Advantages and disadvantages of commonly used powering rail.
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Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5295",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Autophagy in Current Trends in Cellular Physiology and Pathology",title:"Autophagy in Current Trends in Cellular Physiology and Pathology",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Autophagy in Current Trends in Cellular Physiology and Pathology is addressed to one of the fundamental molecular mechanisms - autophagy- evolutionarily adopted by cells for processing of unnecessary or malfunctioned constituents and shaping intracellular structures, adjusting them to environmental conditions, aging, disease, neoplasia, and damages over their life period. Particular attention is paid to autophagy-mediated barrier processes of selective sequestration and recycling of impaired organelles and degradation of invading microorganisms, that is, the processes sustaining intrinsic resistance to stress, tissue degeneration, toxic exposures, and infections. The presented topics encompass personal experience and visions of the chapter contributors and the editors; the book chapters include a broad analysis of literature on biology of autophagy.",isbn:"978-953-51-2727-7",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2726-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4152-5",doi:"10.5772/61911",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"autophagy-in-current-trends-in-cellular-physiology-and-pathology",numberOfPages:526,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"e16382542f283b73017bdb366aff66ad",bookSignature:"Nikolai V. Gorbunov and Marion Schneider",publishedDate:"November 10th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5295.jpg",numberOfDownloads:28318,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfDimensionsCitations:25,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:44,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 16th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 7th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 26th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 24th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 24th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"180960",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolai",middleName:null,surname:"Gorbunov",slug:"nikolai-gorbunov",fullName:"Nikolai Gorbunov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180960/images/system/180960.jpg",biography:"Dr. Gorbunov obtained his Ph.D. degree in Biology from the Russian Academy Sciences. Then, he was a recipient of the NRC NAS (http://sites.nationalacademies.org/pga/rap/) and the Department of Energy fellowship awards to pursue postdoctoral training in translational science at the University of Pittsburgh and the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (https://www.emsl.pnl.gov/emslweb Washington, USA). His translational research area has encompassed molecular pathology of trauma and countermeasures against acute radiation injury that was explored at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (http://wrair-www.army.mil) and the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences. His research interests are the disease-specific mechanisms driving alterations and defense responses in organelles, cells and tissues constituting biological barriers. With this perspective, the main objectives of his research are : i) to define the key components and pathways which regulate adaptive homeostasis and sustain intrinsic resistance to the harmful exposures and mediate recovery from the produced stress, cytotoxicity and damage; and (ii) to employ the acquired knowledge for advancement of injury-specific therapeutic modalities.",institutionString:"Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"200898",title:"Dr.",name:"E. Marion",middleName:null,surname:"Schneider",slug:"e.-marion-schneider",fullName:"E. Marion Schneider",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/200898/images/4957_n.jpg",biography:"Marion Schneider studied biology and medicine at Bonn University, Germany. Her postdoctoral fellowship was on T-cell deficiencies and stem cell transplantation at the University of Tubingen and HIV1 infection in macrophages and myeloid cells at the Institut Pasteur in Paris (1981–1985), where for\b the first time she got interested in vacuolization and prolonged viability as well as persistence of macrophages even under conditions of virus infections. Her next topics were hemophagocytic diseases (hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, HLH) and macrophage activation syndromes (MAS) related to immune dysfunction and chronic virus infections as well as severe sepsis and septic shock. When taking the professorship for Experimental Anesthesiology at Ulm University, Ulm, Germany, in 1998, she concentrated on biomarker analysis combining soluble and membrane-bound characteristics of major inflammatory diseases related to inflammasome activation. Inflammation appears to be a major risk factor for sepsis (systemic inflammation) and also for tumor manifestation. 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He was a visiting Professor in Georgia Institute of Technology in 2002 and 2005. He has published more than 225 papers in scientific journals. He received IEICE Electronics Society Award in 2004, IEICE Achievement Award in 2013, and IEEJ Outstanding Achievement Award in 2014. He served as Vice President of JSAP in 2014-2015. 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The topics discussed include system modeling, control theories, converter topologies, magnetic coupling optimization, and electromagnetic shielding technologies for DWPT.
\nThe University of Auckland and Conductix‐Wampfler manufactured the world\'s first WPT bus with 30 kW power. A demo ET with 100 kW WPT capability and a 400 m long track without any on‐board battery was also constructed [1] as shown in Figure 1.
\nWPT for EV and ET.
KAIST constructed electric buses powered by an online electric vehicle (OLEV) system. The buses are deployed in Gumi city for public transportation, running on two fixed routes covering a total distance of 24 km as shown in Figure 2. The OLEV system on these routes is able to supply 100 kW power with 85% of transfer efficiency [2].
\nKAIST OLEV.
The research in Oak Ridge National Laboratory focuses on coupling configuration, transfer characteristics, medium loss, and magnetic shielding. The dynamic charging system as shown in Figure 3 constructed by ORNL consists of a full bridge inverter powering two transmitters simultaneously through a series connection. The experimental results show that the positions of the electric vehicle significantly affect the transferred power and efficiency [3].
\nDWPT system of ORNL.
Researchers in The University of Tokyo proposed using the combination of a feedforward controller and a feedback controller to adjust the duty cycle of the power converters in the DWPT system to achieve optimum efficiency. With the advanced control method, a wireless in‐wheel motor is developed as shown in Figure 4. The current WPT is from the car body to the in‐wheel motor. In future, the wireless in‐wheel motor can be powered directly from the ground using a dynamic charging system [4].
\nWireless in‐wheel motor.
On the other hand, the Korea Railroad Corporation (KRRI) designed a WPT system for the implementation in railway track. A 1 MW, 128‐m‐long railway track was developed to demonstrate the dynamic charging technology for EV. The coupling mechanism consists of a long transmitter track and two small U‐shaped magnetic ferrites to increase the coupling strength. As a long transmitter track has high inductance, high voltage drop will occur when the current flows through it. In order to reduce this voltage stress, the compensation capacitors are distributed along the track as shown in Figure 5 [5].
\nWireless power rail developed by KRRI.
The researchers from the Japan Railway Technical Research Institute proposed a different design of coupling mechanism for the ET. The transmitters are long bipolar coils, and “figure‐8” coils are used as the matching pickups as shown in Figure 6. The system is able to transfer 50 kW of power across a 7.5‐mm gap with 10‐kHz frequency [6].
\nThe non‐contact power supply system for railway vehicle.
Bombardier Primove from Germany is currently leading in WPT technology for EV and ET. Studies have been primarily conducted for better exploitation of the technology. Apparently, the technical information of the WPT system developed by Bombardier Primove has not been published. In 2013, the company proposed a design shown in Figure 7 to ensure high reliability when powering the EV. The main DC bus is supplied by k‐number of AC/DC substations connected in parallel. This configuration is used to increase the robustness of the system. If one of the AC/DC substations breaks down, that particular substation will be disconnected from the system and other neighboring substations can continue functioning normally, thus avoiding power interruption. Each transmitter cluster is supplied by multiple high‐frequency DC/AC inverters in parallel. Similar to the DC bus, the power supply at the AC bus will not be interrupted if an inverter breaks down. At the receiver side, the train contains a DC bus as shown in Figure 7. Multiple receivers are supplying to the DC bus simultaneously via AC/DC rectification. The DC bus powers the motor through a controller. If any of the rectifiers is damaged, other receivers can continue providing sufficient power to the DC bus [7].
\nDWPT system for railway vehicle.
The Harbin Institute of Technology demonstrated dynamic charging using segmented transmitters with parallel connections to the inverter [8]. At the receiver side, two layers of flat coils wounded in the same direction are stacked against each other to cancel the points, where transferred power is zero, thereby increasing the overall efficiency. Using the decoupling principle to design the size and position of the two‐phase coil, the cross‐coupling is cancelled and high efficiency is then achieved at any position [9].
\nAlthough several studies have been conducted all over the world yielding exceptional results, factors such as power transfer performance, construction cost, and maintenance cost still require improvement. Other important considerations for practical DWPT implementation include high‐power rail, robust control strategies, and EMC.
\nCore‐less rectangular coils and bipolar coils are the two general types of coils used in WPT. The University of Auckland proposed using long rectangular rails to transfer power. A larger surface area for road construction necessitates less amount of power to be transferred per surface area. The design is also sensitive to lateral displacement of the electric vehicles. Moreover, a high level of magnetic field leakage occurs at both sides of the rail [10]. KAIST proposed an improved version by adding a magnetic core with an optimized design. Compared to the transmitter rail proposed by the University of Auckland, the transfer efficiency and transfer distance are increased. However, the construction cost is also higher.
\nKAIST presented an advanced coupling mechanism design and optimization technology in their past research. In 2009, the first‐generation OLEV was successfully produced. An E‐shaped magnetic core is used as the power transmission rail. The air gap is only 1 cm and the transfer efficiency 80% [2]. A U‐shaped transmission rail was also proposed in the same year by significantly increasing the transmission gap to 17 cm with an efficiency of 72%. In 2010, a skeleton‐type W‐shaped magnetic core is proposed, thus further increasing the transfer distance to 20 cm and efficiency to 83% [2]. From 2011 to 2015, researchers from KAIST designed fourth‐generation I‐shaped bipolar rails and fifth‐generation S‐shaped bipolar rails with even larger transfer gap, narrower frame, and higher efficiency [2]. With bipolar rails, the magnetic field path is parallel to the moving direction of the vehicle instead of being orthogonal to the moving direction. The new design is well suited for DWPT due to its advantages such as high power density, narrow frame, and therefore lower construction complexity, robust to lateral displacement, and lower magnetic field exposure on both sides of the rail [10–12] (Tables 1 and 2).
\n\n\nIn 2015, KAIST proposed using a dq‐two‐phase transmitter rail for cancelling the zero coupling points along the moving direction [13] using the control method which is relatively complex. A double loop control is implemented by detecting the phase of the primary current. The amplitudes and phases of the d‐q currents are controlled using a phase‐locked loop and DC chopper according to the position of the receiver.
\nType | \nCoreless long coil | \nBipolar rail | \n
---|---|---|
Merits | \nEven magnetic field distribution, stable power transfer, coreless, and low manufacturing cost | \nHigh power density, narrow design, robust to lateral displacement, low construction complexity, and low level of magnetic field exposure | \n
Demerits | \nLow power density, sensitive to lateral displacement, large surface area is needed for construction, and high level of magnetic field exposure | \nUneven magnetic field distribution, zero coupling point. High cost due to the usage of ferrite core | \n
Advantages and disadvantages of commonly used powering rail.
Wireless power rails and receiving pickups developed by KAIST (From generation 1 to 6).
In order to overcome the issues of low transfer efficiency and high sensitivity to the changing parameters in a centralized power supply system, a new segmented scheme is proposed [14]. The voltage at the 50 Hz AC bus is first stepped up to reduce transmission loss. Then, before the segmented transmitters, the voltage is stepped down via the inverter. Constant current is also used at the transmitters. Efficient converter topologies are also reviewed for implementing a centralized power supply system.
\n(1) Centralized power supply scheme (Figure 8)
\nWith the increasing length of the transmitter rail, the bandwidth of the primary side channel becomes narrower. Therefore, the system is more sensitive to the variations of parameters, and the robustness is decreased. The controller for the centralized power supply is relatively
High requirements of the components due to a single module supporting large power.
The whole rail is activated and causes high loss.
Low reliability due to any breakdown will affect the whole rail.
The efficiency is low when the load is small.
High self‐inductance and therefore high voltage across capacitor.
Highly sensitive toward the variations in parameters, causing low stability.
Centralized power supply scheme.
Power frequency scheme—segmented rail mode.
(2) Power frequency scheme—segmented rail mode (Figure 9)
\nThe advantages of segmented rails are as follows:\n
Different segments can be turned on at different time periods, decreasing the power loss;
Smaller‐sized power converters;
Higher reliability, when one of the segments breaks down, other segments will still be functioning normally;
Lower self‐inductance, less sensitive to variations in parameters, and therefore increasing the system stability.
However, segmented rails also have the following disadvantages:\n
High number converters, difficult to control and high maintenance and construction cost;
High number of components is required and therefore low reliability of the whole system.
(3) High frequency scheme—segmented rail mode (Figure 10)
\nWith segmented rails and centralized power supply, the advantages of this design are as follows:\n
Lesser power converter units, easier to maintain;
Different segments can be activated at different time periods, lesser power loss;
Lower self‐inductance, less sensitive to variations in parameters, increases the system stability.
High frequency scheme—segmented rail mode.
However, this design has the following disadvantages:\n
When the power supply breaks down, all of the segmented rails will stop functioning, thus lowering the system reliability;
High loss in the cable connecting the power supply to the segmented rails;
High capacity power supply and therefore large requirements of the components;
(4) High frequency and high voltage scheme and low voltage and constant current rail mode (Figure 11).
\nHigh frequency and high voltage scheme—low voltage and constant current rail mode.
(5) Combination scheme (Figure 12)
\nThis type of rails combines the advantages of abovementioned rails; however, the system is complex and only suitable for a large‐scale dynamic charging system.
\nCombined type rail scheme.
In the DWPT system, the gap between the receiver and transmitter is always changing. Different cars have different heights with respect to the ground and the coupling coefficient will varies significantly. Coupling coefficient is an important parameter in WPT. If the value is too low, the efficiency may drop considerably. Contrarily, frequency splitting phenomena may occur if the coupling coefficient is too high, and the system functions in the unstable region. Therefore, the circuit topology should be designed to be insensitive to coupling changes.
\nIn order to achieve a steady power supply with variations in coupling and to increase the system stability in the light‐load region, an LCLC topology can be used. The current at the primary is kept constant and stress on switches is reduced during on‐off. At the receiver side, a parallel‐T configuration can increase the tolerance of the system toward coupling variation. The proposed topology is shown in Figure 13.
\nCircuit topology of double LCLC.
The transmitter current is written as follows:\n
With
The output voltage is 1/λ times the receiver voltage. A step‐up voltage converter is used to provide sufficient power when coupling is low, therefore increasing the tolerance of the system against lateral displacement.
\nThe voltage ratio and efficiency are given as follows:\n
where r0 is the internal resistance of the inverter circuit, rp is the resistance of the transmitter, and rp is the resistance of the receiver.
\nThe power and efficiency curves are given in Figure 14. The efficiency is high at the low‐coupling region which is particularly important for the DWPT application.
\nAs shown by the curves in Figure 15, the efficiency and power are significantly improved for different loads and coupling coefficient compared to series topology.
\nEfficiency and voltage gain vs. coupling coefficient.
Power and efficiency of the two kinds of structure vs. coupling coefficient.
While designing the circuit of WPT, the compensation is performed under no‐load condition. In normal operating condition, frequency tracking is used to ensure resonance by keeping the same phase between primary voltage and primary current [12]. Besides, to ensure the EMC and system stability, control is used to achieve constant current. The magnetic field from the transmitter is in steady state. For example, in the WPT system developed by KAIST, the input voltage of the inverter is adjusted using a three‐phase thyristor converter shown in Figure 16 to achieve constant current at the transmitter.
\nDiagram of the KAIST IPTS showing a power inverter, a power supply rail, and a pickup.
For the secondary side, in order to realize constant current, constant voltage, or constant power, a DC/DC converter is usually implemented. Figures 17 and 18 show the DC/DC converters used in the WPT systems of the University of Auckland and KAIST [15, 16].
\nSecondary DC/DC converter.
Functional diagram of OLEV power receiver system.
Figure 19 shows a secondary‐side circuit which consists of both controllable rectifier and DC/DC converter. SPWM synchronous rectification is employed at the controllable rectifier. The duty cycle of the rectifier is regulated through SPWM; the effective resistance can be adjusted in the range of
Dynamic impedance adjustment for secondary side pickups.
Three types of control were proposed for DWPT: primary control, secondary control, and double‐side control. The University of Auckland proposed adjusting the duty cycle of the inverter to control primary resonant current, simplifying the system configuration [17]. KAIST designed constant current control at the primary. A DC/DC converter is added before the inverter, and the DC voltage from the main line is adjusted to achieve constant current for different loads [13]. The main objective of primary control is to produce constant magnetic field, then robust power control can be implemented. The University of Tokyo utilizes secondary control strategy. A buck converter is added after the rectifier [4]. General state space averaging (GSSA) is used to construct the small‐signal model. Constant power or maximum efficiency is then realized using PI pole placement [18]. In addition, controllable rectifier and hysteresis comparator are also proposed for implementation at the secondary side to control the output power or maximum efficiency [19]. Double‐side control can be with or without communication. ORNL combines the control of both sides, using a closed loop control and frequency adjustment with communication to realize wireless charging [3]. The Hong Kong University proposed simultaneous control of both power and maximum efficiency without communication. The smallest input power is searched to realize constant output power of the inverter [20] (Table 3).
\nControl strategy | \nPrimary control | \nSecondary control | \nBoth side control | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|
With close‐loop communication | \nWithout close‐loop communication | \n|||
Merits | \nConstant current in transmitter, steady magnetic field, no need to consider reflected impedance | \nConstant charging current, constant charging voltage, or maximum efficiency | \nBoth desired power and maximum efficiency are achievable simultaneously | \nBoth desired power and maximum efficiency are achievable simultaneously | \n
Demerits | \nUnable to control for maximum efficiency, limited control of output load, and constant current charging is not realizable | \nAdjustable range of the secondary side is limited, and accurate model is required | \nAdditional wireless communication is required, lower the system reliability and real‐time performance | \nConflict control between primary side and secondary side | \n
Comparison of advantages and disadvantages of various control strategies.
The DWPT system is subject to disturbances such as variation of mutual inductance caused by movement of the vehicles. New robust control strategies, which are more superior to PID controllers [4,18,19] in disturbance suppression, are currently being studied.
\nThe DWPT uses a high‐frequency, strong magnetic field to transfer power wirelessly. The EMC is an important consideration as the DPWT system is surrounded by many sensitive electronic circuits. The requirements include shielding design, frequency allocation, and grounding design. According to the standard set by the International Commission on Non‐Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), the current density exposed to the public is 200 mA/m2, when the frequency is 100 kHz. The values may affect the nerve system of human body. The limit of specific absorption rate (SAR) is 2 W/kg and power density is 10 W/m2; if the exposure to the human body is higher than these limits, heating of the human tissues may occur (Table 4).
\nShielding method | \nMetal conductor | \nMagnetic material | \nActive shielding | \nResonant reactive shielding | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Merits | \nFully enclosed metal conductor housing provide excellent shielding effect | \nMagnetic field shaping, increasing coupling coefficient and therefore low loss | \nFlexible placement, good shielding effect | \nDoes not consume power from the system, controllable | \n
Demerits | \nEddy loss affecting the system efficiency | \nLimited shielding effect | \nAdditional coil lower the system efficiency | \nDifficult to design, complex configuration | \n
Comparison of merit and demerit of various magnetic shielding methods.
The suppression of the leakage field can be divided into active shielding and passive shielding. In passive shielding, a magnetic path is created using magnetic material or canceling field using a low magnetic permeability metallic conductor [21–23]. The self‐inductance and mutual inductance are increased when using magnetic material. The magnetic flux distribution is improved due to higher coupling coefficient, and transfer loss is decreased. However, the shielding effect is limited. Metallic shield is widely used in a high‐frequency magnetic field to suppress electromagnetic interference. Both KAIST and ORNL utilize this kind of shielding method. The advantages include simple design and easy to use. However, metallic shielding cannot cover the transmitter and receiver completely. The exposed conductor is subject to friction and eddy current which will increase the heat loss. KAIST proposed a new active shielding method in 2015. A conventional ferrite plate is embedded in multiple metallic sheets as shown in Figure 20. Experimental results show that the magnetic interference is effectively reduced [24].
\nFerrite shielding structure using an embedded metal sheet.
Regarding active shielding, additional coils with or without power supply are implemented at the WPT system to create a cancelling field as shown in Figure 21. Compared to metallic shielding, the space required is smaller.
\nMagnetic field cancellation using a resonant coil.
KAIST published a paper in 2013, proposing an active shielding method using a resonant coil. A switching array is used to change the values of compensated capacitors, thereby controlling the amplitude and phase of the cancelling field. An experiment was performed using green public transportation [25]. In 2015, an improved version using double loop and phase adjustment to achieve resonance was proposed to achieve an active shielding without power supply. The shielding coils are placed at the side of the coupling mechanism as shown in Figure 22. The current induced by leakage field is then sensed. Magnetic field with the same amplitude but opposite polarity with the leakage is then created for field cancellation [26].
\nResonant reactive power shielding with double coils and four capacitors.
In 2013, ORNL proposed using an aluminum board to reduce electromagnetic interference [27]. As shown in Figure 23, a 1‐mm‐thick aluminum shield is placed above the cables. The magnetic field measured at the passenger‐side front tire is reduced from 18.72 μT to 3.22 μT.
\nSuppression of magnetic field after adding aluminum plate and its effect.
With the advancement of EV and ET, the significance of DWPT has been consistently growing. Recent developments in DWPT for EV and ET have been presented throughout this chapter. Five different aspects of this technology, such as power rail and pickup design, power supply schemes, circuit topologies and impedance matching, control strategies, and EMC, are reviewed. Despite obtaining significant results post study in this field, some issues of concern are yet to be resolved. Previous results as well as the challenges in deployment of DWPT in real application have been highlighted in this chapter.
\nOrganic soils are soils which have diagnostic horizons with more than 20% organic matter and essentially reside in marshes, bogs, and swamps where anaerobic soil conditions support a low rate of organic matter decomposition relative to the rate of organic matter production. Thus, organic soils are observed to have a carbon input rate that is initially greater than the carbon loss rate resulting in an annual carbon accumulation, then with continued soil genesis the rate of carbon input approximately equals the carbon loss rate and a carbon quasi-equilibrium is attained.
These organic soils are frequently associated with extremely wet landscapes, or extremely acidic soils, or soils lacking available nutrients or some combination of these influences. Organic soils (Histosols) as defined in the United States [1] are soils that have an abundance of organic soil materials with additional criteria specifying that they lack sufficient andic properties and lack permafrost plus these soils possess certain thickness, water saturation duration, and decomposition status associated with their fresh and rubbed fiber contents. According to the United States Keys of Soil Taxonomy [1], organic soil horizons have (i) 12% organic carbon (approximately 21% soil organic matter) if the clay content is 0% and (ii) 18% organic carbon if the clay content is 60% or greater. For horizons that have clay contents between 0 and 60% the organic carbon content is a linear relationship to clay content involving the 12% organic carbon if the clay content is 0% and 18% organic carbon if the clay content is 60%.
Histic epipedons are surface organic horizons that are water saturated for at least 30 days in most years (typically an aquic soil moisture regime) are generally 0.2 to 0.4 m thick and have sufficient organic carbon as a function of clay content. Folistic epipedons are surface horizons that are not water saturated for at least 30 days in most years (not artificially drained), typically are more than 0.20 m thick, and are largely composed of 75% or more sphagnum fibers or have a bulk density of less than 0.1 g cm−3. The Keys of Soil Taxonomy [1] partition histic epipedons into fibric, hemic and sapric materials. Fibric materials (Of) are minimally decomposed where three quarters or more of its volume is made up of fibers after rubbing the sample. Sapric materials (Oa) are highly decomposed; less than one-sixth of the volume of sapric material contains fibers after a sample is rubbed. Hemic materials (Oe) are intermediate with respect to decomposition. In general, fibric materials possess a very low bulk density (0.05 to 0.15 Mg m−3), a large total pore space (85%) with a high distribution of large pores spaces, a low bearing capacity, and a hydraulic conductivity ranging from 1.6 to 30 m day−1.
Generally, the Histosol soil order is recognized if more than half of the upper 0.8 m of the soil profile is organic or if organic soil material rests on rock or fragmental material showing interstices filled with organic material. In colloquial terms the Histosol order contains soils formally described as bogs, moors, peatlands, muskegs, fens or are composed of peats and mucks. Histosols make up about 1% of the world’s glacier-free land surface (325 to 375 million ha). Suborders of Histosol order are based on the degree of organic material decomposition and the length of water saturation. The Histosol suborders are: Fibrists, Hemists, Saprists and Folists. The World Reference Base for soil resources [2] states that Histosols are soils having a histic or folic horizon either 0.1 m or more thick from the soil surface to a lithic or paralithic contact or 0.4 m or more thick and starting within 0.3 m from the soil surface, and having no andic or vitric horizon starting within 0.3 m of the soil surface.
Histosols occur in all latitudes; however, Histosols are particularly common in the boreal zone, a feature Histosols share with Spodisols. The dominant feature of Histosols is the accumulation of organic materials, which may be characterized as:
The rate of organic matter decomposition in Histosols is usually very slow, a feature attributed to specific conditions of climate, topography and hydrology. In boreal biomes, cool summer temperatures restrict microbial activity, with biologic zero being approximately 4 to 5°C. Low soil temperatures must be further associated with anoxic soil conditions to support Histosol genesis. In tropical climates, warmer temperatures support greater ecosystem productivities; however, the combined effects of precipitation, topography and hydrology may create anoxic soil conditions for a sustained time interval to restrict soil organic matter decomposition. Topography influences Histosol formation by directing water flux within the landscape position. Lateral groundwater may create seepage on sideslopes, whereas peatlands may form in poorly-drained basins. Fens occur where surface water inflow or groundwater discharge concentrates nutrient rich water. Pocosins or bogs on coastal plains or interior flatlands are frequently located on slightly raised interfluvial positions.
The degree of soil organic matter decomposition has a significant influence on soil properties. Buol et al. [3] reviewed literature to describe the soil genesis and classification of Histosols. Key soil properties that are influenced based on the degree of soil organic matter decomposition include: organic carbon, total nitrogen, carbon to nitrogen ratio, cellulose content, pH, cation exchange capacity, bulk density, water contents at field capacity and permanent wilting point, hydraulic conductivity. Upon transition from fibric to sapric soil conditions the following properties typically increase in magnitude: total nitrogen, pH, cation exchange capacity, bulk density, and the water contents at field capacity and permanent wilting point. Most notably the vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivities decrease on transition from fibric to sapric soil conditions. However, many Histosols exhibit greater soil organic matter decomposition with increasing soil profile depth, thus the corresponding reduced hydraulic conductivity and increased water content at greater soil profile depth support continuance of the sapric condition.
Buol et al. [3] alluded to two adjacent Histosols in Michigan that differ in nutrient sources. The Napoleon soil series (dysic, mesic Typic Haplohemists) receives nutrients only from precipitation and dry deposition, whereas the Houghton (euic, mesic Typic Haplosaprists) primarily receives nutrients from seepage water that transverses calcareous sandy glacial till. The Napoleon mucky peat has an Oa1-Oa2-Oe1-Oe2 horizon sequence, with all horizons having a pH near 4, whereas the Houghton muck has an Oa1-Oa2-Oa3-Oa4-Oa5-Oa6 horizon sequence with all horizons having a pH near 7. Vegetation associated with the Napoleon mucky peat comprised various maples, swamp white oak, and dogwood, whereas the Houghton muck is vegetated with marshy grasses. Thus, water chemistry dramatically influences the soil’s pH and exchangeable cation expression and coupled with hydrology influences vegetation establishment.
Aide and Aide (two authors of this manuscript) have unpublished field data of several soil series in northeastern Wisconsin. The Lupton series (Euic, frigid Typic Haplosaprists) are very deep, very poorly-drained organic soils formed in depressions on lake and outwash plains. The horizon sequence is Oa1-Oa2-Oa3-Oa4-Oa5 and has little inorganic material, a very low bulk density, a pH in 0.01 M CaCl2 of 5.7 to 6.0 and a cation exchange capacity ranging from 107 to 199 cmol kg−1 across multiple pedons. The dominant surrounding soil consists of pedons of the Padus series (coarse-loamy, mixed, superactive, frigid Alfic Haplorthods). The tupical Padus horizon sequence is A-E-Bs1-Bs2-E/B-B/E-2C. The texture is sandy loam above the lithologic discontinuity and sandy textured at greater depths (2C). These very deep, well-drained and very strongly acidic pedons are moderately deep to stratified sandy outwash with an abundance of clay films in the B material of the E/B and B/E horizons. The organic carbon content of the A horizon is less than 2% and the cation exchange capacity is very low, reflecting the sandy loam texture and diminished quantity of soil organic matter. Water extracts from both soils show an abundance of calcium, reflecting that calcium is the dominant exchange cation. These two soils have very distinctive profiles, whose properties are directly related to the contrasting oxidation–reduction environments imposed by the local hydrology.
Parent materials for Histosols are mostly hydrophytic plants [1]. Sphagnum consists of both living and dead tissue from the genus Sphagnum, with approximately 380 species. Sphagnum leaf tissue consists of chlorophyllose and hyaline cells, with the former having photosynthetic activity and the latter consisting of larger, clear and non-living cells with a large capacity to hold and store water. The cell walls contain an abundance of phenolic compounds that are resistant to decomposition. Sphagnum also has a substantial uptake capacity for calcium, magnesium and other nutrients, predisposing the underlying mineral soil to an acidic reaction. Typically, Sphagnum is the dominant plant genus in mires, raised bogs and blanket bogs. Other plant species commonly associated with Sphagnum include sedges, various dwarf shrubs, Betula nama (Dwarf birch) and Salix spp. (Willows).
Paludification or the geologic accumulation of organic materials across a landscape is influenced by soil pH, soil temperature, microbial activity, nutrient availability, oxidation–reduction and vertebrates (example: beavers or Castor canadensis). One criterion for paludization is the maintenance of anaerobic soil conditions sufficient to inhibit plant material decomposition. In glacial lake settings or ox-bows in fluvial systems, sediment infusion may occur resulting in lacustrine sediment accumulation. When sediment accumulation is sufficient to permit acceptable light levels to penetrate to the submerged sediment surface and if the water oxygen levels are appropriately anaerobic then plant material preservation prevails. When Histosols evolve because of sediment deposition with subsequent soil organic matter accumulation then this process is termed terrestrialization.
In the United States the Keys of Soil Taxonomy support 12 soil orders at the highest level of soil taxonomy [1]. Gelisols (Cryosols in the World Reference Base of Soil Resources [2]) are soils that have permafrost within two meters from the soil surface. Permafrost is a soil climatic condition where soil material has continuous temperatures at or below 0°C. Because of the permafrost requirement, Gelisols occur extensively in boreal, subarctic and arctic environments and comprise approximately 18 km2 (13.4%) of the ice-free land area [1]. Gelisols having a short period of seasonal thawing have an upper zone that thaws, creating an “active layer” approximately a few cm to 1.5 m thick. This active layer may experience soil forming processes, including sufficient biotic activity to form histic epipedons (suborder histels) [3].
The boundary between the active layer and permafrost is termed the “permafrost table”. In moist soil and with the return of winter conditions, soil freezing begins at the permafrost table and also at the soil surface, which subsequently finalizes in the active layer. Thus, the active layer experiences freezing fronts from both the soil surface and from the permafrost table, giving rise to compaction and a loss of any soil structure. In the active layer of many Gelisols, dark streaks of organic matter that are distinguished from the soil matrix colors, suggesting soil material redistribution because of cryoturbation. The permafrost table is frequently impermeable to percolating water and therefore develops an accumulation of soil organic matter.
In very cold and low precipitation areas Gelisols are mostly shallow and relatively featureless soils; however, where temperatures are relatively mild and precipitation is more extensive, Gelisols are deeper and likely have an active layer that exhibits accumulation of soil organic matter. Gelisol vegetation includes lichens, moss, liverwort, sedge, grass and boreal forest species. Soil inhabiting organisms include prokaryotes (most notably N-fixing Azotobacter), fungi, actinomycetes, anthropoids, nematodes, protozoa and algae [1, 3].
Solifluction may occur on sloping landscapes. Cryopedogenic processes include cryoturbation causing a reduction in soil profile horizonation (Haploidization), soil structure formation, seasonal ice lens formation above the permafrost table, landscape collapse (thermokarst), and the formation of redoximorphic features. Additionally, soil carbon pool sizes, redistribution within the soil profile, and bioavailability are strongly affected by (1) cryoturbation, which is the soil-mixing action of freeze/thaw processes, and (2) by the presence of permafrost itself, which has strong controls over soil temperature and moisture and runoff. Overall, permafrost affected soils represent 16% of all soils on the globe, and contain up to 50% of the global belowground soil carbon pool [4]. Histels are Gelisols consisting of organic materials, with suborder groups listed as: (i) Folistels, (ii) Glacistels [have the upper boundary of a glacic layer (75% or more visible ice)], (iii) Fibristels, (iv) Hemistels, and (v) Sapristels.
Tarnocai et al. [4] performed an extensive review of carbon pools in the northern permafrost region, noting that approximately 3.56 x 106 km2 in this region at peatlands. These authors provided data illustrating that Histels (66.6 kg m−2) and Histosols (69.6 kg m−2) have the highest soil organic carbon contents. Histels alone are estimated to contain 184 Pg C, whereas histosols contribute 94.3 Pg C. Turbels show extensive soil organic carbon incorporation to deeper soil depths because of cryoturbation.
Peatland ecosystems are well represented in the majority of the world’s biomes. In this manuscript we define a biome as a community of associated ecosystems characterized by their prevailing vegetation and by organism adaptation to that particular environment. Different sources define the types and number of biomes differently; herein, we specify six biomes: (i) tundra, (ii) taiga, (iii) grassland, (iv) deciduous forest, (v) desert, and (vi) tropical rainforest. Tundra, taiga and tropical rainforests are commonly accepted biomes having considerable expanses of peatlands; however, examples do exist in grassland and deciduous forest biomes.
Peatlands, as defined by the National Working Group (Canada), are wetlands containing more than 0.4 m thickness of peat [5]. Ombrotrophic peatlands or oligotrophic peatlands include soil and vegetation which receive water and nutrients primarily from precipitation, thus they are environments isolated hydrologically from the surrounding landscape. Given that rainfall is acidic because of equilibrium with the partial pressure of CO2 and the rainfall nutrient composition is relatively low, ombrotrophic peatlands are typically considered nutrient deficient and exhibit reduced microbial activity. Frequently the vegetation is dominated by Sphagnum mosses. Minerotrophic peatlands are wetlands whose water availability comes mainly from nutrient-enriched surface waters that have neutral to alkaline pH reactions. Typically, minerotrophic wetlands have a high-water table, low internal drainage and exhibit moderately-well to well-decomposed sedges, brown mosses and related vegetation.
Carbon content is variably defined to represent the carbon concentrations on a surface area basis or a soil volume basis. Typically, carbon content defined as the mass of carbon per unit land area (kg carbon m−2) is presented to indicate landscape variability, whereas carbon content on a volume basis (kg carbon m−3) is presented to indicate intra-pedon or inter-pedon differences. Carbon content as expressed as the carbon concentration per volume is a soil or landscape property influenced by bulk density and horizon depth. Carbon accumulation is the net gain or loss of carbon content, typically at century or millennial scales. Peatlands reside on nearly 2.7% of the global land surface, yet peatlands possess a significant portion of the terrestrial soil carbon pool with deep soil organic matter accumulations created over millennia. Estimates suggest that boreal and subarctic peatlands contain 455 Pg C [6] and 462 Pg [7], repectively. Boreal peat deposits tend to be deeper than subarctic peatlands, a feature attributed to long carbon accumulation intervals [8].
Peat-forming systems have been partitioned into acrotelm and catotelm zones [9]. The acrotelm portion of a peat-forming soil system is defined as the relatively more oxygenated (oxic) upper portion of the peat forming soil system, where aerobic decomposition is comparatively greater, the hydraulic conductivity is more rapid and the bulk density typically ranges from 0.1 to 0.4 g cm−3. Conversely the catotelm is the suboxic to anoxic lower portion of the peat-forming soil system that is characterized by a comparatively slower hydraulic conductivity and a bulk density typically ranging from 0.8 to 1.2 g cm−3.
Soils being open thermodynamic systems receive water and particulate soil organic matter and energy at their boundaries, most notably at the soil-atmosphere interface. Matter and energy may also be transferred by lateral flow at the pedon-pedon interface or vertical flow at the soil-sediment interface. Water infiltration and percolation within the acrotelm is rapid; however, percolation slows substantially in the catotelm, creating the upper oxic and deeper anoxic oxidation–reduction regimes within the soil profile. As soil organic matter decomposition progresses at the base of the acrotelm, the resulting loss of pore space, attributed to an increase in the bulk density, supports water retention and conversion of the lowermost portion of the acrotelm into that of the catotelm, thus elevating the acrotelm-catotelm boundary with progressive soil development.
The primary vegetation productivity (P [=] g cm−2) is the annual production of particulate organic matter and its subsequent incorporation in the soil’s surface horizons. The transformation of particulate matter to humus is predicated on soil temperature, microbial acidity, the soil’s oxidation–reduction status, pH and nutrient availability. The rate of organic matter accumulation per unit surface area (x) is the difference between the annual production of particulate organic matter per unit area and the rate of soil organic matter loss per unit area, expressed as a first-order linear ordinary differential equation:
where α is the decay coefficient, and t is time (years). Integration using an integration factor provides a solution:
From Clymo [9] typical decay constant values include α = 0.05 and 0.15 year−1. Also, from Clymo [9] typical annual production of particulate organic matter values includes: 150 and 450 g m−2 yr.−1. Using Eq. 3, The mass accumulation is presented for two scenarios: (i) P = 450 g m−2 yr.−1 and α = 0.15 year−1 (upper line in Figure 1) and (ii) P = 150 g m−2 yr.−1 and α = 0.05 year−1 (lower line in Figure 1). The scenario (i) P = 450 g m−2 yr.−1 and α = 0.15 year−1 provides a greater annual production of particulate organic matter and a faster rate of decay, such that the ratio P/α is a limit point as t approaches infinity. The asymptotic approach to P/α as a limit point implies that the net annual accumulation of organic matter ultimately becomes constant.
Illustration of mass accumulation per year (0 to 3500 g m−2 yr.−1) versus time (40 years) using Eq. (2) . The primary vegetation productivity was 150 and 450 g m−2 yr.−1 and the decay coefficients were 0.05 and 0.15 year−1, respectively.
Street et al. [10] in Svalbard considered the influence of phosphorus (P) on the decomposition potential of carbon stocks. Nitrogen additions supported carbon stock reductions because of enhanced soil organic matter decomposition; however, the combination of added nitrogen and phosphorus supported an increase in the carbon stocks because of stimulated plant production. In Poland, Sienkiewicz et al. [11] investigated Histosol soil organic carbon and its relationship to total nitrogen, dissolved organic carbon and dissolved organic nitrogen. Carbon and nitrogen loss rates were independent, and soil organic carbon losses were dependent on the soil organic carbon content. The ratio of dissolved organic carbon to soil organic carbon increased with respect to the intensity of soil organic matter decomposition. Turunen et al. [12] investigated wet deposition of nitrogen (0.3 to 0.8 g nitrogen m−2 yr.−1) in ombrotrophic peatlands in eastern Canada, noting that nitrogen additions supported a greater diversity of vascular plants.
Qui et al. [13] modeled northern peatland areas and carbon changing aspects during the Holocene. They recognized that the net primary production (NPP) and heterotrophic respiration increased over the past century in response to climate change and increased atmospheric CO2 activity. In their study net primary productivity was a greater influence than heterotrophic respiration, with 11.1 Pg C accumulated carbon storage since 1901, with the majority of the carbon storage increase occurring after 1950.
The literature is replete with compelling research documenting biologically mediated geochemical pathways that are instrumental in creating vibrant biomes that have substantial accumulations of soil organic matter. Microbial populations secrete extracellular enzymes that are specific for degrading organic functional groups. The effectiveness of these extracellular enzymes is a complex function of (i) peat chemistry and litter quality, (ii) nutrient status, (iii) moisture content, (iv) plant community composition, (v) microbial community representation, and (vi) temperatures [14]. The absence of oxygen may also result in the accumulation of phenolic compounds that impost a negative feedback on microbial activity. Key enzyme activities important to mineralization include: (i) alpha-glucosidase, (ii) beta-glucosidase, (iii) cellobiohydrolase, (iv) N-acetylglucosaminidase, (v) acid phosphatase, and (vi) leucine aminopeptidase.
Fox [15] reviewed literature involving low-molecular-weight organic acids. Low-molecular weight organic acids are approximately 10% of a typical forest soil’s dissolved organic carbon pool, but they may have a disproportionate influence on soil processes, including metal complexation. Common low molecular weight organic acids include: acetic, aconitic, benzoic, cinnamic, citric, formic, fumaric, gallic, lactic, malic, maleic, malonic, p-hydroxybenzoic, phthalic, protocatechuic, oxalic, salicylic, succinic, tartaric, and vanillic. Common functional groups include (i) acidic groups [carboxylic (R-COOH), enolic (R-CH=CH-OH), phenolic (Ar-OH) and quinones (Ar = O)], (ii) neutral groups [alcoholic OH (R-CH2OH), ethers (R-CH2-O-CH2-R), ketones (R-C=O (−R)), aldehydes (R-C=O(-H)) and esters (R-C=O(-OR))] and (iii) neutral nitrogen-bearing amines (R-CH2-NH2) and amides (R-C=O(NH-R)). When considering root extracts oxalic, citric and malic are quite abundant. Sources of low molecular weight organic acids are root respiration, leaching from the litter floor, decomposition of soil organic matter, and rainfall. Herbert and Bertsch [16] further detailed dissolved and colloidal organic matter in the soil solution. Based on their review of literature dissolved organic matter is primarily composed of hydrocarbons, chlorophyll, carotenoids, phospholipids and long-chain fatty acids, tannins, flavonoids and other polyphenols, fulvic and humic acids, aromatic and aliphatic acids, and proteins /amino acids. In most studies the dominant organic materials were humic substances.
Kane et al. [17] measured pore water chemistry associated with an artificially-induced warming of a nutrient poor fen. The dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration was greater in the warmed fen (73.4 ± 3.2 mg L−1) compared to the untreated check (63.7 ± 2.1 mg L−1). The amount of dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) was greater in the warmed fen; however, the DON/DOC ratio was smaller. The reduced DON/DOC ratio was primarily attributed to a smaller capacity of the microbial community to yield labile nitrogen via the decomposition process and the greater utilization efficiency of the nitrogen by the microbial community. In Manitoba (Canada) Aide and Cwick [18] studied Eluviated Eutric Brunisols having an Of-Bm-C horizon sequence and Orthic Eutric Brunisols having an Oh or Of-Bm-C horizon sequence. Located in the glacial Lake Agassiz these soils formed in fine-graine lacustrine sediments interspersed with organic soils and fens. The surface horizons of the Eluviated Eutric Brunisols possessed organic carbon contents ranging from 19.8 to 29.4% with C/N ratios of 29.5 to 27.4, whereas the surface horizons of the Orthic Eutric Brunisols possessed organic carbon contents ranging from 27.3 to 41.7% with C/N ratios of 39.5 to 25.4. The C/N ratios and associated nitrate-N concentrations suggests that nitrogen limits the rates of soil mineralization. In a near companion manuscript Aide et al. [19] documented that the silty sediments were dominated by hydroxy Al-interlayered vermiculite, smectite, hydrous mica, and kaolinite in the clay separate. The potential for potassium fixation by vermiculite was reduced by Al-interlayering.
Van Cleve and Powers [20] isolated state factors involved in carbon storage in forest soils, noting the role of climate, parent material, topography, vegetation, and soil organisms. The chemistry of soil organic carbon, including root exudates and leachates, strongly influence the microbial processing of detritus, the materials synthesized in this process and the intensity of the roles that low and high molecular weight organic acids have in soil development. Observed effects show that synthesized products are more resistant to further decomposition and possessed smaller nitrogen contents, which over time supports soil organic matter accumulation.
Peatlands are an important terrestrial carbon sink and any increased microbial activity may result in soil organic matter oxidation, with subsequent CO2 release. Northern peatlands historically have had the benefit of cool to frigid temperatures that limit microbial activity. Low oxygen activity attributed to water saturation further limits mineralization. Climate change may result in warmer soils, with the cavate that the effective length of the increasingly warmer summer interval is also increased. The encroachment of vascular plants will be expected to proceed, leading to a positive feedback on microbial activity. Thus, studies on peatland functioning in higher latitudes and their potential to accelerate climate change are becoming commonplace [14].
In Canada, Dieleman et al. [21] established mesocosms, where peat production of dissolved organic carbon was measured. The production of dissolved organic carbon from peat was estimated to be a function of temperature, CO2 concentration and the influence of the water table, wherein increased temperatures increased the dissolved organic carbon contents, lowered water tables increased decomposition rates and reduced pore water dissolved organic carbon concentrations. In the Alaskan arctic Euskirchen et al. [22] established eddy covariance flux towers across various ecosystems for three years to document peak CO2 uptake patterns. Peak CO2 uptake centered from June to August at a mean of 51 to 95 g C m−2 across the various ecosystems. Warmer spring seasons promoted greater CO2 uptake patterns, whereas warmer late seasons supported greater soil respiration rates, reducing the Net Ecosystem Exchange (NEE).
In Canada, Frolking et al. [23] employed the Holocene Peat Model to simulate the vegetation community composition and the annual net primary productivity. Northern peatlands take up CO2 at rates of 40 to 80 g carbon m−2 yr.−1, with carbon leaching as DOC at rates of 10–20 g DOC m−2 yr.−1. Decomposition was estimated to be 95% of the Net Primary Productivity. Similarly, Frolking et al. [23] observed undisturbed Canadian peatlands and determined that these peatlands were a weak sink for carbon and a moderate source of methane emission. McLoughlin and Webster [24] performed a review of peatland dynamics, primarily within the Hudson Bay Lowlands. Long term carbon accumulation, CO2 sequestration, peat depth and land age were positively correlated. Carbon dioxide sequestration showed the greatest variability, with bogs (−1.7 to 1.5 g carbon m−2 day−1), fens (−4.3 to 1.6 g carbon m−2 day−1), and palsa peat (−0.8 to 1 g carbon m−2 day−1). Methane and evapotranspiration were greater in the wettest ecosystems, with methane emission for bogs (3.3 to 28 mg carbon m−2 day−1), fens (0.1 to 204 mg carbon m−2 day−1), and palsa peat (−1.6 to 24 mg carbon m−2 day−1).
On paludified soils Schneider et al. [25] measured methane (CH4) flux for forest and peatland areas. Open peatlands exhibited a methane emission rate of 21.9 ± 1.6 g m−2 yr.−1 in contrast with forested peatland transition zones (7.9 ± 0.5 g m−2 yr.−1). The forested peatland transition zones demonstrated an inflow of less acidic surface water that supported a higher biological diversity and greater plant productivity. These authors noted that methane emission was more influenced by increased temperatures than the water table depths. In Sweden, Sagerfors et al. [26] established eddy covariance measurements across oligotrophic mires. Based on the vertical exchange of CO2 their sites were a net sink for carbon (55 ± 7 g carbon m−2 yr.−1). The non-growing seasons exhibited a carbon loss; however, the growing season sequestration of carbon more than compensated for the non-growing season carbon loss.
Wickland et al. [27] observed changes in CO2 and methane exchanges on a black spruce (Picea mariana) lowland experiencing permafrost melting. Sites were partitioned as peat soils having permafrost, thermokarst wetlands, and thermokarst edges, with thermokarst edges having greater methane emissions. Ernakovich et al. [28] measured greenhouse gas emissions from thawed permafrost with simulated oxic and anoxic redox environments. Carbon dioxide emission was supported by an active microbial community and a labile dissolved organic carbon pool. Increased methane production was related to soils with a labile litter pool. Carbon dioxide emission was 30 to 450 times the methane production in an anoxic soil and carbon dioxide emission was 500 to 2500 times the methane production in an oxic soil.
In Canada, Webster et al. [29] investigated net ecosystem exchange and methane emissions for bogs, nutrient-poor fens, intermediate-rich fens across seven ecozones. During the growing season, the net ecosystem exchange, per season, was −108 ± 41.3 Mt. CO2 and the methane emissions were 4.1 ± 1.5 Mt. CH4. Converting methane to CO2 global warming potential for a 25 to 100-year event, the total sink was −7 ± 77.6 Mt. CO2e. The boreal plain peatlands exhibited the greatest net ecosystem exchange, whereas the boreal shield peatlands exhibited the highest methane emissions. In the discontinuous permafrost zone of western Siberia, Shirokova et al. [30] showed that permafrost thaw supported an increase in soil subsidence and the development of thermokarst lakes. Soil subsidence was related to soil carbon decomposition and mobilization to water resources.
Jackowicz-Korczynski et al. [31] observed methane emission from subarctic Swedish mires. A permafrost free mire having tall graminoid vegetation showed methane emission rates of 6.2 ± 2.6 mg CH4 m−2 hr.−1. The annual emission was 24.5 to 29.5 g CH4 m−2 yr.−1, with most of the emission during the summer months. In Wales (UK), Fenner et al. [32] investigated ombrotrophic peat or acid mires. Artificially enhanced CO2 and warming produced increased concentrations of dissolved organic carbon. Higher concentrations of phenolic compounds were associated with the increase in dissolved organic carbon. The influence of increased temperature promoted microbial activity, whereas increased CO2 content increased the supply of photosynthate to the soil because of greater root exudates. The effect of the temperature and elevated CO2 were to synergistically decrease the C/N of the dissolved organic carbon. In Indonesian tropical peatlands, Uda et al. [33] noted that land drainage influenced CO2 emissions from drained oil palm landscapes.
Aurangojeb et al. [34] contrasted a drained Histosol and an adjacent mineral soil in Sweden, noting that the Histosol N2O emissions were 49.9 ± 3.3 μg N2O m−2 hr.−1, whereas the adjacent mineral soil N2O emission was 8.0 ± 3.3 μg N2O m−2 hr.−1. The N2O difference was attributed to the mineral soil having greater mycorrhizal N demand reducing the N availability. Leifeld et al. [35] investigated four temperate ombrotrophic peatlands across central Europe and determined that ash content is related to land drainage and land management, thus ash may be an indicator of historical decomposition but this protocol should be used only in pristine study areas.
Net primary production is critical to developing large carbon contents in peatlands. Net primary production is a function of climate, vegetation, topography, the natural of the parent materials, and land use. Investigating Swedish peatlands, Chaudhary et al. [36] investigated drivers of biotic and abiotic peatland dynamics. For patterned ground they noted that plant species, hydrology, nutrient status, plant productivity and decomposition rates vary between hummock and hollow positions. Typically hollows possessed taller productive graminoid species that showed faster decomposition rates than sphagnum. Hummock positions possessed more shrub species that preferentially lowered the water table. In interior Alaska, O’Donnell et al. [37] studied Gelisols having a 30-day enhanced temperature incubation period, noting that the dissolved organic carbon concentration and its associated aromaticity increased at higher incubation temperatures. At these higher temperatures the dissolved organic materials contained more hydrophobic organic acids, polyphenols, and condensed aromatics and smaller concentrations of low-molecular weight hydrophilic and aliphatic compounds. Dissolved labile organic materials were preferentially mineralized, with the dominant kinetic controls being temperature and substrate lignin contents.
Wang et al. [38] correlated that increased mean annual air temperature was associated with increased active layer thickness. In a Siberian low arctic landscape, Frost et al. [39] documented seasonal and long-term changes to active layer temperatures and noted that vegetation and snow cover were important predictors of active layer thickness. Summer soil temperatures decreased with increasing shrub cover and soil organic matter thickness. Compared with open tundra, mature shrubs depressed summer soil temperatures; however, mature shrubs altered the insulative snowpack and fostered warmer winter soil temperatures.
In Canada Kroetsch et al. [5], working with the National Wetlands Working Group, noted that peatlands were routinely identified when peat depths exceeded 0.40 meters. Fibrisol, Mesisol and Humisol great groups were partitioned based on rubbed fiber content, von Post scale, pyrophosphate and depth of the surface, middle and bottom tiers. The key diagnostic genetic processes of organic soils included: (i) additions from litter, fine roots, soil organic matter deposition and low molecular weight organic acid exudation from sphagnum, feather mosses and related plant species, (ii) losses attributed to decomposition, (iii) transfers of dissolved organic carbon because of fluctuating water tables, leaching and burrowing organisms, (iv) transformations attributed to soil organic matter decomposition, O2 status, nutrient availability, and toxins.
Glaser et al. [40] observed Hudson Bay Lowlands peatland development from a chronological perspective, relating the length of time for isostatic rebound to elevate the landscape and developing a transect of peatland sites ranging from comparatively younger to older sites. They observed that the resulting transects consisted of a sequence consisting of (i) basal tidal marshes in the youngest sites, (ii) Larix (Larches) dominated swamp forests, (iii) Picea (Spruce) forested bogs, and ending with (iv) non-forested bogs in the oldest sites. This sequence of peatlands was viewed as a predictable vegetation succession influenced by changes in hydrology and other factors derived from continuing isostatic rebound. Conversely, in western Siberia, peatlands demonstrated an increase in carbon accumulation upon transition from the northern region to the southern region [41]. The northern peatlands exhibited a carbon content of 7–35 kg carbon m−2, whereas the southern peatlands exhibited a carbon content range of 43–88 kg carbon m−2. The carbon content was estimated to be a complex function of soil organic matter quality (lignin content) and the predominant vegetation (vascular plants versus bryophytes).
Karofeld et al. [42] noted Estonia’s decline of pristine mires and investigated a method for mire reconstruction, involving the removal of oxidized peak layer followed by the spreading of plant fragments to increase the effective development of bryophyte and vascular plants. Along with maintaining the presence of a highwater table, the reconstruction effort was deemed successful.
Miettinen et al. [43] employed satellite images to document the role of fire and logging on the loss of Sumatra’s pristine peat swamps. In Indonesia, Swails et al. [44] investigated soil respiration as a climatic driver in undrained forest settings and adjacent oil palm plantations. They documented that oil palm plantations with a reduced water table exhibited a higher soil respiration rate (0.71 ± 0.04 g CO2 m−2 h−1) than forested sites (0.58 ± 0.04 g CO2 m−2 h−1).
Across Poland, Grzywna [45] documented drainage-induced Histosol subsidence ranges from 9 to 33 cm. Nicia et al. [46] demonstrated that restoration of peatlands in Poland has potential to increase the organic carbon content, the C/N ratio and increase the pH in acidic fens. Richardson [47] noted the development sequence of alkaline mires (fens) in the Everglades (Florida) and the role of changing hydrology during the Holocene. In Wisconsin, Adhikari et al. [48] used digital maps and soil profile data to spatially quantify carbon stocks and subsequently estimated the fate of carbon stocks with improved land use management. The average baseline soil organic carbon stock was 90 mg ha−1 and with improved land management the soil across the state could increase the carbon stocks by 20 mg ha−1. Mollisols were predicted to have the greatest potential for increasing carbon stocks, whereas Histosols and Spodisols were likely to lose carbon stock. Frazier and Lee [49] investigated Wisconsin Histosols partitioned as fibrists, hemists and saprists. Saprists possessed the highest carbon content, whereas the fibrists possessed the least carbon content, a feature related to chemical changes associated with the humification process.
The fate of peatland ecosystems is integral to global sustainability. As scientists, we are acutely aware that carbon stored in peatland ecosystems may be released to the atmosphere, contributing to climate change acceleration. The precise drivers of peatland respiration, the role of the microorganism communities, organic acid leaching, soil mineralization, and other soil carbon pathways are reasonably well understood, but they are not sufficiently formalized into a coherent and interconnected model to provide detailed information concerning near-term peatland degradation [50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55]. Thus, a critical need exists to predict on a regional level specific changes to peatland dynamics because of the multi-faceted nature of accelerated climate change. With this process focus on peatland dynamics, best management practices are slow carbon de-sequestration.
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