Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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It has a wide range of implications in growth, differentiation, development, animal polarity, cellular response monitoring, and many disease processes, including cancer. The functional homeostasis of a cell is assumed to be maintained by an intricate network of signaling that evolved through natural selection. This book includes chapters written in the frontier areas of research on cell signaling. Issues such as information thermodynamics, master regulation of immune tolerance, genetically encoded reporter circuits and their applications, hypoxia, and vitamin K2 mediated signaling processes are addressed and discussed by eminent researchers of the field.",isbn:"978-1-83880-066-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-065-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-133-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73411",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"cell-signalling-thermodynamics-and-molecular-control",numberOfPages:84,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e4e17d85c0643c7f4d274fa9adbcc628",bookSignature:"Sajal Ray",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6883.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6175,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:6,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:11,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 26th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 8th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 7th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 26th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173697/images/system/173697.jpeg",biography:"Sajal Ray received an MSc in Zoology and MPhil in Environmental Science from Calcutta University, India, and a Ph.D. from Jadavpur University, India. His thesis reported the immunotoxicity of pesticides in an economically important snail of India. As a recipient of the Fogarty Visiting Fellowship, Dr. Ray carried out his postdoctoral research in cardiac pathology at the National Institutes of Health, USA. His research interest is studying the immunological responses of molluscs, sponges, crabs, and earthworms exposed to pollutants. His team is engaged in understanding the evolutionary mechanism of immunity in phylogeny. He has presented his research at various conferences including the World Congress of Malacology, Washington DC. 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This article reviews cell signaling from the viewpoint of information thermodynamics and describes a method for quantitatively describing signaling. In particular, a theoretical basis for evaluating the efficiency of intracellular signal transduction is presented in which information transmission in intracellular signal transduction is maximized by using entropy coding and the fluctuation theorem. 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It has been reported that tumors induce immune tolerance through the activation of canonical Wnt signaling in dendritic cells promoting T regulatory responses, and also that both canonical and noncanonical Wnt proteins program dendritic cell responses for tolerance. Thus, the Wnt signaling pathway may be a novel and promising therapeutic target for anticancer immunotherapy. 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It has now become clear that HIFs act in the heart of a pathway where oxygen may be considered as a signaling entity recognized by molecular sensors conveying the oxygen signal to the transcriptional regulator HIFs as distal effectors. The pathway is under multiple levels of regulatory control shaping the cellular response to hypoxia and gives hypoxia signaling an intricate and dynamic activity profile. These include regulatory mechanisms within the HIF pathway as well as diverse interplay with other metabolic and signaling pathways of critical cellular functions. The emerging model reflects a multi-level regulatory network that apparently affects all aspects of cell physiology.",signatures:"Zsolt Fabian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64571",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64571",authors:[{id:"253695",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zsolt",surname:"Fabian",slug:"zsolt-fabian",fullName:"Zsolt Fabian"}],corrections:null},{id:"65878",title:"Vitamin K2: A Vitamin that Works like a Hormone, Impinging on Gene Expression",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80388",slug:"vitamin-k2-a-vitamin-that-works-like-a-hormone-impinging-on-gene-expression",totalDownloads:1884,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Vitamin K2 binds to the intranuclear receptor SXR and results in the activation of a plethora of genes, both directly and indirectly. Among these genes are important biological markers of cellular characteristics or features (also known as cell phenotypes), as well as a set of molecules known to be involved in both hormone-induced, G-protein-mediated cell signalling, either directly or indirectly activating so-called sirtuins and/or histone deacetylaces (HDACs), known as determinants of cell types and their specific functions in a given tissue. Hence, vitamin K2 may be closely involved in or serving as a traditional molecular ‘link’ between hormonal receptors and intracellular signalling pathways. It has been stated that a true hormone is a product of living cells, which circulates in body fluids (such as blood) and elicits a specific and often stimulatory effect on the activity of cells situated remotely from its point of origin. A large bulk of evidence published over the past 10 years establishes vitamin K2 in this category of substances. Hence, vitamin K2 should be considered and consequently classified as a hormone.",signatures:"Jan Oxholm Gordeladze",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65878",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65878",authors:[{id:"36345",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Gordeladze",slug:"jan-gordeladze",fullName:"Jan Gordeladze"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5899",title:"Organismal and Molecular Malacology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7f042a23fd6991a546812db126ef875",slug:"organismal-and-molecular-malacology",bookSignature:"Sajal Ray",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5899.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal 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\r\n\tThe neuron-centered view of the brain and spinal cord function and disease is no longer unassailable. It is increasingly apparent that non-neuronal cellular constituents, once regarded as solely homeostatic and ancillary, share with neurons key roles affecting brain communication, including neuroplastic modulation, synapse formation, alteration, and signal coherency. Of these cells, astrocytes are the most abundant, comprising nearly five times the number of neurons present in the brain. All brain synapses, moreover, include astrocytes, which envelope the synaptic junction to form a distinctive tri-partite structure regarded as the operational unit of the synaptic cell to cell communication. Current evidence indicates that in addition to their homeostatic roles, astrocytes complement the fast form of communication characteristic of neurons, by modulating key parameters affecting transmission and promoting slower communication forms like the LTP and LTD, oscillatory patterning, and brain waves. As such astrocytes are now being considered as critical elements in the etiology of many neurological brain diseases, from epilepsy and psychiatric diseases, degenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s and ALS, to stroke and trauma. Huntington's disease, for example, is characterized by a progressive increase in reactive astrocytes with hypertrophic soma throughout the brain striatum. This book will review the current state of the field, identifying novel features that enable these critical cells to contribute to cognitive function and that give rise to etiopathology when they are impaired.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-850-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-849-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-851-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"8b6a8e2bb5f070305768945fdef8eed2",bookSignature:"Prof. Denis Larrivee",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10744.jpg",keywords:"Astrocyte Morphogenesis, Synaptic Plasticity, Synaptic Shielding, Reactive Astrogliosis, Astroglial Asthenia, ALS, Huntington's Disease, Alzheimer’s’ Disease, Nfkb Activation, JAK-STAT3 Pathway, Astrocyte Therapies, Thrombospondin",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 11th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 14th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 13th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 1st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 31st 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A leading researcher in global brain function, Dr. Larrivee is an expert panel member on the IEEE sponsored, medical neurotechnology ethics framework, editor-author of 5 books, and the author of 95 publications.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",middleName:null,surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206412/images/system/206412.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Denis Larrivee is a visiting scholar at the Mind and Brain Institute, Las Vegas; University of Navarra Medical School, Spain; and Loyola University Chicago. He has held professorships at Weill Cornell University Medical College, NYC, and Purdue University, Indiana. A former fellow at Yale University\\'s Medical School Dr. Larrivee received the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology\\'s first-place award for studies on photoreceptor degenerative and developmental mechanisms. He is the chief editor of several medical and scientific texts, including topics on brain- computer interfacing, Alzheimer’s disease, neuromodulation and neurostimulation procedures, neuroethics, and sleep pharmacotherapies. He is an editorial board member of the journals Annals of Neurology and Neurological Sciences and EC Neurology. An International Neuroethics Society Expert he is the author of more than ninety papers and book chapters in such varied journals/venues as Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Journal of Neuroscience, Journal of Religion and Mental Health, and IEEE Explore. 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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1. Introduction
Water is the second most important need for life to exist after air. As a result, water quality has been described extensively in the scientific literature. The most popular definition of water quality is “it is the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of water” [1, 2]. Water quality is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species and/or to any human need or purpose [3, 4].
2. Classification of water
Based on its source, water can be divided into ground water and surface water [5]. Both types of water can be exposed to contamination risks from agricultural, industrial, and domestic activities, which may include many types of pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, fertilizers, hazardous chemicals, and oils [6].
Water quality can be classified into four types—potable water, palatable water, contaminated (polluted) water, and infected water [7]. The most common scientific definitions of these types of water quality are as follows:
Potable water: It is safe to drink, pleasant to taste, and usable for domestic purposes [1, 7].
Palatable water: It is esthetically pleasing; it considers the presence of chemicals that do not cause a threat to human health [7].
Contaminated (polluted) water: It is that water containing unwanted physical, chemical, biological, or radiological substances, and it is unfit for drinking or domestic use [7].
Infected water: It is contaminated with pathogenic organism [7].
3. Parameters of water quality
There are three types of water quality parameters physical, chemical, and biological [8, 9]. They are summarized in Table 1.
3.1 Physical parameters of water quality
3.1.1 Turbidity
Turbidity is the cloudiness of water [10]. It is a measure of the ability of light to pass through water. It is caused by suspended material such as clay, silt, organic material, plankton, and other particulate materials in water [2].
Turbidity in drinking water is esthetically unacceptable, which makes the water look unappetizing. The impact of turbidity can be summarized in the following points:
It can increase the cost of water treatment for various uses [11].
The particulates can provide hiding places for harmful microorganisms and thereby shield them from the disinfection process [12].
Suspended materials can clog or damage fish gills, decreasing its resistance to diseases, reducing its growth rates, affecting egg and larval maturing, and affecting the efficiency of fish catching method [13, 14].
Suspended particles provide adsorption media for heavy metals such as mercury, chromium, lead, cadmium, and many hazardous organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and many pesticides [15].
The amount of available food is reduced [15] because higher turbidity raises water temperatures in light of the fact that suspended particles absorb more sun heat. Consequently, the concentration of the dissolved oxygen (DO) can be decreased since warm water carries less dissolved oxygen than cold water.
Turbidity is measured by an instrument called nephelometric turbidimeter, which expresses turbidity in terms of NTU or TU. A TU is equivalent to 1 mg/L of silica in suspension [10].
Turbidity more than 5 NTU can be visible to the average person while turbidity in muddy water, it exceeds 100 NTU [10]. Groundwater normally has very low turbidity because of the natural filtration that occurs as the water penetrates through the soil [9, 16].
3.1.2 Temperature
Palatability, viscosity, solubility, odors, and chemical reactions are influenced by temperature [10]. Thereby, the sedimentation and chlorination processes and biological oxygen demand (BOD) are temperature dependent [11]. It also affects the biosorption process of the dissolved heavy metals in water [17, 18]. Most people find water at temperatures of 10–15°C most palatable [10, 19].
3.1.3 Color
Materials decayed from organic matter, namely, vegetation and inorganic matter such as soil, stones, and rocks impart color to water, which is objectionable for esthetic reasons, not for health reasons [10, 20].
Color is measured by comparing the water sample with standard color solutions or colored glass disks [10]. One color unit is equivalent to the color produced by a 1 mg/L solution of platinum (potassium chloroplatinate (K2PtCl6)) [10].
The color of a water sample can be reported as follows:
Apparent color is the entire water sample color and consists of both dissolved and suspended components color [10].
True color is measured after filtering the water sample to remove all suspended material [19].
Color is graded on scale of 0 (clear) to 70 color units. Pure water is colorless, which is equivalent to 0 color units [10].
3.1.4 Taste and odor
Taste and odor in water can be caused by foreign matter such as organic materials, inorganic compounds, or dissolved gasses [19]. These materials may come from natural, domestic, or agricultural sources [21].
The numerical value of odor or taste is determined quantitatively by measuring a volume of sample A and diluting it with a volume of sample B of an odor-free distilled water so that the odor of the resulting mixture is just detectable at a total mixture volume of 200 ml [19, 22]. The unit of odor or taste is expressed in terms of a threshold number as follows:
TONorTTN=A+B/AE1
where TON is the threshold odor number and TTN is the threshold taste number.
3.1.5 Solids
Solids occur in water either in solution or in suspension [22]. These two types of solids can be identified by using a glass fiber filter that the water sample passes through [22]. By definition, the suspended solids are retained on the top of the filter and the dissolved solids pass through the filter with the water [10].
If the filtered portion of the water sample is placed in a small dish and then evaporated, the solids as a residue. This material is usually called total dissolved solids or TDS [10].
Total solidTS=Total dissolved solidTDS+Total suspended solidTSSE2
Water can be classified by the amount of TDS per liter as follows:
freshwater: <1500 mg/L TDS;
brackish water: 1500–5000 mg/L TDS;
saline water: >5000 mg/L TDS.
The residue of TSS and TDS after heating to dryness for a defined period of time and at a specific temperature is defined as fixed solids. Volatile solids are those solids lost on ignition (heating to 550°C) [10].
These measures are helpful to the operators of the wastewater treatment plant because they roughly approximate the amount of organic matter existing in the total solids of wastewater, activated sludge, and industrial wastes [1, 22]. Figure 1 describes the interrelationship of solids found in water [22]. They are calculated as follows [10]:
Total solids:
Figure 1.
Interrelationship of solids found in water [22].
Total solidsmg/L=TSA–TSB×1000/samplemLE3
where TSA = weight of dried residue + dish in milligrams and TSB = weight of dish in milligrams.
Total dissolved solids:
Total dissolved solidsmg/L=TDSA–TDSB×1000/samplemLE4
where TDSA = weight of dried residue + dish in milligrams and TDSB = weight of dish in milligrams.
Total suspended solids:
Total suspended solidsmg/L=TSSA–TSSB×1000/samplemLE5
where TSSA = weight of dish and filter paper + dried residue and TSSB = weight of dish and filter paper in milligram.
where VSSA = weight of residue + dish and filter before ignition, mg and VSSB = weight of residue + dish and filter after ignition, mg.
3.1.6 Electrical conductivity (EC)
The electrical conductivity (EC) of water is a measure of the ability of a solution to carry or conduct an electrical current [22]. Since the electrical current is carried by ions in solution, the conductivity increases as the concentration [10] of ions increases. Therefore, it is one of the main parameters used to determine the suitability of water for irrigation and firefighting.
Units of its measurement are as follows:
U.S. units = micromhos/cm
S.I. units = milliSiemens/m (mS/m) or dS/m (deciSiemens/m)
where (mS/m) = 10 umho/cm (1000 μS/cm = 1 dS/m).
Pure water is not a good conductor of electricity [2, 10]. Typical conductivity of water is as follows:
Ultra-pure water: 5.5 × 10−6 S/m;
Drinking water: 0.005–0.05 S/m;
Seawater: 5 S/m.
The electrical conductivity can be used to estimate the TDS value of water as follows [10, 22]:
TDSmg/L≅ECdS/mor umho/cm×0.55–0.7E7
TDS can be used to estimate the ionic strength of water in the applications of groundwater recharging by treated wastewater [22]. The normal method of measurement is electrometric method [10].
3.2 Chemical parameters of water quality
3.2.1 pH
pH is one of the most important parameters of water quality. It is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration [9, 12]. It is a dimensionless number indicating the strength of an acidic or a basic solution [23]. Actually, pH of water is a measure of how acidic/basic water is [19, 20]. Acidic water contains extra hydrogen ions (H+) and basic water contains extra hydroxyl (OH−) ions [2].
As shown in Figure 2, pH ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pH of less than 7 indicates acidity, whereas a pH of greater than 7 indicates a base solution [2, 24]. Pure water is neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at 25°C. Normal rainfall has a pH of approximately 5.6 (slightly acidic) owing to atmospheric carbon dioxide gas [10]. Safe ranges of pH for drinking water are from 6.5 to 8.5 for domestic use and living organisms need [24].
Figure 2.
pH of water.
A change of 1 unit on a pH scale represents a 10-fold change in the pH [10], so that water with pH of 7 is 10 times more acidic than water with a pH of 8, and water with a pH of 5 is 100 times more acidic than water with a pH of 7. There are two methods available for the determination of pH: electrometric and colorimetric methods [10].
Excessively high and low pHs can be detrimental for the use of water. A high pH makes the taste bitter and decreases the effectiveness of the chlorine disinfection, thereby causing the need for additional chlorine [21]. The amount of oxygen in water increases as pH rises. Low-pH water will corrode or dissolve metals and other substances [10].
Pollution can modify the pH of water, which can damage animals and plants that live in the water [10].
The effects of pH on animals and plants can be summarized as follows:
Most aquatic animals and plants have adapted to life in water with a specific pH and may suffer from even a slight change [15].
Even moderately acidic water (low pH) can decrease the number of hatched fish eggs, irritate fish and aquatic insect gills, and damage membranes [14].
Water with very low or high pH is fatal. A pH below 4 or above 10 will kill most fish, and very few animals can endure water with a pH below 3 or above 11 [15].
Amphibians are extremely endangered by low pH because their skin is very sensitive to contaminants [15]. Some scientists believe that the current decrease in amphibian population throughout the globe may be due to low pH levels induced by acid rain.
The effects of pH on other chemicals in water can be summarized as follows:
Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, and chromium dissolve more easily in highly acidic water (lower pH). This is important because many heavy metals become much more toxic when dissolved in water [21].
A change in the pH can change the forms of some chemicals in the water. Therefore, it may affect aquatic plants and animals [21]. For instance, ammonia is relatively harmless to fish in neutral or acidic water. However, as the water becomes more alkaline (the pH increases), ammonia becomes progressively more poisonous to these same organisms.
3.2.2 Acidity
Acidity is the measure of acids in a solution. The acidity of water is its quantitative capacity to neutralize a strong base to a selected pH level [10]. Acidity in water is usually due to carbon dioxide, mineral acids, and hydrolyzed salts such as ferric and aluminum sulfates [10]. Acids can influence many processes such as corrosion, chemical reactions and biological activities [10].
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or from the respiration of aquatic organisms causes acidity when dissolved in water by forming carbonic acid (H2CO3). The level of acidity is determined by titration with standard sodium hydroxide (0.02 N) using phenolphthalein as an indicator [10, 20].
3.2.3 Alkalinity
The alkalinity of water is its acid-neutralizing capacity comprised of the total of all titratable bases [10]. The measurement of alkalinity of water is necessary to determine the amount of lime and soda needed for water softening (e.g., for corrosion control in conditioning the boiler feed water) [22]. Alkalinity of water is mainly caused by the presence of hydroxide ions (OH−), bicarbonate ions (HCO3−), and carbonate ions (CO32−), or a mixture of two of these ions in water. As stated in the following equation, the possibility of OH− and HCO3− ions together are not possible because they react together to produce CO32− ions:
OH−+HCO3−→CO32−+H2OE8
Alkalinity is determined by titration with a standard acid solution (H2SO4 of 0.02 N) using selective indicators (methyl orange or phenolphthalein).
The high levels of either acidity or alkalinity in water may be an indication of industrial or chemical pollution. Alkalinity or acidity can also occur from natural sources such as volcanoes. The acidity and alkalinity in natural waters provide a buffering action that protects fish and other aquatic organisms from sudden changes in pH. For instance, if an acidic chemical has somehow contaminated a lake that had natural alkalinity, a neutralization reaction occurs between the acid and alkaline substances; the pH of the lake water remains unchanged. For the protection of aquatic life, the buffering capacity should be at least 20 mg/L as calcium carbonate.
3.2.4 Chloride
Chloride occurs naturally in groundwater, streams, and lakes, but the presence of relatively high chloride concentration in freshwater (about 250 mg/L or more) may indicate wastewater pollution [7]. Chlorides may enter surface water from several sources including chloride-containing rock, agricultural runoff, and wastewater.
Chloride ions Cl− in drinking water do not cause any harmful effects on public health, but high concentrations can cause an unpleasant salty taste for most people. Chlorides are not usually harmful to people; however, the sodium part of table salt has been connected to kidney and heart diseases [25]. Small amounts of chlorides are essential for ordinary cell functions in animal and plant life.
Sodium chloride may impart a salty taste at 250 mg/L; however, magnesium or calcium chloride are generally not detected by taste until reaching levels of 1000 mg/L [10]. Standards for public drinking water require chloride levels that do not exceed 250 mg/L. There are many methods to measure the chloride concentration in water, but the normal one is the titration method by silver nitrate [10].
3.2.5 Chlorine residual
Chlorine (Cl2) does not occur naturally in water but is added to water and wastewater for disinfection [10]. While chlorine itself is a toxic gas, in dilute aqueous solution, it is not harmful to human health. In drinking water, a residual of about 0.2 mg/L is optimal. The residual concentration which is maintained in the water distribution system ensures good sanitary quality of water [11].
Chlorine can react with organics in water forming toxic compounds called trihalomethanes or THMs, which are carcinogens such as chloroform CHCl3 [11, 22]. Chlorine residual is normally measured by a color comparator test kit or spectrophotometer [10].
3.2.6 Sulfate
Sulfate ions (SO42−) occur in natural water and in wastewater. The high concentration of sulfate in natural water is usually caused by leaching of natural deposits of sodium sulfate (Glauber’s salt) or magnesium sulfate (Epson salt) [11, 26]. If high concentrations are consumed in drinking water, there may be objectionable tastes or unwanted laxative effects [26], but there is no significant danger to public health.
3.2.7 Nitrogen
There are four forms of nitrogen in water and wastewater: organic nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen, and nitrate nitrogen [10]. If water is contaminated with sewage, most of the nitrogen is in the forms of organic and ammonia, which are transformed by microbes to form nitrites and nitrates [22]. Nitrogen in the nitrate form is a basic nutrient to the growth of plants and can be a growth-limiting nutrient factor [10].
A high concentration of nitrate in surface water can stimulate the rapid growth of the algae which degrades the water quality [22]. Nitrates can enter the groundwater from chemical fertilizers used in the agricultural areas [22]. Excessive nitrate concentration (more than 10 mg/L) in drinking water causes an immediate and severe health threat to infants [19]. The nitrate ions react with blood hemoglobin, thereby reducing the blood’s ability to hold oxygen which leads to a disease called blue baby or methemoglobinemia [10, 19].
3.2.8 Fluoride
A moderate amount of fluoride ions (F−) in drinking water contributes to good dental health [10, 19]. About 1.0 mg/L is effective in preventing tooth decay, particularly in children [10].
Excessive amounts of fluoride cause discolored teeth, a condition known as dental fluorosis [11, 19, 26]. The maximum allowable levels of fluoride in public water supplies depend on local climate [26]. In the warmer regions of the country, the maximum allowable concentration of fluoride for potable water is 1.4 mg/L; in colder climates, up to 2.4 mg/L is allowed.
There are four methods to determine ion fluoride in water; the selection of the used method depends on the type of water sample [10].
3.2.9 Iron and manganese
Although iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) do not cause health problems, they impart a noticeable bitter taste to drinking water even at very low concentration [10, 11].
These metals usually occur in groundwater in solution as ferrous (Fe2+) and manganous (Mn2+) ions. When these ions are exposed to air, they form the insoluble ferric (Fe3+) and manganic (Mn3+) forms making the water turbid and unacceptable to most people [10].
These ions can also cause black or brown stains on laundry and plumbing fixtures [7]. They are measured by many instrumental methods such as atomic absorption spectrometry, flame atomic absorption spectrometry, cold vapor atomic absorption spectrometry, electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry, and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) [10].
3.2.10 Copper and zinc
Copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) are nontoxic if found in small concentrations [10]. Actually, they are both essential and beneficial for human health and growth of plants and animals [25]. They can cause undesirable tastes in drinking water. At high concentrations, zinc imparts a milky appearance to the water [10]. They are measured by the same methods used for iron and manganese measurements [10].
3.2.11 Hardness
Hardness is a term used to express the properties of highly mineralized waters [10]. The dissolved minerals in water cause problems such as scale deposits in hot water pipes and difficulty in producing lather with soap [11].
Calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions cause the greatest portion of hardness in naturally occurring waters [9]. They enter water mainly from contact with soil and rock, particularly limestone deposits [10, 27].
These ions are present as bicarbonates, sulfates, and sometimes as chlorides and nitrates [10, 26]. Generally, groundwater is harder than surface water. There are two types of hardness:
Temporary hardness which is due to carbonates and bicarbonates can be removed by boiling, and
Permanent hardness which is remaining after boiling is caused mainly by sulfates and chlorides [10, 21, 22]
Water with more than 300 mg/L of hardness is generally considered to be hard, and more than 150 mg/L of hardness is noticed by most people, and water with less than 75 mg/L is considered to be soft.
From health viewpoint, hardness up to 500 mg/L is safe, but more than that may cause a laxative effect [10]. Hardness is normally determined by titration with ethylene diamine tetra acidic acid or (EDTA) and Eriochrome Black and Blue indicators. It is usually expressed in terms of mg/L of CaCO3 [10, 19].
Total hardnessmg/LasCaCO3=calcium hardnessmg/LasCaCO3+magnesium hardnessmg/LasCaCO3E9
An accepted water classification according to its hardness is as in Table 2 [19].
No.
Types of water quality parameters
Physical parameters
Chemical parameters
Biological parameters
1
Turbidity
pH
Bacteria
2
Temperature
Acidity
Algae
3
Color
Alkalinity
Viruses
4
Taste and odor
Chloride
Protozoa
5
Solids
Chlorine residual
6
Electrical conductivity (EC)
Sulfate
7
Nitrogen
8
Fluoride
9
Iron and manganese
10
Copper and zinc
11
Hardness
12
Dissolved oxygen
13
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
14
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
15
Toxic inorganic substances
16
Toxic organic substances
17
Radioactive substances
Table 1.
Parameters of water quality.
Water classification
Total hardness concentration as mg/L as CaCO3
Soft water
<50 mg/L as CaCO3
Moderately hard
50–150 mg/L as CaCO3
Hard water
150–300 mg/L as CaCO3
Very hard
>300 mg/L as CaCO3
Table 2.
Classification of water according to its hardness.
3.2.12 Dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is considered to be one of the most important parameters of water quality in streams, rivers, and lakes. It is a key test of water pollution [10]. The higher the concentration of dissolved oxygen, the better the water quality.
Oxygen is slightly soluble in water and very sensitive to temperature. For example, the saturation concentration at 20°C is about 9 mg/L and at 0°C is 14.6 mg/L [22].
The actual amount of dissolved oxygen varies depending on pressure, temperature, and salinity of the water. Dissolved oxygen has no direct effect on public health, but drinking water with very little or no oxygen tastes unpalatable to some people.
There are three main methods used for measuring dissolved oxygen concentrations: the colorimetric method—quick and inexpensive, the Winkler titration method—traditional method, and the electrometric method [10].
3.2.13 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
Bacteria and other microorganisms use organic substances for food. As they metabolize organic material, they consume oxygen [10, 22]. The organics are broken down into simpler compounds, such as CO2 and H2O, and the microbes use the energy released for growth and reproduction [22].
When this process occurs in water, the oxygen consumed is the DO in the water. If oxygen is not continuously replaced by natural or artificial means in the water, the DO concentration will reduce as the microbes decompose the organic materials. This need for oxygen is called the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). The more organic material there is in the water, the higher the BOD used by the microbes will be. BOD is used as a measure of the power of sewage; strong sewage has a high BOD and weak sewage has low BOD [22].
The complete decomposition of organic material by microorganisms takes time, usually 20 d or more under ordinary circumstances [22]. The quantity of oxygen used in a specified volume of water to fully decompose or stabilize all biodegradable organic substances is called the ultimate BOD or BODL.
BOD is a function of time. At time = 0, no oxygen will have been consumed and the BOD = 0. As each day goes by, oxygen is used by the microbes and the BOD increases. Ultimately, the BODL is reached and the organic materials are completely decomposed.
A graph of the BOD versus time is illustrated as in Figure 3. This is called the BOD curve, which can be expressed mathematically by the following equation:
Figure 3.
BOD curve [22].
BODt=BODL×1−10−ktE10
where BODt = BOD at any time t, mg/L; BODL = ultimate BOD, mg/L; k = a constant representing the rate of the BOD reaction; t = time, d.
The value of the constant rate k depends on the temperature, the type of organic materials, and the type of microbes exerting the BOD [22].
3.2.14 Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a parameter that measures all organics: the biodegradable and the non-biodegradable substances [22]. It is a chemical test using strong oxidizing chemicals (potassium dichromate), sulfuric acid, and heat, and the result can be available in just 2 h [10]. COD values are always higher than BOD values for the same sample [22].
3.2.15 Toxic inorganic substances
A wide variety of inorganic toxic substances may be found in water in very small or trace amounts. Even in trace amounts, they can be a danger to public health [11]. Some toxic substances occur from natural sources but many others occur due to industrial activities and/or improper management of hazardous waste [22]. They can be divided into two groups:
Metallic compounds: This group includes some heavy metals that are toxic, namely, cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), silver (Ag), arsenic (As), barium (Ba), thallium (Tl), and selenium (Se) [22, 28]. They have a wide range of dangerous effects that differ from one metal to another. They may be acute fatal poisons such as (As) and (Cr6+) or may produce chronic diseases such as (Cd, Hg, Pb, and Tl) [21, 29, 30, 31, 32]. The heavy metals concentration can be determined by atomic absorption photometers, spectrophotometer, or inductively coupled plasma (ICP) for very low concentration [10].
Nonmetallic compounds: This group includes nitrates (NO3−) and cyanides (CN−), nitrate has been discussed with the nitrogen in the previous section. Regarding cyanide, as Mackenzie stated [11] it causes oxygen deprivation by binding the hemoglobin sites and prevents the red blood cell from carrying the oxygen [11]. This causes a blue skin color syndrome, which is called cyanosis [33]. It also causes chronic effects on the central nervous system and thyroid [33]. Cyanide is normally measured by colorimetric, titrimetric, or electrometric methods [10].
3.2.16 Toxic organic substances
There are more than 100 compounds in water that have been listed in the literature as toxic organic compounds [11, 22]. They will not be found naturally in water; they are usually man-made pollutants. These compounds include insecticides, pesticides, solvents, detergents, and disinfectants [11, 21, 22]. They are measured by highly sophisticated instrumental methods, namely, gas chromatographic (GC), high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC), and mass spectrophotometric [10].
3.2.17 Radioactive substances
Potential sources of radioactive substances in water include wastes from nuclear power plants, industries, or medical research using radioactive chemicals and mining of uranium ores or other radioactive materials [11, 21]. When radioactive substances decay, they release beta, alpha, and gamma radiation [34]. Exposure of humans and other living things to radiation can cause genetic and somatic damage to the living tissues [34, 35].
Radon gas is of a great health concern because it occurs naturally in groundwater and is a highly volatile gas, which can be inhaled during the showering process [35]. For drinking water, there are established standards commonly used for alpha particles, beta particles, photons emitters, radium-226 and -228, and uranium [34, 35].
The unit of radioactivity used in water quality applications is the picocurie per liter (pCi/L); 1 pCi is equivalent to about two atoms disintegrating per minute. There are many sophisticated instrumental methods to measure it [35].
3.3 Biological parameters of water quality
One of the most helpful indicators of water quality may be the presence or lack of living organisms [10, 15]. Biologists can survey fish and insect life of natural waters and assess the water quality on the basis of a computed species diversity index (SDI) [15, 19, 36, 37]; hence, a water body with a large number of well-balanced species is regarded as a healthy system [17]. Some organisms can be used as an indication for the existence of pollutants based on their known tolerance for a specified pollutant [17].
Microorganisms exist everywhere in nature [38]. Human bodies maintain a normal population of microbes in the intestinal tract; a big portion of which is made up of coliform bacteria [38]. Although there are millions of microbes per milliliter in wastewater, most of them are harmless [37]. It is only harmful when wastewater contains wastes from people infected with diseases that the presence of harmful microorganisms in wastewater is likely to occur [38].
3.3.1 Bacteria
Bacteria are considered to be single-celled plants because of their cell structure and the way they ingest food [10, 37]. Bacteria occur in three basic cell shapes: rod-shaped or bacillus, sphere-shaped or coccus, and spiral-shaped or spirellus [19]. In less than 30 min, a single bacterial cell can mature and divide into two new cells [39].
Under favorable conditions of food supply, temperature, and pH, bacteria can reproduce so rapidly that a bacterial culture may contain 20 million cells per milliliter after just 1 day [22, 37]. This rapid growth of visible colonies of bacteria on a suitable nutrient medium makes it possible to detect and count the number of bacteria in water [39].
There are several distinctions among the various species of bacteria. One distinction depends on how they metabolize their food [38]. Bacteria that require oxygen for their metabolism are called aerobic bacteria, while those live only in an oxygen-free environment are called anaerobic bacteria. Some species called facultative bacteria can live in either the absence or the presence of oxygen [37, 38, 39].
At low temperatures, bacteria grow and reproduce slowly. As the temperature increases, the rate of growth and reproduction doubles in every additional 10°C (up to the optimum temperature for the species) [38]. The majority of the species of bacteria having an optimal temperature of about 35°C [39].
A lot of dangerous waterborne diseases are caused by bacteria, namely, typhoid and paratyphoid fever, leptospirosis, tularemia, shigellosis, and cholera [19]. Sometimes, the absence of good sanitary practices results in gastroenteritis outbreaks of one or more of those diseases [19].
3.3.2 Algae
Algae are microscopic plants, which contain photosynthetic pigments, such as chlorophyll [37, 39]. They are autotrophic organisms and support themselves by converting inorganic materials into organic matter by using energy from the sun, during this process they take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen [38, 39]. They are also important for wastewater treatment in stabilization ponds [22]. Algae are primarily nuisance organisms in the water supply because of the taste and odor problems they create [2, 16]. Certain species of algae cause serious environmental and public health problems; for example, blue-green algae can kill cattle and other domestic animals if the animals drink water containing those species [37, 39].
3.3.3 Viruses
Viruses are the smallest biological structures known to contain all genetic information necessary for their own reproduction [19]. They can only be seen by a powerful electronic microscope [39]. Viruses are parasites that need a host to live [39]. They can pass through filters that do not permit the passage of bacteria [37]. Waterborne viral pathogens are known to cause infectious hepatitis and poliomyelitis [19, 25, 37]. Most of the waterborne viruses can be deactivated by the disinfection process conducted in the water treatment plant [19].
3.3.4 Protozoa
Protozoa are single-celled microscopic animal [19], consume solid organic particles, bacteria, and algae for food, and they are in turn ingested as food by higher level multicellular animals [37]. Aquatic protozoa are floating freely in water and sometimes called zooplankton [37]. They form cysts that are difficult to inactivate by disinfection [19].
3.3.5 Indicator organisms
A very important biological indicator of water and pollution is the group of bacteria called coliforms [20]. Pathogenic coliforms always exist in the intestinal system of humans, and millions are excreted with body wastes [37]. Consequently, water that has been recently contaminated with sewage will always contain coliforms [19].
A particular species of coliforms found in domestic sewage is Escherichia coli or E. coli [22]. Even if the water is only slightly polluted, they are very likely to be found. There are roughly 3 million of E. coli bacteria in 100 mL volume of untreated sewage [10]. Coliform bacteria are aggressive organisms and survive in the water longer than most pathogens. There are normally two methods to test the coliform bacteria—the membrane filter method and multiple-tube fermentation method [10, 37]. Since the test of coliform bacteria is very important for public health, the first method will be described in details in the coming section.
3.3.5.1 Testing for coliforms: membrane filter method
A measured volume of sample is filtered through a special membrane filter by applying a partial vacuum [10, 39].
The filter, a flat paper-like disk, has uniform microscopic pores small enough to retain the bacteria on its surface while allowing the water to pass through. The filter paper is then placed in a sterile container called a petri dish, which contains a special culture medium that the bacteria use as a food source [39].
Then, the petri dish is usually placed in an incubator, which keeps the temperature at 35°C, for 24 h. After incubation, colonies of coliform bacteria each containing millions of organisms will be visible [10]. The coliform concentration is obtained by counting the number of colonies on the filter; each colony counted represents only one coliform in the original sample [10, 39].
Coliform concentrations are expressed in terms of the number of organisms per 100 mL of water as follows:
coliformsper100mL=number of colonies×100/mLof sampleE11
4. Water quality requirements
Water quality requirements differ depending on the proposed used of water [19]. As reported by Tchobanoglous et al. [19], “water unsuitable for one use may be quite satisfactory for another and water may be considered acceptable for a particular use if water of better quality is not available.”
Water quality requirements should be agreed with the water quality standards, which are put down by the governmental agency and represent the legislation requirements. In general, there are three types of standards: in-stream, potable water, and wastewater effluent [19], each type has its own criteria by using the same methods of measurement. The World Health Organization (WHO) has established minimum standards for drinking water that all countries are recommended to meet [25].
5. Conclusion
The physical, chemical, and biological parameters of water quality are reviewed in terms of definition, sources, impacts, effects, and measuring methods. The classification of water according to its quality is also covered with a specific definition for each type.
\n',keywords:"water quality, physical parameters, chemical parameters, biological parameters, radioactive substances, toxic substances, indicator organisms",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69568.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69568.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69568",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69568",totalDownloads:9645,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:31,totalAltmetricsMentions:3,impactScore:10,impactScorePercentile:97,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"March 2nd 2019",dateReviewed:"September 10th 2019",datePrePublished:"October 16th 2019",datePublished:"July 29th 2020",dateFinished:"October 14th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Since the industrial revolution in the late eighteenth century, the world has discovered new sources of pollution nearly every day. So, air and water can potentially become polluted everywhere. Little is known about changes in pollution rates. The increase in water-related diseases provides a real assessment of the degree of pollution in the environment. This chapter summarizes water quality parameters from an ecological perspective not only for humans but also for other living things. According to its quality, water can be classified into four types. Those four water quality types are discussed through an extensive review of their important common attributes including physical, chemical, and biological parameters. These water quality parameters are reviewed in terms of definition, sources, impacts, effects, and measuring methods.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69568",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69568",book:{id:"7718",slug:"water-quality-science-assessments-and-policy"},signatures:"Nayla Hassan Omer",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Classification of water",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Parameters of water quality",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Physical parameters of water quality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1 Turbidity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2 Temperature",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.1.3 Color",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.4 Taste and odor",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.1.5 Solids",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.1.6 Electrical conductivity (EC)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.2 Chemical parameters of water quality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.2.1 pH",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.2.2 Acidity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.2.3 Alkalinity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"3.2.4 Chloride",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"3.2.5 Chlorine residual",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"3.2.6 Sulfate",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"3.2.7 Nitrogen",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"3.2.8 Fluoride",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"3.2.9 Iron and manganese",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"3.2.10 Copper and zinc",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"3.2.12 Dissolved oxygen",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"3.2.13 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"3.2.14 Chemical oxygen demand (COD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"3.2.15 Toxic inorganic substances",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"3.2.16 Toxic organic substances",level:"3"},{id:"sec_26_3",title:"3.2.17 Radioactive substances",level:"3"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"3.3 Biological parameters of water quality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_3",title:"3.3.1 Bacteria",level:"3"},{id:"sec_29_3",title:"3.3.2 Algae",level:"3"},{id:"sec_30_3",title:"3.3.3 Viruses",level:"3"},{id:"sec_31_3",title:"3.3.4 Protozoa",level:"3"},{id:"sec_32_3",title:"3.3.5 Indicator organisms",level:"3"},{id:"sec_32_4",title:"3.3.5.1 Testing for coliforms: membrane filter method",level:"4"},{id:"sec_36",title:"4. Water quality requirements",level:"1"},{id:"sec_37",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Spellman FR. Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations. 3rd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2013'},{id:"B2",body:'Alley ER. Water Quality Control Handbook. Vol. 2. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2007'},{id:"B3",body:'Shah C. Which Physical, Chemical and Biological Parameters of Water Determine Its Quality?; 2017'},{id:"B4",body:'Tchobanoglous G, Schroeder E. Water Quality: Characteristics, Modeling, Modification. 1985'},{id:"B5",body:'Gray N. Water Technology. 3rd ed. London: CRC Press; 2017'},{id:"B6",body:'Davis ML, Masten SJ. Principles of Environmental Engineering and Science. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2004'},{id:"B7",body:'Chatterjee A. Water Supply Waste Disposal and Environmental Pollution Engineering (Including Odour, Noise and Air Pollution and its Control). 7th ed. Delhi: Khanna Publishers; 2001'},{id:"B8",body:'Gray NF. 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European Water. 2007;17:51-62'},{id:"B35",body:'Cothern CR. Radon, Radium, and Uranium in Drinking Water. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2014'},{id:"B36",body:'Alabaster JS, Lloyd RS. Water Quality Criteria for Freshwater Fish. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Butterworths; 1984'},{id:"B37",body:'Nathanson JA. Basic Environmental Technology: Water Supply. New Delhi: Printice-Hall of India; 2004'},{id:"B38",body:'Wiesmann U, Choi IS, Dombrowski E-M. Fundamentals of Biological Wastewater Treatment. Darmstadt: John Wiley & Sons; 2007'},{id:"B39",body:'Mara D, Horan NJ. Handbook of Water and Wastewater Microbiology. London: Elsevier; 2003'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Nayla Hassan Omer",address:"naylahomer@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Department of Environmental Engineering, College of Water and Environmental Engineering, Sudan University for Science and Technology, Khartoum, Sudan
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1. Introduction
Bacteria, fungi (yeasts and molds), mycobacteria, prions, protozoa, and viruses are common pathogens infecting humans and animals. They typically exist within the host or in the environment. It has been observed that these microorganisms exhibit a notable difference in the natural survivability in the environment, as well as susceptibility to chemical and physical inactivation. For example, under ambient and dried conditions, human coronaviruses seem to lose their infectivity in a matter of several hours to several days [1], whereas endospores and prions may remain infectious for years to decades or even indefinitely [2, 3].
As more and more data have become available regarding the survivability and susceptibility of pathogens to microbicides, it has been observed that the pathogens seem to demonstrate an order of susceptibility to chemical and physical inactivation. E. H. Spaulding first proposed a classification system for the sterilization and disinfection of medical instruments based on the infection risk in 1939 [4]. On the basis of this classification, the concept of a hierarchy of pathogen susceptibility was proposed, in which microorganisms are placed into several groups and ranked from least susceptible to most susceptible. In this hierarchy concept, bacterial spores were ranked the least susceptible, followed by mycobacteria, non-enveloped viruses, fungi, vegetative bacteria, and enveloped viruses. The susceptibility hierarchy was also believed to be related to the biochemical and biophysical characteristics of a pathogen [5, 6].
This hierarchy concept has been slightly modified and expanded over the years. For example, prions were added and considered less susceptible to inactivation by microbicides than bacterial spores; small non-enveloped viruses were considered less susceptible than large non-enveloped viruses; and the order between mycobacteria and small non-enveloped viruses was sometimes reversed (Figure 1) [7, 8, 9, 10]. Additionally, it has been suggested that the hierarchy concept may be applied either “vertically” (i.e., ranking of susceptibility between classes of pathogens) and/or “horizontally” (i.e., ranking of susceptibility within a class of pathogens) [11].
Figure 1.
Proposed hierarchy of susceptibility of pathogens to microbicides. Note: slightly different versions of the hierarchy concept have been proposed in the literature. Mycobacteria have been placed above small non-enveloped viruses, and molds have been placed above large non-enveloped viruses in certain versions. In some versions, the small and large non-enveloped viruses are combined; and yeasts and molds may be combined.
The hierarchy concept has been quite useful for enabling scientists to better understand the innate difference among various types of pathogens. In the case of newly emerged pathogens, especially, the hierarchy concept has helped stakeholders design and implement a disinfection strategy swiftly with a reasonable level of confidence. The concept also helps the contaminant control for food, pharmaceutical, and biopharmaceutical products, as it is impractical to test every possible contaminating pathogen, and a robust infectivity assay system may be lacking for certain pathogens (e.g., hepatitis E virus).
Despite its usefulness, the hierarchy concept should be interpreted with caution, as it may oversimply the differences and trending of pathogen susceptibilities. Further examination and refinement of the concept may be necessary; and several important questions should be answered. For example, how often do exceptions to the hierarchy occur and what are the underlying reasons? Could a trending be specific to a given type of chemistry? Is the hierarchy the same between susceptibility to both chemical and physical inactivation? Why do pathogens in the same group, or even the same family or genus, sometimes exhibit striking differences in susceptibility? Is there a way to identify and separate reliable/consistent trending versus blurred/variable trending? A deeper look at the efficacy data for various types of microbicidal actives, especially for non-enveloped viruses, may help stakeholders understand the scope, reliability, and limitation of the hierarchy concept so that it can be best utilized.
This chapter reviews the inactivation efficacy data from the literature against non-enveloped viruses for several commonly used types of chemistries, either in formulated or unformulated form, in an effort to generate a separate relative order of susceptibility among these non-enveloped viruses for each type of chemistry and to differentiate consistent versus variable trending. Physical inactivation approaches are not covered in this chapter, although a significant degree of variation also exists for physical treatments. It is not clear that the physical inactivation approaches, in general, are governed by the same hierarchy to susceptibility as is observed for chemical inactivation approaches [12].
2. Common families of mammalian non-enveloped viruses
Currently, there are a total of 21 families of viruses (including enveloped and non-enveloped) identified for humans [13], which represent only a small part of the entire paradigm of viruses in nature, whose host ranges extend from vertebrates to plants to bacteria. The most common families of non-enveloped viruses for humans and animals include Adenoviridae, Astroviridae, Caliciviridae, Circoviridae, Hepeviridae, Papillomaviridae, Parvoviridae, Picornaviridae, Polyomaviridae, and Reoviridae. The genome structure, size of viral particle, and some representative viruses for each viral family are presented in Table 1.
Family
Example virus
Abbreviation
Genus
Genome
Size (nm)
Adenoviridae
Adenovirus type 2
AdV-2
Mastadenovirus
ds DNA
70–90
Adenovirus type 5
AdV-5
Mastadenovirus
ds DNA
70–90
Adenovirus type 8
AdV-8
Mastadenovirus
ds DNA
70–90
Astroviridae
Human astrovirus
HAstV
Mamastrovirus
ss RNA
28–35
Caliciviridae
Feline calicivirus
FCV
Vesivirus
ss RNA
28–40
Human norovirus
HuNoV
Norovirus
ss RNA
28–40
Murine norovirus
MNV
Norovirus
ss RNA
28–40
Tulane virus
TuV
Recovirus
ss RNA
28–40
Circoviridae
Porcine circovirus
PCV
Circovirus
ss DNA
∼17
Hepeviridae
Hepatitis E virus
HEV
Orthohepevirus
ss DNA
32–34
Papillomaviridae
Human papillomavirus
HPV
Papillomavirus
ds DNA
50–60
Parvoviridae
Bovine parvovirus
BPV
Bocaparvovirus
ss DNA
20–28
Canine parvovirus
CPV
Protoparvovirus
ss DNA
20–25
Human parvovirus B19
B19V
Erythroparvovirus
ss DNA
23–26
Minute virus of mice
MVM (MMV)
Protoparvovirus
ss DNA
20–25
Porcine parvovirus
PPV
Protoparvovirus
ss DNA
20–25
Picornaviridae
Bovine enterovirus
BEV
Enterovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Coxsackievirus
Cox
Enterovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Echovirus 11
Echo11
Enterovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Encephalomyocarditis virus
EMCV
Cardiovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Enterovirus 71
EV-71
Enterovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Enterovirus D68
EV-D68
Enterovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Foot and mouth disease virus
FMDV
Aphthovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Hepatitis A virus
HAV
Hepatovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Poliovirus type 1
PV1
Enterovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Rhinovirus
RV
Enterovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Seneca Valley virus
SVV
Senecavirus
ss RNA
30–32
Polyomaviridae
Bovine polyomavirus
BPyV
Polyomavirus
ds DNA
40–50
Simian virus 40
SV40
Betapolyomavirus
ds DNA
40–50
Reoviridae
Bluetongue virus
BTV
Orbivirus
ds RNA
60–80
Reovirus type 3
REO-3
Orthoreovirus
ds RNA
60–80
Rotavirus
Rota
Rotavirus
ds RNA
60–80
Table 1.
Common families of human and animal non-enveloped viruses.
ss single-stranded;
ds double-stranded.
Among these, the Adenoviridae and Reoviridae families of viruses are generally considered large, non-enveloped viruses. Other non-enveloped viruses are generally considered small, non-enveloped viruses, although it should be noted that the particle sizes of Papillomaviruses and Polyomaviruses are notably larger than those for the rest of the small non-enveloped virus group (Table 1).
It is worth noting that viruses are typically classified taxonomically on the basis of virion properties (size, shape, envelope, physical, and chemical properties, etc.), genome organization, replication mechanism, antigenic properties, and biological properties [13, 14, 15]. The final classification is a combined consideration of these properties. However, the stability and susceptibility to inactivation of a virus may not relate to all of these properties and, as such, may not always align with the taxonomic classification system. For example, the susceptibility of a virus to surfactants may primarily be related to the envelope of the virion and not related to the genome structure or mode of replication.
The susceptibilities of non-enveloped viruses to chemicals have been found to be highly variable and somewhat hard to predict, since they do not always agree with the hierarchy concept. For example, according to the hierarchy concept as modified by Sattar [8], small non-enveloped viruses should be less susceptible than large non-enveloped viruses. Additionally, if there is a fixed hierarchy, all small non-enveloped viruses should either display similar levels of susceptibility or should demonstrate a definitive trend of relative susceptibility, regardless of the type of microbicide. Based on the literature, neither of these predictions appear to hold in every case. The relative order of susceptibility seems chemistry-dependent; and sometimes viruses within the same family or even genus have been found to exhibit unequivocal differences in their susceptibilities (reviewed in [16]). Any trending or hierarchy, therefore, must be reviewed in the context of the type of chemistry, and it should not be assumed that non-enveloped viruses within the same family or genus will always display similar susceptibilities to a given microbicide.
3. Overview of chemical viral inactivation approaches
Viral inactivation may be achieved by chemical and/or physical methods. The subset of chemicals commonly used for inactivation of non-enveloped viruses includes alcohols, oxidizers, halogen compounds, quaternary ammonium compounds, phenolics, aldehydes, acids, and alkalines [17, 18, 19]. These differ with respect to efficacy, stability, toxicity, material or surface compatibility, cost, and sensitivity to organic soil load. Soil load is a term used to signify an organic matrix used to challenge the inactivating efficacy of a microbicide. It is intended to mimic secretions or excretions in which the virus would be released from an infected person or animal. Some chemistries (e.g., sodium hypochlorite, phenolics, and aldehydes) are mostly used for environmental or medical device disinfection. Other chemistries (e.g., ethanol) are more commonly used for hand hygiene, while some others (e.g., quaternary ammonium compounds) may be used for both environmental disinfection and skin antisepsis (Table 2).
Class
Chemical
Typical conc.
Usage
Mechanism of viral inactivation
Sensitivity to soil load
Alcohols
Ethanol
50–95%
Disinfection; Antisepsis
Protein denaturation
+
Isopropanol
70–90%
Disinfection
Protein denaturation
+
Oxidizers
Sodium hypochlorite
0.01–0.5%
Disinfection
Protein/genome damage
++
Chlorine dioxide
0.1–1 mg/L
Disinfection; Water treatment
Protein/genome damage
—
Hydrogen peroxide
0.1–10%
Disinfection; Antisepsis
Lipid/protein/genome damage
+
Hypochlorous acid
0.002–0.1%
Disinfection; Water treatment
Protein/genome damage
++
Peracetic acid
0.01–1%
Disinfection; Sterilization
Protein denaturation
—
Povidone-iodine
0.02–8%
Disinfection; Antisepsis
Protein/genome damage
++
Chlorohexidine
0.02–0.2%
Antisepsis
Protein denaturation
+
QAC
BKC, DDAC, etc.
0.01–0.2%
Disinfection
Lipid/protein damage
+
Low pH
Acids
≤ pH 4
Sanitization; Biomanufacturing
Capsid/protein damage
—
High pH
NaOH, etc.
≥ pH 10
Disinfection; Tissue processing
Capsid/genome damage
—
Aldehydes
Glutaraldehyde
0.02–2%
HLD; Sterilization
Crosslinking/protein & genome damage
—
Formaldehyde
0.1–5%
Disinfection/Preservation
Alkylating/protein & genome damage
—
OPA
0.02–2%
HLD; Sterilization
Crosslinking/protein damage
—
Phenolics
Phenylphenol, etc.
0.05–5%
Disinfection
Protein damage
—
Table 2.
Common types of chemistries used for non-enveloped viral inactivation.
The virucidal efficacy of a product is not only determined by the type and concentration of the chemical, but is also heavily influenced by the formulation, pH, exposure (contact or dwell) time, organic soil load, temperature, and surface characteristics (as applicable), etc. [10, 20, 21, 22]. Given the differences between various testing methods, as well as the intrinsic variability of viral infectivity (titration) assays, a general conclusion on the efficacy of a particular type of active ingredient will be enhanced if the efficacy is derived from multiple sets of data and under various application conditions (such as the concentration of the microbicidal active(s), contact time, formulation matrix (as applicable), and organic soil load, etc.) Additionally, in order best to explore the relative ranking of susceptibility between viruses, or the lack thereof, efficacy data from side-by-side studies wherein the same test methodologies and conditions were used would be preferable. Care should be taken when comparing data from different studies, especially if the formulations, test methods, and test conditions were different.
4. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by alcohols
Alcohols, primarily ethanol and isopropanol, are widely used for hand hygiene and environmental disinfection, and their efficacies against bacteria and viruses have been extensively studied [23, 24, 25]. Ethanol at a concentration of 70–90% and isopropanol at 70% have been broadly shown to be effective against enveloped viruses; however, their efficacies against non-enveloped viruses are much more variable.
The trending of the degree of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses to ethanol and isopropanol is generally clearer and more consistent than it is for many other types of chemistries, thanks to the large amount of data in the literature. The relative ranking of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses seems to differ between ethanol and isopropanol; and the ranking does not appear to align well with the classical virological taxonomy.
For ethanol, parvoviruses and the polyomavirus simian virus 40 have low susceptibility, while rotavirus (a reovirus) is susceptible (Table 3). Viruses in the Picornaviridae family display clear differences in their susceptibilities to ethanol; and even viruses within the same genus display marked differences. For example, hepatitis A virus and human enterovirus 71 are much less susceptible than rhinovirus; and poliovirus, foot-and-mouth disease virus, and coxsackie virus seem to exhibit intermediate levels of susceptibility compared with the aforementioned viruses. The viral family Caliciviridae also has shown drastic differences among family members in the susceptibility to ethanol. Murine norovirus is quite susceptible to ethanol, whereas feline calicivirus, human norovirus, and Tulane virus are significantly more difficult to inactivate with ethanol. The Adenoviridae is another non-enveloped virus family that has shown intrafamily differences, wherein adenovirus 5 is rather susceptible but adenovirus 2 and adenovirus 8 are much less susceptible. The relative order of susceptibility between murine norovirus (a small, non-enveloped virus) and adenovirus types 2 and 8 (two large, non-enveloped viruses) clearly conflicts with the simplified hierarchy concept (Figure 1).
Entries in purple font indicate results from undiluted or diluted formulations with the indicated microbicidal active ingredients.
Interestingly, the above order of susceptibility does not appear to hold the same for isopropanol (Table 3). For example, the polyomavirus simian virus 40 is much more susceptible to isopropanol than many other non-enveloped viruses; and poliovirus appears to display a lower susceptibility, similar to that of hepatitis A virus and human enterovirus 71. Murine norovirus is still more susceptible than feline calicivirus to isopropanol, but not as susceptible as simian virus 40 or rotavirus. The apparent difference between adenovirus 5 and adenovirus 8 that has been observed for ethanol has not been observed for isopropanol.
5. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by oxidizers
An oxidizer or oxidizing agent is a chemical that has the ability to oxidize other molecules, i.e., to accept their electrons. Common oxidizing agents used for disinfection, sterilization, or antisepsis include hydrogen peroxide, peracetic acid, ozone, and halogen-containing compounds such as sodium hypochlorite (bleach), hypochlorous acid, povidone-iodine, chlorohexidine, and chlorine dioxide, etc. These compounds can react with and alter the proteins and nucleic acids of non-enveloped viruses and render them noninfectious. Oxidizers comprise a large group of chemicals, and the relative order of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses to oxidizers seems to vary by specific type of active ingredient (Table 4).
Viral-inoculated lettuce was washed with PAA solution for a defined period of time.
Entries in purple font indicate results from undiluted original or diluted formulations with microbicidal active ingredients.
Parvoviruses are generally among the least susceptible viruses to various types of oxidizers, including sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide, and peracetic acid. However, for sodium hypochlorite, minute virus of mice appears to be more susceptible than porcine parvovirus and canine parvovirus. All picornaviruses appear to exhibit a similar degree of susceptibility to sodium hypochlorite; but within the family of Caliciviridae, feline calicivirus appears to be more susceptible than murine norovirus. Both adenovirus and rotavirus are susceptible to sodium hypochlorite.
The trending for hydrogen peroxide seems more complex than that for sodium hypochlorite. For example, there seems a higher level of variability within the Picornaviridae family. Rhinovirus is quite susceptible to hydrogen peroxide, whereas hepatitis A virus is much less susceptible. Poliovirus seems to be more susceptible than hepatitis A virus but less susceptible than rhinovirus. Similar to the case for sodium hypochlorite, feline calicivirus seems more susceptible than murine norovirus to hydrogen peroxide. Interestingly, adenovirus and rotavirus, two larger non-enveloped viruses, seem to be less susceptible than rhinovirus, a smaller virus, to inactivation by hydrogen peroxide. This is another case where the size of viral particle alone does not appear to dictate the level of susceptibility to a microbicide.
For peracetic acid, hepatitis A virus also seems less susceptible than poliovirus. Both feline calicivirus and murine norovirus are susceptible to peracetic acid and so is adenovirus.
6. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by quaternary ammonium compounds
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC) are widely used as active ingredients for disinfectants. Among the advantages of QAC are good stability, dual function of disinfection and cleaning, surface activity, low toxicity, and lack of odor, etc. The potential limitation in the microbicidal efficacy and possible effect in promoting antimicrobial resistance of QAC have also been discussed in the literature [54, 55].
Quaternary ammonium compounds are generally efficacious on most vegetative bacteria and enveloped viruses. Their efficacies against non-enveloped viruses, however, are generally much weaker. Nevertheless, several non-enveloped viruses, such as rotavirus, rhinovirus, and coxsackievirus A11, have been shown to be susceptible to QAC. The susceptibility levels among the Adenoviridae family of viruses seem to vary, with adenovirus 8 displaying less susceptibility than adenovirus 5. Both feline calicivirus and murine norovirus display low susceptibility to QAC (Table 5). The relative order of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses to QAC does not seem to align well with the relative size of the virions; and the efficacy of QAC is often dependent on the product formulation.
Entries in purple font indicate results from original or diluted formulations with microbicidal active ingredients.
7. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by low pH and high pH
Acids and alkalines, either used alone or in combination with other active ingredients in formulated products, can be an effective means for viral inactivation. Acids may be used for disinfection, sanitization, textile or face mask pretreatment, or viral clearance during biopharmaceutical manufacturing. Alkalines may also be used for disinfection, sanitization, and viral clearance during biopharmaceutical manufacturing and can be effective against even the least susceptible of pathogens, the prions [58].
It has been widely reported that a low-pH treatment (typically at pH 4 and below) can effectively inactivate most enveloped viruses, although some enveloped viruses, such as bovine viral diarrhea virus, still exhibit a relatively low susceptibility to this treatment pH [22]. The range of susceptibilities of non-enveloped viruses to low pH seems quite scattered and often goes against the “conventional wisdom” that non-enveloped viruses are not susceptible to acidic pH (Table 6). For instance, in the family of Parvoviridae, human parvovirus B19 has been found to be markedly susceptible to low pH (completely inactivated after 1–2 h treatment at pH 4), whereas animal parvoviruses, such as minute virus of mice, are not inactivated at all under the same conditions. Interestingly, another human parvovirus (type 4) appears to be less susceptible than B19, but more susceptible than minute virus of mice.
The Picornaviridae family also exhibits disparity with respect to susceptibility to low pH. For instance, hepatitis A virus, poliovirus, human enterovirus 71, and coxsackievirus A9 display low susceptibility (less than 1-log10 reduction at pH 3–4 for 1–2 h), whereas rhinovirus, foot-and-mouth disease virus, and enterovirus EV-D68 are highly susceptible (more than 4-log10 reduction or complete inactivation at pH 3–4 after 20–45 min). Note that human enterovirus 71, coxsackievirus A9, rhinovirus, and enterovirus EV-D68 are all members of the same genus (Enterovirus).
Feline calicivirus and murine norovirus in the family Caliciviridae represent another interesting and convincing example that not all viruses within the same family exhibit the same degree of susceptibility. As an example, feline calicivirus is susceptible to low pH, whereas murine norovirus is much less susceptible. Rotavirus and reovirus (family Reoviridae) also display low susceptibility to low pH. The low susceptibility of murine norovirus and rotavirus to low pH may not be a surprise, since these viruses naturally exist in the digestive track, which has an acidic environment. Feline calicivirus, on the other hand, acts more like a respiratory virus.
Viruses, both enveloped and non-enveloped, are generally susceptible to high pH. At an environment of pH 12 or above, most if not all non-enveloped viruses would be inactivated, with extent depending both on temperature and contact time. Reovirus, simian virus 40, hepatitis A virus, canine parvovirus, poliovirus, murine norovirus, and Tulane virus seem to be less susceptible than minute virus of mice, feline calicivirus, adenovirus, rotavirus, and foot-and-mouth disease virus. It may be worth noting that the order of susceptibility to high pH seems to be in discord with the hierarchy concept by the greatest degree: in this case, an enveloped virus, bovine viral diarrhea virus, seems to be less susceptible than most, if not all, non-enveloped viruses [22]; parvoviruses are not necessarily less susceptible than many other non-enveloped viruses; and the size of the viral particle does not seem to matter much with regard to the degree of susceptibility (Table 7).
Entries in purple font indicate results from undiluted or diluted formulations with microbicidal active ingredients.
8. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by aldehydes
Aldehydes, such as glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde, and ortho-phthaldehyde, are widely used for sterilization, high-level disinfection for critical and semi-critical medical devices, biomanufacturing, and preservation. Their use for regular disinfection, sanitization, or antisepsis has been more limited, primarily due to human toxicity concerns. The efficacy of aldehydes, similar to the case for other types of actives, is concentration-dependent. There have been limited side-by-side comparison studies of the susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses to aldehydes; however, it may be concluded that animal parvoviruses seem to be less susceptible than other viruses, such as poliovirus, hepatitis A virus, feline calicivirus, adenovirus, reovirus, and rotavirus [74]. Within the parvoviruses, porcine parvovirus seems to be less susceptible to aldehydes than minute virus of mice (Table 8).
Entries in purple font indicate results from original or diluted formulations with microbicidal active ingredients.
9. General order of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses to chemical inactivation
In the simplified hierarchy of susceptibility of pathogens to microbicides concept, small non-enveloped viruses are considered less susceptible than large non-enveloped viruses, and both groups of non-enveloped viruses are believed to be less susceptible than enveloped viruses. The hierarchy concept also assumes that the ranking applies to all types of microbicidal actives. Additionally, the hierarchy concept can generally lead to common notions that viruses that share similar virological properties (e.g., same family or genus of virus) may be expected to display similar degrees of susceptibility and that the smaller a virus is, the less susceptible it will be to microbicides in general.
These generalizations are correct, to a degree. For example, most enveloped viruses are indeed more susceptible than non-enveloped viruses to chemical inactivation. It should be noted though that exceptions to the hierarchy concept do exist, e.g., especially in the case of viral susceptibility to acids and alkalines [22], and exceptions are not uncommon for certain other chemistries. The hierarchy concept was never applied specifically to physical inactivation approaches, nor should it be. The evidence for heat inactivation, UV inactivation, and gamma irradiation indicates differing rankings of susceptibility to these modalities. Envelope status and particle size do not, in each case, relate to susceptibility for inactivation by these physical approaches [22, 78, 79, 80].
The validity of the hierarchy concept among non-enveloped viruses is much more blurred. Firstly, the order of susceptibility among non-enveloped viruses, if any generalization may be made, is dependent upon the type of chemistry, and there is no universal order that holds true for all types of chemistries. Secondly, large non-enveloped viruses (adenoviruses, reovirus, rotavirus, etc.) are not always more susceptible than small non-enveloped viruses (parvoviruses, picornaviruses, caliciviruses, etc.). Thirdly, viruses within the same group (e.g., same family or genus) can exhibit profound and unequivocal differences in susceptibility. Finally, the rankings between viruses can be flipped (reversed), or nonexistent, depending on the type of microbicide. This implies that caution should be taken when interpreting the hierarchy concept for making predictions of efficacy for the non-enveloped viruses.
The accuracy and usefulness of a hierarchy concept can be improved if the model is broken into separate chemistries for non-enveloped viruses, since many viruses do exhibit a reliable and consistent trend of susceptibility for a specific type of chemical. Table 9 and Figure 2 provide a summary of the relative order of susceptibility for selected non-enveloped viruses under specific types of chemistry.
Chemical
Lower susceptibility
Medium susceptibility
Higher susceptibility
Ethanol
Animal parvovirus
Poliovirus
Murine norovirus
Simian virus 40
Foot and mouth disease virus
Rhinovirus
Hepatitis A virus
Human norovirus
Adenovirus 5
Enterovirus 71
Feline calicivirus
Rotavirus
Adenovirus 2, 8
Isopropanol
Animal parvovirus
Adenovirus 5, 8
Simian virus 40
Hepatitis A virus
Murine norovirus
Rotavirus
Enterovirus 71
Poliovirus
Feline calicivirus
NaOCl
Porcine parvovirus
Minute virus of mice
Feline calicivirus
Hepatitis A virus
Hepatitis A virus
Adenovirus
Poliovirus
Rotavirus
Enterovirus 71
Murine norovirus
H2O2
Animal parvovirus
Poliovirus
Rhinovirus
Hepatitis A virus
Murine norovirus
Feline calicivirus
Adenovirus
Rotavirus
PAA
Animal parvovirus
Poliovirus
Feline calicivirus
Hepatitis A virus
Murine norovirus
Adenovirus
QAC
Animal parvovirus
Feline calicivirus
Rotavirus
Poliovirus
Murine norovirus
Rhinovirus
Adenovirus 8, 25
Adenovirus 5
Coxsackievirus A11
Low pH
Minute virus of mice
Human parvovirus 4
Feline calicivirus
Hepatitis A virus
Rhinovirus
Poliovirus
Foot and mouth disease virus
Enterovirus 71
Enterovirus EV-D68
Coxsackievirus A9
Human parvovirus B19
Murine norovirus
Rotavirus
Reovirus
High pH
Bovine viral diarrhea virus
Reovirus (enveloped virus)
Murine minute virus
Simian virus 40
Feline calicivirus
Hepatitis A virus
Adenovirus
Canine parvovirus
Rotavirus
Poliovirus
Foot and mouth disease virus
Murine norovirus
Tulane virus
Aldehydes
Porcine parvovirus
Minute virus of mice
Poliovirus
Hepatitis A virus
Feline calicivirus
Adenovirus
Reovirus
Rotavirus
Table 9.
Relative order of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses to chemical inactivation.
Relative order of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses per microbicidal chemistry. Note: various types of adenoviruses exhibit different degrees of susceptibility to ethanol and quaternary ammonium compounds.
10. Discussion
The Spaulding concept of the hierarchy of susceptibility of pathogens to microbicidal inactivation, along with its modifications, has been widely influential. Multiple industries as well as regulatory agencies have adopted or referenced this concept to various degrees [9, 10, 81, 82]. The concept does provide a good tool for understanding the innate differences and trending of susceptibility among various types of pathogens. For the most part, the hierarchy is insightful and valuable. It is particularly helpful when a pathogen is newly emerged, and limited or no knowledge is yet available regarding its level of susceptibility to microbicides [83, 84]. In fact, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (U.S. CDC) use the hierarchy concept as the basis of the Emerging Viral Pathogen Guidance for Antimicrobial Pesticides and public hygiene [10, 82, 85, 86] specifically to deal with just such a possibility.
It should be cautioned, however, that the hierarchy concept is largely oversimplified and by no means perfect [87]. For viruses, although enveloped viruses are usually more susceptible than non-enveloped viruses, certain enveloped viruses such as bovine viral diarrhea virus can be less susceptible than some non-enveloped viruses (e.g., feline calicivirus) under certain chemistries (e.g., low pH and high pH).
The accuracy and applicability of the hierarchy concept are more complex and limited among non-enveloped viruses. The trending is highly dependent on the type of chemistry; and the size of the virion is not always a primary determinant of viral susceptibility among non-enveloped viruses. If a clearer and more consistent trending can be identified among non-enveloped viruses, albeit only specific to a given type of chemistry, the knowledge should be useful.
To generalize an order of susceptibility, for a specific chemistry, data from side-by-side studies wherein viruses are evaluated concurrently by the same test method and under the same conditions should, ideally, be used. When results from different studies are used, caution should be taken to exclude conditional or case-specific differences that result from the test methodology and/or condition. For instance, a surface (carrier) test may give different log10 reduction results than a suspension test of the same microbicide or formulation under certain situations [88]. For example, the data of Kindermann et al. [47] and Tyler et al. [31] indicate that sodium hypochlorite causes a higher log10 reduction value (LRV) when tested in a suspension test than in a surface test. On the other hand, glutaraldehyde has been found to cause similar log reduction in either methodology, while hydrogen peroxide causes higher LRV in the surface test, which is thought to be likely related to the consumption of hydrogen peroxide by the protein in the virus-suspending solution [31].
The organic soil load in which the challenge virus is suspended prior to inoculation can also impact the viral inactivation outcome, especially for oxidizers, alcohols, and QAC. It would be inaccurate or even misleading if a result from a light organic load (e.g., 5% animal serum or phosphate-buffered saline) were to be directly compared with a test that used a heavier organic load (e.g., 90% blood or 20% fecal suspension). Tung et al. [29] reported that 500 ppm sodium hypochlorite inactivated MNV and FCV by ∼3-log10 in the absence of fecal suspension but only 0–0.5 log10 for these viruses in the presence of 20% fecal suspension.
Other testing conditions may also affect the reduction results. For instance, a higher contact temperature may work in the favor of the virucide under investigation, which may result in a higher log reduction. Nemoto et al. [56] reported that a 0.125% glutaraldehyde solution completely inactivated rotavirus after 10 min under ambient temperature, but not when evaluated on ice. The pH and other components in the product formulation could also affect the viral reduction outcome, presumably by activating the chemical and/or by a synergistic or additive effect between the pH and the active chemical [22, 39, 89]. The efficacy of formulated versus non-formulated microbicides may differ even within the same type and concentration of active(s). For example, formulated QAC and ethanol products have been reported to exhibit strong activities against certain non-enveloped viruses albeit the efficacy may be weaker for non-formulated solutions [45, 54, 90, 91]. Therefore, the formulation of the microbicidal active must be considered. The viral stock (i.e., inoculum) preparation method and the challenge viral titer may also affect the reported viral reduction efficacy. For example, purified virus may be more susceptible than crude virus preparations [49]; viral clumps can make the virus less susceptible [92]; and a higher viral challenge titer could make the chemical harder to achieve an expected log10 reduction. Sometimes, viruses propagated in different host cell types may behave differently. It would therefore be ideal if all studies could use a standardized viral preparation and infectivity assay protocol. This is, of course, practically challenging. Last, but not least, the method for preparing the microbicide and the verification of the active concentration might also differ from lab to lab, thus potentially influencing the efficacy results obtained.
Despite these practically hard-to-avoid differences in test methodology and conditions, some generalizations on the pattern of susceptibility among non-enveloped viruses can still be made with confidence. For instance, it is quite apparent that the Picornaviridae family of viruses do not always exhibit a similar level of susceptibility to each other [16, 93]; and even the genus is not a good predictor for susceptibility to microbicides within this family. This reflects the ability of certain members of this family to infect the gastrointestinal tract (i.e., enteroviruses), while others infect primarily the respiratory system. The variation of susceptibility within this viral family is particularly striking for ethanol, hydrogen peroxide, QAC, and low pH.
The family Caliciviridae is another example of the existence of unequivocal intrafamily differences in susceptibility to microbicides [16]. For feline calicivirus and murine norovirus (the two most commonly used surrogate viruses for human norovirus), not only can their levels of susceptibility be very different, but the relative order of susceptibility between these two family members can be entirely reversed. For instance, murine norovirus is susceptible to ethanol but not very susceptible to low pH, whereas feline calicivirus is not very susceptible to ethanol but quite susceptible to low pH. For some other types of chemicals, such as peracetic acid and QAC, notable differences in susceptibility to these two viruses are not observed. Given the importance of human norovirus to public health and the lack of a convenient and robust tissue culture model for the virus, a more detailed research and discussion are needed with respect to the choice of feline calicivirus and murine norovirus as the best surrogate for evaluating inactivation products against human norovirus. This topic has been discussed extensively [94, 95, 96].
Different types of adenoviruses seem to exhibit varying degrees of susceptibility to ethanol and QAC. For example, adenovirus type 5 appears to be notably more susceptible to ethanol than are adenovirus types 2 and 8. In general, however, adenoviruses are more susceptible than many other non-enveloped viruses. Considering that adenovirus type 5 is listed as one of the allowable challenge viruses for a generic or “broad-spectrum” virucidal efficacy claim (i.e., a product that is effective for adenovirus type 5 may be considered effective against all viruses) [97, 98], this practice may not represent a challenge and lead to an insufficient safety margin, which is not supported by the published data.
Parvoviruses are among the smallest of non-enveloped viruses. The animal parvoviruses (e.g., minute virus of mice, porcine parvovirus, bovine parvovirus, canine parvovirus, etc.) are considered to exhibit very low susceptibility to chemical inactivation [99] and are commonly used as a worst-case model for viral inactivation studies. This literature review generally supports this notion, although it should be noted that the animal parvoviruses do not appear to represent a worst-case challenge for high-pH inactivation, and porcine parvovirus seems less susceptible than minute virus of mice at times. Additionally, human parvovirus B19 seems especially susceptible to acid treatment [100].
It has been observed that the particle size of a virus is not an exclusive or even a primary determinant of susceptibility to microbicides for non-enveloped viruses, albeit this characteristic may play a role. There are numerous reports demonstrating that larger non-enveloped viruses, such as adenoviruses and reoviruses, are less susceptible than some of the smaller non-enveloped viruses for certain chemistries. Interestingly though, rotavirus, a large non-enveloped virus, indeed seems to be the most susceptible among non-enveloped viruses, except to low pH.
The mechanisms underlying the large variation in susceptibility among non-enveloped viruses and the chemistry dependency are not always clear, but they could presumably be related to the physicochemical properties of the virus as well as the mechanisms of action of the chemical inactivants. For alcohols, for instance, it has been proposed that the hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity of the viral particles is an important determinant of susceptibility [101]. Poliovirus, which is hydrophilic, is more susceptible to ethanol than it is to isopropyl alcohol. This is attributed to the fact that ethanol is more hydrophilic than isopropanol. In comparison, the hydrophobic simian virus 40 is susceptible to isopropanol but not to ethanol [101]. Enterovirus 71 (EV71) and enterovirus EV-D68 (EV-D68) are both enteroviruses in the family Picornaviridae. Despite both infecting the gastrointestinal tract, EV71 displays low susceptibility to low pH, while EV-D68 is acid-labile. This can be explained by the observed acid-induced uncoating for EV-D68 but not for EV71 [67].
A review of the relative order of susceptibility for non-enveloped viruses under each chemistry reveals that the order for some chemicals (e.g. aldehydes) seems to fit the traditional hierarchy concept well (e.g., parvoviruses are less susceptible than larger viruses); but the order for some other chemistries (e.g., low pH) does not seem to agree with the concept as well.
The variability in viral susceptibility to physical treatments is not covered in this chapter; however, a marked degree of variation also exists for physical treatments, both within non-enveloped viruses and between enveloped and non-enveloped viruses [12, 16, 21, 49]. A comparison of the order of susceptibility of viruses to chemical versus physical treatments and an exploration of the underlying mechanisms would be interesting and revealing.
11. Conclusions
This chapter reviewed the literature on chemical inactivation of non-enveloped viruses, with an emphasis on the relative difference and trending of susceptibility among some relevant (from a public health perspective) non-enveloped viruses under each type of chemistry. The traditional concept of a hierarchy of susceptibility to microbicides provides a useful tool in understanding and predicting the susceptibility of a pathogen; however, the concept tends to be oversimplified. The order of susceptibility among non-enveloped viruses depends on the type of chemistry, and there is no universal order that holds true for all types of chemistries. Picornaviruses and caliciviruses exhibit a particularly high degree of intrafamily variation, and the order may even be reversed between viruses, depending on the chemistry. Additionally, larger non-enveloped viruses are not always more susceptible than some of the smaller non-enveloped viruses. It may be inappropriate to consider adenovirus type 5 as a worst-case non-enveloped virus; and even the animal parvoviruses, universally considered among the least susceptible to chemical inactivation, do not actually represent the least susceptible virus type for certain chemistries.
Acknowledgments
The author thanks Drs. Raymond Nims and M. Khalid Ijaz for the critical review of the manuscript and discussion.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"enveloped viruses, non-enveloped viruses, hierarchy of susceptibility, disinfection, viral inactivation, virucidal efficacy",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80772.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80772.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80772",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80772",totalDownloads:22,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 6th 2021",dateReviewed:"January 17th 2022",datePrePublished:"March 22nd 2022",datePublished:"May 18th 2022",dateFinished:"March 7th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Viruses exhibit a marked variation in their susceptibilities to chemical and physical inactivation. Identifying a trend within these variations, if possible, could be valuable in the establishment of an effective and efficient infection control or risk mitigation strategy. It has been observed that non-enveloped viruses are generally less susceptible than enveloped viruses and that smaller sized viruses seem less susceptible than larger viruses. A theory of a “hierarchy” of pathogen susceptibility has been proposed and widely referenced. This concept provides a useful general guide for predicting the susceptibility of a newly emerged pathogen. It also serves as a theoretical basis for implementing a limited scale viral inactivation study that is to be extrapolated onto many other viruses. The hierarchy concept should be interpreted with caution since the actual viral inactivation efficacy may, in some cases, be different from the general prediction. The actual efficacy is dependent on the type of chemistry and application conditions. The order of susceptibility is not always fixed; and viruses within the same family or even the same genus may exhibit drastic differences. This chapter reviews viral inactivation data for several commonly used chemistries against non-enveloped viruses, highlighting the cases wherein the order of susceptibility varied or even flipped. Possible underlying mechanisms are also discussed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80772",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80772",signatures:"Sifang Steve Zhou",book:{id:"11006",type:"book",title:"Disinfection of Viruses",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Disinfection of Viruses",slug:"disinfection-of-viruses",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",bookSignature:"Raymond W. Nims and M. Khalid Ijaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11006.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83962-416-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-415-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-417-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"104702",title:"Dr.",name:"Raymond W.",middleName:null,surname:"Nims",slug:"raymond-w.-nims",fullName:"Raymond W. Nims"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"215147",title:"Dr.",name:"Sifang Steve",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",fullName:"Sifang Steve Zhou",slug:"sifang-steve-zhou",email:"Steve.Zhou@microbac.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Common families of mammalian non-enveloped viruses",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Overview of chemical viral inactivation approaches",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by alcohols",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by oxidizers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by quaternary ammonium compounds",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by low pH and high pH",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by aldehydes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. General order of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses to chemical inactivation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"11. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Kampf G, Todt D, Pfaender S, Steinmann E. Persistence of coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces and their inactivation with biocidal agents. Journal of Hospital Infection. 2020;104(3):246-251'},{id:"B2",body:'Wiggins RC. Prion stability and infectivity in the environment. Neurochemical Results. 2009;34(1):158-168'},{id:"B3",body:'Doetsch RN, Cook TM. Introduction to Bacteria and Their Ecobiology. Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media; 1973. 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Journal of General Virology. 1973;18(2):171-180'},{id:"B66",body:'Boschetti N, Wyss K, Mischler A, Hostettler T, Kempf C. Stability of minute virus of mice against temperature and sodium hydroxide. Biologicals. 2003;31(3):181-185'},{id:"B67",body:'Liu Y, Sheng J, van Vliet ALW, Buda G, van Kuppeveld FJM, Rossmann MG. Molecular basis for the acid-initiated uncoating of human enterovirus D68. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA). 2018;115(52):E12209-E12217'},{id:"B68",body:'Drulak MW, Wallbank AM, Lebtag I. The effectiveness of six disinfectants in inactivation of reovirus 3. Microbios. 1984;163:31-38'},{id:"B69",body:'Drulak M, Wallbank AM, Lebtag I, Werboski L, Poffenroth L. The relative effectiveness of commonly used disinfectants in inactivation of coxsackievirus B5. Journal of Hygiene, Cambridge. 1978;81:389-397'},{id:"B70",body:'Application note: Use of sodium hydroxide for cleaning and sanitizing chromatography media and systems. 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Guidance document—Safety and Efficacy Requirements for Hard Surface Disinfectant Drugs. 2014. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/drugs-health-products/drug-products/applications-submissions/guidance-documents/disinfectants/safety-efficacy-requirements-hard-surface-disinfectant-drugs.html'},{id:"B98",body:'EN 14476:2013+A2:2019(E). Chemical disinfectants and antiseptics—Quantitative suspension test for the evaluation of virucidal activity in the medical area—Test method and requirements (Phase 2/Step 1). European Standard, July 2019'},{id:"B99",body:'United States Pharmacopeia <1050.1>. Design, evaluation, and characterization of viral clearance procedures'},{id:"B100",body:'Boschetti N, Niederhauser I, Kempf C, Stühler A, Löwer J, Blümel J. Different susceptibility of B19 virus and mice minute virus to low pH treatment. Transfusion. 2004;44(7):1079-1086'},{id:"B101",body:'Ionidis G, Hübscher J, Jack T, Becker B, Bischoff B, Todt D, et al. Development and virucidal activity of a novel alcohol-based hand disinfectant supplemented with urea and citric acid. BMC Infectious Diseases. 2016;16:77. DOI: 10.1186/s12879-016-1410-9'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Sifang Steve Zhou",address:"steve.zhou@microbac.com",affiliation:'
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Instagram is the most popular social networking platform in the United States, India, and Brazil, with over 1 billion monthly active users. Each of these countries has more than 91 million Instagram users. The number of Instagram users shows the various reasons and goals for them to play this social media. Social Media Marketing does not escape being one of the purposes of using Instagram, with benefits to place a market for their products. Using text classification to categorize Instagram captions into organized groups, namely fashion, food & beverage, technology, health & beauty, lifestyle & travel, this paper is expected to help people know the current trends on Instagram. The Support Vector Machine algorithm in this research is used in 66171 post captions to classify trending on Instagram. The TF-IDF (Term Frequency times Inverse Document Frequency) method and percentage variations were used for data separation in this study. 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He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. 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Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357198",title:"Prof.",name:"Wencai",surname:"Du",slug:"wencai-du",fullName:"Wencai Du",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"357214",title:"Dr.",name:"Weijun",surname:"Li",slug:"weijun-li",fullName:"Weijun Li",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"OA-publishing-fees",title:"Open Access Publishing Fees",intro:"
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
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10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
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During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
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Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
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Open Access Funding
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To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
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Long-term archiving
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Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
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\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
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+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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\r\n\tThe topic on Economics is designed to disseminate knowledge around broad global economic issues. Original submissions will be accepted in English for applied and theoretical articles, case studies and reviews about the specific challenges and opportunities faced by the economies and markets around the world. The authors are encouraged to apply rigorous economic analysis with significant policy implications for developed and developing countries. Examples of subjects of interest will include, but are not limited to globalization, economic integration, growth and development, international trade, environmental development, country specific comparative analysis, technical innovation and knowledge management, political economy analysis, and banking and financial markets.
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