\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"16",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Biomedical Engineering, Trends in Electronics, Communications and Software",title:"Biomedical Engineering, Trends in Electronics",subtitle:"Communications and Software",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Rapid technological developments in the last century have brought the field of biomedical engineering into a totally new realm. Breakthroughs in material science, imaging, electronics and more recently the information age have improved our understanding of the human body. As a result, the field of biomedical engineering is thriving with new innovations that aim to improve the quality and cost of medical care. This book is the first in a series of three that will present recent trends in biomedical engineering, with a particular focus on electronic and communication applications. More specifically: wireless monitoring, sensors, medical imaging and the management of medical information.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-475-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4534-9",doi:"10.5772/549",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"biomedical-engineering-trends-in-electronics-communications-and-software",numberOfPages:750,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"d76a5792507e65ca56715b9661e8a66e",bookSignature:"Anthony N. Laskovski",publishedDate:"January 8th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/16.jpg",numberOfDownloads:122172,numberOfWosCitations:130,numberOfCrossrefCitations:81,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:6,numberOfDimensionsCitations:164,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:6,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:375,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 7th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 5th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 9th 2010",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 9th 2010",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 8th 2010",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"2205",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",middleName:"Nikola",surname:"Laskovski",slug:"anthony-laskovski",fullName:"Anthony Laskovski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/2205/images/1554_n.jpg",biography:"Anthony N. Laskovski completed his Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical) Degree at the University of Newcastle, Australia in 2006 on a UNISS industrial scholarship with the power distributer Energy Australia.\nHis research interests include RF electronics and implantable electronic devices for biomedical applications, with a particular focus on wireless power transmitters, inductive coils and implantable telemetry architecture. His publications include various conference and journal papers and book chapters.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"692",title:"Biotechnology",slug:"engineering-biomedical-engineering-biotechnology"}],chapters:[{id:"12898",title:"Biosignal Monitoring Using Wireless Sensor Networks",doi:"10.5772/12946",slug:"biosignal-monitoring-using-wireless-sensor-networks",totalDownloads:4327,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Carlos Andres Lozano, Camilo Eduardo Tellez and Oscar Javier Rodriguez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/12898",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/12898",authors:[{id:"13529",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Lozano Garzon",slug:"carlos-lozano-garzon",fullName:"Carlos Lozano Garzon"},{id:"13530",title:"Prof.",name:"Oscar Javier",surname:"Rodriguez Riveros",slug:"oscar-javier-rodriguez-riveros",fullName:"Oscar Javier Rodriguez Riveros"},{id:"13531",title:"Prof.",name:"Camilo Eduardo",surname:"Tellez Villamizar",slug:"camilo-eduardo-tellez-villamizar",fullName:"Camilo Eduardo Tellez Villamizar"}],corrections:null},{id:"12899",title:"Wireless Telemetry for Implantable Biomedical Microsystems",doi:"10.5772/12997",slug:"wireless-telemetry-for-implantable-biomedical-microsystems",totalDownloads:5634,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:21,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Farzad Asgarian and Amir M. 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\r\n\tOil crops are an important class of agronomic crops and very important for the human diet. Oil crops not only provide edible oils but some of them have diverse uses like feeds, fuel, medicine, etc. These also contain many other mineral components in significant amounts and that is why the popularity of oil crops has increased in the last few decades. In the last few years, researchers have developed many new varieties and plant types of oil crops which has contributed to total edible oil production in the world. However, agronomic management, other production practices, and processing greatly vary depending on the plant types and the environment. Therefore, understanding the appropriate production and processing of oil crops is important. So, far researchers have gained considerable achievements in this area.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the various aspects of oil crops – their biology, production technologies, and processing.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-171-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-170-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-172-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"010cdbbb6a716d433e632b350d4dcafe",bookSignature:"Prof. Mirza Hasanuzzaman and MSc. Kamrun Nahar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11627.jpg",keywords:"Plant Physiology, Abiotic Stress, Soil Management, Climate Change, Crop Management, Canola, Soybean, Sesame, Sunflower, Water Relations, Photosynthesis, Oil Content",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 24th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 23rd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University in Dhaka whose publications have received about 9,500 citations (h-index 50 on Scopus). Recipient of the World Academy of Sciences Young Scientist Award and Publons Peer Review Award on 2017, 2018, and 2019.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Professor at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka, and expert in Agricultural Botany and Plant Physiology. Dr. Nahar published 100 articles and chapters related to plant physiology and environmental stresses.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"166818",title:"MSc.",name:"Kamrun",middleName:null,surname:"Nahar",slug:"kamrun-nahar",fullName:"Kamrun Nahar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/166818/images/system/166818.png",biography:"Dr. Kamrun Nahar is a Professor of Agricultural Botany at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. She received her Ph.D. in Environmental Stress Physiology of Plants from the United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Dr. Nahar has been involved in research with field crops emphasizing stress physiology since 2006. She has completed several research works and is currently working on a research project funded by Sher-eBangla Agricultural University Research System and the Ministry of Science and Technology, Bangladesh. She is also supervising MS students. Dr. Nahar has published more than 100 articles and book chapters related to plant physiology and environmental stresses. Her publications have received about 9,500 citations with an h-index of 51. She is involved in editorial activities and is a reviewer of international journals. She is an active member of about twenty professional societies. 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"70861",title:"Introductory Chapter: B-Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90636",slug:"introductory-chapter-b-cells",body:'\nEtymologically, the “B” from B-cells, also referred to as B lymphocytes, stands from the name of bursa of Fabricius, a lymphoid organ found only in birds, as reported, in 1956, by Bruce Glick and Timothy Chang [1, 2], but not from the bone marrow as it has been believed.
\nB-cells represent about 5–15% of circulating blood lymphocytes and are responsible for the humoral immune response, as a critical component of adaptive immune system. Their roles are not limited only to the production of antigen-specific antibodies after antigen binding with high affinity
The current chapter presents a brief overview on Igs and phases of B-cell ontogeny and B-lymphoid lineage markers. The end of the chapter summarizes the main types of diseases related to B-cell abnormalities.
\nThe most common form of Igs in the blood has a heterodimeric structure, about approximately 150 kDa [11], with two antibody sites—paratopes—that bind to the epitope of a specific antigen, located in the fragment antigen-binding [F(ab)]. This structure is composed of two identical heavy (H) and two identical light (L) chains, these being either kappa (Lκ) or lambda (Lλ). The H and L chains are associated with each other by disulfide bridges (Figure 1).
\nEach chain of Igs is composed functionally of constant (H; CH, L; CL) and variable (H; VH, L; VL) domains. The constant region of H chain is composed of three (for IgG, IgA, IgD) or four (for IgM and IgE) constant domains, designated, respectively, CH1, CH2, CH3, and CH4. Except for IgM and IgE, the region between CH1 and CH2 domains is called the hinge “H” region, permitting flexibility in the chain [12], which is longer and more flexible in IgG3 than the other IgG subclasses [13]. Ig L chains are composed of two separate domains, each having an approximate molecular weight of 12 kDa [14]. The association of the variable domains of the H and L chains defines the site of attachment to the antigen (Figure 1). Constant domains have specify effector functions such as activation of complement or binding to FcRs [15].
\nMolecular structure of a typical Ig molecule. Ig molecules have a symmetric structure that is stabilized by interchain disulfide bonds. The heavy chain determines the isotypes, i.e., the classes (IgM, IgG, IgA, IgD, IgE) and subclasses (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4, IgA1, IgA2) of Igs. Panel (A) shows a simplified schematic representation of an antibody molecule. Panel (B) illustrates a schematic representation of the four-chain composition and the separate domains comprising each chain. This representation is based on the X-ray crystallography of an IgG antibody. Three globular regions form a Y. The two antigen-binding sites are at the tip of the arms, which are attached to the trunk of the Y by a flexible hinge region [
Each Ig domain contains roughly 100–110 amino acids long [14, 17] and consists of a two-layer sandwich of seven to nine antiparallel beta-strands arranged in two beta-sheets/-barrels with a Greek topology [18].
\nIg domains play well-defined roles, which depend on the location of each one. So the CH1 domain, located within the F(ab) region, interacts with the constant domain of L chains. The remaining CH domains (CH2-CH3 or CH2-CH4) comprise the Fc region, which defines the isotype, classes, and subclasses of the Ig. The CH2 (CH3 for IgM and IgE) domain allows an important role in mediating the effector functions, including interaction with FcRs and antibody stability thanks to the presence of N-linked glycan, which is conserved in mammalian IgGs at Asn297 as well as in homologous regions of other antibody isotypes [19]. The importance of N-glycosylation is well-known for IgGs, but little is known for other isotypes [20]. The CH3 domain allows dimerization and participates in the stabilization of the binding of the heavy chains to one another through interactions between the CH3 domains. For both IgM and IgA, the CH3 domains have short tailpieces to which the J-chain binds
Each Ig V domain contains three hypervariable regions, corresponding to the site of recognition of the antigen, thus forming the paratope (complementarity determining regions, CDR1, CDR2, and CDR3). CDRs separate four highly conserved segments with less variability, termed the framework regions and designated FR1, FR2, FR3, and FR4 [16] (Figure 2). As for the T-cell antigen receptor (TCR), the binding specificity of the antigen is therefore determined by the loops present at one end of VL and VH domains of Ig chains; the difference in specificity between antibodies is therefore related to these loops [21].
\nSubdivision of the variable region of the Ig molecule. The Ig V region contains seven amino acid regions, four of which are FRs and three of which are CDRs. The FRs are located on the tips of the Y-shaped molecule and act as a scaffold for the CDRs. Of note, this representation shows the physical location of the VH region and the VL region. N region between the V and D regions is called N1, and that between the D and heavy J regions is called N2. CDR, complementarity determining region; FR, framework region; C, invariant constant domain; V, variable domain; D, diversity domain; J, joining domain.
There are five isotypes (classes) of Igs that are structurally and functionally distinct, IgM, IgD, IgG, IgA, and IgE. The difference between the classes of Igs lies in the constant portion of the H chains: mu (μ) determines the IgM class, gamma (γ) determines the IgG class, alpha (α) determines the IgA class, delta (δ) determines the IgD class, and epsilon (ε) determines the IgE class. So the DNA encoding the constant part of an H chain contains several constant sequences. Thus, there are four subclasses of IgG in both humans (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4) and mice (IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b, and IgG3) and two subclasses of IgA (IgA1 and IgA2) in humans, which are unequally distributed in the body fluids [22].
\nmIg: membrane-bound immunoglobulin, sIg: secreted immunoglobulin (serum or secretory Ig).
B-cells are defined by the presence of membrane-bound Igs (mIg) that act as specific receptors for the appropriate antigen in mature B-cell but, also as an excellent marker of the B-cell line. The mIg constitutes, with other glycoprotein chains, the B-cell antigen receptor complex (BCR). These correspond to non-covalently associated transmembrane disulfide-linked heterodimer phosphoprotein Igα/Igβ (CD79a and CD79b), which are encoded by
BCR complex structure. The BCR complex is composed of a mIg non-covalently bonded to a transmembrane disulfide-linked heterodimer phosphoprotein composed of CD79a (Igα)/CD79b (Igβ). CD, cluster of differentiation; mIg, membrane-bound immunoglobulin.
Igs are very mobile on the surface of B-cells. In addition, various specific ligands cause what is called capping,
The only structural difference between transmembrane and secreted B-cell receptors (soluble immunoglobulins, sIgs) is that the C-terminal region of the heavy chains contains a short hydrophobic stretch which spans the lipid bilayer of the membrane [26] (Figure 4).
\nStructural difference between the C-terminus of the H chain constant region of mIgM and sIgM. mIgM and sIgM differ simply by the COOH ends of the μ chain and therefore by mRNAs that differ at their 3′ ends. Membrane-bound IgM (membrane μ) is slightly larger than that of secreted IgM (secreted μ) [
sIgs play a complementary role to that of T-cells. It needs to use other mechanisms for antigen removal. This implies that they bind other molecules, like complement molecules, or specialized receptors, called Fc receptors (FcRs, receptors of fragment crystallizable region), on the surface of effector cells that they activate, including phagocyte cells (Figure 5).
\nHuman FcRs and their cell localization and immune functions. DCs, dendritic cells; FcRn, neonatal fc receptor; FcRs, receptors of fragment crystallizable region; FDCs, follicular dendritic cells; Fl58, phenylalanine at position 158; GC, germinal center; H131, histidine at position 131; ICs, antigen-antibody immune complexes; PIgR, polymeric immunoglobulin receptor; R131, arginine at position 131; V158, valine at position 158.
Antibodies allow B-cells to provide systemic protection of the host and immune surveillance through pathogen recognition and organization of immune reactions. Their expression varies according to the state of differentiation of B-cells. After activation, B-cells transform into plasma cells that secrete antibodies of the same specificity as their membrane BCR. Secreted antibodies are transported rapidly throughout the body by blood or lymph or secreted through the epithelia to protect the interface between the body and its environment. IgG antibodies also provide a mechanism by which acquired immunity can be transmitted from the mother to the fetus or infant, thus providing acquired immune protection during the critical period of early life. Nevertheless, some antibodies can bind to self-structures, referred to as autoreactive antibodies, and induce, under certain conditions, aberrant immune responses and tissue damage [28].
\nThe differentiation of B-cells from hematopoietic stem cells into pro-B, then pre-B, then immature B-cells, and finally into mature B-cells is characterized by several events, including (i) modification of membrane differentiation markers; (ii) Ig gene rearrangement, which takes place at the pro-B and pre-B stages, allowing the expression of BCR; and (iii) negative clonal selection.
\nB-cell ontogenesis occurs in the fetal liver, then in the bone marrow, and continues throughout life. It starts from a hematopoietic stem cell and leads to the development of a so-called “immature” B-cell with the same and unique antigenic specificity. The immature B-cell migrates to the peripheral lymphoid organs, where the different stages of maturation will take place, leading to the Ig-producing plasma cells and memory B-cells [24]. Ultra-complex regulatory mechanisms are involved during all stages of B-cell development and lead to the generation of B-cell repertoire with a vast diversity of antigen recognition capacity.
\nKnowing that B-cells, T-cells, and natural killer (NK) cells all develop from the early lymphoid progenitors that originate from totipotent hematopoietic stem cells, cell fate results from several lineage choices. The B-cell progenitors continue to develop in the bone marrow [21].
\nDuring their development, B-cell and T-cell undergo a dual process of positive and negative selection in which cells that react with high affinity against self-antigens are eliminated because they constitute a significant danger of triggering autoimmune responses.
\nIn the case of B-cells, outside the negative selection mechanisms, cell survival depends essentially on their ability to compete for survival factors such as the B-cell activating factor (BAFF, also known as B lymphocyte stimulator (BLyS), a subset of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 13B), which is present in the circulation and produced by resident cells within secondary lymphoid organs [24]. Positive selection mainly corresponds to BCR functionality test and depends on a moderate response to the self-antigen, which stimulates cell maturation and survival. When self-reactivity exceeds a certain level, a process so-called
The differentiation of hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) into immature B-cell passes through four successive steps, which could be identified by the presence of certain markers, corresponding to the different stages of rearrangement of Ig genes:
These stages are strictly dependent on the presence, in the fetal liver and bone marrow, of nonlymphoid stromal cells that come into contact with the B-cell precursors and provide the input of soluble factors in the cell microenvironment that are essential for differentiation, such as stem tell factor (SCF) and interleukin 7 (IL-7). It should be noted, moreover, that the probability of reaching productive/efficient rearrangements of Ig genes encoding the H and L chains and obtaining an intact Ig expressed on the cell surface (mIg/BCR) is low. So most of the time there are nonproductive rearrangements, which leads to the deletion of the resulting B-cells. In addition, the differentiation of B-cells also depends, according on the cell development stage, on the presence of intracellular enzymes. Thus, the enzymes encoded by the recombination-activating genes (RAGs), RAG-1 and RAG-2, are active in early and late pro-B-cells and in pre-B-cells. Finally, the activity of the enzyme terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT), which is involved in the addition of N-nucleotides, stops at the pre-B-cell stage.
\nStromal cells constitute a support tissue of an organ,
It has recently been suggested that stromal cells play a major role, not only in the functional regulation of many tissues and organs, but also more particularly in the immune responses. Of note, non-hematopoietic stromal cells play a key role in the development and function of the immune system, but, paradoxically, they can also promote the persistence of many cancers and various immune-mediated diseases. The main non-hematopoietic stromal cells involved in immunity include fibroblasts, myofibroblasts, endothelial cells, pericytes, smooth muscle cells and mesenchymal stromal cells.
Bone marrow stromal stem cells (BMSC) are almost all of mesenchymal origin and, therefore, are also known as skeletal or mesenchymal stem cells. They influence the microenvironment surrounding B-cell precursors, and thus exert local effects on their development through cytokines and chemokines.
HSCs are multipotent cells;
The immature B-cell leaves the bone marrow parenchyma and passes through an endothelial barrier and enters the blood sinusoids, where they are retained, before finally being released into the peripheral blood [29], which allows them to migrate to the spleen where they complete their development [30]. The transition from the immature B-cell to the mature B-cell takes place in a few days and leads, via alternative splicing of long primary mRNA transcripts from the IG heavy (IGH) locus [31], to the coexpression on naïve mature B-cells of membrane IgM and IgD that share the same antigenic specificity. Only about 5% of immature B-cells will sustainably give rise to peripheral B-cells; however, most newly formed ones disappear within a few days.
\nA so-called BCR-mediated positive signaling
\n
B-cell ontogeny can be separated into two main phases: earlier antigen-independent phase and later antigen-dependent phase (Figure 6). It should also be recalled that thymus-independent (TI) antigens have the ability to stimulate B-cells without T-cells’ help and are traditionally divided into two categories, TI-1 antigens that can activate B-cells through coengagement of Toll-like receptors (TLR), such as LPS or other bacterial polysaccharides, and TI-2 antigens that lead to extensive cross-linking of the BCR, such as polymeric protein antigens or repeated structural motifs [33]. Some antigens fall outside these and form a third category. Finally, T-cell-independent responses should be discussed, knowing that T-cells could intervene at different levels of B-cell development in response to TI antigens (For review, see [34, 35, 36]).
\nPhases of B-cell ontogeny. CLPs, common lymphoid progenitors; mIgM, membrane immunoglobulin M; DZ, dark zone; LZ, light zone; HLA, human leucocyte antigen; GC, germinal center; CSR, class switch recombination.
The first phase of B-cell differentiation and maturation would be antigen-independent. It takes place in the bone marrow and results in the generation of immature B-cells expressing pair L chains with μ chains to form cell surface monomeric IgM in association with transmembrane Igα and Igβ invariant chains, forming the BCR complex, which is able to recognize and capture antigens.
\nThe second phase of B-cell activation and final differentiation is dependent on self-antigens, then on non-self-antigens within the secondary lymphoid organs (SLOs). It results in the formation of plasma cells and antigenic specific memory B-cells.
\nThe majority of human peripheral blood B-cells express on their surface IgM and IgD that have the same antigenic specificity. In addition, in humans, a large population of circulating cells expresses membrane lgG or IgA (but very little IgE). In some tissues, including intestinal mucosa, B-cells selectively express membrane IgA. In addition to the Igα/Igβ heterodimer marker, which is part of the BCR complex, there are also other molecules on the B-cell surface that play notable roles in various cellular functions, especially in B-cell regulation, such as human complement receptor type 2 (CR2, C3d), designed as CD21, that regulates B-cell proliferative responses, and serving as a receptor for the C3d, C3dg, and iC3b proteins of complement. B-cells also express receptor for complement component C3b (CR1, CD35) as well as for Fc fragments (FcR) of certain Ig isotypes, such as IgG (FcγRII-B1, CD32). Of note, only FcγRIIB1 and FcγRIIB2 have an immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif (ITIM) sequence among the FcγR receptor family and are therefore inhibitory FcRs; they do not induce phagocytosis and represent an important receptor-mediated feedback circuit regulator by circulating antigen-specific IgG [24, 37]. CR2/CD21 has also been described as a receptor for the envelope glycoprotein gp350/220 of the Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) [38]. Other molecules are frequently used in routine practice as primary markers for identifying human B-cells, including CD19, CD20, and CD22 markers. CD19 is expressed at all stages of B-cell lineage, including normal plasma cells. CD20, a molecule restricted to the B-cell population, has been shown to be implicated to form calcium channels in cell membrane [39], and as an effective target for immunotherapy in treatment of B-cell lymphoma, as well as in a number of autoimmune diseases, such as type 1 diabetes [40]. It occurs at the early pre-B-cell stage of development and remains throughout all stages of B-cell maturation [41], ranging from pre-B-cells in the bone marrow to short-lived plasmablasts [42]. CD22, a B-cell-restricted surface molecule that regulates BCR signaling in mature B-cells [43], is an early marker and persists at all stages of B-cell differentiation, which has allowed it to be a useful pan marker for all mature B-cell subsets [44]. Recognized as a B-cell-specific sialic acid binding Ig-like lectin 2 (Siglec-2; B-lymphocyte cell adhesion molecule [BL-CAM]), CD22 has been exploited as a therapeutic target for humanized anti-CD22 monoclonal antibody to treat B-cell leukemia [45]. Both immature and mature mouse B-cells as well as subsets of T-cells and NK cells and subset of abnormal T-cells involved in the pathogenesis of systemic autoimmunity in MRL-
Antigen binding to mIg induces the BCR aggregation, which leads to the rapid transmembrane disulfide-linked heterodimer phosphoprotein Igα (CD79a)/Igβ (CD79b) ITAM phosphorylation through recruitment of Syk and SFKs (Fyn, Lyn). This process begins with the formation of a “signalosome” [57]. The signalosome activation leads to three main pathways [58], including Btk, PLC-γ2, and PI3K. BCR can transactivate the B-cell co-receptor CD19, which forms, on B-cell surface, a tetrameric co-receptor complex with CD21 and CD81 (target of anti-proliferative antibody 1 (TAPA-1), a tetraspanin family member tetraspanin 1 (Tspan1, NET-1), and Leu13 (CD225)) [59]. CD19 can also be BCR-independently activated but lacks intrinsic or associated tyrosine kinase activity [60]. As CD19 has a long cytoplasmic domain, it binds and amplifies the function of the SFKs and recruits a heterodimer p85/p110 class IA PI3K concurrently, which phosphorylates a membrane phospholipid, PIP2, leading to the production of a second messenger PIP3 [61], as well as promoting Btk and Akt, and a serine/threonine, kinase phosphorylation in B-cell [62] (Figure 7).
\nBCR signaling. As mentioned above, the final activation of mature B-cell occurs in the SLOs, where they migrate through the blood. Within the SLOs, they receive a constant supply of antigen through the circulating lymph. The activation of B-cell is initiated after binding of an appropriate antigen to its BCR, leading to phosphorylation of the non-covalently associated Igα/Igβ transmembrane (CD79a and CD79b). The signaling mechanisms triggered during the B-cell activation can be summarized in four main steps: (i) antigen binding and starting signaling cascade, (ii) phosphorylation of Igα/Igβ ITAM, (iii) signalosome complex formation, and (iii) signalosome activation. Akt, protein kinase B/PKB; BCR, B-cell antigen receptor; BLNK, B-cell linker; Btk, Bruton’s protein tyrosine kinase/non-receptor kinase; CD, cluster of differentiation; ERK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase; Fyn, proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Fyn/non-receptor Fyn proto-oncogene; Grb2, growth factor receptor-bound protein 2; ITAM, immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motifs; JNK, c-Jun N-terminal kinase; Lyn, Lck/yes novel tyrosine kinase; mIg, membrane-bound immunoglobulin; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B-cells; PI3K, phosphoinositide-3 kinase; PIP2, phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate; PIP3, phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate; PLCy2, phospholipase C-γ2; PKCβ, protein kinase C β; SLOs, secondary lymphoid organs; SFKs, Src-family kinase/Src-protein-tyrosine kinase or Src family tyrosine kinase; Src, proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase c-Src (cellular Src kinase); Syk, spleen tyrosine kinase/non-receptor tyrosine kinases; Vav, proteins acting as guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) for small G proteins of the rho family.
B-cells are threatened by various pathologies, including (i) immune deficiency, which results from a disruption in their homeostasis due to mutations or deletions, abnormalities in mechanisms of gene repair, Ig class generation, Ig affinity modulation, etc.; (ii) autoimmune disorders, in which potentially dangerous self-reactive clone B-cells escape from mechanisms of tolerance; (iii) cancerous tumors, which result from a disorder in the succession of phases of proliferation and cell death or in the processes of generation of cell diversity; and (iv) allergies that are particularly related to regulatory abnormalities involving Br1 (IL-10+), Br3 (TGF-β+), and regulatory B-cells (Breg, Foxp3+) [52]. The main B-cell-associated diseases are illustrated in Figure 8.
\nMain types of diseases related to B-cell abnormalities. AID, activation-induced cytidine deaminase; Btk, Bruton’s tyrosine kinase; HIGM1, X-linked hyper-IgM syndrome type 1; CD40L, CD40 ligand (CD154); CSR, class switch recombination; GCs, germinal centers; Ig H, immunoglobulin heavy chain; BAFF, B-cell activating factor also known as B-lymphocyte stimulator (BLyS) or tumor necrosis factor (TNF) ligand superfamily member 13B (TNF-like molecule BAFF); BCL-2, B-cell lymphoma 2; EBV, Epstein–barr virus; CVID, common variable immunodeficiency; IVIg, intravenous immunoglobulin; SCID, severe combined immunodeficiency; SHM, somatic hypermutation; SLOs, secondary lymphoid organs; TACI, transmembrane activator and calcium modulator and cytophilin ligand interactor; XLA, X-linked agammaglobulinemia (Bruton’s agammaglobulinemia); HIGM2, hyper-IgM syndrome type 2 (autosomal recessive).
Cell schematic illustrations are adapted from free Servier Medical Art (smart.servier.fr/servier-medical-art).
\nIn order to provide high data transmission rates, the bandwidth of mobile communication systems is increasing. In fourth generation (4G) long term evolution (LTE), the maximum transmission bandwidth for one component carrier is 20 MHz [1]. In fifth generation (5G) new radio (NR), the frequency bands are divided into two parts: frequency range 1 (FR1) below 6 GHz and frequency range 2 (FR2) above 24.25 GHz. The maximum transmission bandwidth for one component carrier is 100 MHz and 400 MHz in FR1 and FR2 respectively [2]. The increasing system bandwidth brings new problems to the design of the transmitter and the receiver. In this chapter of the book, we focus on the cyclic redundancy check (CRC) implementation in 5G NR.
In 5G NR, there are many physical channels defined in the downlink and the uplink [3]. The downlink physical channels consist of the physical downlink shared channel (PDSCH), the physical downlink control channel (PDCCH), the physical broadcast channel (PBCH), etc. The uplink physical channels consist of physical uplink shared channel (PUSCH), the physical uplink control channel (PUCCH), the physical random access channel (PRACH), etc. The PDSCH and the PDSCH are mainly used to transmit data. The usage scenarios of 5G NR consist of enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), massive machine-type communications (mMTC) and ultra-reliable and low latency communications (URLLC) [4, 5]. The usage scenario of the eMBB requires high data transmission rates. As a consequence, we focus on the PDSCH and the PUSCH in this chapter.
The medium access control (MAC) layer organizes the data into the transport block and transmits it to the physical layer. In 5G NR, the maximum transport block size is 1,277,992 [6]. The processing of the transport block is shown in Figure 1 [7]. If the transport block size is larger than 3824, a 16-bit CRC is added at the end of the transport block. Otherwise, a 24-bit CRC is added at the end of the transport block. The transport block is divided into multiple equal size code blocks when the transport block size exceeds a threshold. For quasi-cyclic low-density parity-check code (QC-LDPC) base graph 1, the threshold is equal to 8448. For QC-LDPC base graph 2, the threshold is equal to 3840. In 5G NR, the maximum code block size number is 8448. An additional 24-bit CRC is added at the end of each code block when there is a segmentation. Due to the difference in the size of the transport block and the code block, the CRC processing scheme suitable for the transport block and that suitable for the code block are different.
The transport block and the code block.
The rest of this chapter is organized as follows. Section 2 describes the system model of the transport block and the code block in 5G NR. Section 3 gives two properties of the CRC. Section 4 presents the overview of the CRC implementation. Finally, Section 5 gives the conclusion.
Let
If
When
When there is no segmentation, the number of code blocks
In the following sections, we mainly consider the case that there is a segmentation. Let
Note that the procedure of the transport block size determination guarantees that
where
At the receiver side, the following steps are carried out for the transport block: code block segmentation, bit de-interleaving, de-rate matching, QC-LPDC decoding, code block concatenation. We need to check whether each code block and the transport block are correctly received. Let
where
In this section, we give two properties of the CRC. These properties are useful in the CRC implementation. Before giving these properties, we define some variables. Let
Property 1 implies that
Property 2 implies that
The proof of the property 1 and the property 2 can be found in Refs. [10, 11]. It is omitted for brevity.
In this section, we give an overview of the CRC implementation. In the following, the received transport block after the hard decision
In this scheme, the CRC of
Figure 2 illustrates an example. The dividend is equal to
The division of polynomial using modulo-2 arithmetic.
The division of polynomial using modulo-2 arithmetic is a computationally intensive operation. In the worst case, it requires a shift operation and an XOR logic operation for each bit of
For example, the CRC implementation for
CRC implementation for
CRC implementation for
In this scheme,
The size of
The CRC of
The above expression explains how
CRC implementation by parallel processing.
As a consequence, the number of variables that needs to be precomputed is
It is clear that the memory that needs to store the variables increases with the transport block size. To reduce the memory,
In this way, the variables that need to be precomputed include
As a consequence, the number of variables that needs to be precomputed is
In this scheme,
The size of
The CRC of
where
CRC implementation by serial processing.
As a consequence, the number of variables that needs to be precomputed is
It is clear that the memory that needs to store the variables increases with the transport block size. To reduce the memory,
In this way, the variables that need to be precomputed include
As a consequence, the number of variables that needs to be precomputed is
Sarwate proposes an algorithm based on the lookup table [19]. The detail and the proof of the algorithm can be found in [19]. The Sarwate algorithm is shown in Figure 7 [20]. The Sarwate algorithm uses a single table of 256 32-bit elements and reads the bits byte by byte. Modern processors usually access 32 bits or 64 bits at a time. As a consequence, the Sarwate algorithm is not efficient. Some schemes have been proposed in the literatures to solve this problem.
The Sarwate algorithm.
Kounavis and Berry propose the slicing-by-4 and slicing-by-8 algorithms based on the lookup table [20]. The detail and the proof of the algorithms can be found in [20]. The slicing-by-4 and slicing-by-8 algorithms are shown in Figures 8 and 9 respectively [20]. The slicing-by-4 algorithm uses four tables of 256 32-bit elements and reads 32 bits at a time. The slicing-by-8 algorithm uses eight tables of 256 32-bit elements and reads 64 bits at a time. The performance of the slicing-by-4 and slicing-by-8 algorithms is improved compared to the Sarwate algorithm.
The slicing-by-4 algorithm.
The slicing-by-8 algorithm.
In 5G NR, the transport block consists of up to million bits and the code block consists of up to 8448 bits. Due to the difference in the size of the transport block and the code block, the scheme of the CRC processing suitable for the transport block and that suitable for the code block are different. This chapter gives an overview of the CRC implementation in 5G NR.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
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\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
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\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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Social marketing strategies can also be used to promote behavioral change and help individuals transform their lives, achieve well-being, and adopt prosocial behaviors. In this chapter, we seek to analyze with a netnographic study, how SNS are being employed by nonprofits and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) to enable citizens and consumers to participate in different programs and activities that promote social transformation and well-being. A particular interest is to identify how organizations are using behavioral economic tactics to nudge individuals and motivate them to engage in prosocial actions. 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Three dimensions of sustainability, namely environment, economy, and society, are taken into account. Firstly, interaction among globalization and environment is discussed. This interaction is characterized by analyzing the effects of globalization on energy and resources consumption, greenhouse gases emission, and local pollution. Then, the relationship between the existing green growth economic model and sustainability is examined in the context of globalization. Alternatives to the green growth model are also explored. Furthermore, implication of globalization on social sustainability is investigated by considering quality of life, urbanization, and equality. Existing knowledge gaps are discussed, and finally, an approach to sustainable globalization is presented based on holistic interactions among environment, economy, and society.",book:{id:"11476",title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg"},signatures:"Parakram Pyakurel"},{id:"81642",title:"Sustainability of Soil Chemical Properties and Nutrient Relationships in Dairy and Beef Cattle in Antioquia, Colombia",slug:"sustainability-of-soil-chemical-properties-and-nutrient-relationships-in-dairy-and-beef-cattle-in-an",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104647",abstract:"This chapter has been written with the purpose of increasing knowledge regarding the characteristics of soils dedicated to dairy and beef cattle farming in Antioquia, Colombia. Statistical analysis included several generalised additive models, with additive, smoothing, and tensor effects, such as geographic position and chemical parameters. Findings showed most farms belonged to small producers, 86.5% of cattle farms being family owned. Rotational grazing is the predominant system in 93% of farms; 58% of dairy farms and 94% of beef cattle farms do not fertilise their pastures. Results show high variability of soil chemical parameters. There are high levels of iron and low levels of sodium. Macronutrients, such as phosphorus and potassium show high levels in some dairy subregions and medium to low levels in others. Calcium (Ca) and magnesium levels are low for all subregions, excluding “Urabá” and “Occidente.” Most subregions have organic matter (OM) levels below 13%. The distribution of some chemical parameters is related to geographical location, such as pH and Ca, which change according to latitude and longitude. Different correlations were found amongst OM, total nitrogen, Ca, and exchangeable aluminium. Due to the high variability of soil fertility parameters, management programmes should be implemented for each distinctive production system.",book:{id:"11253",title:"Sustainable Rural Development",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11253.jpg"},signatures:"Marisol Medina-Sierra, Mario Cerón-Muñoz and Luis Galeano-Vasco"},{id:"81831",title:"Deep Network Model and Regression Analysis using OLS Method for Predicting Lung Vital Capacity",slug:"deep-network-model-and-regression-analysis-using-ols-method-for-predicting-lung-vital-capacity",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104737",abstract:"With the advancement of technology, many new devices and methods with machine learning and artificial intelligence (ML-AI) have been developed and these methods have begun to play an important role in human life. 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The simulation results showed that the VC parameter was predicted with higher than 90% accuracy using the proposed deep network model with real data.",book:{id:"11604",title:"Decision Science - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11604.jpg"},signatures:"Harun Sümbül"},{id:"81770",title:"Role of Microcredit in Sustainable Rural Development",slug:"role-of-microcredit-in-sustainable-rural-development",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102588",abstract:"Around 1.7 billion adults have no access to transaction accounts in the world. The majority of those are poor and women in rural areas of two developing regions of the world (South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa). Rural areas of these regions are home to the poor and poverty, hunger, unemployment/underemployment is widespread phenomenon. Access to financial services is crucial for economic development. However, poor and smallholder have been neglected by traditional banks for a long time. Microcredit a development model to provide loans to the poor who have no, or little collateral emerged in Bangladesh and has been adopted in many countries of the world. In this chapter, microcredit as a solution to much of the problems of the rural areas has been discussed. Over time there has been a shift in objectives of rural development. Rural development nowadays is about an overall improvement of the human quality of life in terms of economic, social, political, and environmental, issues. Access to microcredit has a positive impact on three dimensions of sustainable rural development; social, economic, and environmental. Microcredit helps in the alleviation of poverty, employment, entrepreneurship, higher productivity from agriculture, women empowerment, gender equality, reduced rural outmigration, better health and education, green entrepreneurship, and adoption of modern technology/inputs in agriculture.",book:{id:"11253",title:"Sustainable Rural Development",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11253.jpg"},signatures:"Muhammad Imran, Shamsheer Ul Haq and Orhan Ozcatalbas"},{id:"80714",title:"Balancing Hedging and Flexing for Inclusive Project Management",slug:"balancing-hedging-and-flexing-for-inclusive-project-management",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102972",abstract:"Current project management often emphasizes hedging through a strictly phased and funneled development of the project scope. However, an increasingly engaged project environment and rise in the complexity of societal challenges cause an emerging demand for more open and interactive ways of managing projects. This requires projects to adopt an integrated management approach that focuses on flexing, which emphasizes the ability of a project to adapt to and co-create with the environment. Overemphasizing flexing, however, may undermine the controlled nature of project management. Therefore, it is necessary to find a form of project management that is both open and interactive without losing control. 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