control in agriculture is modeled and evaluated, and its exhaust emissions are compared with those of an internal combustion engine-powered system. Agricultural implements require power for hydraulic pumps and fans; this energy is conventionally provided by power take-off (PTO) systems, which waste substantial amounts of energy. In this work, we examine a solution by designing and assessing a hybrid energy system that omits the alternators from the original vehicle and modifies the agricultural implements to replace the PTO power with electrical power. The hybrid energy system uses the original combustion engine of the tractor in combination with a new electrical energy system based on a hydrogen fuel cell. We analyze and compare the exhaust gases resulting from the use of (1) an internal combustion engine as the single power source and (2) the hybrid energy system. The results demonstrate that the hybrid energy system reduced emissions by up to approximately 50%.",book:{id:"7270",slug:"agricultural-robots-fundamentals-and-applications",title:"Agricultural Robots",fullTitle:"Agricultural Robots - Fundamentals and Applications"},signatures:"Mariano Gonzalez-de-Soto, Luis Emmi and Pablo Gonzalez-de-Santos",authors:[{id:"252783",title:"Prof.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez-De-Santos",slug:"pablo-gonzalez-de-santos",fullName:"Pablo Gonzalez-De-Santos"},{id:"252784",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariano",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez-De-Soto",slug:"mariano-gonzalez-de-soto",fullName:"Mariano Gonzalez-De-Soto"},{id:"252785",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Emmi",slug:"luis-emmi",fullName:"Luis Emmi"}]},{id:"62821",title:"An Evaluation of Three Different Infield Navigation Algorithms",slug:"an-evaluation-of-three-different-infield-navigation-algorithms",totalDownloads:1095,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"In this chapter, we present and evaluate three different infield navigation algorithms, based on the readings from a LIDAR sensor. All three algorithms are tested on a small field robot and used to autonomously drive the robot between the two adjacent rows of maze plants. The first algorithm is the simplest one and just takes distance readings from the left and right side. If robot is not in the center of the mid-row space, it adjusts its course by turning the robot in the right direction accordingly. The second approach groups the left and right readings into two vertical lines by using least-square fit approach. According to the calculated distance and orientation to both lines, it adjusts the course of the robot. The third approach tries to fit an optimal triangle between the robot and the plants, revealing the most optimal one. Based on its shape, the course of the robot is adjusted. All three algorithms are tested in a simulated (ROS stage) and then in an outdoor (maze test field) environment comparing the optimal line with the actual calculated position of the robot. The tests prove that all three approaches work with an error of 0.041 ± 0.034 m for the first algorithm, 0.07 ± 0.059 m for the second, and 0.078 ± 0.055 m error for the third.",book:{id:"7270",slug:"agricultural-robots-fundamentals-and-applications",title:"Agricultural Robots",fullTitle:"Agricultural Robots - Fundamentals and Applications"},signatures:"Peter Bernad, Peter Lepej, Črtomir Rozman, Karmen Pažek and Jurij Rakun",authors:[{id:"179642",title:"Prof.",name:"Karmen",middleName:null,surname:"Pažek",slug:"karmen-pazek",fullName:"Karmen Pažek"},{id:"188886",title:"Prof.",name:"Črtomir",middleName:null,surname:"Rozman",slug:"crtomir-rozman",fullName:"Črtomir Rozman"},{id:"255090",title:"Dr.",name:"Jurij",middleName:null,surname:"Rakun",slug:"jurij-rakun",fullName:"Jurij Rakun"},{id:"255091",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Lepej",slug:"peter-lepej",fullName:"Peter Lepej"},{id:"255092",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Bernard",slug:"peter-bernard",fullName:"Peter Bernard"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1283",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"19",title:"Animal Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"191123",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez-Alarcón",slug:"juan-jose-valdez-alarcon",fullName:"Juan José Valdez-Alarcón",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBfcQAG/Profile_Picture_1631354558068",institutionString:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institution:{name:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"161556",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Dos Anjos",middleName:null,surname:"Pires",slug:"maria-dos-anjos-pires",fullName:"Maria Dos Anjos Pires",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS8q2QAC/Profile_Picture_1633432838418",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"209839",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Spinu",slug:"marina-spinu",fullName:"Marina Spinu",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLXpQAO/Profile_Picture_1630044895475",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92185/images/system/92185.jfif",institutionString:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institution:{name:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}]},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. 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He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. 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Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. 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