Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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It is associated with different intestinal and extraintestinal manifestations like different neurological and psychiatric disorders. Histology is an important tool in the diagnosis and prognosis of inflammatory bowel disease and has an increasing part in patients' management. The objective of treatment is to make and keep long-lasting remission by immunosuppressive treatment like corticosteroids, thiopurines, and monoclonal antibodies directed against tumor necrosis factor alpha. Therapeutic drug monitoring of thiopurines by measuring levels of their metabolites has been proposed as a potentially effective tool in optimizing therapy in inflammatory bowel disease. Diets and their components influence microbiota of the intestine, function of the epithelial barrier, immune response, and other factors that have an important role in development and treatment of inflammation in the gut mucosa.",isbn:"978-953-51-3846-4",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3845-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4062-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68662",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"new-concepts-in-inflammatory-bowel-disease",numberOfPages:108,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"90f4abe2f367e4c286bbcde8bf5f51c9",bookSignature:"Batool Mutar Mahdi",publishedDate:"March 21st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6212.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7946,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:8,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:14,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 6th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 27th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 27th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 27th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 27th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"77656",title:"Dr.",name:"Batool Mutar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahdi",slug:"batool-mutar-mahdi",fullName:"Batool Mutar Mahdi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/77656/images/5242_n.jpg",biography:"Prof Dr. Batool Mutar Mahdi is a medical doctor, Consultant in Clinical Immunology and Head of HLA Research Unit, Al-Kindy College of Medicine, University of Baghdad, Baghdad- Iraq. She currently works as Professor of \\Clinical Immunology\\ at the same University and holds a Master\\'s degree in Clinical Immunology and a board degree in Pathology-Clinical Immunology from Iraqi Board of Clinical Specialization, Iraq where she has identified the HLA typing of Iraqi population. She has published 70 articles in peer-reviewed journals that awarded several times . She is focused on the aetiopathogenesis of Inflammatory Bowel Disease. She has written e 3 chapters in books and has given oral and poster presentation at various medical conferences. Prof Dr Batool is an international member of the American Society of Histocompatibility and Immunogenetics and other medical societies.",institutionString:"University of Baghdad",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Baghdad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iraq"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"181",title:"Gastroenterology",slug:"gastroenterology"}],chapters:[{id:"59137",title:"Introductory Chapter: Inflammatory Bowel Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73512",slug:"introductory-chapter-inflammatory-bowel-disease",totalDownloads:1480,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Batool Mutar Mahdi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59137",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59137",authors:[{id:"77656",title:"Dr.",name:"Batool Mutar",surname:"Mahdi",slug:"batool-mutar-mahdi",fullName:"Batool Mutar Mahdi"}],corrections:null},{id:"58559",title:"Histologic Features with Predictive Value for Outcome of Patients with Ulcerative Colitis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72893",slug:"histologic-features-with-predictive-value-for-outcome-of-patients-with-ulcerative-colitis",totalDownloads:1210,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ulcerative colitis is an inflammatory bowel disease with variable evolution, in which is difficult to establish patient’s outcome. Histology is an important part of diagnosis of ulcerative colitis and has an increasing role in patients’ management, since increasingly more histologic features with predictive value are being identified and validated. This chapter presents the most important histologic prognostic factors that should be included in histologic reports of patients with ulcerative colitis. Basal plasmacytosis and histologic healing are the most significant validated factors of prognosis in ulcerative colitis, while dysplasia is important since colorectal carcinoma is a severe complication of the disease.",signatures:"Cristiana Popp and Radu Bogdan Mateescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58559",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58559",authors:[{id:"220663",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Cristiana",surname:"Popp",slug:"cristiana-popp",fullName:"Cristiana Popp"},{id:"238188",title:"Dr.",name:"Radu Bogdan",surname:"Mateescu",slug:"radu-bogdan-mateescu",fullName:"Radu Bogdan Mateescu"}],corrections:null},{id:"58503",title:"Neurological Manifestations of Inflammatory Bowel Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73017",slug:"neurological-manifestations-of-inflammatory-bowel-disease",totalDownloads:1236,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is associated with different neurological and psychiatric disorders, which are integrated among the extra-intestinal manifestation of this disease. The physiopathology of neurological manifestations of IBD varies among the different kind of complications. The origin and the significance of these manifestations must be understood by clinicians who manage IBD patients. Some of them are related to therapeutic agents. The present chapter consists of a review of the most prevalent neurological and psychiatric disorders associated with IBD. The physiopathology of those entities will also be discussed, as well as the appropriate management for their prevention and treatment.",signatures:"Julio Plata-Bello and Silvia Acosta-López",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58503",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58503",authors:[{id:"199576",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Julio",surname:"Plata-Bello",slug:"julio-plata-bello",fullName:"Julio Plata-Bello"},{id:"209804",title:"Ms.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Acosta-Lopez",slug:"silvia-acosta-lopez",fullName:"Silvia Acosta-Lopez"}],corrections:null},{id:"59203",title:"Nutritional Therapy for Inflammatory Bowel Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73259",slug:"nutritional-therapy-for-inflammatory-bowel-disease",totalDownloads:1546,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The components of a diet influence intestinal microbiota, epithelial barrier function, immune system, and many other factors that play important role in both development and treatment of inflammation in gastrointestinal tract. We briefly review potential role of specific dietary compounds as a risk or protective factor, but we predominantly concentrate on nutritional status and nutritional intervention in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Besides exclusive enteral nutrition as a potential first-line treatment in active Crohn’s disease, other nutritional therapeutic modalities such as partial enteral nutrition, parenteral nutrition, diets based on carbohydrate modifications, anti-inflammatory diet, and the use of specific dietary compounds with anti-inflammatory properties, known as pharmaconutrition, are presented.",signatures:"Rok Orel, Evgen Benedik, Janez Eržen, Anija Orel and Darja Urlep",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59203",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59203",authors:[{id:"71575",title:"Prof.",name:"Rok",surname:"Orel",slug:"rok-orel",fullName:"Rok Orel"},{id:"220301",title:"Dr.",name:"Evgen",surname:"Benedik",slug:"evgen-benedik",fullName:"Evgen Benedik"}],corrections:null},{id:"59013",title:"Exclusive and Partial Enteral Nutrition in Crohn’s Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72734",slug:"exclusive-and-partial-enteral-nutrition-in-crohn-s-disease",totalDownloads:1403,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Exclusive enteral nutrition (EEN) is a well-establised primary therapy in active pediatric Crohn’s disease (CD). EEN promotes mucosal healing, restores bone mineral density, and improves growth. On the contrary, treatment of active CD with corticosteroids (CS) has a strong negative impact on the linear growth and bone density. Therefore, EEN is recommended as a first-line therapy in children with active CD. EEN has been evaluated in a number of clinical studies including randomized controlled trials. While meta-analyses of adult studies suggest superiority of CS, pediatric studies have shown that EEN is at least as effective as CS in inducing remission. The mechanisms by which EEN suppresses inflammation are not yet fully elucidated. Hypotheses include improvement in nutritional status, decreasing of the inflammatory cascade mechanism, limiting luminal antigen exposure, improving intestinal permeability, and modification of intestinal microbiota.",signatures:"Darja Urlep, Evgen Benedik and Rok Orel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59013",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59013",authors:[{id:"71575",title:"Prof.",name:"Rok",surname:"Orel",slug:"rok-orel",fullName:"Rok Orel"},{id:"220301",title:"Dr.",name:"Evgen",surname:"Benedik",slug:"evgen-benedik",fullName:"Evgen Benedik"},{id:"220296",title:"MSc.",name:"Darja",surname:"Urlep",slug:"darja-urlep",fullName:"Darja Urlep"}],corrections:null},{id:"58897",title:"Pregnancy and Delivery of Women with IBD",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72827",slug:"pregnancy-and-delivery-of-women-with-ibd",totalDownloads:1077,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We provide a basic overview of inheritance, fertility and influence of IBD and pregnancy, therapy in pregnancy and childbirth options. A crucial factor for good results is the degree of inflammation at the time of conception and during pregnancy. If the disease is inactive, there is no decrease in fertility and no greater risk of deterioration of disease in pregnancy and pregnancy does not differ from the normal population. The opposite situation occurs if there is a pregnancy at the time of disease activity. Then, in up to 75% of pregnancy courses with big problems, fertility declines, inflammation also worsens and the risk of exacerbations increases during pregnancy. This aggravates the course of pregnancy and childbirth and has a negative effect on the fetus. Therefore, it is necessary to plan for a longer period of disease stabilization and continue chronic medication and not discontinue drugs for the fear of negative impact of medications on fetal development. Commonly used drugs such as aminosalicylates, corticosteroids, immunosuppressants and biological therapy appear to be safe and well tolerated during pregnancy. The method of delivery is different for each individual and depends on the form and location of the inflammation and the preceding operations.",signatures:"Kateřina Hokerová",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58897",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58897",authors:[{id:"222895",title:"M.D.",name:"Kateřina",surname:"Hokerová",slug:"katerina-hokerova",fullName:"Kateřina Hokerová"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7140",title:"Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1dfb5e02db6bfe9eb05123da3c1552f3",slug:"human-leukocyte-antigen-hla-",bookSignature:"Batool Mutar Mahdi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7140.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77656",title:"Dr.",name:"Batool Mutar",surname:"Mahdi",slug:"batool-mutar-mahdi",fullName:"Batool Mutar Mahdi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6164",title:"Metagenomics for Gut Microbes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"672dc229a6318cc2b7b7ef16b314e046",slug:"metagenomics-for-gut-microbes",bookSignature:"Ranjith N. 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In the first part of the second section, rainfall erosivity is estimated on the basis of pluviograph records and cumulative rainfall depths by means of empirical equations and machine learning methods. In the second part of the second section, a physically-based, hydrodynamic, finite element model is described for the computation of surface runoff and channel flows. In the first part of the third section, the soil erosion risk is assessed in two different basins. In the second part of the third section, the soil erosion risk management in a basin is evaluated, and the delimitation of the areas requiring priority planning is achieved.",isbn:"978-1-78985-196-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-195-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-581-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74884",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"soil-erosion-rainfall-erosivity-and-risk-assessment",numberOfPages:134,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"055d0c17144224427913ec894a6aa82a",bookSignature:"Vlassios Hrissanthou and Konstantinos Kaffas",publishedDate:"December 18th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7300.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:5423,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfDimensionsCitations:13,numberOfTotalCitations:32,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 15th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 8th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 7th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 26th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 24th 2018",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"37707",title:"Prof.",name:"Vlassios",middleName:null,surname:"Hrissanthou",slug:"vlassios-hrissanthou",fullName:"Vlassios Hrissanthou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/37707/images/system/37707.png",biography:"Dr.-Ing. Vlassios Hrissanthou is an Emeritus Professor at the Civil Engineering Department of Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Xanthi, Greece. He studied Civil Engineering at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (AUTH), Greece, obtaining the diploma of Civil Engineer in 1972. He then undertook postgraduate and doctoral studies on Hydrology and Hydraulic Structures at the University of Karlsruhe (KIT), Germany. Subsequently, he completed a postdoctoral study on Hydraulics and Hydraulic Structures at the University of the Armed Forces Munich (UniBw München), Germany. His teaching work includes the following graduate and postgraduate study courses: Fluid Mechanics, Hydraulics, Engineering Hydrology, River Engineering, Hydropower Engineering, Water Resources Management, Open Channel Hydraulics, Hydrology of Groundwater, Advanced Engineering Hydrology, Sediment Transport, Reservoir Design, Time Series Analysis, Selected Chapters of Hydropower Engineering, and Hydraulics of Stratified Flows. He has supervised a plethora of diploma, postgraduate and doctoral dissertations. He has participated as principal investigator in several competitive international, german and greek research projects, dealing amongst others with soil erosion and sediment transport. Professor Hrissanthou is the author and co-author of 48 publications in scientific journals, 88 publications in conference proceedings, as well as 12 publications in book chapters in English, Greek and German. Finally, he has reviewed numerous publications for 49 international scientific journals.",institutionString:"Democritus University of Thrace",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Democritus University of Thrace",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"200942",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantinos",middleName:null,surname:"Kaffas",slug:"konstantinos-kaffas",fullName:"Konstantinos Kaffas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/200942/images/system/200942.png",biography:"Dr.-Ing. Konstantinos Kaffas is a researcher at the Civil Engineering Department of Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Xanthi, Greece and a member of the Greek Chamber of Civil Engineers since 2008. He received his diploma in Environmental Engineering from DUTH, in 2007. Subsequently he pursued postgraduate studies (M.Sc.) in Hydraulic Engineering and Water Resources Management Works. Since May 2017, he holds a Ph.D. in the field of hydromorphological modeling at the basin scale. His scientific interests and expertise include soil erosion, sediment transport, hydrological and hydraulic modeling, river basin management and flood risk assessment. During the last years, he has co-authored 6 publications in international scientific journals, 3 international conferences and 1 book chapter, and has also reviewed several publications. Dr. Kaffas is giving lectures on courses such as Advanced Engineering Hydrology, Sediment Transport, and Reservoir Design, in DUTH, since 2014. He has working experience in Civil/Environmental Engineering and has participated in the completion of several Environmental Impact Assessments.",institutionString:"Free University of Bozen-Bolzano",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Free University of Bozen-Bolzano",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"676",title:"Soil Degradation",slug:"soil-degradation"}],chapters:[{id:"69684",title:"Introductory Chapter: Soil Erosion at a Glance",slug:"introductory-chapter-soil-erosion-at-a-glance",totalDownloads:977,totalCrossrefCites:2,authors:[{id:"37707",title:"Prof.",name:"Vlassios",surname:"Hrissanthou",slug:"vlassios-hrissanthou",fullName:"Vlassios Hrissanthou"},{id:"200942",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantinos",surname:"Kaffas",slug:"konstantinos-kaffas",fullName:"Konstantinos Kaffas"}]},{id:"66807",title:"Rainfall Erosivity and Its Estimation: Conventional and Machine Learning Methods",slug:"rainfall-erosivity-and-its-estimation-conventional-and-machine-learning-methods",totalDownloads:1285,totalCrossrefCites:6,authors:[{id:"23439",title:"Dr.",name:"Epaminondas",surname:"Sidiropoulos",slug:"epaminondas-sidiropoulos",fullName:"Epaminondas Sidiropoulos"},{id:"287846",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantinos",surname:"Vantas",slug:"konstantinos-vantas",fullName:"Konstantinos Vantas"},{id:"287847",title:"Dr.",name:"Chris",surname:"Evangelides",slug:"chris-evangelides",fullName:"Chris Evangelides"}]},{id:"62965",title:"Simulation of Surface Runoff and Channel Flows Using a 2D Numerical Model",slug:"simulation-of-surface-runoff-and-channel-flows-using-a-2d-numerical-model",totalDownloads:1356,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"26297",title:"Dr.",name:"Yafei",surname:"Jia",slug:"yafei-jia",fullName:"Yafei Jia"}]},{id:"69110",title:"Evaluating Differences of Erosion Patterns in Natural and Anthropogenic Basins through Scenario Testing: A Case Study of the Claise, France and Nahr Ibrahim, Lebanon",slug:"evaluating-differences-of-erosion-patterns-in-natural-and-anthropogenic-basins-through-scenario-test",totalDownloads:950,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"308327",title:"Prof.",name:"Rachid",surname:"Nedjai",slug:"rachid-nedjai",fullName:"Rachid Nedjai"},{id:"308884",title:"Mr.",name:"Mario",surname:"Al Sayah",slug:"mario-al-sayah",fullName:"Mario Al Sayah"},{id:"308885",title:"Prof.",name:"Chadi",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"chadi-abdallah",fullName:"Chadi Abdallah"},{id:"308887",title:"Dr.",name:"Michel",surname:"Khouri",slug:"michel-khouri",fullName:"Michel Khouri"},{id:"308888",title:"Prof.",name:"Talal",surname:"Darwish",slug:"talal-darwish",fullName:"Talal Darwish"},{id:"308889",title:"Mr.",name:"François",surname:"Pinet",slug:"francois-pinet",fullName:"François Pinet"}]},{id:"69983",title:"Spatial Analysis of the Erosive Hazard of Soils and Natural Risks of Reservoir Siltation",slug:"spatial-analysis-of-the-erosive-hazard-of-soils-and-natural-risks-of-reservoir-siltation",totalDownloads:857,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"249619",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabii",surname:"El Gaatib",slug:"rabii-el-gaatib",fullName:"Rabii El Gaatib"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"177730",firstName:"Edi",lastName:"Lipovic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177730/images/4741_n.jpg",email:"edi@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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1. Introduction
Cancer is a complex genetic disease caused by abnormal alteration (mutations) in DNA sequences that leads to dyregulation of normal cellular processes thereby driving tumor growth. The study of such causal mutations is a central focus of cancer biology for two reasons; first is to reveal the molecular mechanisms of tumorigenesis, second is to provide insight in the development of novel therapeutic and diagnostic approaches. Although hundreds of genes are known to be mutated in cancers our understanding of mutational events in cancer cells remains incomplete (Futreal PA et al, 2004). This however has widely opened the field of cancer genomics studies which aims to provide new insights into the molecular mechanisms that lead to tumorigenesis.
As we are in the era of evidence-based molecular diagnosis, predictive testing, genetic counseling, gene-informed cancer risk assessment, and preventative and personalized medicine, therefore, studying the Mendelian genetics of the familial forms of cancer is one approach that can set up the basis for gene-informed risk assessment and management for the patient and family. Herein we selected a Mendelian genetics form of familial cancer such as hereditary tumor syndromic endocrine neoplasias caused by highly penetrant germline mutations leading to pheochromocytoma-paraganglioma syndromes. An example of such syndromes are autosomal dominant disorders; von Hippel-Lindau (VHL); Multiple endocrine neoplasia syndrome type 1 (MEN-1), loss-of-function germline mutations in the tumor suppressor gene MEN1 increase the risk of developing pituitary, parathyroid and pancreatic islet tumors, and less commonly thymic carcinoids, lipomas and benign adrenocortical tumors. In the case of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN 2), gain-of-function germline mutations clustered in specific codons of the RET proto-oncogene increase the risk of developing medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC), phaeochromocytoma and parathyroid tumors. PTEN mutations in Cowden syndrome (CS), associated with breast, thyroid, and endometrial neoplasias. Identification and characterization of germline mutations in the predisposition genes of the great majority of these syndromes has empowered the clinical practice by the retrieved genetic information which guides medical management.
This review focuses specifically on the analysis of missense mutations in oncogenes and the tumor suppressor genes, though these genes can also be mutated through a variety of other mechanisms such as DNA amplification, translocation, and deletion. Unlike synonymous or silent mutations, which do not cause amino acid changes, missense mutations are non-synonymous amino acid substitutions that are typically caused by single-base nucleotide point mutations. However, many random missense mutations are not expected to alter protein function due to plasticity built into many amino acid residues.
2. Cancer and the "two hits" of Knudson\'s hypothesis
Before proceeding into missense mutation in tumor suppressor gene we ought to introduce the "two hits" of Knudson\'s hypothesis. Alfred Knudson Jr in 1971 published his inspiring statistical analysis of the childhood cancer retinoblastoma where he found that retinoblastoma tend to be multifocal in familial cases and unifocal in sporadic presentation (Knudson A. G. Jr, 1971). Knudson postulated that patients with the familial form of the cancer would be born with one mutant allele and that all cells in that organ or tissue would be at risk, accounting for early onset and the multifocal nature of the disease. In contrast, sporadic tumors would develop only if a mutation occurred in both alleles within the same cell, and, as each event would be expected to occur with low frequency, most tumors would develop late in life and in a unifocal manner. His observations led him to propose a two-hit theory of carcinogenesis. The "two hits" of Knudson\'s hypothesis, which has proved true for many tumors, recognized that familial forms of cancer might hold the key to the identification of important regulatory elements known as tumor-suppressor genes (Ayerbes et al, 2008;.
3. Missense mutations in oncogenes and the tumor suppressor genes
Using the second generation sequencing approaches provided detailed information on the frequency and position of single point mutations as well as structural aberrations of cancer genomes such as small insertions and deletions, focal copy number alterations, and genomic rearrangementsm (Wood LD et al, 2007;. Jones S et al, 2008; Greenman C et al, 2007; Sjoblom T et al, 2006; Pleasance ED et al 2010a,b; Cancer Genome Atlas Research Network, 2008). The findings show that the complexity of each cancer genome is far greater than expected and that extensive variations exist between different cancer types as well as between different tumor samples of the same cancer type. Several recent studies have used the Catalogue Of Somatic Mutations In Cancer (COSMIC) database to discriminate oncogenes and the tumor suppressor genes by using the difference in their mutation patterns in order to understand oncogenesis and diagnose cancers (Forbes SA et al, 2008; Stehr H et al, 2011; Liu H, 2011). Such investigations at the systems level are currently being performed for many of oncogenes and the tumor suppressor genes as part of the Mutanom project (http://www.mutanom.org).
Stehr H et al study describes in a quantitative way, the opposing structural effects of cancer-associated missense mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressors. Using COSMIC database (Forbes SA, 2008). Stehr H et al has assessed the effects of 1992 mutations cancer-associated mutations representing two common mechanisms through which tumorigenesis is initiated: via gain-of-function of oncogenes and loss-of-function of tumor suppressors (Vogelstein B et al, 1993). Then compared them to the effects of natural variants and randomized mutations. They focused on mechanisms of cancer mutations that have a consequence at the structural level. Another significant body of work has been published on consequences of mutations in a structural context (Ng PC, 2003, 2006; Ramensky V, et al, 2002; Wang Z et al, 2001; Karchin R et al, 2009). These studies differ in that either they focus on estimating the effects of individual mutations or they use different sets of disease mutations.
Studies of structural effects of mutations have found that disease mutations primarily occur in the protein core (Ramensky V, et al, 2002; Wang Z et al, 2001). This trend was confirmed only for the set of tumor suppressors. In contrast, core residues in oncogenes are significantly less often mutated than expected by chance. This is in agreement with Stehr H et al results for protein stability. Mutations located in the protein core are often destabilizing and result in loss-of-function. Thus, Stehr H et al data suggests that the loss-of-function of tumor suppressors is often caused by destabilization of the protein. They also suggested that specific mutations of functional sites that can either disable enzymatic activity and regulatory mechanisms or increase protein activity are often responsible for oncogene activation. Stehr H et al results show that the most frequently mutated types of functional sites in oncogenes are ATP and GTP binding sites and that the frequency of mutation is significantly higher than expected. This suggests that mutations of ATP and GTP binding sites are specific and common mechanisms of oncogene activation. Examples for such activating mutations near ATP binding sites have been described in the literature (Davies H et al, 2002; Shu HK et al, 1990, Jeffers M, et al, 1997).
Liu H et al investigated >120,000 mutation samples in 66 well-known tumor suppressor genes and oncogenes of the COSMIC database, and found a set of significant differences in mutation patterns (e.g., non-3n-indel, non-sense SNP and mutation hotspot) between them. They also developed indices to readily distinguish one from another and predict clearly the unknown oncogenesis genes as tumor suppressors (e.g., ASXL1, HNF1A and KDM6A) or oncogenes (e.g., FOXL2, MYD88 and TSHR). Based on their results, a third gene group was classified, which has a mutational pattern between tumor suppressors and oncogenes. The concept of the third gene group was thought to help in understanding gene function in different cancers or individual patients and to know the exact function of genes in oncogenesis.
4. The clinical of VHL disease
von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) disease (MIM 193300) is a dominantly inherited familial cancer syndrome. It is caused by mutations in the VHL tumor suppressor gene with an incidence of 1:31-36000 live births worldwide across all ethnic backgrounds, with similar prevalence in both genders (Maher et al., 1991; Maher, et al.2004). The prevalence however was shown to be higher in some population withtin the same ethnicity such as 1:39 000 in South-West Germany and 1:53 000 in Eastern England (Maher ER et al, 1991; Neumann H et al, 1991). VHL is characterized by marked age-dependent penetrance and phenotypic variability. The factors that affect the actual clinical expression and tumor formation, including age of onset, tissue and organ-specific lesions, severity of lesions, and recurrence, are unknown. VHL main clinical manifestations are:
4.1. Hemangioplastoms
Hemangioplastoms of the central nervous system (CNS) which are typically located in the cerebellum, but can also occur at the brainstem, spinal cord, and rarely, at the lumbosacral nerve roots and supratentorial (Neumann et al., 1995). Retinal or CNS hemangioblastomas are often the earliest manifestations of VHL disease and the most common, occurring in up to 80% of patients (Maher et al., 1990b; Melmon and Rosen, 1964; Weil et al., 2003). VHL-associated cerebellar hemangioblastomas are diagnosed at a mean age of 29–33 years, much earlier than sporadic cerebellar hemangioblastomas (Hes et al., 2000a, 2000b; Wanebo et al., 2003). These lesions are rarely malignant, but enlargement or bleeding within the CNS can result in neurological damage and death (Pavesi et al., 2008). A lower incidence of CNS hemangioblastomas has been documented in specific ethnic populations (12% Finland (Niemela M et al., 1999); 5% German (Zbar B et al., 1999). Patients with cerebellar haemangioblastomas typically present with symptoms of increased intracranial pressure and limb or truncal ataxia (depending on the precise location of the tumor). Wanebo et al. (2003) showed most CNS hemangioblastomas were associated with cysts that were often larger than other hemangioblastomas.
4.2. Pheochromocytoma
Pheochromocytomas are endocrine neoplasias with intra- or extra-adrenal gland lesions that appear histologically as an expansion of large chromaffin positive cells, derived from neural crest cells (Lee et al., 2005). Seven to 18% of VHL patients are afflicted with pheochromocytomas (Crossey et al., 1994a; Garcia et al., 1997). The absence or present of this phenotype will type the VHL into type 1or 2 (A,B,C), respectively (Woodward ER et al., 1997; Hofstra RMW et al., 1996). Untreated pheochromocytomas can result in hypertension and subsequent acute heart disease, brain edema, and stroke.
4.3. Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (RCC)
Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (RCC) occurs in up to 70% of patients with VHL and is a frequent cause of death. 70% of VHL patients have the risk of developing RCC by 60 years old (Maher et al., 1990b, 1991; Whaley et al., 1994), at an average age of 44 years versus the average age of 62 years, at which sporadic RCC develops in the general population (http://www.umd.be/VHL/W_VHL /clinic.shtml). Renal cysts are common in VHL patients as well; however, unlike the completely benign cysts in the general population, renal cysts in VHL patients might degenerate into RCC (Kaelin et al., 2004). However, it is unlikely that RCC in all VHL patients originates from cysts, or that all cysts will eventually become malignant. RCC often overproduces VEGF, and thus can be very vascular (Berse et al., 1992; Sato et al., 1994; Takahashi et al., 1994).
4.4. Others clinical manifestations
VHL patient can also have low-grade adenocarcinomas of the temporal bone, also known as endolymphatic sac tumors (ELST), pancreatic tumor, and epididymal or board ligament cystadenomas (Gruber et al., 1980; Neumann and Wiestler, 1991; Maher et al., 2004; Kaelin et al., 2007). ELST in VHL cases can be detected by MRI or CT imaging in up to 11% of patients (Manski TJ, et al., 1997). Although often asymptomatic, the most frequent clinical presentation is hearing loss (mean age 22 years), but tinnitus and vertigo also occur in many cases. In addition to the inherited risk for developing cancer, VHL patients develop cystic disease in various organs including the kidney, pancreas, and liver (Hough et al., 1994; Lubensky et al., 1998; Maher et al., 1990b; Maher, 2004).
Tumor growth commonly cycled between growth and quiescent phases. Patients with numerous tumors experienced growth and quiescent phases simultaneously, suggesting that a combination of acquired genetic lesions and hormonal activity influence tumor growth.
5. VHL clinical classification:
Molecular genetic mutation and phenotypic clustering has allowed development of a clinical classification, although intra-familial variability is well recognized.
As mentioned previously VHL disease can be classified into VHL Type 1 or Type 2 depending on the phenotype. Type 1 describes those with typical VHL manifestations such as emangioblastomas and RCC, but does not include pheochromocytomas. Once a pheochromocytoma occurs the classification becomes Type 2. Type 2, accounting for 7–20% of VHL kindreds, is further subdivided into: (2A) pheochromocytomas and other typical VHL manifestations except RCC, (2B) the full spectrum of VHL disease including pheochromocytomas, RCC, and other typical VHL manifestation, and Type (2C) identifies those with familial risk of isolated pheochromocytoma (Gross D et al, 1996; Martin R, et al., 1998), although there are some kindreds without identified VHL mutation raising the possibility of another genetic locus (Woodward ER et al, 1997; Crossey et al., 1994b; Garcia et al., 1997; Mulvihill et al., 1997).
6. Morbidity and Mortality of VHL
The morbidity of VHL disease depends on the organ system involved. For example, retinal hemangioblastomas can result in retinal detachment and/or blindness (Webster et al., 1999). Mortality is often due to either metastasis of RCC or complications of CNS hemangioblastomas (Filling-Katz et al., 1991; Maher et al., 1990b; Neumann et al., 1992); however, due to improved screening guidelines, life expectancy of VHL patients has improved.
7. VHL gene and pVHL function
The human VHL gene is a 10-kb region located on the short arm of chromosome 3 (3p25.3) (Richards et al., 1993) and consists of 3 exons (Kuzmin et al., 1995; Latif et al., 1993a, 1993b): Exon1 spans codons 1–113, exon 2 spans codons 114–154, and exon 3 spans codons 155–213. Two protein products are encoded by VHL: a 30-kDa full-length protein (p30, 213 amino acids, NM_000551.2 [variant 1 mRNA]) and a shorter protein product of 19-kDa (p19, 160 amino acids NM_198156.1 [variant 2 mRNA]), which is generated by alternative translation initiation at an internal methionine at position 54 (Blankenship et al., 1999). Although evolutionary conservation of VHL sequence is very strong over most of the pVHL19 sequence, the first 53 amino acids included in pVHL30 are less well conserved and functional studies suggest that the two pVHL isoforms have equivalent effects (Woodward ER et al, 2000; Iliopoulos O et al, 1998). The VHL mRNA and protein is widely expressed in both fetal and adult tissues (Richards FM et al., 1996; Corless CL et al., 1997) and can be found in all multicellular organisms examined to date without known similarity to other proteins (van M et al., 2001). Remarkable progress has been made in elaborating the function of pVHL and the role its inactivation plays in the pathophysiology of this disorder, including dysregulation of angiogenesis and tumor formation.
Given the lack of primary sequence homology to other proteins, the function of pVHL has been derived from studying pVHL interactors and associated proteins. Roles in oxygen-dependent angiogenesis, tumorigenesis, fibronectin matrix assembly and cytoskeleton organization, cell cycle control and cellular differentiation have been proposed. The N-terminal acidic domain of VHLp30 contains eight repetitions of a five-residue acidic repeat, which are absent in VHLp19. Phosphorylation of this acidic domain participates in tumor suppression and this domain binds the Kinesin-2 adaptor KAP3, thus mediating microtubule-binding (Lolkema et al., 2005, 2007). This domain is also responsible for binding metastasis suppressor Nm23H2, a protein known to regulate dynamin-dependent endocystosis (Hsu et al., 2006). Further downstream, the β-sheet domain (residues 63–154) binds HIF0a subunits at residues 65–117 and the α-helical domain (residues 155–192) binds the Elongin B and Elongin C (Elongin BC) complex at residues 158–184 (Feldman et al., 1999). Binding of pVHL to the Elongin BC is mediated by the chaperonin TRiC/ CCT. Elongin BC binding to pVHL requires TRiC, and VHL mutations causing defects in binding to Elongin BC are associated with VHL disease (Feldman et al., 1999). pVHL inactivation leads to an overexpression of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) and upregulation of its targets (vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), erythropoietin, transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta, alpha). Whether this is the sole etiologic factor causing characteristic VHL hemangioblastoma formation remains to be clarified. Evidence also suggests that pVHL inactivation alters fibronectin extracellular matrix formation, and that pVHL may participate in cellular differentiation and cell cycle control. Ongoing studies are directed at elaborating the biologic consequences that these pathways play in the angiogenesis and tumor formation central to VHL. Additionally, VHL protein has functions that are independent of HIF-1alpha and HIF-2alpha and are thought to be important for its tumor-suppressor action, assembly of the extracellular matrix, control of microtubule dynamics, regulation of apoptosis, and possibly stabilization of TP53 proteins (Frew IJ and Krek W. 2007).
More than 300 germline mutations have been identified in familial VHL. These occur throughout the coding region with only a few mutations appearing in multiple families (Zbar B et al., 1996; Beroud C et al., 1996). The new mutation rate has been estimated at between 3 and 20% (Latif F et al., 1993; Richard S et al., 1994; Schimke RN et al., 2000). Although decreased penetrance has been described (Maddock IF et al., 1994), comprehensive familial molecular data have not yet been reported to clarify this rate.
Interestingly, missense mutations causing amino acid changes on the surface of pVHL appear to have a higher risk for pheochromocytomas than missense mutations occurring deep within the protein; surface missense mutations also appear to have a higher risk for pheochromocytomas than deletions, nonsense, and frameshift mutations [Ong et al., 2007]. Thus, pheochromocytoma development appears to be related to an intact, but altered pVHL, which has seeded the hypothesis that these mutations may induce gain-of-function possibly through a dominant negative effect [Hoffman et al., 2001; Lee et al., 2005; Maher and Kaelin, 1997; Stebbins et al., 1999]. Nordstrom-O’Brien et al., 2010, analyzed 1548 VHL families and provided a wealth of data for genotype–phenotype correlations. They found 52% had missense mutations most frequently occurred at codons 65, 76, 78, 98, splice mutations at codon 155, 158, 161, 162, and 167. 13% had frameshift, 11% had nonsense, 6% had in-frame deletions/ insertions, 11% had large/complete deletions, and 7% had splice mutations. Mutations that predict absence of functional protein (deletion, frame-shift, nonsense, and splice) are associated in 96-97% of cases with type 1 phenotype and show an increased risk of RCC (including type 2b cases). This suggests that expressed dysfunctional protein may be required for pheochromocytoma formation. Missense mutations are associated with type 2 phenotype (hemangioblastoma and pheochromocytoma +/- RCC) in 69-98% of cases (Stolle C et al., 1998; Chen F et al., 1995; Zbar B et al., 1996). While Nordstrom-O’Brien et al., found 83.5% of VHL Type 2 families mainly had missense mutations. However, this is not as high as some studies, reporting up to 96% of those with pheochromocytomas to have missense mutations (Zbar et al., 1996). Nordstrom-O’Brien et al., found low percentage of VHL Type 2 families (0.5-7%) had other types of mutation such as nonsense, frameshift, splice, in-frame deletion/insertions, and partial deletions. The small percentage of nonsense and partial deletions along with the absence of complete deletions supports theories that an intact though altered pVHL is associated with pheochromocytomas. Stratifying missense mutations into those that resulted in substitution of a surface amino acid and those that disrupted structural integrity demonstrated that surface amino acid substitutions conferred a higher pheochromocytoma risk (Ong KR et al., 2007). Although loss of heterozygosity has been reported in endolymphatic sac tumors (ELST) tumors (Kawahara N et al., 1999; Vortmeyer AO et al., 1997) no predominant mutation has been identified.
It may be difficult, however, to predict functional biologic consequences from specific point mutations without direct functional assays as reported in recent RCC in-vitro mutation panel studies.
The recent characterization of the VHL protein crystal structure might suggests possible functional consequences of specific mutations. If we focus on the structure of the pVHL we can predict the effect of the mutation on the functionality of the pVHL and therefore the phenotype resulted. Mutation-specific dysfunction may depend on protein destabilization, altered interactor binding at the various pVHP binding domains or potential alteration in binding to other factors involved in tumor suppressor/activator activity. pVHL has two domains: an amino-terminal domain rich in β-sheet (the β-domain) and a smaller carboxyterminal α-helical domain (the α-domain). A large portion of the α-domain surface interacts with Elongin C, which binds to other members (e.g., Elongin B, Cul2, and Rbx1) of an SCF-like E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase complex as mentioned earlier. Obviously, loss of function VHL mutations prevents Elongin C binding and target ubiquitylation (Clifford et al., 2001). The β-domain on the other side has a macromolecular binding site targets the HIF-1α and HIF-2α regulatory subunits for proteasomal degradation. Whereas Type 1 and Type 2B mutations impair pVHL binding to Elongin C, Type 2A mutations map to the β-domain HIF-binding site and do not affect the ability of pVHL to bind Elongin C (Clifford et al., 2001). Therefore, classifying missense substitutions according to their predicted effect on pVHL structure enhances the ability to predict pheochromocytoma risk (Ong KR et al., 2007)
Nordstrom-O’Brien et al 2010 suggested that increased identification of new mutations and new patients with previously described mutations gives momentum to the search for the exact role of pVHL in its normal and mutated form. Understanding such functions and its association with specific mutations allows for identification of disease risks in individual patients. Such insight will offer improved diagnostics, surveillance, and treatment of VHL patients (Nordstrom-O’Brien et al., 2010).
Ongoing delineation of clinical subtypes may allow for better genotype-phenotype correlations, prediction of clinical progression and molecular mutation-directed clinical management. There is significant intra-familial difference in clinical expressivity and as of yet limited knowledge about modifiers of this phenotypic variation (Webster AR, et al, 1998). Prediction of the clinical course in any one patient based on molecular data is therefore difficult.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/39802.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/39802.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39802",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39802",totalDownloads:1991,totalViews:468,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:4,impactScoreQuartile:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 25th 2011",dateReviewed:"November 13th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 12th 2012",dateFinished:"October 4th 2012",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/39802",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/39802",book:{id:"2535",slug:"mutations-in-human-genetic-disease"},signatures:"Suad AlFadhli",authors:[{id:"109515",title:"Prof.",name:"Suad",middleName:null,surname:"Alfadhli",fullName:"Suad Alfadhli",slug:"suad-alfadhli",email:"Suadq8@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Kuwait"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:'2. Cancer and the "two hits" of Knudson\'s hypothesis',level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Missense mutations in oncogenes and the tumor suppressor genes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. The clinical of VHL disease",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Hemangioplastoms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2. Pheochromocytoma",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3. Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (RCC)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.4. Others clinical manifestations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. VHL clinical classification:",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Morbidity and Mortality of VHL",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"7. VHL gene and pVHL function ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"8. Molecular genetics of VHL disease",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Ang SO, Chen H, HirotaK et al: Disruption of oxygen homeostasis underlies congenital Chuvash polycythemia. Nat Genet 2002; 32: 614-621.'},{id:"B2",body:'AyerbesV. M.GallegoA. 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In: GeneClinics: clinical genetic information resource; www.geneclinics.org/profiles/vhl.'},{id:"B88",body:'Shu HK, Pelley RJ, Kung HJ: Tissue-specific transformation by epidermal growth factor receptor: a single point mutation within the ATP-binding pocket of the erbB product increases its intrinsic kinase activity and activates its sarcomagenic potential.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 19908791039107'},{id:"B89",body:'ShuinT.KondoK.TorigoeS.et al.Frequent somatic mutations and loss of heterozygosity of the von Hippel-Lindau tumor suppressor gene in primary human renal cell carcinomas.Cancer Res 19945428522855'},{id:"B90",body:'Sjoblom T, Jones S, Wood LD, Parsons DW, Lin J, Barber TD, Mandelker D, Leary RJ, Ptak J, Silliman N, et al: The consensus coding sequences of human breast and colorectal cancers. Science 2006; 314:268-274.'},{id:"B91",body:'Stebbins CE, Kaelin Jr WG, Pavletich NP.Structure of the VHL-ElonginC-ElonginB complex: implications for VHL tumor suppressor function.Science 1999284455461'},{id:"B92",body:'StehrH.JangS. H.DuarteJ. M.WierlingC.LehrachH.LappeM.BMLangeThe structural impact of cancer-associated missense mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressors.Mol Cancer. 201154 EOF'},{id:"B93",body:'StolleC.GlennG.ZbarB.et al.Improved detection of germline mutations in the von Hippel-Lindau disease tumor suppressor gene.Hum Mutat 199812417423'},{id:"B94",body:'TakahashiA.SasakiH.KimS. J.TobisuK.KakizoeT.TsukamotoT.KumamotoY.SugimuraT.TeradaM.Markedly increased amounts of messenger RNAs for vascular endothelial growth factor and placenta growth factor in renal cell carcinoma associated with angiogenesis.Cancer Res 19945442334237'},{id:"B95",body:'TseJ.WongJ.Lo-WK.et al.Molecular genetic analysis of the von Hippel-Lindau disease tumor suppressor gene in familial and sporadic cerebellar hemangioblastomasAm J Clin Pathol 1997107459466'},{id:"B96",body:'Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW: The multistep nature of cancer. Trends Genet 1993; 9:138-141.'},{id:"B97",body:'Vortmeyer AO, Huang SC, Koch CA, et al.Somatic von Hippel-Lindau gene mutations detected in sporadic endolymphatic sac tumors.Cancer Res 20006059635965'},{id:"B98",body:'VortmeyerA. O.ChooD.PackS. D.et al.Von Hippel-Lindau disease gene alterations associated with endolymphatic sac tumor.J Natl Cancer Inst 199789970972'},{id:"B99",body:'Wanebo JE, Lonser RR, Glenn GM, Oldfield EH.The natural history of hemangioblastomas of the central nervous system in patients with von Hippel-Lindau disease.J Neurosurg 2003988294'},{id:"B100",body:'WangZ.MoultJ. S. N.Psprotein.structurediseaseHuman.Mutation2001'},{id:"B101",body:'Webster AR, Maher ER, Moore AT.Clinical characteristics of ocular angiomatosis in von Hippel-Lindau disease and correlation with germline mutation.Arch Ophthalmol 1999117371378'},{id:"B102",body:'Webster AR, Richards FM, MacRonald FE, et al.An analysis of phenotypic variation in the familial cancer syndrome von Hippel-Lindau disease: evidence for modifier effects.Am J Hum Genet 19986310251035'},{id:"B103",body:'Weil RJ, Lonser RR, DeVroom HL, Wanebo JE, Oldfield EH.Surgical management of brainstem hemangioblastomas in patients with von Hippel-Lindau disease.J Neurosurg 20039895105\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B104",body:'WhaleyJ. M.NaglichJ.GelbertL.HsiaY. E.LamiellJ. M.GreenJ. S.CollinsD.NeumannH. P.LaidlawJ.LiF. P.Klein-SzantoA. J. P.SeizingerB. R.KleyN.Germ-line mutations in the von Hippel-Lindau tumor-suppressor gene are similar to somatic von Hippel-Lindau aberrations in sporadic renal cell carcinomaAm J Hum Genet 19945510921102'},{id:"B105",body:'Wood LD, Parsons DW, Jones S, Lin J, Sjoblom T, Leary RJ, Shen D, Boca SM, Barber T, Ptak J, et al: The genomic landscapes of human breast and colorectal cancers. Science 2007; 318:1108-1113.'},{id:"B106",body:'Woodward ER, Buchberger A, Clifford SC et al: Comparative sequence analysis of the VHL tumor suppressor gene. Genomics 2000; 65: 253-265.'},{id:"B107",body:'WoodwardE. R.EngC.Mc MaonR.et al.Genetic predisposition to phaeochromocytoma: analysis of candidate genes GDNF, RET and VHL.Hum Mol Genet 1997610511056'},{id:"B108",body:'WoodwardE. R.EngC.Mc MaonR.et al.Genetic predisposition to phaeochromocytoma: analysis of candidate genes GDNF, RET and VHLHum Mol Genet 1997610511056'},{id:"B109",body:'Woodward ER, Eng C, McMahon R et al: Genetic predisposition to phaeochromocytoma: Analysis of candidate genes GDNF, RET and VHL. Hum Mol Genet 1997; 6: 1051-1056.'},{id:"B110",body:'ZbarB.KaelinW.MaherE.et al.Third International Meeting on von Hippel-Lindau disease.Cancer Res 19995922512253'},{id:"B111",body:'ZbarB.KishidaF.Chenet.alGermlinemutations in the von Hippel-Lindau disease (VHL) gene in families from North American, Europe and Japan. Hum. Mutat. 19968348357'},{id:"B112",body:'ZbarB.KishidaT.ChenF.et al.Germline mutations in the von Hippel-Lindau disease (VHL) gene in families from North America, Europe, and Japan. Hum Mutat 1996'},{id:"B113",body:'ZbarB.KishidaT.ChenF.SchmidtL.MaherE. R.RichardsF. M.CrosseyP. A.WebsterA. R.AffaraN. A.MAFerguson-SmithBrauch. H.Glavac D,'},{id:"B114",body:'NeumannH. 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1. Introduction
Electromagnetic absorbers have important applications in a plethora of applications, including but not limited to electromagnetic interferences and electromagnetic compatibility [1, 2, 3, 4, 5], stealth [6, 7, 8, 9], camouflage [10], shielding [11, 12, 13], energy harvesting [14, 15], as well as antenna and optical measurements [2, 16, 17, 18]. Recently, the scientific interest has focused on EMC and EMI shielding that studies how to suppress noise or interference in various electronic appliances and radiative damage to humans caused by unintended EM signals. In these applications, electromagnetic absorbers play an essential role. As one of the representative examples, a high-performance and cost-effective anechoic chamber, which can provide a zero-reflection environment mimicking free space, is of paramount importance for EMC test, antenna, and scattering measurements, among many other applications. As illustrated in Figure 1(a), in an anechoic chamber, the entire inner surfaces (walls, ceiling, and floor) are properly covered with absorbers to absorb waves propagating toward them and thus eliminate multipath interferences. Hence, a simple and well-defined propagation channel can be obtained between the transmitting source and receiving antennas or a scattering object for radar cross-section (RCS) measurements. Nearly perfect absorption, realized with an ultrathin, lightweight, and low-cost manner, makes the artificial surfaces and media (i.e., metamaterials and metasurfaces) advantageous over the conventional electromagnetic absorbers made of natural materials. Ever since the first perfect metamaterial absorber was proposed by Landy et al. [19], numerous designs have been proposed for metamaterial or metasurface absorbers over a wide range of frequencies [20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25] and even with multiband operation [1, 26, 27, 28].
Figure 1.
Examples of practical applications of electromagnetic absorbers in EMC/EMI: (a) an anechoic chamber and (b) a high-isolation MIMO antenna system.
The applications include RCS reduction and stealth [29], EMI shielding [12, 13], sensing [30, 31, 32, 33], terahertz imaging [34, 35, 36], energy harvesting, etc. A representative modern application of metamaterial absorbers may be the enhanced isolation in the multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO) antenna system [37, 38], as depicted in Figure 1(b). With the growing demand for miniaturization of telecommunication devices, reducing the mutual coupling or cross-talk among the antenna elements has been a challenging task in MIMO systems. A specifically designed metamaterial absorber mostly consisting of periodic resonators can help improve the isolation among antenna elements and further enhance the efficiency of a MIMO system since it can significantly absorb the unwanted interferences among antennas.
The impedance of a material is defined as μrμ0/εrε0, with εr, ε0 (μr, μ0) denoting the relative permittivity, permittivity of free space (the relative permeability, permeability of free space), respectively [39]. At microwave frequencies and even at the terahertz (THz), most of the naturally occurring materials (used, for instance, in microelectronics) exhibit very low to nonexistent magnetic resonances and thus μr≈1 [40]. On the other hand, the relative permittivity can attain extremely high values, e.g., in conductors such as noble metals or graphene (in the THz regime). So, the impedance is generally much smaller than that of the surrounding (η/η0≈1/εr≪1) [41]. This huge mismatch can cause a strong reflection of the electromagnetic signal and perturb the operation of the electrical equipment. In this context, electromagnetic compatibility is an important and active field of research that endeavors to limit undesired and unintentional scattering of microwave and THz waves to avoid, for example, unwanted behavior such as electromagnetic interference [42]. The impedance matching with the free space is hence a necessary condition to reduce much of the reflection of the incident wave. One avenue consists of a large effective relative permeability μr by tailoring custom RF, microwave, and THz metamaterials [43, 44]. These are artificial materials structured at the nano- or micro-scale and gained tremendous attention over the past two decades thanks to their exotic dynamic properties, generally not found in nature, such as negative optical refraction [45, 46], and electromagnetic cloaking [47, 48]. The collective oscillations of free electrons in metals, termed localized or delocalized surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) [49], are at the origin of these unique properties, allowing a multitude of intriguing applications such as biosensors [50], optical filters [51], photodetectors [52], and nanolasers [53] to name a few. The metallic nanostructures based on localized SPP resonance generally create strongly enhanced electromagnetic fields. The electric field confined in the junctions of metal particles, so-called electrical hot spots [49], allows for a significant improvement in emission processes and non-linearities [54], which are mediated by the electrical polarization of molecules. In particular, the magnetic activity at optical frequencies is much lower than its electrical equivalent due to the extremely low magnetic response of natural materials [40]. Accordingly, magnetic hot spots are highly desirable for enhancing the magnetic response. Many structures have been specifically designed to provide magnetic hot spots, such as diabolo antennas [55] and two parallel metal plates [56]. However, achieving simultaneous electric and magnetic hot spots in the same spatial position is rather difficult. In addition, quality factor and mode volume are critical parameters in local field enhancement engineering.
In the same vein, although the intrinsic optical loss of metals is a major limitation in the performance of these devices, it is beneficial in improving light absorption. In 2008, Landy et al. first proposed a perfect metamaterial absorber with near-perfect absorption by simultaneously exciting electric and magnetic resonances to achieve impedance matching with free space [19]. Soon after, important absorber designs based on different physical mechanisms have been demonstrated theoretically and experimentally in a broad spectral range, which can be classified into two categories: narrowband absorbers [57, 58] and broadband absorbers [59, 60] in terms of their absorption bandwidth. While broadband absorbers are typically used in thermo-photovoltaic systems [61], perfect narrowband absorbers may be used for absorption filters [36], tailoring thermal radiation [62], and sensing [30, 32]. For the important sensing and detection applications, the experimentally performed refractive index (RI) sensor based on infrared coherent perfect absorber (CPA) shows that a narrow bandwidth and a large modulation depth are required for better performance [32, 33]. The three-layered configuration of metal–insulator–metal (MIM) employed was widely applied to the following SPP absorbers, where a thin dielectric spacer is sandwiched to allow for strong plasmonic coupling between the top resonators and the bottom metallic reflector as discussed in depth in [22, 59]. This class of CPA designs may also be intuitively treated as a single input transmission line (TL) coupled to a plasmonic resonator, where the thickness of the insulating spacer affects the radiative damping rates as well as the resonance frequency bandwidth.
2. Generalized theory for perfect electromagnetic absorbers
In this section, we will discuss the basic principles of extremely thin electromagnetic absorbers composed of an infinite two-dimensional array of electric dipoles, magnetic dipoles, or both. According to the optical theorem, when the scatterer interacts with the incident fields, the power depleted from the incident fields is the sum of the absorbed and scattered powers, i.e., Pext=Pa+Ps. This power balance is fundamentally restricted by the energy conservation enforced by causality. The time-averaged absorbed power is the surface integral of the inward flowing flux of the Poynting vector over the surface surrounding the scatterer [63].
Pa=−12Re∯Einc+Es×Hinc+Hs∗⋅n̂ds,E1
where EincHinc and EsHs are the incident and scattered fields, respectively. Similarly, the time-averaged scattered power representing the re-radiated power from the scatterer is the surface integral of the outward flux of the Poynting vector of scattered fields,
Ps=12Re∯Es×Hs∗⋅n̂ds.E2
Finally, the total incident power flowing through the surface S is zero
Pinc=12Re∯Einc×Hinc∗⋅n̂ds≡0.E3
From Eqs. (1)-(3), the total extracted power (power extinction) is given by the cross-terms
Pext=−12Re∯Ei×Hs∗+Es×Hi∗⋅n̂ds.E4
The forward scattering sum rule is valid for any arbitrary absorbers, for which the scattered power Ps is the sum of the backward scattered (reflected) power Pr=R2Pinc and the forward scattered power (i.e., the difference between the transmitted and incident fields) Pf=1−T2Pinc where R and T are reflection and transmission coefficients of the compact planar absorber, respectively. The total scattered power Ps can be expressed as
Ps=Pr+Pf=R2+1−T2Pinc.E5
The absorbed power Pa is the difference between the incident power and the sum of reflected and transmitted power Pr+Pt, given by
Pa=Pinc−Pr−Pt=1−R2−T2Pinc.E6
Assuming that there are no grating sidelobes, the power extinction -Pext can be written as
Pext=Pa+Ps=2Re1−TPinc.E7
This can be seen as the optical theorem for infinite two-dimensional (2D) planar structures, such as metascreens or an ultrathin absorptive film. We know from Eqs. (5)-(7) that when the forward scattered power represents the total scattered power, i.e., no backward scattered (reflected) waves, the total absorption of the incident radiation can be achieved. In this case, the scattered power equals the absorbed power, Ps=Pf=Pa, which is somehow similar to the conjugated matching concept in the equivalent Thevenin or Norton circuit. The 100% absorption occurs only for an asymmetric system, such as a metal-back thin absorptive slab or a surface that combines both electric and magnetic dipoles [64]. For instance, electric and magnetic dipole arrays at the metascreen would radiate symmetric and anti-symmetric electric fields on either side of the metascreen. The anti-symmetry introduced by magnetic dipoles enables the complete cancelation of incident fields in the forward direction while generating no backward propagating wave, thereby achieving a perfect absorption [39]. Likewise, a metal-backed electric or magnetic dipole array, such as linear dipole or patch antenna array, also exhibits the asymmetry necessary for making a perfect absorber, which will be discussed in the following.
Consider an infinite 2D electric dipole array, separated from a PEC ground plane by a distance d; this induces an electric current sheet parallel to the ground PEC plane, as shown in Figure 2 (a). We assume that the array period is smaller than the wavelength of the incident wave, and the array is excited by an x -polarized normally incident plane wave from the positive z-direction: Einc=x̂E0ejkz, where k is the wavenumber of the uniform background medium. For brevity, we consider an isotropic periodic grid that can be conveniently modeled by a scalar surface impedance Zs, relating the surface-averaged electric field Etot=Einc+Es in the array plane and the average electric surface current density of complex amplitude Js=x̂Js=x̂Js0eiφ (which is expressed in terms of the averaged tangential magnetic fields on the two sides of the array)
Figure 2.
(a) Electric and (c) magnetic sheet currents over a PEC surface and the corresponding images (b) and (d), respectively.
Js=jωpS=ẑ×H+−H−=Etot/Zs,E8
where p is the electric dipole moment generated by the resonant meta-atoms, Es is the scattered fields generated by the average electric surface current density Js and S is the area of a unit-cell. This scattering problem can be solved using the image theory, which removes the ground plane and places an image source of −Js at z=−d . With the principle of superposition, the total fields for z>0 can be found by combining the fields from the two sources individually. Hence, the scattered electric and magnetic fields can be written as
where η is the intrinsic impedance of the background medium. The second terms in Eq. (9) are contributed by the reflection (backward scattering) from the conducting ground plane, whereas the first terms in Eq. (9) are produced by the induced surface current. Below the ground plane (z>0), the scattering fields Es=−Einc are always valid, regardless of the scattering environment above the ground plane. As known from Eqs. (1) and (2), the time-averaged scattered and absorbed power can be obtained from the surface integral of the inward flowing flux of the Poynting vector of the total field through the surface S enclosing a single unit-cell
For an arbitrary value d, the perfect absorption can be achieved when the surface electric current is tailored to be
Js=E0ηsinkdejπ/2,E12
or from Eqs. (8), (9), and (12), we obtain the optimum (lossy and capacitive) surface impedance Zs,opt that renders the maximum absorbed power and Pabs=Psca
Zs,opt=η22sin2kd−jsin2kd.E13
When the distance between the array plane and the ground plane d=λ/4, the optimum electric surface impedance Zs,opt=η; such a result is consistent with the setting of the Salisbury screen absorber [65]. From Eq. (13), we find that a complex surface impedance is required to miniaturize an absorber with kd→0 . Intuitively, a capacitive lossy surface with ImZs,opt=−jηsin2k0d/2≃−jωμd should be exploited to compensate for the shunt inductance resulting from the grounded dielectric substrate that exhibits an input impedance Zin=jηtankd≈jωμd. An equivalent TL model sketched in Figure 3 may be a straightforward way to describe the reflection and absorption properties of the grid array. For a plane wave normally incident on the structure, the zero reflection condition (i.e., total absorption) can be obtained as Zin−1+Zs−1=η−1, leading to the same results of Eq. (13).
Figure 3.
Equivalent transmission line model of an ultrathin metasurface-based absorber.
In the following, we briefly discuss how to design and synthesize the grid array that provides the required surface impedance. It is instructive to study a metamaterial surface or metasurface formed by a 2D array of meta-atoms excited by an external electric field Eext with the TE polarization (Figure 2a). The collective behavior of electric dipole moments induced in electric meta-atoms will result in a homogenous sheet current. The total averaged polarization related to the local field is responsible for the αe,xx component of the electric polarizability tensor αe. Considering the full coupling among the whole array of interacting electric dipoles, the dipole moment induced on the nanoparticle is given by [35, 66, 67].
where Nx and Ny are positive or negative integers, which relate the position of local dipoles and periods dx and dy by x=Nxdx and y=Nydy, rNxNy is the position of the dipole pNxNy, and GrNxNyrNx′Ny′=∇∇+k2I¯¯e−jk∣rNxNy−rNx′Ny′∣4πrNxNy−rNx′Ny′ is the dyadic Green’s function in a homogeneous and isotropic medium. After some algebraic manipulations, we may write (14) as:
p00=p00x̂=1αe,xx−1−βEextE15
where β=∑NxNy≠00GrNxNyrNx′Ny′x̂x̂ is the interaction constant that relates the fields induced by the infinite array of electric dipoles around the unit cell under consideration to the local field at the origin. The averaged surface current density on the metasurface can be expressed as:
Js=Jsx̂=jωp00S=jωEextSαe,xx−1−βx̂,E16
where the area of the metasurface lattice S = dxdy. This is an accurate description of the array’s electromagnetic properties, as long as the periods are small enough to ensure that only one Floquet harmonic could exist. The average surface impedance of metasurface, as the ratio of the local electric field to the surface current density, can be expressed as
Zs=EextJs−η2=Sjωαe,xx−1−β−η2E17
Under the lossless and low frequency condition, the polarizability is approximately given by αe,xx−1≃αe0,xx−1+jk3/6πε, where αe0,xx is the static polarizability. Eq. (17) may be further manipulated by considering the physical requirements on the imaginary parts of β associated with the power balance [68].
where K0⋅ is the modified Bessel function of the second kind (or Macdonald function [70]). For the square lattice dx=dy≪λ0, the Eq. (20) can have a compact form
Reβ≃1εdx3−ψ212π−8πK02π≃0.3596εdx3,E21
where ψn is the polygamma function [71]. Eq. (21) agrees with the low-frequency interact coefficient in Ref. [72]:
where R0≃dx/1.438 and Reβ≃0.3596/εdx3. From Eqs. (13) and (19), we find that the maximum absorption is reached when the following conditions are satisfied:
Reαe0,xx−1−Reβ=ωη2Ssin2kd;E23
Imαe0,xx−1=ωηS1−cos2kd2.E24
This can be achieved by tailoring the size, shape, and material property (i.e., dispersion of the complex permittivity) of the elementary inclusion (i.e., meta-atom) in the metasurface unit-cell. For a Salisbury-type absorber with d=λ/4,Eqs. (23) and (24) becomes:
Reαe0,xx−1≈Reβ,E25
Imαe0,xx−1≈ωηS=kεS.E26
The first condition implies an individual scatterer is at its self-resonance, which considers the cancelation of a general sense, the maximum absorption cross-section of each inclusion in densely packed arrays σsca=S is smaller than that of the same inclusion in free reactive coupling between neighboring scatters. In contrast, the second condition means that the absorption in the array is maximized; such occurs when the absorbed power is equal to the re-radiated power, i.e., Pabs=Psca=Einc2/2η=Pin. We note that the maximum absorbed power for each lattice is Pabs,cell=SPin, therefore, in space under the same illumination σsca=3λ2/8π. It is interesting to note that inclusion in the grid can absorb as much as it is in free space when the unit cell size is: k2S=3π/2. In the low-frequency region, the polarizability of a generalized inclusion is αe−1=αe0−1+k36πεI. The static polarizability of a meta-atom as a function of geometry, frequency, and material property can be analytically derived or numerically retrieved. For example, the static polarizability of a spherical particle is: αe0=4πa3ε0εD−εεD+2ε [39], where a and εD are the radius and permittivity tensor of the spherical scatterer. For a 2D structure with negligible thickness, such as a square patch or circular disk, the static polarizability is in the form of αe0=αe,xxx̂x̂+αe,yyŷŷ. For example, for a conducting circular disk αe0,xx=αe0,yy=16πa3/3ε where a is its radius. In the extreme case, the polarizability of a 1D conducting rod with a deeply subwavelength radius a and height h, aligned parallel to the electric field of the incident wave, has only the αe,xx component [39]. For modern meta-atom designs such as electric or magnetic split-ring resonators [73, 74, 75, 76, 77], the resonant electric/magnetic polarizability can be fitted to a generalized Lorentzian dispersion model
αe/mω=Aω2ω02−ω2+jωΓ,E27
where ω0 is the resonant frequency of electric/magnetic polarizability, Γ is the damping factor, and A is the amplitude.
Figures 4 and 5 show metasurface absorbers based on 2D arrays of plasmonic disks [78] and electric ring resonators [79], respectively. It is clearly seen that the ultrathin and low-profile metasurface absorbers can significantly absorb the incident wave in the frequency band of interest. We note that these electric resonant inclusions can be equivalent to a 2D array of electric dipoles discussed above.
Figure 4.
Comparison between measurement and simulation. Above: Reflection spectra of the metamaterial absorber consisting of periodic arrays of Au cylinders/disks deposited on a stack of SiO2/Au/Ti/Si layers measured by FTIR spectrometer and calculated by FDTD simulation. Bottom: SEM image of the absorber and a relevant unit cell needed for simulation.
Figure 5.
(a) Terahertz metasurface absorber based on electric resonant inclusions, which displays a strong electric field localization in the capacitive gap region. (b) Transmission, reflection, and absorption against frequency for the metasurface in (a).
It is also possible to exploit a metasurface constituted by magnetic or magnetoelectric meta-atoms [9, 19, 22, 23] to build a perfect electromagnetic absorber. For example, Figure 2(c) and (d) consider a magnetic dipole array over a ground plane and the image. When a plane wave normally incident on the structure, the magnetic current density is induced: Ms=jωm00/S. In a generalized scenario, the metasurface is excited by normally incident plane wave with fields (Eext,Hext), and an individual meta-atoms is excited by the local field (Eloc,Hloc):
p00=αeEloc+αemEloc;m00=αmeEloc+αmEloc,E28
and
Eloc=Eext+p00⋅β;Hloc=Hext+m00⋅β′,E29
where α is the dyadic polarizability and the interaction coefficient are
β=βI+jηω2S+k36πεIandβ′=βη2.E30
The total averaged fields on the metasurface can be expressed as
If the reader is interested in learning details about anisotropic magnetoelectric metasurfaces, please see Refs. [80, 81, 82].
Figure 6 shows an ultrathin electromagnetic absorber based on resonant magnetic structures. Under the excitation of a plane wave, a magnetic dipole array can be induced, and at resonance, the incident power can be absorbed, analogous to the function of the electric dipole array discussed above. The experimental results reported an absorption efficiency above 93% at 1.74 GHz at illumination angles up to 60 degrees [83]. Moreover, this absorber is 98% lighter than traditional microwave absorbers made of natural materials working at the same frequencies. As an alternative explanation, this structure can be seen as a metal-backed magnetic-near-zero (MNZ) metamaterial slab [84]. For an ultrathin metal-backed MNZ absorber, the permeability μ=μ′−jμ″μ0 required for perfect absorption can be derived as: μ′μ0≈0 and μ″μ0≈1/k0t, where k0 and μ0 are the wavenumber and the permeability of free space, and t is the thickness of the metamaterial slab. This magnetic metamaterial absorber can achieve zero backward scattering (R = 0) and a large forward scattering (T = 0), i.e., Pf=Pinc and Pext=Pa+Ps=2Pinc.
Figure 6.
(a) Sketch and (b) photo of an ultrathin perfect absorber based on magnetic resonant structures and its measured (c) reflection and (d) absorption.
On the contrary, if symmetric designs are considered (e.g., a suspended resistive film with optimal sheet impedance Zs=η0/2 or a suspending epsilon-near-zero (ENZ) thin-slab with permittivity ε=−j2/k0t), only 50% of incident radiation can be absorbed. Due to the symmetric geometry and the negligible thickness of a resistive sheet/film, the induced surface current would equally re-radiate fields to either side of the absorptive sheet, i.e., Pr=Pf=R2Pinc leads to a maximum absorbed power Pa=Ps=0.5Pinc and thus Pext=Pinc. Flat magnetic resonant structures have also been used to improve the isolation of MIMO antennas that are densely packed in a limited area. Figure 7 shows a two-element array of rectangular patch antennas covered by the magnetic metasurface constituted by split-ring resonators [85]. From Figure 7, it is clearly seen that at the magnetic resonance, the resonators can effectively absorb the lateral radiation causing mutual coupling between antennas, thus effectively reducing the envelope correlation coefficient (ECC) of the MIMO system.
Figure 7.
(a) Magnetic metasurface for absorbing lateral radiation from the microstrip patch antenna. (b) Mutual coupling in a two-element MIMO system (left) without and (right) with the magnetic metasurface.
3. Hyperbolic metamaterial absorbers
Hyperbolic metamaterials (HMMs) (see Figure 8) are known for their isofrequency contour and broadband singularity in the density of photonic states, which have led to many new photonic and optical applications, including the substrate for molding spontaneous emissions into a directional beam and the “rainbow trapping” structure for broadband light absorption [25, 86, 87, 88]. The effective medium theory can describe the effective permittivity of such an artificial anisotropic medium as:
Figure 8.
Left: Schematics of HMM (left); right: Isofrequency surfaces of extraordinary waves in normal dielectrics and HMMs (right).
ε¯¯eff=ε0ε‖x̂x̂+ε‖ŷŷ+ε⊥ẑẑ,E33
ε⊥=∑i=1Nεi−1ρi−1,E34
ε‖=∑i=1Nεiρi,E35
where εi and ρi are relative permittivity and volume fraction of i-th constituent materials, and ε0 is the permittivity of free space. The isofrequency relation for the transverse-magnetic (TM) wave propagating in a uniaxially anisotropic medium, as schematically shown in Figure 8, can be expressed as
ky2+kz2ε⊥+kx2ε‖=ω2c2.E36
Therefore, for an anisotropic medium with extreme material properties, i.e., Reε⊥⋅Reε‖<0, the spherical isofrequency surface of vacuum distorts to an ellipsoid, as shown in Figure 8.
Figure 9a considers a trenched HMM slab with a periodicity P and air slots with width W, illuminated by a TM-polarized plane wave. The trenched HMM substrate is, in some sense, similar to a periodic array of air/HMM/air waveguides, for which a guided mode propagating along the waveguide axis can exhibit a near-zero group velocity, i.e., vg=∂ω/∂β≈0, at certain frequencies, where ω is the angular frequency and β is the modal propagation constant. With the periodic boundary conditions, the dispersion relation can be derived using the transverse resonance method [88, 89, 90, 91] as:
Figure 9.
(a) Schematics of a slow-light structure based on the structured HMM that can be described using a transmission line network model. (b) Dispersion diagram for a waveguide array made by carving an HMM substrate made of repeated Ag-NbO-Cu lattices with P = 300 nm and W = 100 nm. Labels in (a) and (b) indicate the slow-wave modes and the corresponding absorption peaks. (c) Calculated contours of absorptance for the HMM in (b) constituted by 12 MIM heterojunctions, varying the metal thickness (tmetal) and the operating wavelength; [89].
where β is the modal propagation constant and k0 is the free space wavenumber. Provided the periodicity of each MIM unit-cell is subwavelength (P<<λ0), all diffraction orders, except for the zeroth mode, are evanescent. The scattering and absorption properties of this HMM-based device can be solved using the TL model (TLM) and the transfer matrix method (TMM), as shown in Figure 9. For the TM-wave illumination normally incident upon the HMM substrate, the characteristic impedance per unit length can be expressed as Z0=V0/I0=∫0P/2Exdx/Hy=η0P/2, which is defined as the ratio between the voltage across one period V0=∫0P/2Exdx=E0dcosθ and the current per unit length I0=Hy=ε0cE0, where ε0 and c are permittivity and speed of light in free space. Similarly, the characteristic impedance of HMM Z=β/ωε0×W/2. At the interface between air and metasurface, there exists a shunt surface susceptance B imposed by the discontinuous fields [92].
and α=W/P. The reflection/transmission spectrum and absorption peaks can be calculated based on the TLM mode shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9b shows the calculated dispersion diagram of a periodically trenched HMM slab constituted by stacked silver (Ag) and copper (Cu) thin-films with thickness tmetal, separated by 1 nm-thick niobium oxide (Nb2O5) insulating layers, of which the periodicity and air gap size are 300 nm and 150 nm, respectively. The realistic material properties extracted from experiments are used [89]. It can be seen from Figure 9b that near-zero group velocity can be achieved at certain wavelengths, resulting in the slow light effect and light trapping and absorption in the lossy (dissipative plasmon loss) and anisotropic HMM region. Figure 9c presents the associated contour plot of absorptance as a function of metal thickness tmetal [nm] and wavelength λ [μm]. We find excellent agreement between the wavelengths of maximum absorption in Figure 9c and the near-zero group velocity points in the dispersion diagram plotted in Figure 9b. We note that total HMM size is still subwavelength since the large value of Reβ suggests that the incident light can be effectively absorbed in a long-wavelength range.
Additionally, the absorption spectrum can be readily tailored by varying the volume fraction of metal, which determines the permittivity tensor elements of HMM. Although a linear HMM-based absorber can exhibit a high and angle-independent optical absorption, its bandwidth is limited around the slow-wave modes. This limitation can be mitigated by exploiting a tapered-HMM, as shown in Figure 10a, which has been proposed to realize wideband photodetection and solar energy harvesting applications [88, 89, 90, 91]. Using tapered geometry, the bandwidth is expected to increase due to the superposition of multiple slow-wave modes. Figure 10b shows the contour plot of absorptance as a function of the photon energy and the angle of incidence. It is evidently seen that a broadband (1 eV to 1.6 eV) and wide-angle (0o to grazing angle) optical absorption can be obtained with the tapered HMM substrate backed by a metallic mirror (50 nm Ag thin-film). The capability to effectively trap photons over a wide range of photon energies and illumination angles is essential for building efficient hot-electron energy harvesters or photodetectors. Finally, we note that the general limitation on the maximum bandwidth of a ground-backed absorber should always obey the passivity and causality [93], following the physical bound ∫0∞lnrℏωdℏω≤2π2∑iμs,iti/μ0, where rℏω is the reflection coefficient as a function of photon energy, μs,i and ti are the static permeability and the thickness of the i-th layer of the multilayered absorptive slab. For an effective non-magnetic medium, we can define Rozanov’s limiting factor as ηRozanov=∫0∞lnrℏωdℏω/2π2t, where t is the total thickness of the absorber. ηRozanov must be less than unity and a larger value corresponds to a wider absorption bandwidth. For the tapered HMM in Figure 10b, the calculated ηRozanov can reach ∼40%, which, although not optimized yet, is moderately high for the polarized light.
Figure 10.
(a) Top: Schematics of the HMM with a periodic array of tapered trenches, which allows one to tailor the broadband of light trapping; bottom: Snapshots of electric field distributions inside the tapered HMM at photon energies of 260 THz, 300 THz, and 320 THz (left to right). (b) Contour of absorptance as a function of photon energy and incident angle for the tapered-HMM [88].
Similarly, an ultra-broadband HMM absorber can be realized in the RF and microwave regions by integrating two different-sized tapered HMM waveguides, as shown in Figure 11a [94], each of which has wide but different absorption bands, leading to a broadband slow-light response. By properly selecting the geometrical parameters for each waveguide in the HMM, multiple absorption bands can be achieved with different waveguides, as shown in Figure 11b. Such an approach can effectively widen the total absorption bandwidth. Experimental results in Ref. [94] validate the theoretical results, showing a very large absorption bandwidth ranging from 2.3 GHz to 40 GHz.
Figure 11.
(a) Photograph of a microwave HMM absorber. (b) Simulated electric field distributions at different frequencies. (c) Measured absorption spectra for different polarizations.
4. Future trends: reconfigurable absorbers based on plasmonic, graphene, and beyond
Electromagnetic wave absorbers are mainly utilized as boundary structures to prevent the scattering of electromagnetic fields. They can be divided into two main categories based on their operating bandwidth, i.e., resonant and broadband absorbers [95, 96]. Resonant absorbers typically depend on the designed material assemblies interrelating with the incident waves around certain resonance frequencies [96]. On the other hand, the wideband absorbers rely on material damping characteristics that are largely independent of electromagnetic frequencies and typically made of lossy dispersive materials [96]. Such broadband absorbing materials along with structural transition are commonly used in anechoic chambers to effectively emulate a non-reflecting unbounded medium suitable for testing radiating antenna elements [95]. Lately, there is an emphasis in the scientific community to design efficient plasmonic metamaterial-based absorbers. Light matter interaction in subwavelength metamaterial structures allowed various other applications including perfect lenses [45, 97], chiral surfaces [98, 99], transformational surfaces [100, 101], optical cloaking [100, 102, 103], spatial light switching [104, 105] and IR camouflage and microwave antennas because of certain useful characteristics [96]. In addition to these applications, the perfect metamaterial absorber (PMA) is designed as a tool to efficiently absorb electromagnetic waves utilizing plasmonic resonator elements embedded within its assembly.
Generally, metamaterial absorbers are composed of a patterned metal film over a continuous thin metallic film with a dielectric substrate sandwiched between them [96]. It should be noted that the definition of total absorptivity considers reflected electric field vector, i.e., R→=Riiâi+Rjiâj, that considers both co- (Rii=Eiref/Eiinc) and cross (Rji=Ejref/Eiinc) polarized components of reflected fields [21]. Here, subscript ij=xyrefer to x or y coordinates. Oftentimes, the plasmonic metasurface absorbers inhibits only co- polarized reflection (i.e., Rii=0) and converts incident fields to cross polarized reflected fields components (Rji) [21, 106], as shown in Figure 12. Such metasurface is designed with certain structural anisotropy that allows the flow of electric currents that suppresses co- polarization states (Rii) for the reflected fields. As a result, such plasmonic metasurface converts the polarization of incident electromagnetic fields to orthogonal reflected field component (Rji). Special cases of circular or elliptical polarized reflected fields may also be attained by specific vector combination of co- (Rii) and cross (Rji) polarized components [107, 108]. In the case of a full absorber as shown in Figure 12(a), the normalized perfect absorption Aω due to the plasmonic metasurface can be found from the amplitude of reflected fields i.e., Aω=1−Rω2−Tω2. Here, ∣Rω∣ and |Tω∣ are amplitudes of reflected and transmitted fields, respectively. The ideal back reflector typically supports negligible transmission i.e., ∣Tω∣=0.
Figure 12.
(Left) full absorber to inhibit any scattering from the metasurface. (Right) cross polarizer to suppress the co-polarized component Rxx=0 while not affecting cross-polarized reflection component Ryx.
The response of PMA is often described as an effective medium and characterized by properties such as complex electric permittivity (ε) and magnetic permeability (μ) [109]. Although much of the work on effective medium properties of metamaterials has been focused on the real part of ε and μ, as it contributes to negative refractive index properties, it is equally important to reduce losses represented by the imaginary part of ε and μ for practical applications related to wave propagation within negative refractive index medium [110, 111]. In contrast, the metamaterial absorbers rely on high material losses (large value of imaginary parts of ε and μ) and impedance matching with the background medium. Landy et al. provided the first experimental demonstration of near perfect metasurface absorption at GHz frequencies. The working principle of PMA relies on impedance matching between effective medium forming metasurface with dielectric and background medium to the free space background, rejecting the reflection and therefore efficiently absorbing the incident EM wave [19, 20]. Ever since, the design of PMAs has attracted significant attention ranging from microwave to optical frequencies [112, 113]. Apart from resonant absorption characteristics, the plasmonic effects also provide tremendous near field enhancement to improve the efficiency of solar cells [114], support for sensing [31], and enhanced thermal emission and photo-detection [115].
Recently, the electro-optic tunability of resonant absorption spectrum at THz frequencies is made possible by varying the frequency dependent conductivity of plasmonic materials through the use of graphene metasurface [22, 59]. The frequency dependent optical properties of graphene in the THz frequency range are controlled by its optoelectronic properties. The permittivity (εg) of graphene is function of the surface conductivity (σg).
εgω=1+jσgωε0ωΔ.E40
Here, ε0 is the vacuum permittivity, and ∆ = 1 nm is the monoatomic thickness of graphene.
The surface conductivity of graphene (σg) can be deduced from the Kubo formula, at low THz frequencies (inter-band conductivity can be neglected in this regime),
σgω=je02kBTπℏℏω+jΓμckBT+2log1+e−μc/kBT.E41
Here, μc[eV] is the chemical potential of graphene, Γ=−e0ℏvf2/μμc is the damping coefficient, vf [m/s] is the Fermi velocity, and μ [cm2/Vs] is the electron mobility, e0 is the electronic unit-charge, T is temperature, kB is the Boltzmann constant, and ℏ is the reduced Plank’s constant. Therefore, the surface conductivity σg and permittivity of graphene εg can be directly controlled by varying μc. The chemical potential can be controlled by doping graphene or by applying an electrostatic bias to the graphene sheet.
The real-time tunability of Graphene Surface Plasmons (GSPs) is a distinct feature offered by graphene metasurface when compared to traditional noble metals. In addition, GSPs offer other benefits such as tighter mode volume confinement and lower intrinsic losses compared to conventional surface plasmon materials. The unique electro-optic tunability of graphene conductivity within the THz band makes it an attractive candidate for plasmonic metamaterial applications. Therefore, graphene enabled the research in surface plasmons to be redirected toward reconfigurable THz wave optics applications, including GSPP waveguides [116], modulators [24], THz cloaks [117], THz antennas [118], Fourier optics [119], photonic crystal nano-cavities [120], and biochemical sensors [31, 121]. The reconfigurable response of resonant absorption can offer additional functionalities, including wave modulation, polarization conversion, and sensing.
Here, we discuss a few selected applications of reconfigurable THz metasurface absorbers, as shown in Figure 13. Figure 13(a) shows graphene micro-ribbon metasurface design capable of efficiently absorbing THz radiation [22]. The chemical potential (μc) can be used to control graphene conductivity. As a result, the reconfigurable response with near perfect absorption can be utilized for THz wave modulation applications. Figure 13(b) shows a design of multilayer graphene metasurface that operates at THz frequencies [59]. The graphene layers are designed to generate quadrupolar localized surface plasmons that destructively interfere with the dipole mode. The patterned graphene layers are biased to operate at different chemical potential levels and backed up with dielectric substrates stacked on top of each other. Full-wave electromagnetic simulations demonstrate that the absorption spectrum is not only tunable but can be optimized to a large bandwidth of operation, i.e., 6.9 THz bandwidth is obtained for over 90% normalized absorption. Figure 13(c) shows a schematic illustration of the design of graphene metasurface supporting polarization state modulation with high spectral efficiency [98]. The structural chirality of metasurface is utilized to generate chiral reflection along with highly dispersive Fano resonance. Several polarization states, including two orthogonal linearly polarized, right-and left-handed circular polarized reflections, are demonstrated for a narrow electro-optic tuning range of chemical potentials between 500 and 700 meV. By exploiting these properties, highly efficient modulation stages of modern communication systems can be designed. Figure 13(d) shows a polarization-state sensing setup to distinguish closely resembling optical properties of biomolecules such as viruses [31]. The measurement consists of a plasmonic metasurface with chiral unit cells, and the polarization properties of reflected fields can determine the optical characteristics of the analyte. It is shown that the proposed sensor can distinguish three closely resembling influenza virus strains i.e., H1N1, H5N2, and H9N2 based on the variation of the reflected polarization states.
Figure 13.
(a) (Top) Schematic illustration of graphene micro-ribbon metasurface. (Bottom) Tunable absorption characteristics due to variation in graphene chemical potential (μc) [22]. (b) (Top) Multilayer graphene metasurface biased at different levels to efficiently absorb incident radiation. (Bottom) Wideband absorption spectrum for THz waves for the normal incident condition [59]. (c) Description of polarization state modulation of a digital M-level signal by chiral graphene metasurface. The 4-level digital stream is fed to a limiter that converts it into the required chemical potential and consequently produces desired polarization state for the reflected field [98]. (d) The chiral biosensor is constructed by graphene metasurface supporting chiral reflection characteristics to test ligand-antigen bindings on the surface. The resonance frequency supports a distinct contour path traversed by locus tip of electric field vector in time for three different strains of influenza viruses H1N1, H5N2, and H9N2 [31].
5. Conclusion
In this chapter, we have reviewed the most recent advances in the field of metamaterial and metasurface-based electromagnetic perfect absorbers. We have first provided a thorough theoretical investigation describing the material and geometrical conditions that may lead to a near-perfect absorption of light. Based on the well-known optical theorem, this analysis gives a power balance and clarifies the design process in the microwaves and terahertz. Next, we have discussed a peculiar and interesting class of perfect absorbers that are hyperbolic metamaterial absorbers. These devices exploit a particular dispersion of hyperbolic media and lead to robust and tunable absorbers. We finally have discussed the newly proposed graphene plasmonics based absorbers, which exploit the high conductivity and tunable optical properties of this 2D material to build some of the most appealing and versatile absorbers, with applications spanning energy harvesting, biosensing, or light polarization manipulation. This chapter can be helpful to theorists and experimentalists alike, working on the design of novel absorbers of light or even other types of waves.
\n',keywords:"EMI, EMC, metamaterials, metasurfaces, perfect electromagnetic absorbers",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78347.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78347.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78347",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78347",totalDownloads:164,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 1st 2021",dateReviewed:"July 9th 2021",datePrePublished:"September 22nd 2021",datePublished:"February 23rd 2022",dateFinished:"August 31st 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The rapid advent of radio-frequency (RF) and microwave technologies and systems have given rise to serious electromagnetic pollution, interference and jamming for high-precision detection devices, and even threats to human health. To mitigate these negative impacts, electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding materials and structures have been widely deployed to isolate sophisticated instruments or human settlements from potential EMI sources growing every day. We discuss recent advances in lightweight, low-profile electromagnetic absorbing media, such as metamaterials, metasurfaces, and nanomaterial-based solutions, which may provide a relatively easy solution for EMI shielding and suppressing unwanted RF and microwave noises. We present a general review of the recent progress on theories, designs, modeling techniques, fabrication, and performance comparison for these emerging EMI and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) media.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78347",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78347",signatures:"Pai-Yen Chen, Mohamed Farhat, Zhilu Ye, Muhammad Amin, Hakan Bagci and Danilo Erricolo",book:{id:"10852",type:"book",title:"Recent Topics in Electromagnetic Compatibility",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Topics in Electromagnetic Compatibility",slug:"recent-topics-in-electromagnetic-compatibility",publishedDate:"February 23rd 2022",bookSignature:"Ahmed Kishk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10852.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-669-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-668-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-670-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"150146",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Kishk",slug:"ahmed-kishk",fullName:"Ahmed Kishk"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"299199",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Pai-Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Pai-Yen Chen",slug:"pai-yen-chen",email:"pychen@uic.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"355380",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Farhat",fullName:"Mohamed Farhat",slug:"mohamed-farhat",email:"Mohamed.Farhat@kaust.edu.sa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"King Abdullah University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"355549",title:"Prof.",name:"Danilo",middleName:null,surname:"Erricolo",fullName:"Danilo Erricolo",slug:"danilo-erricolo",email:"derric1@uic.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Illinois at Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"355550",title:"Prof.",name:"Hakan",middleName:null,surname:"Bagci",fullName:"Hakan Bagci",slug:"hakan-bagci",email:"hakan.bagci@kaust.edu.sa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"King Abdullah University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"416031",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Amin",fullName:"Muhammad Amin",slug:"muhammad-amin",email:"muhammad.amin@kaust.edu.sa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Taibah University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"425248",title:"Mr.",name:"Zhilu",middleName:null,surname:"Ye",fullName:"Zhilu Ye",slug:"zhilu-ye",email:"zye27@uic.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Illinois at Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Generalized theory for perfect electromagnetic absorbers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Hyperbolic metamaterial absorbers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Future trends: reconfigurable absorbers based on plasmonic, graphene, and beyond",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Mishra N, Kumari K, Chaudhary RK. An ultra-thin polarization independent quad-band microwave absorber-based on compact metamaterial structures for EMI/EMC applications. Int. J. Microw. Wireless Technol. 2018;10:422'},{id:"B2",body:'Holloway CL, DeLyser RR, German RF, McKenna P, Kanda M. Comparison of electromagnetic absorber used in anechoic and semi-anechoic chambers for emissions and immunity testing of digital devices. IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility. 1997;39:33'},{id:"B3",body:'Crawford ML, Workman JL, Thomas CL. Expanding the Bandwidth of TEM Cells for EMC Measurements. 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Simovski, On electromagnetic characterization and homogenization of nanostructured metamaterials, J. Opt. 13, 013001 (2010).'},{id:"B112",body:'M. A. El-Aasser, Design optimization of nanostrip metamaterial perfect absorbers, JNP 8, 083085 (2014).'},{id:"B113",body:'Hedayati MK, Javaherirahim M, Mozooni B, Abdelaziz R, Tavassolizadeh A, Chakravadhanula VSK, et al. Design of a Perfect Black Absorber at Visible Frequencies Using Plasmonic Metamaterials. Advanced Materials. 2011;23:5410'},{id:"B114",body:'Liu D, Wang L, Cui Q, Guo LJ. Planar Metasurfaces Enable High-Efficiency Colored Perovskite Solar Cells. Advanced Science. 2018;5:1800836'},{id:"B115",body:'D. B. Durham, S. R. Loria, F. Riminucci, K. Kanellopulos, X. Shen, F. Ciabattini, A. Mostacci, P. Musumeci, A. M. Minor, S. Cabrini, and D. Filippetto, in Plasmonics: Design, Materials, Fabrication, Characterization, and Applications XVIII (International Society for Optics and Photonics, 2020), p. 1146222.'},{id:"B116",body:'Locatelli A, Capobianco A-D, Midrio M, Boscolo S, De Angelis C. Graphene-assisted control of coupling between optical waveguides. Opt. Express. 2012;20:28479'},{id:"B117",body:'Farhat M, Rockstuhl C, Bağcı H. A 3D tunable and multi-frequency graphene plasmonic cloak, Opt. Express, OE. 2013;21(12592)'},{id:"B118",body:'Filter R, Farhat M, Steglich M, Alaee R, Rockstuhl C, Lederer F. Tunable graphene antennas for selective enhancement of THz-emission, Opt. Express, OE. 2013;21(3737)'},{id:"B119",body:'A. Vakil and N. Engheta, Fourier optics on graphene, Phys. Rev. B 85, 075434 (2012).'},{id:"B120",body:'Gan X, Mak KF, Gao Y, You Y, Hatami F, Hone J, et al. Strong Enhancement of Light–Matter Interaction in Graphene Coupled to a Photonic Crystal Nanocavity. Nano Lett. 2012;12:5626'},{id:"B121",body:'Amin M, Farhat M, Baǧcı H. A dynamically reconfigurable Fano metamaterial through graphene tuning for switching and sensing applications. Scientific Reports. 2013;3:2105'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Pai-Yen Chen",address:"pychen@uic.edu",affiliation:'
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois Chicago, USA
Computer, Electrical, and Mathematical Science and Engineering (CEMSE) Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Saudi Arabia
Computer, Electrical, and Mathematical Science and Engineering (CEMSE) Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Saudi Arabia
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
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Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. Gómez-Virgilio, G. Ramírez-Rodríguez, E. Vera-\nArroyo, R. Fiorentino-Pérez, U. García, J. Luna-Muñoz and M.A.\nMeraz-Ríos",authors:[{id:"42225",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-Muñoz",slug:"jose-luna-munoz",fullName:"Jose Luna-Muñoz"},{id:"114746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Meraz-Ríos",slug:"marco-meraz-rios",fullName:"Marco Meraz-Ríos"},{id:"169616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Cardenas-Aguayo",slug:"maria-del-carmen-cardenas-aguayo",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo"},{id:"169857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Lucero",slug:"maria-del-carmen-silva-lucero",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Silva-Lucero"},{id:"169858",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes-Ortiz",slug:"maribel-cortes-ortiz",fullName:"Maribel Cortes-Ortiz"},{id:"169859",title:"Dr.",name:"Berenice",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Ramos",slug:"berenice-jimenez-ramos",fullName:"Berenice Jimenez-Ramos"},{id:"169860",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Virgilio",slug:"laura-gomez-virgilio",fullName:"Laura Gomez-Virgilio"},{id:"169861",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Rodriguez",slug:"gerardo-ramirez-rodriguez",fullName:"Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez"},{id:"169862",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Arroyo",slug:"eduardo-vera-arroyo",fullName:"Eduardo Vera-Arroyo"},{id:"169863",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorentino-Perez",slug:"rosana-sofia-fiorentino-perez",fullName:"Rosana Sofia Fiorentino-Perez"},{id:"169864",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"ubaldo-garcia",fullName:"Ubaldo Garcia"}]},{id:"58070",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72427",title:"MRI Medical Image Denoising by Fundamental Filters",slug:"mri-medical-image-denoising-by-fundamental-filters",totalDownloads:2564,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Nowadays Medical imaging technique Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays an important role in medical setting to form high standard images contained in the human brain. MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81998",title:"Understanding the Neuropathophysiology of Psychiatry Disorder Using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation",slug:"understanding-the-neuropathophysiology-of-psychiatry-disorder-using-transcranial-magnetic-stimulatio",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103748",abstract:"Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a safe and non-invasive tool that allows researchers to probe and modulate intracortical circuits. The most important aspect of TMS is its ability to directly stimulate the cortical neurons, generating action potentials, without much effect on intervening tissue. This property can be leveraged to provide insight into the pathophysiology of various neuropsychiatric disorders. Using multiple patterns of stimulations (single, paired, or repetitive), different neurophysiological parameters can be elicited. Various TMS protocol helps in understanding the neurobiological basis of disorder and specific behaviors by allowing direct probing of the cortical areas and their interconnected networks. While single-pulse TMS can provide insight into the excitability and integrity of the corticospinal tract, paired-pulse TMS (ppTMS) can provide further insight into cortico-cortical connections and repetitive TMS (rTMS) into cortical mapping and modulating plasticity.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Jitender Jakhar, Manish Sarkar and Nand Kumar"},{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:18},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:290,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:1,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 26th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11976,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11977,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:'Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the "new normal". Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.',institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:null,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11979,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. 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He collaborates with the Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (ARAM), University of Extremadura (UEx), Spain; VALORIZA - Research Center for the Enhancement of Endogenous Resources, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal; Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation (CITUR), Madeira, Portugal; and AQUAGEO Research Group, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil.",institutionString:"University of Johannesburg, South Africa and WSB University, Poland",institution:{name:"University of Johannesburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:43,paginationItems:[{id:"81796",title:"Apoptosis-Related Diseases and Peroxisomes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105052",signatures:"Meimei Wang, Yakun Liu, Ni Chen, Juan Wang and Ye Zhao",slug:"apoptosis-related-diseases-and-peroxisomes",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81723",title:"Peroxisomal Modulation as Therapeutic Alternative for Tackling Multiple Cancers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104873",signatures:"Shazia Usmani, Shadma Wahab, Abdul Hafeez, Shabana Khatoon and Syed Misbahul Hasan",slug:"peroxisomal-modulation-as-therapeutic-alternative-for-tackling-multiple-cancers",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81638",title:"Aging and Neuropsychiatric Disease: A General Overview of Prevalence and Trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103102",signatures:"Jelena Milić",slug:"aging-and-neuropsychiatric-disease-a-general-overview-of-prevalence-and-trends",totalDownloads:18,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81566",title:"New and Emerging Technologies for Integrative Ambulatory Autonomic Assessment and Intervention as a Catalyst in the Synergy of Remote Geocoded Biosensing, Algorithmic Networked Cloud Computing, Deep Learning, and Regenerative/Biomic Medicine: Further Real",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104092",signatures:"Robert L. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. 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His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. 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We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
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\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
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\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
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\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
",annualVolume:11968,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorialBoard:[{id:"220987",title:"Dr.",name:"António",middleName:"Onofre",surname:"Soares",fullName:"António Soares",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNtzQAG/Profile_Picture_1644499672340",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Azores",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
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\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
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