Characteristics of inductive coupling method and magnetic resonance method.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83969-561-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-560-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-562-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"65f2a1fef9c804c29b18ef3ac4a35066",bookSignature:"Dr. Luis Loures",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10756.jpg",keywords:"Urban Processes, Urban Patterns, Redevelopment Strategies, Landscape, Land Transformation, Urban Models, Urban Evolution, Urban Organisation, Legislation, Sustainable Development, Green Infrastructure, Regional Planning",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 23rd 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 22nd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 21st 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 9th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 8th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"14 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Loures has worked on pioneering research on circular planning applied to post-industrial landscape redevelopment. Since he graduated he has published several peer-reviewed papers at the national and international levels and he has been a guest researcher and lecturer both at Michigan State University (USA) and at the University of Toronto (Canada) where he has developed part of his Ph.D. research with the Financial support from the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (Ph.D. grant).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/108118/images/system/108118.png",biography:"Luís Loures is a Landscape Architect and Agronomic Engineer, Vice-President of the Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre, who holds a Ph.D. in Planning and a Post-Doc in Agronomy. Since he graduated, he has published several peer reviewed papers at the national and international levels and he has been a guest researcher and lecturer both at Michigan State University (USA), and at University of Toronto (Canada) where he has developed part of his Ph.D. research with the Financial support from the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (Ph.D. grant).\nDuring his academic career he had taught in several courses in different Universities around the world, mainly regarding the fields of landscape architecture, urban and environmental planning and sustainability. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"50788",title:"Innovative Wireless Power Receiver for Inductive Coupling and Magnetic Resonance Applications",doi:"10.5772/63341",slug:"innovative-wireless-power-receiver-for-inductive-coupling-and-magnetic-resonance-applications",body:'\nIn recent years, research on wireless charging system (WCS) has been actively carried out with the rapid development of smartphones and wearable devices. Figure 1 shows the annual wireless power revenues by application. Since wireless charging techniques are applied not only for consumer electronics or mobile devices, but also for military applications and electric vehicles, the market is predicted to continue to keep expanding to over 11.8 billion dollars by 2020.
\nEspecially, for recent technology such as Internet of Things (IoT), The WCS is essential since sensor and communication functions need to be embedded in a single chip and energy need to be supplied simultaneously, while the user is communicating with other objects.
\nThe remainder of this chapter is organized as follows. In Section 2, the WCS is described. Section 3 provides a description of building blocks including the active rectifier, DC–DC converter, successive approximation register (SAR) ADC, and low drop out (LDO) regulator. Section 4 shows the experimental results from the implementation of a 0.18 μm BCD, and Section 5 concludes the chapter.
\nAnnual wireless power revenues by application.
The WCS involves two major methods: inductive coupling and magnetic resonance. Table 1 shows the characteristics of these two methods.
\nThe inductive coupling method is used for distance <0.5 cm, and its transfer frequency ranges from 85 to 375 kHz. In-band communication is used for transmitting and receiving packets. This method applies to two standards: Wireless Power Consortium (WPC) and Power Matters Alliance (PMA). Figure 2a shows the conventional inductive coupling method WCS structure [1].
\nMethod | \nInductive coupling | \nMagnetic resonance | \n
---|---|---|
Power transfer distance | \n<0.5 cm | \n>1 cm | \n
Power transfer frequency | \n85–357 kHz | \n6.78 MHz | \n
Communication scheme | \nIn-band communication | \n2.4 GHz BLE communication | \n
Standard | \nWPC, PMA | \nA4WP | \n
Characteristics of inductive coupling method and magnetic resonance method.
The magnetic resonance method is used for distances over 1.0 cm, and its transfer frequency is 6.78 MHz ISM band. For the communication, 2.4 GHz Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) communication is used, and the standard is Alliance for Wireless Power (A4WP). Figure 2b shows the conventional magnetic resonant method WCS structure [2]. The main differences between the two methods are the frequency and communication scheme, which means the two methods have different types of circuit implementations or issues.
\nConventional WCS (a) inductive coupling method (WPC, PMA), (b) magnetic resonance method (A4WP).
The issues of the two different charging methods are as follows. Compared to the inductive coupling method, the magnetic resonance method is a powerful WCS since it maintains high efficiency; even the distance between the transmitter and receiver is significantly more than several meters. However, since the frequency of the magnetic resonance method is 6.78 MHz, enhancing the efficiency of the rectifier (which accounts for the largest portion of the total efficiency of the receiver) is a very challenging task [2, 3].
\nThe switching loss is relatively smaller for the inductive coupling method than that for the magnetic resonance method since its transfer frequency of 100–400 kHz is much lower than that of the magnetic resonance method. Although its charging distance is short, the inductive coupling method can achieve higher receiver efficiency. However, the on-resistance of the active rectifier and reverse leakage current should be minimized to enhance efficiency.
\nAs explained above, the most important issue is the need to maintain high efficiency regardless of which charging method is used because heat from the chip caused by low efficiency will cause various problems. In WCSs, since the input power at the normal operation is above 5 W, the heat caused by the receiver inefficiency further reduces the efficiency of the receiver, which is a catch-22 situation [4, 5].
\nFigure 3 shows the detailed top block diagram of the receiver for the inductive coupling wireless battery charging system. The AC voltage at the Rx input is converted into a DC voltage by the rectifier. The power efficiency of the rectifier is very critical, as it provides the DC power supply to the following stages [6].
\nTop block diagram of the inductive coupling wireless power receiver [6].
The output of the multi-mode rectifier is converted into the desired DC voltage level through the DC–DC converter. LDO regulator generates the clean DC voltage required for the Battery. The power level of the input signal is measured at the power detector and converted into the digital code, sig_str_a[7:0], by the 8-bit ADC and decoder. The DC output of the multi-mode rectifier, VREC, is converted into the digital code, rect_pow_a[7:0], by the 8-bit ADC and decoder. The communications and control unit receives various information from other blocks and configures the packet based on them [6].
\nFigure 4 shows the top block diagram of magnetic resonance wireless power receiver.
\nPower is transferred from the transmitter to the receiver through the coil and matching networks. The rectifier converts the AC voltage at the receiver input to DC voltage. The output of the rectifier is converted into the desired DC voltage level through the DC–DC converter [5].
\nThe DC output of the rectifier, VRECT, is converted into digital code, by the 10-bit SAR ADC. The output of the ADC is then transferred to the transmitter through the digital control block.
\nTop block diagram of the magnetic resonance wireless power receiver.
Eq (1) defines the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of rectifier [7].
\nwhere VIN, VOUT, VLOSS, IIN, IOUT, and ILOSS are the amplitude of the input AC voltage, output DC voltage, voltage drop, input AC current, output DC current, and current loss of the rectifier, respectively.
\nFigure 5 shows the structure of a conventional passive full-wave rectifier. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series, while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load. Otherwise, during the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, while diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same direction as that for the positive half cycle of the supply. To generate a steady DC voltage, the load capacitor should be added to the output of the rectifier. The load capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a smooth constant DC output voltage.
\nThe conventional rectifier using diodes has frequently been used in many applications since it is simple to implement. However, P-N junction diodes induce large forward voltage drops which directly lead to critical conduction loss. Although Schottky diodes have low dropout voltages, they also have a high leakage current and are not available in most standard CMOS/BCD processes.
\nConventional passive full-wave rectifier.
To address the issues explained above, a full-wave active rectifier which that replaces diodes with MOSFETs should be designed. By implementing the active rectifier, voltage drop can be reduced to 2VDS, which is in the mV range when a single diode forward voltage drop is about 700 mV.
\nFigure 7a–c shows the active rectifier structures in prior works. Figure 6a shows the p-channel metal-oxide semiconductor (PMOS) diode connection structure with the bootstrap technique. This structure has the critical drawback of considerable conduction loss generated by the threshold voltage of 0.7 V from diode connection structure [8].
\nIn the case of the comparator-based gate control structure shown in Figure 6b, the comparator is used to control a gate signal of active rectifier [8]. Since the delay caused by the comparator cannot be compensated in this structure, reverse leakage current occurs and efficiency is decreased. The structure in Figure 6c includes a zero delay circuit to compensate for the delay of the comparator [9]. The high-side MOSFET of this structure, however, consists of a PMOS cross-coupled structure, so that the size would be extremely large if the same on-resistance was used as that of an n-channel metal-oxide semiconductor (NMOS). As can be seen from the structures of Figure 7a–c, PMOS is used as high-side MOSFET. However, MOSFET involves a break issue since the maximum VSG voltage of PMOS is designated as 5 V in the recent BCD process, which means that high voltage cannot be generated by the rectifier.
\nActive rectifier structures in prior works (a) PMOS diode connection structure [8], (b) comparator-based gate control structure [7], and (c) active rectifier with zero delay circuit [9].
A block diagram of the proposed active rectifier is illustrated in Figure 7. If a rectifier was implemented with passive diodes, the efficiency would be limited by the forward voltage drop of the passive diodes [5, 7, 10].
\nBlock diagram of the proposed active rectifier.
In this work, the active rectifier is designed, where the MOS transistors are actively turned on and off depending on the polarity of the received AC input voltage. The voltage drop across the MOS transistors can be made to be significantly less than that of a diode-based passive rectifier, therefore achieving higher-power conversion efficiency [5].
\nUnlike passive diodes, however, the current flow through the MOS transistors is bidirectional, which means that the current can flow from the DC output to the AC input. This reverse leakage current severely degrades the power conversion efficiency (PCE) [9, 11, 12].
\nThe frequency of the input power is 6.78 MHz for the A4WP standard. A propagation delay of the circuit generates reverse current; it then reduces the PCE. The frequency range of input power according to the WPC standard is from 85 to 205 kHz [1], while that according to the PMA standard is from 277 to 357 kHz [13].
\nFirstly, in the A4WP mode, DLL operates to maximize the efficiency while the adaptive zero current sensing (AZCS) circuit is off. The proposed active rectifier uses a shared DLL to compensate for the delay caused by the limiter, buffer, and level shifter. By compensating for the delay, the reverse leakage current can be removed while maximizing efficiency.
\nIn the case of wireless charging standards such as WPC or PMA that specify hundreds of kHz frequencies, conduction loss is the most significant factor determining the total efficiency [1]. However, in the A4WP standard where the operating frequency is 6.78 MHz, the switching loss due to the high-voltage MOSFETs drastically increases. In order to reduce the conduction loss, MOSFETs should be designed to be as large as possible to minimize the on resistance [5].
\nTiming diagram of the active rectifier with DLL.
Secondly, an AZCS is used to define the current path of the input current, IAC. AZCS is only used in the WPC or PMA mode. The WPC and PMA modes do not have a constant frequency; the frequency is changeable. The active rectifier needs to operate switching according to the input frequency. When the WPC or PMA mode is selected, the DLL circuit is turned off and only the voltage limiter, edge detector, and SR latch are operated.
\nThe timing diagram of the active rectifier with the DLL is illustrated in Figure 8. As can be seen in Figure 8, the reverse leakage current is mainly due to the finite delay of the limiter, buffer, and level shifter that drive the power MOSFETs, which are large enough to minimize the voltage drop across them. The delayed turn-on of the power MOSFETs is not problematic because it does not cause any reverse leakage current. The delayed turn-off, however, results in reverse current flow which degrades the power conversion efficiency.
\nThe measurement results of the WPR in A4WP mode for the output power of 6 W are shown in Figure 9a. The power efficiency of the WPR can be calculated using Eq (2) [5].
\nIn Eq (4), VIN_PEAK, IIN_PEAK, θV, θI, VBUCK, and ILOAD are the input peak voltage, input peak current, phase of input voltage, phase of input current, output voltage of buck DC–DC converter, and load current, respectively.
\nFigure 9b shows the measured power efficiency of the proposed active rectifier in A4WP mode. When the shared DLL function is used, the maximum efficiency of the active rectifier is 92% in A4WP mode.
\n(a) Measured waveform (b) power efficiency of the active rectifier.
Figure 9 shows the structure of the conventional buck DC–DC converter.
\nBlock diagram of the conventional DC–DC converter.
M1 energizes the inductor current, while M2 de-energizes it. Therefore, both energized and de-energized inductor current flow to the load. The PWM generator activates the switch to regulate the outputs. The error amplifier and compensation network generate VC voltage which is controlled by VOUT voltage. The PWM generator determines the switching threshold by comparing VSAW and VC voltage. During this process, load current is changed by a feedback loop for DC output voltage [14].
\nThere are several issues with the conventional DC–DC converter. First of all, the efficiency is reduced in the event of PVT variation since the switching frequency is varied. To solve this problem, phase-locked loop (PLL) is set to have a constant switching frequency regardless of PVT variation.
\nSecondly, the efficiency is reduced in light load condition. One of the drawbacks of the PWM method is a low efficiency in light load conditions. In the PWM method, switching loss is almost the same in the wide load current range because of the fixed switching frequency. In contrast to the PWM method, switching frequency in the PFM method changes in proportion to the load current. By changing the switching frequency, it is possible to reduce the switching loss at low load current conditions. By exploiting the two different methods, the proposed DC–DC converter adopts the PWM method in heavy load condition and adopts the PFM method in light load condition.
\nFigure 10 shows a block diagram of the proposed DC–DC converter.
\nBlock diagram of the proposed DC–DC converter.
The proposed DC–DC buck converter adopts a PLL to generate a constant frequency in spite of PVT variation and external circumstances [5].
\nFigure 11a shows the duty variation of the proposed DC–DC converter. As can be seen from the results, duty is varied by load current. When the load current is 700 mA, duty ratios of GATE_A and GATE_B are 335 ns (67%) and 160 ns (32%), respectively, also with about a 1% non-overlap period.
\n(a) Measured waveforms (b) measured efficiency of proposed DC–DC converter for load current of 700 mA.
Figure 11b shows the measured power efficiency of the proposed DC–DC converter. When the PLL function is used, the maximum efficiency of the DC–DC converter is 92% at the load current of 700 mA.
\nFigure 12 shows the block diagram of conventional SAR ADC. In the conventional SAR ADC, the capacitance of capacitor digital-to-analog converter (CDAC) is changed and compared to the sampling value, using a binary searching mechanism to define the output code from the most significant bit(MSB) to the least significant bit(LSB).
\nThe capacitor for CDAC should have 2NC capacitance to satisfy the output resolution. This means that size becomes extremely large when designing high-resolution ADCs and the power consumption of the reference generator used as the charging and discharging capacitor increases as a result [15].
\nSince the proposed dual-sampling SAR ADC structure can be compared to the MSB signal through a sampling process, CDAC can be designed to have 2(N−1)C capacitance.
\nBlock diagram of the conventional SAR ADC.
This means that the MSB capacitor can be reduced, and consequently, the size and power consumption can be reduced. Moreover, by adopting the adaptive power control (APC) technique for the comparator, power consumption can be reduced and overall system efficiency can be optimized.
\nA block diagram of the proposed SAR ADC is presented in Figure 13 [5]. It consists of a simple analog block, including a DAC, comparator, reference voltage generator, and SAR.
\nBlock diagram of the proposed SAR ADC.
The proposed SAR ADC processes the voltage and current for the rectifier and DC–DC converter as well as information from the temperature sensing block through a MUX.
\nFigure 14 shows the timing diagram of the proposed SAR ADC.
\nTiming diagram of the proposed SAR ADC.
In the MUX, the selection signal VMUX_CONT<2:0> was composed to save the data and processing during three cycles right after the EOC signal and then controlled by I2C [5].
\nThe input voltage range of conventional LDO regulators is decided by the rated voltage of the components. In general, the rate voltage of CMOS has a maximum of 5 V, so high output voltage from the rectifier cannot be processed. The proposed LDO regulator can operate at high voltage using laterally diffused mOS (LDMOS) as the power MOSFET and the input range of the LDO regulator is increased to a maximum of 20 V by using a high-voltage buffer for efficient driving. Moreover, a capacitor feedback circuit is proposed for power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) and fast settling.
\nFigure 15 shows a block diagram of the proposed LDO regulator. The output voltage drop due to rapid and large load variation could be minimized with a fast regulation loop.
\nApplication of this fast transient LDO regulator is useful for low noise at wide input ranges and transient response (high voltage at rectifier input).
\nBlock diagram of the LDO regulator.
In addition, the push-pull structure of the capacitor feedback circuit can provide a fast path for discharging and charging the gate of the pass transistor, which can respond to transient input with a buffer.
\nThe chip was fabricated using the 0.18 μm BCD process with, a single poly layer, four layers of metal, MIM capacitors, and high sheet resistance poly-resistors. The chip microphotograph of the WPR is shown in Figure 16. The die area of the WPR is 5.0 mm × 3.5 mm.
\nChip microphotograph of the WPR.
Figure 17a shows the simulation results for the WPR in A4WP mode. Since the voltage for operation of the active rectifier is not generated at initial operation, the rectifier operates with the passive diode from the high-voltage MOSFET.
\nSimulation results of the active rectifier (a) A4WP mode (b)WPC mode.
When the output of the rectifier increases above 5.2 V, the active rectifier also begins to operate without any help from the passive diode [5].
\nAs can be seen from the simulation results, with 7.5 W input and 13.83 Ω output load, a maximum power of 6.9 W and an efficiency of 92% were achieved at the maximum efficiency condition when DLL was locked.
\nFigure 17b shows the simulation waveform of WPR in WPC mode. WPR is supplied by VAC power, UVLO increases, detecting mode during mode select time. The frequency of VAC is 175 kHz, WPC mode is selected to send not only configuration packets but also error control packets.
\nThe measurement board for the WPR is illustrated in Figure 18a. The Tx coil and Rx coil were located at the bottom and top sides, respectively. The power was transferred from the WPT board to the WPR board through the Tx and Rx antenna.
\nFigure 18b shows the measured system efficiency of the proposed WPR. The maximum system efficiencies are 84 and 86% in A4WP and WPC/PMA modes, respectively.
\n(a) Measurement board and (b) measured system efficiency of the WPR.
The comparison between the reported-related WPRs, and this work is summarized in Table 2. As can be seen from Table 2, the proposed WPR is the only chip that supports three different types of standards, namely A4WP, WPC, and PMA and shows the highest overall efficiency. Moreover, the results show that the proposed WPR has a wider input voltage range than the other references [2, 9, 16, 17], which is from 3 to 20 V.
\nThis chapter presents a WPR for inductive coupling and magnetic resonance applications. Especially for the rectifier, which consumes the most significant portion of overall efficiency, shared DLL and AZCS structures are proposed to improve the efficiency at different frequencies. In the DC–DC converter, PLL was adopted for a constant switching frequency during PVT variation to solve the efficiency reduction problem, especially due to heat.
\nReferences | \n[2] | \n[9] | \n[16] | \n[17] | \nThis work | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Technology | \n0.35 μm BCD | \n0.35 μm BCD | \n0.5 μm CMOS | \n0.18 μm CMOS | \n0.18 μm BCD | \n
Supported standard | \nA4WP | \nA4WP | \n– | \nA4WP | \nA4WP, WPC/PMA | \n
Overall system efficiency (%) | \n86 (Off Chip Rectifier) | \n75/68 | \n77 (rectifier only) | \n50 | \nA4WP, 84 WPC/PMA, 86 | \n
Power transfer frequency (MHz) | \n6.78 | \n3.23/6.78 | \n13.56 | \n6.78 | \n6.78,0.085–0.375 | \n
Input voltage range (V) | \n20 | \n4–8 | \n2.15–3.7 | \n20 | \n3–20 | \n
Maximum output power (W) | \n6 | \n3 | \n0.037 | \n1 | \n10.8 | \n
Output voltage (V) | \n5 | \n5 | \n3.1 | \n3.1 | \n5 or 9 | \n
Die area (mm2) | \n5.52 (w/o rectifier) | \n18.3 | \n0.585 | \n6.25 | \n17.5 | \n
Maximum output power/die area (W/mm2) | \n1.09 (w/o rectifier) | \n0.16 | \n0.06 | \n0.16 | \n0.62 | \n
Performance summary of the WPR.
This chip is implemented using 0.18 μm BCD technology with an active area of 5.0 mm × 3.5 mm. The maximum efficiency of the active rectifier is 92%. The maximum efficiency of the DC–DC converter is 92% when the load current is 700 mA. Total system efficiency for the A4WP mode is a maximum 84% with 700 mA load current. Also, for the WPC/PMA mode, the maximum system efficiency is 86% with 500 mA load current.
\nIn the future, the power conversion efficiency of the WPR needs to be improved since the maximum output power level is increasing more and more. The die area should be minimized for mobile applications at the same time.
\nThe scientific name of kenaf is Hibiscus cannabinus L. The principal ingredients of kenaf fiber are cellulose, lignin, and pectin, and the hemicellulose distribution ranges between 10 and 22% according to the type of kenaf fiber. Research on the application to fashion textile materials with soft tactile hand by retting treatment of kenaf stem has been conducted by Ramaswamy et al. [1], Tao et al. [2], and Lee et al. [3, 4]. In particular, many studies have examined the spinning and fabric manufacturing technology using mixed fibers with cotton and kenaf, including Bel-Berger et al. [5], Weiying et al. [6], and Zhang [7]. Advanced composite materials mixed with kenaf and natural fibers with light weight, VOC-free, and good abrasion resistance are needed nowadays and have been studied for eco-friendly automotive materials [8, 9, 10]. In addition, the use of kenaf fiber in nonwoven was investigated by Moreau et al. [11], Yang et al. [12], and Tao et al. [13, 14]. Nonwoven has been used in the various industries because of its advantages of fast processing and competitive price. Recently, nonwoven has become one of the most common textile products in the automotive industry with sound absorption properties. The nonwoven fabrics used in the automotive industry require high functional quality and reliability. Many studies have examined the sound absorption property, including physical properties such as air permeability and wicking, of nonwovens. The studies carried out using natural jute [15] and coconut coir [16] fibers yielded good sound absorption properties. Kenaf, jute, and cotton fiber-imbedded nonwovens with PET and polypropylene (PP) fibers were used as industrial automotive padding materials and have significantly improved the sound absorption properties [17]. Nick et al. [18] investigated the acoustic behavior using three different composite materials: (1) cotton, bicomponent PET, and PP fibers; (2) flax, hemp, and PP fibers; and (3) lyocell, bicomponent PET, and PP fibers. The third composite material with lyocell fibers of 0.9 dtex exhibited the best sound absorption property. Lou et al. [19] studied the sound absorption property of nonwoven composed of low-melt PET (LM PET) and recycled PET particles mixed with PP fibers. The thick and low-density nonwoven specimens exhibited high sound absorption coefficients at low- and mid-frequency sound ranges. Lee et al. [20] examined the relationship between the acoustic absorption values of the recycled polyester nonwovens and the nonwoven processing conditions, including fiber and web properties. Byun et al. [21] investigated the sound absorption property of the PET nonwoven for automotive application according to the variation of the fiber fineness, density, and thickness of the three-layer nonwoven by substituting glass wool in order to improve the environmental and recycled capability. Kücük and Korkmaz [22] examined the effects of the physical parameters on the sound absorption properties of natural fiber-mixed nonwoven fabrics. They concluded that an increased thickness and decreased air permeability resulted in an increase of sound absorption properties. In addition, an increased amount of fiber per unit area resulted in an increase in sound absorption. On the other hand, Dubrovski and Brezocnik [23] studied the effects of the content of viscose and PET fibers and the porosity of the nonwoven structure on the vertical wicking rate of nonwovens. The results showed that higher-volume porosity gives higher vertical wicking rate. Soukupova et al. [24] studied the effect of the blend ratio of viscose and PET fibers on the wicking of the nonwoven and found that the capillary rise was higher for nonwoven fabrics containing more viscose fibers. Dubrovski and Brezocnik [25] predicted the model for the vertical wicking rate using the fiber density, fiber fineness, and nonwoven fabric density. Das et al. [26] and Tascan and Vaughn [27] examined the influence of fiber cross-sectional shape on the air permeability of nonwoven. Das et al. [26] found that the air permeability decreased with a higher proportion of noncircular fibers in the nonwoven fabrics, which was similar to Tascan and Vaughn’s results [27].
In previous studies, LM PET and PP fibers as nonwoven materials were mixed with natural fibers such as cotton, lyocell, flax, jute, and coconut coir to enhance their physical properties such as the wicking rate, air permeability, and sound absorption property for automotive-acoustic materials. However, no detailed study has yet examined the physical properties of the kenaf fiber-imbedded nonwoven. Therefore, in this study, kenaf fiber-imbedded nonwoven specimens were produced with different processing conditions such as number of carding treatments, web layers, needle depth, and content ratio of LM PET, and their physical properties such as air permeability, water absorption, and sound absorption coefficient were measured in order to optimize the processing conditions for automotive pillar trim. Furthermore, the correlation between the breaking and tearing strengths and the structural factors of the nonwoven were investigated according to the processing conditions. In addition, the effect of different processing conditions on the fogging value of the nonwoven was investigated.
Kenaf, PP, and LM PET were used as raw materials of the nonwoven. Table 1 presents the physical properties of the kenaf, PP, and LM PET staple fibers used. Ten kinds of kenaf-imbedded nonwoven specimen as a first batch of specimen were made with different processing conditions, as shown in Table 2.
Physical properties | Kenaf | Low-melting PET (LM PET) | Polypropylene (PP) |
---|---|---|---|
Fiber length (mm) | 64.8 | 51.8 ± 5.0 | 64 |
Linear density (d) | 8 | 4.53 ± 0.41 | 8 ± 0.5 |
Maker/origin | Bangladesh | Toray Chemical | Han Kook Fiber Co. Ltd |
Breaking strength (gf/d) | 4 | 3.52 ± 0.42 | 4 ± 0.5 |
Breaking strain (%) | 200 | 44.0 ± 8.7 | 200 ± 20 |
Moisture regain (%) | 11.8 | — | 0.1 |
Physical properties of staple fibers used.
No. | Blend ratio (kenaf:PP:LM PET) | No. of carding treatment | Layer of web | Needle depth | Thermal compression bonding | Powder treatment | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Single opener | 40:40:20 | 3 Layers | 3 Layers | 16 mm | O | O |
2 | Multi-opener | 40:40:20 | 3 Layers | 3 Layers | 16 mm | O | O |
3 | 40:40:20 | 3 Layers | 3 Layers | 16 mm | O | X | |
4 | 40:40:20 | 3 Layers | 3 Layers | 16 mm | O | O | |
5 | 40:40:20 | 4 Layers | 4 Layers | 16 mm | O | O | |
6 | 40:40:20 | 2 Layers | 2 Layers | 16 mm | O | O | |
7 | 40:40:20 | 3 Layers | 3 Layers | 18.6 mm | O | O | |
8 | 40:40:20 | 3 Layers | 3 Layers | 14.4 mm | O | O | |
9 | 40:40:20 | 3 Layers | 3 Layers | 16 mm | X | O | |
10 | 30:30:40 | 3 Layers | 3 Layers | 16 mm | O | O |
Processing conditions for ten kinds of kenaf-imbedded specimen.
Figure 1 shows the needle-punching nonwoven process to prepare the specimens. Figure 2 shows an image of the nonwoven machinery used. Three types of staple fiber supplied from material supply equipment were mixed and blended in the mixing tank shown in Figure 1. Specimen 1 in Table 1 was mixed and blended by single opener in the mixing tank, and specimens 2–10 were prepared by multi-opener.
Needle-punching nonwoven process.
Image of the nonwoven machinery.
As shown in Table 2, the basic blend ratio of kenaf, PP, and LM PET staple fibers was 40, 40, and 20%, respectively (specimens 1–9). The blend ratio of specimen 10 was changed to 30, 30, and 40%. The mixed and blended fibers were delivered to the first and second carding processes. The basic carding treatment was conducted twice, but specimen 4 underwent only one treatment. Lap forming was performed after the carding process. The layering of the carding lap was changed from two to four layers, as shown in Table 2. The needle-punching process was followed by the second web-forming process, as shown in Figure 1. The basic needle depth was 16 mm, but specimens 7 and 8 had a needle depth of 18.6 and 14.4 mm, respectively. The specimens underwent thermo-compression bonding after the needle-punching process, as shown in Figure 1. Polyethylene (PE) powder was added after the thermo-bonding process to enhance coherence between the fabric and PP foam when automotive pillar trim was fabricated, as shown in Figure 3. Figure 3 shows the pillar trim in automotive interior. Kenaf-imbedded nonwoven is located between PP foam and fabric, which is placed on the inside of automotive pillar trim. Fabric is usually made by polyester (cation dyeable polyester).
Schematic diagram of pillar trim.
Hot melt film was inserted between the fabric and the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven to enhance the adhesive force between them. In addition, the reason why low-melting (LM) PET is mixed to make nonwoven is to enhance the adhesive force among hot melt film, fabric, and kenaf-imbedded nonwoven.
Therefore, to examine the effect of the polyurethane (PU)-laminating film treatment on the thermal conductivity, water absorption, and sound absorption properties of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven, a second batch of specimens was prepared by the same procedure as that for the first batch. Table 3 presents the eight types of nonwoven specimen as a second batch of specimens. Two types of specimen were prepared as nonlaminated (1–4) and laminated (5–8) by PU film. The blend ratio of kenaf, PP, and LM PET staple fibers was 40, 40, and 20% as a fixed blend ratio. The carding treatment was conducted twice, and the number of layers of the carding lap was fixed at three. The needle depth was fixed at 16 mm. In the thermo-compression bonding process, the surface temperature of the bonding roller was set at 170°C, and its velocity was fixed at 7.2 m/min. Specimens 1 and 3 were treated with powder after the thermo-compression bonding process and have different weight. Specimens 2 and 4 were non-treated and also have different weight. Specimens 5–8 were laminated by PU film after the needle-punching nonwoven process. The temperature of the laminating roller was 129°C, and the doting temperature on the melting apparatus was set at 126°C and the feed speed of the laminating roller at 3.7 m/min. After laminating by PU film, aging was carried out at 60% of RH in the aging room for 24 hours.
No. | Lamination | Kenaf:PP:LM PET (blend ratio) | No. of carding treatment | Layer of web | Needle depth | Thermo-compression bonding roller treatment | Powder treatment | Weight (g/m2) | Thickness (mm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Nonlaminated | 40:40:20 | 2 | 3 layers | 16 mm | 170°C, 7.2 m/min | o | 240 | 0.60 |
2 | 40:40:20 | 2 | 3 layers | 16 mm | 170°C, 7.2 m/min | X | 240 | 2.10 | |
3 | 40:40:20 | 2 | 3 layers | 16 mm | 170°C, 7.2 m/min | o | 320 | 0.82 | |
4 | 40:40:20 | 2 | 3 layers | 16 mm | 170°C, 7.2 m/min | X | 320 | 2.75 | |
5 | Laminated by PU film | 40:40:20 | 2 | 3 layers | 16 mm | 170°C, 7.2 m/min | o | 420 | 1.34 |
6 | 40:40:20 | 2 | 3 layers | 16 mm | 170°C, 7.2 m/min | X | 420 | 2.53 | |
7 | 40:40:20 | 2 | 3 layers | 16 mm | 170°C, 7.2 m/min | o | 500 | 1.53 | |
8 | 40:40:20 | 2 | 3 layers | 16 mm | 170°C, 7.2 m/min | X | 500 | 3.17 |
Preparation of the eight kinds of kenaf-imbedded specimen.
Note: o, treated; x, non-treated.
The breaking strength and strain of the nonwoven specimens were measured using Testometric apparatus (Model Micro 350, England) according to KSK ISO 9073-3: 2009. A specimen of width 50 mm and length 200 mm was prepared and elongated at a speed of 100 mm/min. The tearing strength of the nonwoven specimens was measured using Testometric apparatus (Model Micro 350, England) according to KSK ISO 9073-4: 2010. A specimen of width 75 and length 150 mm was prepared. In addition, the breaking strength, strain, and initial modulus of the nonwoven specimens prepared at machine direction (MD) intervals of 30 degrees were measured. The preparation of the specimens is shown in Figure 4. Furthermore, the orientation factor of fibers in the nonwoven specimens was calculated as the measured inclined angle (θ) of the 500 fibers in the nonwoven fabric as shown in Figure 5, and the distribution of the measured angles was analyzed in relation to the measured tensile property.
Preparation of specimens for measuring tensile property of nonwoven fabric.
Measured orientation angle of the fibers in the nonwoven.
The thickness of the ten (first batch specimen) and eight (second batch specimen) different nonwoven specimens was measured using the FAST-1 system. Figure 6 shows an image and schematic diagram of the compression meter by FAST-1 system [28]. The thickness (mm) at a compression force of 2 gf/cm2 was measured, and 30 assessments of each specimen were carried out for calculating the mean thickness.
FAST-1 system for measuring compressibility [28]. (a) Image of FAST-1 and (b) Schematic diagram.
The pore size (diameter, D, μm) was measured using a capillary flow porometer (CFP-1200AE PMI Co., USA). The measured pore diameter (D) was calculated using Eq. (1) with the median value of the graph between the air flow and pressure. The mean and largest pore diameters were measured for each specimen:
where C is a constant, τ the surface tension of the liquor (dyne/cm), and ρ the pressure (1b/(in)2). Figure 7 shows the capillary flow porometer.
Image of capillary flow porometer, CFP-1200AE.
The air permeability (R) was measured using Fx3300 (TEXTEST, Switzerland) according to the KSK ISO 9237 method. An air pressure of 100 Pa was applied to a 20 cm2 area of the specimen, and the air permeability was calculated using the following Eq. (2). Figure 8 shows the air permeability measuring apparatus:
Image of FX 3300.
where Q is the arithmetic mean of air flow (cm3/min), A the area of the specimen (cm2), and 167 the conversion constant.
The water absorption property was assessed by KSK ISO 9073-6. The liquid absorption capacity (LAC) was calculated by Eq. (3):
A square specimen of dimensions 100 mm × 100 mm was prepared and conditioned under 20 ± 1°C and 65 ± 5% RH. After its dry weight (A) was measured, the specimen was submersed to a depth of 20 mm in the water bath for 60 s, then taken out, and hung horizontally for 120 s, and finally its weight (B) was measured again, and LAC was calculated by Eq. (3) as the average value of five measurements.
The sound absorption coefficient of the nonwoven specimen was measured using acoustic duct (SCIEN-9301, USA) according to KSF2814-2: 2002. Figure 9 shows the acoustic duct apparatus.
Acoustic duct, SCIEN-9301. (a) Low Frequency and (b) High Frequency.
The specimen was fastened at the impedance tube’s left wall, and a loudspeaker was attached at its right wall. Sound waves of well-defined frequencies were emitted by a loudspeaker. The nodes and antinodes of the standing waves emitted from the loudspeaker and those reflected from the specimens were detected by two small microphones, from which the sound absorption coefficient was calculated by frequency response transfer function from two microphone channels. The frequency used was between 100 and 1600 Hz for low frequency and between 500 Hz and 6.3 kHz for high frequency.
The thermal conductivity (K) of the nonwoven specimen was measured using KES-F7 (Thermolabo, Kato Tech. Co. Ltd., Japan) and calculated using Eq. (4):
where Q is the heat loss (W/cm2), d the specimen thickness (cm), A the area of the specimen (cm2), and ΔT the temperature difference. Figure 10 shows an image of the KES-F7 measuring apparatus.
Image of the KES-F7 measuring apparatus.
A fogging test of the nonwoven specimen was performed to examine the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOC) using the gravimetric method according to KSM ISO 6452. A circular specimen of diameter 80 ± 1 mm was prepared and put into a thermostatic bath covered with aluminum foil which was boiled for 16 hours at 100°C. The fogging value was calculated using the mass of aluminum foil wrapped on the beaker in the thermostatic bath before and after the experiment.
The surface texture of the nonwoven specimen was measured by SEM (S-4300, Hitachi Co., Japan) and optical microscopy (I Camscope 305A, Korea).
Table 4 lists the physical properties of the ten kinds of nonwoven specimen.
Specimen no. | Breaking strength (kgf/mm2) | Tearing strength (N) | Air permeability (cm3/cm2/g) | Water absorption (%) | Sound absorption coefficient | Mean pore size (μm) | Largest pore diameter (μm) | Thickness (mm) | Weight (g/m2) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MD | CD | MD | CD | ||||||||
1 | 22.6 | 22.9 | 27.0 | 27.7 | 51.4 | 48.7 | 0.12 | 34.6 | 414.4 | 0.739 | 254.6 |
2 | 9.9 | 11.2 | 21.5 | 25.5 | 238 | 55.2 | 0.14 | 105.3 | 407.6 | 0.713 | 209.8 |
3 | 38.4 | 40.5 | 41.9 | 55.5 | 26.0 | 51.3 | 0.25 | 38.6 | 402.5 | 0.942 | 363.6 |
4 | 21.8 | 24.1 | 26.7 | 32.6 | 58.9 | 44.3 | 0.11 | 50.5 | 177.4 | 0.554 | 245.8 |
5 | 19.7 | 20.8 | 26.5 | 25.9 | 69.2 | 72.7 | 0.11 | 62.3 | 408.4 | 0.598 | 245.6 |
6 | 22.0 | 30.0 | 27.2 | 27.1 | 59.3 | 65.4 | 0.1 | 73.4 | 211.9 | 0.636 | 251.4 |
7 | 21.2 | 23.4 | 25.0 | 29.5 | 64.9 | 50.5 | 0.12 | 35.8 | 157.0 | 0.738 | 234.2 |
8 | 18.1 | 19.8 | 24.0 | 26.6 | 125.6 | 59.3 | 0.1 | 61.9 | 256.3 | 0.632 | 221.2 |
9 | 26.2 | 22.3 | 25.3 | 30.7 | 89.9 | 41.7 | 0.11 | 68.0 | 556.4 | 0.557 | 258.4 |
10 | 41.3 | 44.8 | 30.3 | 44.3 | 37.6 | 37.4 | 0.14 | 51.0 | 114.4 | 0.597 | 300 |
Physical properties of the nonwoven specimens (first batch of specimens).
Note: MD, machine direction; CD, cross direction.
Figure 11(a) and (b) shows the breaking and tearing strengths of the nonwoven specimens. Specimens 3 and 10 showed the highest breaking and tearing strengths. As shown in Table 4, specimens 3 and 10 had a smaller mean pore size and higher weight than the other specimens. Therefore, the effect of the mean pore size and weight on the breaking and tearing strengths of the nonwoven was investigated. Figure 12 shows a diagram of the breaking and tearing strengths according to the weight of the nonwoven specimens.
Breaking and tearing strengths of the nonwoven specimens. (a) Breaking strength and (b) Tearing strength.
Diagram of the breaking and tearing strengths according to the weight of the nonwoven specimens. (a) Breaking strength(MD) vs weight, (b) Breaking strength(CD) vs weight, (c) Tear strength(MD) vs weight and (d) Tear strength(CD) vs weight.
The breaking and tearing strengths of the MD and CD direction of the nonwoven specimen were increased with increasing weight of the nonwoven. This was attributed to the more numbers of fibers per unit area in the nonwoven specimens according to the increase of weight, which results in higher breaking and tearing strengths due to the more contribution of the fibers to the resistance from external load. Figure 13 shows a diagram of the breaking and tearing strengths according to the mean pore size. The breaking and tearing strengths of the nonwoven specimens were decreased with increasing mean pore size of the nonwoven specimen, possibly due to the weakened resistance from external force due to the large pore size in the nonwoven. In addition, the breaking and tearing strengths of nonwoven specimen 2, as shown in Figure 11, were the lowest, which was attributed to its lowest weight and largest mean pore size as shown in Table 4.
Diagram of the breaking and tearing strengths according to the mean pore size of the nonwoven specimens. (a) Breaking strength(MD) vsmean pore size, (b) Breaking strength(CD) vsmean pore size, (c) Tear strength(MD) vsmean pore size and (d) Tear strength(CD) vsmean pore size.
On the other hand, the orientation factor and the distribution of the fibers in the nonwoven specimens were measured and discussed to examine their effect on the breaking and tearing strengths of the nonwoven. Figure 14 presents the fiber orientation distribution of the ten types of nonwoven specimen.
Orientation of the fibers in the nonwoven specimens. (a) specimen 1, (b) specimen 2, (c) specimen 3, (d) specimen 4, (e) specimen 5, (f) specimen 6, (g) specimen 7, (h) specimen 8, (i) specimen 9 and (j) specimen 10.
As shown in Figure 14, the fiber orientation distributions of specimens 1, 2, 6, and 8 exhibited the shape of a quasi-Gaussian distribution, whereas that of specimens 3 and 10 exhibited a double quasi-normal distribution. Furthermore, specimens 4, 5, 7, and 9 exhibited a random distribution of fiber orientation in the nonwoven, i.e., the number of fibers according to the orientation angle was randomly distributed. As shown previously in Figure 11, specimens 3 and 10 exhibited the highest tearing and breaking strengths, respectively, whereas specimen 2 showed the lowest breaking and tearing strengths. This means that the fiber distribution in the nonwoven does not directly affect the breaking and tearing strengths, because specimen 2 with high distribution of fibers between 60° and 120° as a normal distribution exhibited low breaking strength, but specimens 1, 6, and 8 with the same normal distribution as specimen 2 showed higher breaking strength than that of the specimen 2. Furthermore, it was assumed that high breaking and tearing strengths of specimens 3 and 10, which showed a double quasi-normal distribution, were attributed to the processing conditions of nonwoven. In addition, the breaking and tearing strengths of nonwoven specimen 2 were measured and discussed according to the cut direction of the nonwoven specimens. Figure 15 shows the tensile property of specimen 2 according to the cut direction of the specimen. The breaking strength, breaking strain, and initial modulus of the specimens cut along MD, i.e., perpendicular to the cross direction (CD), exhibited maximum values, which was attributed to the many fibers distributed and oriented perpendicular to the CD.
Tensile property of the specimen (no. 2). (a) Breaking strength, (b) Breaking strain and (c) Initial modulus.
Figure 16(a) presents the air permeability and mean pore size of the nonwoven specimens. Specimens 2 and 8 showed high air permeability, which was attributed to the large pore size and low weight of the nonwoven, as shown in Table 4. These specimens were processed under the double-carding treatment in the multi-opener with three layers of web and needle depth of 16 or 14.4 mm. According to two previous studies [26, 27], nonwoven prepared using circular cross-sectional fibers exhibited the highest air permeability than nonwoven with noncircular fiber cross section, which was attributed to the highest pore diameter of nonwoven with circular fibers. These results were similar to our own. Figure 16(b) shows a correlation diagram between the mean pore diameter and air permeability of the ten different nonwoven specimens. The air permeability was highly dependent on the mean pore diameter of the nonwoven, and the correlation coefficient between the two parameters was 0.85, which was relatively high.
Air permeability of the nonwoven specimens. (a) Air permeability of each specimens and (b) Air permeability vs Mean pore size.
Figure 17 shows the LAC of the nonwoven specimens. Specimens 2, 5, 6, and 8 showed high liquid absorption, which was related with their large mean pore size. Furthermore, specimens 2, 5, 6, and 8 had larger pore diameter than specimens 4, 7, and 9, as shown in Table 4. In particular, the air permeability (Figure 16) and liquid absorption (Figure 17) of specimen 10 were the lowest, which was attributed to its high percentage of LM PET, i.e., the voids in the nonwoven were blocked by the LM PET that was heat melted on the thermo-compression bonding roller, which shrunk the voids and reduced the air and water flows and hence reduced the air permeability and liquid absorption. According to a previous study [27], high-volume porosity gives high vertical wicking rate, which was a similar result to our own.
Liquid absorption of specimens.
Figure 18(a) and (b) presents the sound absorption coefficient according to the high frequency between 500 and 6300 Hz and the average sound absorption coefficient of the nonwoven specimens, respectively. Specimens 2, 3, and 10, which had either high thickness and low weight or low thickness and high weight, showed a high sound absorption coefficient. The sound absorption coefficient under high frequency was highly dependent on the thickness and weight of the nonwoven and also partly affected by the pore diameter [19, 20, 21]. The sound absorption coefficient of specimen 3 was the largest, which was attributed to its high weight and low pore diameter.
Sound absorption coefficient of the nonwoven specimens. (a) Sound absorption coefficient and (b) Average sound absorption coefficients.
Table 5 shows the correlation coefficient between the sound absorption coefficient under high frequency and the thickness and weight of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven specimens. The sound absorption coefficient was highly correlated with the thickness and weight, indicating that the nonwoven specimens with high thickness, high weight, and small pore size have a high sound absorption coefficient. In addition, these nonwoven specimens were made under manufacturing conditions of high needle depth or high blend ratio of LM PET. Lee and Joo [20] found that the sound absorption coefficient of nonwoven mixed with a large amount of fine fibers is high due to the friction of viscosity through the vibration of the air. Another study [21] attributed the increases in thickness and in the amount of the fiber per unit area to an increase in the sound absorption property of the nonwoven. These previous results were similar to our own.
Thickness (mm) | Weight (g/m2) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Sound absorption coefficient | High frequency | 0.91 | 0.83 |
Correlation coefficient between physical properties and sound absorption coefficient of nonwoven.
A fogging test was carried out to determine the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOC) from automotive interior materials with increasing interior temperature during the summer time. Figure 19 presents the fogging values of the nonwoven specimens. Specimen 1 treated with a single opener, specimen 4 treated with the one-time carding process, and specimen 5 treated with four layers of web showed high fogging values, whereas specimens 2, 6, and 8, with large mean pore size and high air permeability and water absorption, exhibited low fogging values. This was attributed to the easy flow of VOC gases developed from the nonwoven due to their large pores.
Fogging values of the nonwoven specimens.
Table 6 shows the physical properties of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven specimens treated with powder and laminated by PU film, respectively.
Specimen no. | Lamination | Powder treatment | Blend ratio (kenaf:PP:LM PET) | Mean pore size (mm) | Largest pore diameter (mm) | Strength | LAC (%) | Thermal conductivity (W/m°C) | Sound absorption coefficient | Air permeability (cm3/cm2/s) | Thickness (mm) | Weight (g/m2) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Breaking (kgf/mm2) | Tearing (N) | |||||||||||||||
MD | CD | MD | CD | Low freq. | High freq. | |||||||||||
1 | Non-laminated | O | 40:40:20 | 34.0 | 199.6 | 13.314 | 12.532 | 33.617 | 46.144 | 34.4 | 0.057 | 0.054 | 0.16 | 40.8 | 0.6 | 240 |
2 | X | 40:40:20 | 92.8 | 282.7 | 2.723 | 6.255 | 27.48 | 52.574 | 285.7 | 0.047 | 0.073 | 0.24 | 284.6 | 2.1 | 240 | |
3 | O | 40:40:20 | 65.1 | 215.5 | 14.076 | 16.840 | 25.872 | 27.194 | 31.8 | 0.055 | 0.033 | 0.11 | 67.4 | 0.8 | 320 | |
4 | X | 40:40:20 | 100.3 | 314.3 | 4.959 | 11.502 | 55.537 | 96.278 | 327.7 | 0.054 | 0.088 | 0.37 | 172.6 | 2.8 | 320 | |
5 | Laminated by PU film | O | 40:40:20 | 35.9 | 117.8 | 27.412 | 26.753 | 106.832 | 97.39 | 25.3 | 0.056 | 0.055 | 0.24 | 63.2 | 1.3 | 420 |
6 | X | 40:40:20 | 59.0 | 180.7 | 35.534 | 31.763 | 127.353 | 163.11 | 177.2 | 0.061 | 0.096 | 0.42 | 98.5 | 2.5 | 420 | |
7 | O | 40:40:20 | 49.2 | 196.5 | 31.253 | 26.458 | 138.78 | 103.013 | 20.6 | 0.056 | 0.082 | 0.33 | 27.6 | 1.5 | 500 | |
8 | X | 40:40:20 | 83.8 | 230.1 | 40.715 | 24.136 | 142.402 | 200.036 | 253.6 | 0.059 | 0.128 | 0.54 | 88.6 | 3.2 | 500 |
Physical properties of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven specimens (second batch of specimens).
Note: O, treated; X, non-treated.
Figure 20 presents the breaking and tearing strengths of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven specimens treated and non-treated with laminated PU film. The breaking and tearing strengths of the laminated specimens were higher than those of the non-treated specimens, which was attributed to the PU film laminated on the nonwoven surface, resulting in higher weight and thickness. In addition, as shown in Figure 20(b) and (d), the non-powder-treated specimens (6 and 8) exhibited higher breaking and tearing strengths than the powder-treated specimens (5 and 7), which were assumed to be weakened by adhesion between the PE powder and PU film by the heat on the laminating roller. On the other hand, as shown in Figure 20(a), powder-treated specimens (1 and 3) exhibited higher breaking strength than the non-treated specimens (2 and 4), which was attributed to the enhancement of coherence between PE powder and LM PET fibers that were heat melted on the thermo-compression bonding roller.
Breaking and tearing strengths of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven specimens (second group of specimens). (a) Breaking strength of nonlaminated specimens, (b) Breaking strength of laminated specimens, (c) Tearing strength of nonlaminated specimens and (d) Tearing strength of laminated specimens.
Figure 21 presents a diagram of the fiber orientation of the nonlaminated nonwoven specimens (1–4). The degree of fiber orientation in the nonwoven was calculated as the mean of cos2θ of each specimens, i.e., unity of this value means orientation of fiber along the machine direction (MD) in the nonwoven, whereas zero value means fiber orientation along the cross direction (CD) in the nonwoven. Of these specimens, specimen 3 showed the highest value as a 0.46, and specimen 4 exhibited the lowest value as a 0.33, which resulted in the high difference between MD and CD in the breaking strength of this specimen 4 as shown in Figure 20(a) and (c).
Orientation of nonlaminated nonwoven specimens.
Figure 22 shows the air permeability and water absorption of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven specimens treated and nonlaminated with laminated PU film.
Air permeability and water absorption of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven treated and non-treated with laminated PU film. (a) Air permeability and (b) Water absorption.
The differences of the air permeability and water absorption between the laminated and nonlaminated specimens were much lower than those between the powder-treated and non-treated specimens, i.e., the air permeability and water absorption of the non-powder-treated specimens (2, 4, 6, and 8) were much higher than those of the powder-treated specimens (1, 3, 5, and 7). Furthermore, the nonlaminated specimens (1–4) exhibited higher air permeability and water absorption than did the laminated specimens (5–9). This was attributed to the small pore size of the powder-treated and laminated specimens, which was caused by the blockage of the pores in the nonwoven by melted powder in the thermo-compression bonding process and partly melted PU in the laminating process. This was verified by the mean pore and largest pore diameters of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven specimens, as shown in Figure 23.
Mean pore and largest pore diameters of the nonwoven specimens. (a) Mean pore dia and (b) Largest pore dia.
The mean pore and largest pore diameters of the non-powder-treated (2, 4, 6, and 8) and nonlaminated (1, 2, 3, and 4) specimens were much larger than those of the powder-treated (1, 3, 5, and 7) and laminated (5, 6, 7, and 8) specimens, respectively.
Figure 24 shows the thermal conductivity of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven specimens treated and non-treated with laminated PU film. The thermal conductivities of the powder-treated (1, 3, 5, and 7) and laminated (5–8) nonwoven specimens were higher than those of the non-powder-treated (2, 4, 6, and 8) and nonlaminated (1–4) specimens, respectively, which was attributed to less obstruction of heat particles’ flow due to less air film in the smaller pores due to blockage of pores in the nonwoven by melted powder in the thermo-compression bonding process.
Thermal conductivity of the laminated and nonlaminated nonwoven specimens.
Figure 25 shows the sound absorption coefficients of the laminated and nonlaminated nonwoven specimens at low and high frequencies. The sound absorption coefficients of the laminated specimens (5, 6, 7, and 8) were higher than those of the nonlaminated specimens (1, 2, 3, and 4), which was attributed to the increased thickness of the nonwoven due to the laminated film on its surface. Furthermore, the sound absorption coefficients of the powder-treated specimens (1, 3, 5, and 7) were lower than those of the non-treated ones (2, 4, 6, and 8), which was attributed to the thinner nonwoven and partly affected by its smaller pores due to blockage of the pores in the nonwoven by melted powder in the thermo-compression bonding process. In addition, the sound absorption coefficient of thick and heavy specimen 8, which was non-powder-treated and PU-laminated, was the highest, whereas those of thin and light specimens 1 and 3, which were powder-treated and non-PU-treated, exhibited lower value than others. The sound absorption coefficients of the laminated and nonlaminated nonwoven specimens according to the sound frequency during measurement exhibited a rapid increase around 630 Hz in the low-frequency experiment but showed a rapid increase around 1, 600 Hz in the high-frequency experiment.
Sound absorption coefficients of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven specimens. (a) low frequency, (b) high frequency, (c) low frequency and (d) high frequency.
Table 7 presents the correlation coefficient between physical properties and structural parameters of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven specimens.
Porosity | Thickness | Weight | Orientation factor | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean pore diameter (μm) | Largest pore diameter (μm) | (mm) | (g/m2) | |||
Breaking strength | −0.55 | 0.25 | 0.88 | −0.59 | ||
Tearing strength | −0.48 | 0.59 | 0.98 | −0.55 | ||
Air permeability | 0.85 | 0.49 | 0.44 | −0.65 | ||
Water absorption | 0.91 | 0.68 | 0.84 | |||
Thermal conductivity | −0.62 | 0.75 | ||||
Sound absorption | Low frequency | 0.43 | 0.60 | 0.90 | 0.65 | |
High frequency | 0.41 | 0.48 | 0.91 | 0.83 |
Correlation coefficient between physical properties and structural parameters of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven specimens.
The breaking and tearing strengths of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven specimens were highly correlated with weight of the nonwoven and inversely correlated with mean pore diameter in the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven and the orientation factor of its fibers. In particular, tensile property of the nonwoven according to the orientation factor exhibited a similar result to that of Rawal et al. [29]. The air permeability was highly correlated with the mean pore diameter as a porosity in the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven, which can be compared with those of the previous findings [26, 30]. The water absorption was also highly correlated with the mean pore diameter of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven, and the thickness of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven strongly affected its water absorption. This is in accordance with that of Das et al. [23]. They analyzed that more air trapped within the nonwoven with high porosity allows faster movement of water through pores. Furthermore, they suggested that this is in accordance with the theory of capillarity. The thermal conductivity of the nonwoven was dependent on its weight and was inversely correlated with its mean pore diameter. In addition, the sound absorption was highly correlated with thickness of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven, and its weight affected the sound absorption, but its mean pore diameter did not. This was a similar result to those of previous studies [20, 21].
Figure 26 presents surface images of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven specimens taken by SEM and optical microscopy.
Surface images of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven specimens. (a) Optical microscopy (x100) and (b) SEM (x50).
The large pores observed for specimens 2, 6, and 9 resulted in high air permeability and water absorption, and these large pore diameters affected the breaking and tearing strengths. In addition, the thermal conductivity was inversely affected by the pore diameter. Specimens 1, 3, and 7 had small pore.
This study examined the relationship between the physical properties of kenaf-imbedded nonwoven and its structural factors according to the needle-punching nonwoven processing conditions. The physical properties of kenaf fiber-imbedded nonwoven were measured and compared according to the blend ratio of the constituent fibers and the different nonwoven processing conditions. The results are summarized as follows.
The breaking and tearing strengths of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven were dependent on its weight and its mean pore size. Nonwoven specimens with high needle depth and/or a large amount of LM PET exhibited high breaking and tearing strengths. The air permeability was highly dependent on the mean pore diameter of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven. Nonwoven specimens processed with double carding, three layers of web, and with a needle depth of 16 mm exhibited high air permeability, which was due to high mean pore diameter and low weight. The water absorption of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven was highly correlated with its mean pore diameter and thickness. A high blend percentage of LM PET fibers reduced the pore size, which resulted in low air permeability and water absorption. The sound absorption coefficient of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven under high frequency was highly dependent on its thickness and weight and was also partly affected by the pore diameter, i.e., the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven with high thickness and weight exhibited a high sound absorption coefficient, and small-pore nonwoven showed a low sound absorption coefficient, manufactured with high needle depth and/or a high blend ratio of LM PET. In addition, the large-pore nonwoven specimen with high air permeability and water absorption exhibited a low fogging value, which was attributed to the easy flow of VOC gases developed from the nonwoven due to its large pores. Regarding the effects of powder and laminated PU treatment on the physical properties of the kenaf-imbedded nonwoven fabric, the breaking and tearing strengths of the laminated specimens were higher than those of the nonlaminated specimens, and the non-powder-treated specimens exhibited higher breaking and tearing strengths than the powder-treated specimens after PU laminating. The air permeability and water absorption of the non-powder-treated specimens were much higher than those of the powder-treated specimens. Moreover, the laminated and non-powder-treated specimens exhibited higher sound absorption coefficient than did the nonlaminated and powder-treated specimens. On the other hand, the thermal conductivities of the powder-treated and PU-laminated specimens were higher than those of the non-powder-treated and nonlaminated ones.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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\\n\\nIf the manuscript is formally accepted after peer review you will receive a formal Notice of Acceptance, and a price quote.
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\\n\\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
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\n\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
\n\n3. PEER REVIEW RESULTS
\n\nExternal reviewers will evaluate your manuscript and provide you with their feedback. You may be asked to revise your draft, or parts of your draft, provide additional information and make any other necessary changes according to their comments and suggestions.
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\n\nWe will send you your price quote and after it has been accepted (by both the author and the publisher), both parties will sign a Statement of Work binding them to adhere to the agreed upon terms.
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\n\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
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\n\nIntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
\n\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
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