\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10729",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Infections and Sepsis Development",title:"Infections and Sepsis Development",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Infection is a common clinical condition that may cause local inflammation but, in some cases, can lead to systemic inflammation, with sepsis and organ dysfunction. Septic shock is a condition of inadequate tissue perfusion and cellular use of oxygen due to the cytotoxic action of bacterial toxins. There is no relationship between the pathological characteristics and the severity of the primary septic outbreak and the development of septic shock, and the time that elapses until the start of the shock is not predictable. Thus, knowledge of the pathophysiology of septic shock is fundamental for treatment. This book presents a comprehensive overview of infectious agents and their therapeutic control, pathological conditions with infective etiology such as diabetic foot osteomyelitis and infections in neurosurgery, and the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of sepsis.",isbn:"978-1-83969-458-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-457-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-459-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94701",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"infections-and-sepsis-development",numberOfPages:394,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"de8b1d035f242a8038f99d48b9069edf",bookSignature:"Vincenzo Neri, Lixing Huang and Jie Li",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10729.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3918,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:6,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:10,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 5th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 15th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 14th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 2nd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 1st 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"170938",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Neri",slug:"vincenzo-neri",fullName:"Vincenzo Neri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/170938/images/system/170938.jpeg",biography:"Vincenzo Neri is a former Professor of General Surgery (retired), Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Foggia, Italy. He also held positions such as Director of Division of General Surgery, Director of Residency School of General Surgery, Director of Department of Surgical Sciences, and President of Course of Degree of Medicine and Surgery at the same university. He also served as an assistant professor (1974–1982) and associate professor (1982–2001) at the School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Bari, Italy, where he obtained a degree in Medicine and Surgery and completed postgraduate training in General Surgery and Emergency Surgery. He obtained a diploma of 'Maitrise Universitaire en Pedagogie des Sciences de la Santè” from the University Paris-Nord Bobigny in 1995. Dr. Neri’s research interests include hepatobiliary pancreatic surgery, acute pancreatitis, and treatment of pancreatic and liver tumors. He has published research papers, reviews, congress proceedings, and book chapters. In the period 1991–2016, he attended the Hepatobiliarypancreatic Surgery Service of Beaujon Hospital, Universitè de Paris, Clichy. As part of the 2010–2011 ERASMUS Program, Dr. Neri developed a seminar on 'Cystic Tumours of the Pancreas” at Ghent University, Belgium. He is a member of several scientific associations including Società Italiana di Chirurgia (SIC), International Hepato-Pancreato Biliary Association (IHPBA), European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL), New European Surgical Academy (NESA), and Society of Laparoscopic and Robotic Surgeons (SLS).",institutionString:"University of Foggia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"9",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"University of Foggia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"333148",title:"Dr.",name:"Lixing",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"lixing-huang",fullName:"Lixing Huang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333148/images/system/333148.jpg",biography:"Dr. Lixing Huang is an associate professor at Jimei University, China. He is engaged in research of molecular mechanisms of bacterial pathogen-host interaction, including but not limited to applying dual RNA-seq and dual iTRAQ approaches to complex infection settings comprising bacterial pathogens, their hosts, and resident gut microbiota; the interplay between host cell microRNAs/proteins and bacterial infection; the impact of bacterial pathogens on host cell RNA metabolism; the effect of bacterial non-coding RNAs/proteins on key host intracellular pathways; and nutritional immunity, the struggle for nutrient metals between hosts and pathogens. He is the author of more than sixty research articles. He is also a member of the China Society of Fisheries (CSF) and the Chinese Society of Toxicology (CST).",institutionString:"Jimei University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Jimei University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"336590",title:"Dr.",name:"Jie",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"jie-li",fullName:"Jie Li",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336590/images/system/336590.png",biography:"Dr. Jie Li is an Associate Professor and Research Fellow of the Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences. He completed a Ph.D. at the Institute of Oceanology, the Chinese Academy of Science. His research is directed at the epidemiology and immunology of bacterial pathogens in farming fish, including but not limited to fish disease control, fish vaccine development, and pathogenicity mechanisms of fish pathogens. He is the author of ten research articles and a member of the China Society of Fisheries (CSF).",institutionString:"Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1046",title:"Infectious Diseases",slug:"infectious-diseases"}],chapters:[{id:"78345",title:"Bactericidal and Bacteriostatic Antibiotics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99546",slug:"bactericidal-and-bacteriostatic-antibiotics",totalDownloads:323,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Of all the medications available to physicians worldwide, antibiotics play an essential role in inpatient and outpatient settings. Discovered in the early nineteenth century by Alexander Fleming, penicillin was the first antibiotic isolated from a mold. Dr. Gerhard Domagk developed synthetic sulfa drugs by altering the red dye used in chemical industries. Since then, multiple antibiotic classes have been discovered with varying antimicrobial effects enabling their use empirically or in specific clinical scenarios. Antibiotics with different mechanisms of action could be either bactericidal or bacteriostatic. However, no clinical significance has been observed between cidal and static antibiotics in multiple trials. Their presence has led to safer deep invasive surgeries, advanced chemotherapy in cancer, and organ transplantation. Indiscriminate usage of antibiotics has resulted in severe hospital-acquired infections, including nosocomial pneumonia, Clostridioides difficile infection, multidrug-resistant invasive bacterial infections, allergic reactions, and other significant side effects. Antibiotic stewardship is an essential process in the modern era to advocate judicial use of antibiotics for an appropriate duration. They play a vital role in medical and surgical intensive care units to address the various complications seen in these patients. Antibiotics are crucial in severe acute infections to improve overall mortality and morbidity.",signatures:"Sachin M. Patil and Parag Patel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78345",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78345",authors:[{id:"352750",title:"Dr.",name:"Sachin M.",surname:"Patil",slug:"sachin-m.-patil",fullName:"Sachin M. Patil"},{id:"424644",title:"Dr.",name:"Parag",surname:"Patel",slug:"parag-patel",fullName:"Parag Patel"}],corrections:null},{id:"77292",title:"Distribution and Molecular Detection of Methicilin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98655",slug:"distribution-and-molecular-detection-of-methicilin-resistant-em-staphylococcus-aureus-em-",totalDownloads:191,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Isolation of Staphylococcus aureus is quite common in both the general population and hospital environment. The heterogeneity of the disease and the unique ability of S. aureus to develop resistance to the most recently discovered antibacterial drugs points to its ability to adapt and survive in different conditions. CA-MRSA is different from hospital strains of MRSA by its epidemiological, phenotypic and genotypic characteristics. The emergence of MRSA in the community suggests the need for a new approach to managing the indications and the certification of staphylococcal infections, with special emphasis on the selection of empiric antibiotic therapy. In the study, we analised of MRSA from 4341 samples taken from patients from the general population of Sarajevo Canton in the six-month period of follow-up processed at the Public Health Institute of Sarajevo Canton. We determined the epidemiological characteristics of the isolated strains. Methicillin resistance was determined by phenotypic methods. The following molecular methods were used for the confirmation of methicillin resistance: determination of the mecA gene, PFGE profile, genetic type of MRSA being determined by spa typing, the distribution of SCCmec types being examined, and the detected gene for PVL. The study stresses the need for national monitoring of spreading of the existing epidemic strains, as well as the monitoring of emergence of new strains which would enable the inclusion of our country in the international network of monitoring bacterial resistance.",signatures:"Velma Rebić, Mufida Aljičević, Sajra Vinčević-Smajlović and Damir Rebić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77292",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77292",authors:[{id:"335553",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Velma",surname:"Rebić",slug:"velma-rebic",fullName:"Velma Rebić"},{id:"349103",title:"Prof.",name:"Mufida",surname:"Aljičević",slug:"mufida-aljicevic",fullName:"Mufida Aljičević"},{id:"349104",title:"M.D.",name:"Sajra",surname:"Vinčević-Smajlović",slug:"sajra-vincevic-smajlovic",fullName:"Sajra Vinčević-Smajlović"},{id:"349107",title:"Prof.",name:"Damir",surname:"Rebić",slug:"damir-rebic",fullName:"Damir Rebić"}],corrections:null},{id:"77570",title:"Potential Natural Product from Tropical Fruits: A Mixture Young Coconut Fruit and Kaffir Lime Fruit as Immunonutrition for the Treatment of Sepsis by Lipopolysaccaride Escherichia coli (Infectious Disease)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99005",slug:"potential-natural-product-from-tropical-fruits-a-mixture-young-coconut-fruit-and-kaffir-lime-fruit-a",totalDownloads:170,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The high number of cases reported of antibiotic resistance use and mortality due to gram-negative sepsis, triggered the development of natural agents to be used in the prevention and treatment of sepsis. Studies continue to be developed on the use of tropical fruits such as coconut fruit and kaffir lime fruit which contain high antioxidants and many potential compounds. Recent experimental data has proven that the high antioxidant activity found in the coconut fruit mixture, namely processed fruit flesh and coconut water and added kaffir lime juice, can be used as an immunonutrition agent that can improve body physiology and can increase the survival rate of test animals from endotoxemia lipopolysaccharide induced by Eschercia coli intraperitoneally. This chapter provides an overview of the potential of natural products that can be used as immunonutrition preparations. Finally, this provides information showing the importance of the intake of immunonutrition in conditions of sepsis infection.",signatures:"Rahmayati Rusnedy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77570",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77570",authors:[{id:"414194",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Rahmayati",surname:"Rusnedy",slug:"rahmayati-rusnedy",fullName:"Rahmayati Rusnedy"}],corrections:null},{id:"76994",title:"Empiric Antimicrobial Therapy in Critically Ill Septic Patients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98327",slug:"empiric-antimicrobial-therapy-in-critically-ill-septic-patients",totalDownloads:164,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sepsis is a medical emergency and life-threatening condition due to a dysregulated host response to infection, which is time-dependent and associated with unacceptably high mortality. At the bedside of a patient with sepsis or septic shock, clinician must make immediate life-saving decisions including empirical initiation of broad-spectrum antimicrobials; the most likely to be appropriate. The empiric regimen should be initiated within the first hour of diagnosis and determined by assessing patient and epidemiological risk factors, likely source of infection based on presenting signs and symptoms, and severity of illness. Optimizing antibiotic use is crucial to ensure successful outcomes and to reduce adverse antibiotic effects, as well as preventing drug resistance. All likely pathogens involved should be considered to provide an appropriate antibiotic coverage. Herein, we tried to make suggestions of empirical therapeutic regimens in sepsis/septic shock according to most likely pathogens in cause and sepsis source based on the recent recommendations of learned societies. Some suggestions were adapted to an environment of low-resource regions where the ecology of multi drug resistant organisms is of concern.",signatures:"Ahlem Trifi, Sami Abdellatif, Sameh Trabelsi and Salah Ben Lakhal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76994",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76994",authors:[{id:"352049",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ahlem",surname:"Trifi",slug:"ahlem-trifi",fullName:"Ahlem Trifi"},{id:"416660",title:"Prof.",name:"Sami",surname:"Abdellatif",slug:"sami-abdellatif",fullName:"Sami Abdellatif"},{id:"416661",title:"Prof.",name:"Salah",surname:"Ben Lakhal",slug:"salah-ben-lakhal",fullName:"Salah Ben Lakhal"},{id:"421061",title:"Prof.",name:"Sameh",surname:"Trabelsi",slug:"sameh-trabelsi",fullName:"Sameh Trabelsi"}],corrections:null},{id:"77791",title:"Specific Bacterial Immunotherapy in Treating Chronic Osteomyelitis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98751",slug:"specific-bacterial-immunotherapy-in-treating-chronic-osteomyelitis",totalDownloads:143,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The immunological experience is treating osteomyelitis chronic forms at the Istituto Putti in Cortina starts in 1963 by introducing immunotherapy, applied by the progressive administration in growing doses of a staphylococci pool, that had been collected from some patients with bone infections by the same germ and then inactivated in an aqueous solution suspension. This therapy is coadjutant of antibiotics, surgical and hyperbaric therapy and not substitutive of these. This study ascertained indeed a reduction of the phagocytic activity as a whole, and especially the opsonisation activity It has been thought therefore that in immunotherapy more factors are involved; their principal property is to reduce the allergising effect and therefore to desensitise vs. the germ proteins and to increase the phagocytic activity. This condition, neither whose entity nor its lasting may be defined, does not appear to be unlimited. Obviously this desensitisation can be obtained also by the right antibiotic choice that, as already said mainly in acute forms, may develop their bactericidal properties and sterilise the focus. In the chronic forms it is possible to provoke this mechanism by carrying out a surgical toilette that restores the vascularization and stimulation conditions needed for a correct antibiotic action. Checks upon immuno-stimulation treatment termination clearly showed corresponding results between laboratory deficit corrected and clinical conditions bettering. The casuistry is based on 50 patients with hematogenic osteomyelitis, all under the age of 16, age at which the growth plate is still active, and 117 post-traumatic septic non-union, where this term was adopted for cases that showed a lack of non-solidification at 6 months after trauma. We have expressly made a distinction between hematogenic and post-traumatic forms, since the relationships between bacterial counts vs. host response do differ.",signatures:"Ferdinando Da Rin de Lorenzo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77791",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77791",authors:[{id:"350650",title:"Prof.",name:"Ferdinando",surname:"Da Rin de Lorenzo",slug:"ferdinando-da-rin-de-lorenzo",fullName:"Ferdinando Da Rin de Lorenzo"}],corrections:null},{id:"75640",title:"Prevalence, Antimicrobial Resistance and Pathogenicity of Non-O1 Vibrio cholerae in Suburban and Rural Groundwater Supplies of Marrakesh Area (Morocco)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96696",slug:"prevalence-antimicrobial-resistance-and-pathogenicity-of-non-o1-em-vibrio-cholerae-em-in-suburban-an",totalDownloads:168,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This synthesis of research work considers the dynamic, antibiotic resistance, hemolytic, and hemagglutination activities of non-O1 Vibrio cholerae in comparison with those of fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from suburban and rural groundwater supplies in a Marrakesh area (Morocco). In addition, it assesses the influence of some chemical factors on the distribution of all these bacterial groups. The obtained results showed that the prospected well waters contain them at varying abundance degrees while undergoing generally spatial and temporal fluctuations. The total occurrence of these bacteria during the period of study was 94%. Detectable non-O1 V. cholerae was present in 81% of the samples and the mean abundances ranged from 0 to 11100 MPN/100 ml. According to WHO standards for drinking water, they were heavily contaminated and could have significant health risks for the local population consuming them. Non-O1 V. cholerae and the other studied bacteria are virulent since most of them were found to be adhesive, producers of hemolysins and multi-resistant to antibiotics. Pollution activities around the wells lead to an increase of virulence and antimicrobial resistance in groundwater. This shows the role of these bacteria in several cases of gastro-enteric and systemic pathologies noted in Marrakech local population.",signatures:"Hafsa Lamrani Alaoui, Khalid Oufdou and Nour-Eddine Mezrioui",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75640",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75640",authors:[{id:"343471",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Hafsa",surname:"Lamrani Alaoui",slug:"hafsa-lamrani-alaoui",fullName:"Hafsa Lamrani Alaoui"},{id:"347389",title:"Prof.",name:"Khalid",surname:"Oufdou",slug:"khalid-oufdou",fullName:"Khalid Oufdou"},{id:"347390",title:"Prof.",name:"Nour-Eddine",surname:"Mezrioui",slug:"nour-eddine-mezrioui",fullName:"Nour-Eddine Mezrioui"}],corrections:null},{id:"75676",title:"Community Change and Pathogenicity of Vibrio",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96515",slug:"community-change-and-pathogenicity-of-em-vibrio-em-",totalDownloads:266,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vibrio is a rod-shaped Gram-negative bacteria, which is widely distributed in marine and estuarine environments worldwide. It is an important component of the aquatic ecosystem and plays an important role in biogeochemical cycle. Its population dynamics are usually affected by climate and seasonal factors. Most of the Vibrios in the environment are not pathogenic, but some of them are pathogenic bacteria for human and animal, such as Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio vulnificus, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, and Vibrio anguillarum, etc., which are generally reported to be related to aquatic animal diseases and human food-borne diseases. Over the last couple of years, due to the influence of the rising seawater temperature and climate change, the incidence of diseases caused by Vibrio infection has increased significantly, which poses a great threat to human health and aquaculture. The research on pathogenic Vibrio has attracted more and more attention. The abundance and community changes of Vibrio in the environment are usually controlled by many biological and abiotic factors. The Vibrio pathogenicity is related to the virulence factors encoded by virulence genes. The process of Vibrio infecting the host and causing host disease is determined by multiple virulence factors acting together, instead of being determined by a single virulence factor. In this chapter, community changes of Vibrio, as well as the virulence factors of Vibrio and the related virulence genes of Vibiro are summarized, and their important roles in Vibrio infection are also discussed.",signatures:"Lixing Huang, Qiancheng Gao, Youyu Zhang, Wei Xu and Qingpi Yan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75676",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75676",authors:[{id:"333148",title:"Dr.",name:"Lixing",surname:"Huang",slug:"lixing-huang",fullName:"Lixing Huang"},{id:"343504",title:"Prof.",name:"Qingpi",surname:"Yan",slug:"qingpi-yan",fullName:"Qingpi Yan"},{id:"343506",title:"Dr.",name:"Youyu",surname:"Zhang",slug:"youyu-zhang",fullName:"Youyu Zhang"},{id:"351789",title:"Dr.",name:"Qiancheng",surname:"Gao",slug:"qiancheng-gao",fullName:"Qiancheng Gao"},{id:"351791",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",surname:"Xu",slug:"wei-xu",fullName:"Wei Xu"}],corrections:null},{id:"75818",title:"The Secretome of Vibrio cholerae",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96803",slug:"the-secretome-of-em-vibrio-cholerae-em-",totalDownloads:288,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vibrio cholerae is a facultative human pathogen responsible for the cholera disease which infects millions of people worldwide each year. V. cholerae is a natural inhabitant of aquatic environments and the infection usually occurs after ingestion of contaminated water or food. The virulence factors of V. cholerae have been extensively studied in the last decades and include the cholera toxin and the coregulated pilus. Most of the virulence factors of V. cholerae belong to the secretome, which corresponds to all the molecules secreted in the extracellular environment such as proteins, exopolysaccharides, extracellular DNA or membrane vesicles. In this chapter, we review the current knowledge of the secretome of V. cholerae and its role in virulence, colonization and resistance. In the first section, we focus on the proteins secreted through conventional secretion systems. The second and third sections emphasize on the membrane vesicles and on the secretome associated with biofilms.",signatures:"Annabelle Mathieu-Denoncourt, Sean Giacomucci and Marylise Duperthuy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75818",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75818",authors:[{id:"342286",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Marylise",surname:"Duperthuy",slug:"marylise-duperthuy",fullName:"Marylise Duperthuy"},{id:"343168",title:"Mrs.",name:"Annabelle",surname:"Mathieu-Denoncourt",slug:"annabelle-mathieu-denoncourt",fullName:"Annabelle Mathieu-Denoncourt"},{id:"343169",title:"Mr.",name:"Sean",surname:"Giacomucci",slug:"sean-giacomucci",fullName:"Sean Giacomucci"}],corrections:null},{id:"77674",title:"Challenges in Controlling Vibriosis in Shrimp Farms",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97018",slug:"challenges-in-controlling-vibriosis-in-shrimp-farms",totalDownloads:308,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recently the shrimp farming has blooming as a crucial counterpart in the aquaculture industry which contribute the remarkable role in sea food production as well economy of the country. However, this could be fluctuated every year through several circumstances such as unfavorable (Poor water and soil quality) environmental factors. The environmental factors includes disease causing bacterial pathogens in the soil and water which causes the bacterial diseases in the aquatic animals, like this hectic problems are prevented through bioaugmentation strategies. The pond environment plays a vital role in determining the healthy culture system, but there is high risk for manipulation by bacterial community which takes care of waste generated in the system through in situ bioremediation. Due to the impact of rapidly growing bacterial diseases of shrimps throughout the world, numerous studies have been carried out to find immunostimulants, immunomodulators and biotic component that can be used against vibrio causing pathogens, and can also be used as an alternative for antibiotics. Recent research focus towards the marine resources such as microalgae, seaweed, live feeds (like artemia, copepods, rotifers), bacteriophage, and probiotics have been found to have higher potential in reducing vibriosis. Eco-based shrimp farming includes green water technology, phage therapy bio-floc technology (BFT) and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA), these methods hold a promising alternative to antibiotics in the near future. Bacterial diseases caused by vibrios have been reported in penaeid shrimp culture systems implicating at least 14 species and they are Vibrio harveyi, V. splendidus, V. parahaemolyticus, V. alginolyticus, V. anguillarum, V. vulnificuslogei etc.",signatures:"Hethesh Chellapandian, Jeyachandran Sivakamavalli, A. Vijay Anand and Balamuralikrishnan Balasubramanian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77674",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77674",authors:[{id:"347251",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Hethesh",surname:"Chellapandian",slug:"hethesh-chellapandian",fullName:"Hethesh Chellapandian"},{id:"347284",title:"Prof.",name:"Jeyachandran",surname:"Sivakamavalli",slug:"jeyachandran-sivakamavalli",fullName:"Jeyachandran Sivakamavalli"},{id:"421444",title:"Dr.",name:"A. Vijay",surname:"Anand",slug:"a.-vijay-anand",fullName:"A. Vijay Anand"},{id:"421445",title:"Dr.",name:"Balamuralikrishnan",surname:"Balasubramanian",slug:"balamuralikrishnan-balasubramanian",fullName:"Balamuralikrishnan Balasubramanian"}],corrections:null},{id:"76988",title:"Diabetic Foot Osteomyelitis: Frequent Pathogens and Conservative Antibiotic Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98328",slug:"diabetic-foot-osteomyelitis-frequent-pathogens-and-conservative-antibiotic-therapy",totalDownloads:199,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Chronic diabetic foot osteomyelitis (DFO) is a frequent complication in adult polyneuropathy patients with long-standing diabetes mellitus. Regarding the conservative therapy, there are several crucial steps in adequate diagnosing and approaches. The management should be performed in a multidisciplinary approach following the findings of recent research, general principles of antibiotic therapy for bone; and according to (inter-)national guidance. In this chapter we emphasize the overview on the state-of-the-art management regarding the diagnosis and antibiotic therapy in DFO. In contrast, in this general narrative review and clinical recommendation, we skip the surgical, vascular and psychological aspects.",signatures:"Nicolas Vogel, Tanja Huber and Ilker Uçkay",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76988",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76988",authors:[{id:"349987",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolas",surname:"Vogel",slug:"nicolas-vogel",fullName:"Nicolas Vogel"},{id:"350000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ilker",surname:"Uçkay",slug:"ilker-uckay",fullName:"Ilker Uçkay"},{id:"417116",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tanja",surname:"Huber",slug:"tanja-huber",fullName:"Tanja Huber"}],corrections:null},{id:"78056",title:"Infections in Neurosurgery and Their Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99115",slug:"infections-in-neurosurgery-and-their-management",totalDownloads:251,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Surgical site and postoperative infections are common problems in surgical wards and treating them can be challenging and very complicated. It is important to understand different types of postoperative infections and their best management. In this chapter we try to emphasis on infections which are occurring in neurosurgical units and how to approach them. Foreign body infection is another challenge that happens in neurosurgical units, and it is vital to recognize these infections in time and start the treatment as soon as possible. Atypical infections occurrence is low therefore this problem is not addressed often in textbooks or in the literature, therefore atypical infections will be discussed in this chapter too. By discussing the most common postoperative complications and their best management profile, the authors here will try to widen the perspective of readers on infections in neurosurgical units in order to understand this problem better. Untreated infections or poorly treated infections can lead to sepsis and catastrophic results.",signatures:"Seyed Arad Senaobar Tahaei, Seyyed Ashkan Senobar Tahaei, Zoltan Mencser and Pal Barzo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78056",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78056",authors:[{id:"351819",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Arad",surname:"Senaobar Tahaei",slug:"seyed-arad-senaobar-tahaei",fullName:"Seyed Arad Senaobar Tahaei"},{id:"353235",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoltán",surname:"Mencser",slug:"zoltan-mencser",fullName:"Zoltán Mencser"},{id:"353236",title:"Prof.",name:"Pál",surname:"Barzó",slug:"pal-barzo",fullName:"Pál Barzó"},{id:"422719",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyyed Ashkan",surname:"Senobar Tahaei",slug:"seyyed-ashkan-senobar-tahaei",fullName:"Seyyed Ashkan Senobar Tahaei"}],corrections:null},{id:"77653",title:"An Explainable Machine Learning Model for Early Prediction of Sepsis Using ICU Data",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98957",slug:"an-explainable-machine-learning-model-for-early-prediction-of-sepsis-using-icu-data",totalDownloads:180,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Early identification of individuals with sepsis is very useful in assisting clinical triage and decision-making, resulting in early intervention and improved outcomes. This study aims to develop an explainable machine learning model with the clinical interpretability to predict sepsis onset before 6 hours and validate with improved prediction risk power for every time interval since admission to the ICU. The retrospective observational cohort study is carried out using PhysioNet Challenge 2019 ICU data from three distinct hospital systems, viz. A, B, and C. Data from A and B were shared publicly for training and validation while sequestered data from all three cohorts were used for scoring. However, this study is limited only to publicly available training data. Training data contains 15,52,210 patient records of 40,336 ICU patients with up to 40 clinical variables (sourced for each hour of their ICU stay) divided into two datasets, based on hospital systems A and B. The clinical feature exploration and interpretation for early prediction of sepsis is achieved using the proposed framework, viz. the explainable Machine Learning model for Early Prediction of Sepsis (xMLEPS). A total of 85 features comprising the given 40 clinical variables augmented with 10 derived physiological features and 35 time-lag difference features are fed to xMLEPS for the said prediction task of sepsis onset. A ten-fold cross-validation scheme is employed wherein an optimal prediction risk threshold is searched for each of the 10 LightGBM models. These optimum threshold values are later used by the corresponding models to refine the predictive power in terms of utility score for the prediction of labels in each fold. The entire framework is designed via Bayesian optimization and trained with the resultant feature set of 85 features, yielding an average normalized utility score of 0.4214 and area under receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.8591 on publicly available training data. This study establish a practical and explainable sepsis onset prediction model for ICU data using applied ML approach, mainly gradient boosting. The study highlights the clinical significance of physiological inter-relations among the given and proposed clinical signs via feature importance and SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) plots for visualized interpretation.",signatures:"Naimahmed Nesaragi and Shivnarayan Patidar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77653",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77653",authors:[{id:"349984",title:"Dr.",name:"Shivnarayan",surname:"Patidar",slug:"shivnarayan-patidar",fullName:"Shivnarayan Patidar"},{id:"349994",title:"Mr.",name:"Naimahmed",surname:"Nesaragi",slug:"naimahmed-nesaragi",fullName:"Naimahmed Nesaragi"}],corrections:null},{id:"77002",title:"Organ Damage in Sepsis: Molecular Mechanisms",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98302",slug:"organ-damage-in-sepsis-molecular-mechanisms",totalDownloads:161,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sepsis is one of the most common reasons for hospitalisation. This condition is characterised by systemic inflammatory response to infection. International definition of sepsis mainly points out a multi-organ dysfunction caused by a deregulated host response to infection. An uncontrolled inflammatory response, often referred to as “cytokine storm”, leads to an increase in oxidative stress as a result of the inhibition of cellular antioxidant systems. Oxidative stress, as well as pro-inflammatory cytokines, initiate vascular endothelial dysfunction and, in consequence, impair microcirculation. Microcirculation damage leads to adaptive modifications of cell metabolism. Moreover, mitochondrial dysfunction takes place which results in increased apoptosis and impaired autophagy. Non-coding RNA, especially miRNA and lncRNA molecules, may play an important role in the pathomechanism of sepsis. Altered expression of various ncRNAs in sepsis suggest, that these molecules can be used not only as diagnostics and prognostic markers but also as the target points in the pharmacotherapy of sepsis. The understanding of detailed molecular mechanisms leading to organ damage can contribute to the development of specific therapy methods thereby improving the prognosis of patients with sepsis.",signatures:"Grażyna Sygitowicz and Dariusz Sitkiewicz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77002",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77002",authors:[{id:"351353",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Grażyna",surname:"Sygitowicz",slug:"grazyna-sygitowicz",fullName:"Grażyna Sygitowicz"},{id:"351355",title:"Prof.",name:"Dariusz",surname:"Sitkiewicz",slug:"dariusz-sitkiewicz",fullName:"Dariusz Sitkiewicz"}],corrections:null},{id:"78035",title:"Inflammatory Mediators Leading to Edema Formation through Plasma Membrane Receptors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99230",slug:"inflammatory-mediators-leading-to-edema-formation-through-plasma-membrane-receptors",totalDownloads:141,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Edema is a swelling from liquid accumulation in body tissues. Injuries in tissues or organs may cause this disorder leading to chemical mediators releasing and triggering the inflammatory process. Inflammatory mediators, when released in response to injuries, promote biological reactions at the affected site. Furthermore, plasma membrane receptors modulate the inflammatory chemical agent synthesis and release. Pattern recognition receptors, such as Toll Like is an example of plasma membrane receptors associated with chemical agents recognizing and cascade amplification. Therefore, these plasma membrane proteins exhibit essential roles during injuries and immunologic response. Thus, this review discusses the plasma membrane receptors modulation in the inflammatory area, focusing on edema formation.",signatures:"Guilherme Teixeira and Robson Faria",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78035",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78035",authors:[{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria"},{id:"345859",title:"Mr.",name:"Guilherme",surname:"Teixeira",slug:"guilherme-teixeira",fullName:"Guilherme Teixeira"}],corrections:null},{id:"78075",title:"Intestinal Barrier Dysfunction, Bacterial Translocation and Inflammation: Deathly Triad in Sepsis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99554",slug:"intestinal-barrier-dysfunction-bacterial-translocation-and-inflammation-deathly-triad-in-sepsis",totalDownloads:201,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sepsis, as a complex entity, comprises multiple pathophysiological mechanisms which bring about high morbidity and mortality. The previous studies showed that the gastrointestinal tract is damaged during sepsis, and its main symptoms include increased permeability, bacterial translocation (BT), and malabsorption. BT is the invasion of indigenous intestinal bacteria via the gut mucosa to other tissues. It occurs in pathological conditions such as disruption of the intestine’s ecological balance and mucosal barrier permeability, immunosuppression, and oxidative stress through transcellular/paracellular pathways and initiate an excessive systemic inflammatory response. Thereby, recent clinical and preclinical studies focus on the association between sepsis and intestinal barrier dysfunction. This chapter overviews the current knowledge about the molecular basis of BT of the intestine, its role in the progress of sepsis, detection of BT, and actual therapeutic approaches.",signatures:"Bercis Imge Ucar and Gulberk Ucar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78075",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78075",authors:[{id:"251368",title:"Prof.",name:"Gulberk",surname:"Ucar",slug:"gulberk-ucar",fullName:"Gulberk Ucar"},{id:"415028",title:"Dr.",name:"Bercis Imge",surname:"Ucar",slug:"bercis-imge-ucar",fullName:"Bercis Imge Ucar"}],corrections:null},{id:"77454",title:"Assessment and Management of Hypoperfusion in Sepsis and Septic Shock",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98876",slug:"assessment-and-management-of-hypoperfusion-in-sepsis-and-septic-shock",totalDownloads:254,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Diagnosis of organ hypoperfusion in patient with sepsis is not always straightforward which makes septic shock definition, diagnosis, and early treatment are major challenges that emergency physicians and intensivist must deal with in their daily practice. Normal blood pressure does not always mean good organ perfusion, which means patient might develop septic shock, yet they are not hypotensive. There are several indices that could be used in combination to diagnose and manage hypoperfusion in patients with septic shock. Fluid resuscitation and vasopressor administration along with infection sources control are the cornerstones in septic shock management. This chapter will cover indices that can be used to diagnose hypoperfusion, type and amount of fluid and vasopressor that can be used in resuscitating septic shock patients.",signatures:"Zohair Al Aseri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77454",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77454",authors:[{id:"350564",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Zohair",surname:"Al Aseri",slug:"zohair-al-aseri",fullName:"Zohair Al Aseri"}],corrections:null},{id:"76836",title:"Sepsis Associated Acute Kidney Injury",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97609",slug:"sepsis-associated-acute-kidney-injury-1",totalDownloads:301,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"AKI is a syndrome consisting of several clinical conditions, due to sudden kidney dysfunction. Sepsis and septic shock are the causes of AKI and are known as Sepsis-Associated AKI (SA-AKI) and accounted for more than 50% of cases of AKI in the ICU, with poor prognosis. Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) is characterized by a sudden decline in kidney function for several hours/day, which results in the accumulation of creatinine, urea and other waste products. The most recent definition was formulated in the Kidney Disease consensus: Improving Global Outcome (KDIGO), published in 2012, where the AKI was established if the patient’s current clinical manifestation met several criteria: an increase in serum creatinine levels ≥0.3 mg/dL (26.5 μmol/L) within 48 hours, an increase in serum creatinine for at least 1.5 times the baseline value within the previous 7 days; or urine volume ≤ 0.5 ml/kg body weight for 6 hours. The AKI pathophysiology includes ischemic vasodilation, endothelial leakage, necrosis in nephrons and microtrombus in capillaries. The management of sepsis associated with AKI consisted of fluid therapy, vasopressors, antibiotics and nephrotoxic substances, Renal Replacement Therapy (RRT) and diuretics. In the analysis of the BEST Kidney trial subgroup, the likelihood of hospital death was 50% higher in AKI sepsis compared to non-sepsis AKI. Understanding of sepsis and endotoxins that can cause SA-AKI is not yet fully known. Some evidence suggests that renal microcirculation hypoperfusion, lack of energy for cells, mitochondrial dysfunction, endothelial injury and cycle cell arrest can cause SA-AKI. Rapid identification of SA-AKI events, antibiotics and appropriate fluid therapy are crucial in the management of SA-AKI.",signatures:"Titik Setyawati, Ricky Aditya and Tinni Trihartini Maskoen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76836",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76836",authors:[{id:"352148",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tinni",surname:"Maskoen",slug:"tinni-maskoen",fullName:"Tinni Maskoen"},{id:"352152",title:"Dr.",name:"Titik",surname:"Setyawati",slug:"titik-setyawati",fullName:"Titik Setyawati"},{id:"352159",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricky",surname:"Aditya",slug:"ricky-aditya",fullName:"Ricky Aditya"}],corrections:null},{id:"78742",title:"Atrial Fibrillation during Septic Shock",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100317",slug:"atrial-fibrillation-during-septic-shock",totalDownloads:210,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Atrial Fibrillation (AF) is an early and common occurrence during septic shock, accounting for 25–30% of admissions. Conventional cardiovascular risk factors do not generally increase its incidence, especially in cases of new-onset AF. Inflammation during the sepsis process has been postulated as a possible trigger. Detrimental effects of AF result in prognosis worsening, even when the probability for a negative outcome has been adjusted for severity of illness. New-onset AF (NOAF) has been associated with greater mortality rate than preexisting chronic AF. Early cardioversion has not uniformly improved hospital outcomes. In this review, the incidence, prognosis and management of AF in septic shock patients are summarized.",signatures:"Manuel Vélez-Gimón",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78742",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78742",authors:[{id:"415055",title:"M.D.",name:"Manuel",surname:"Vélez-Gimón",slug:"manuel-velez-gimon",fullName:"Manuel Vélez-Gimón"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7920",title:"Infectious Process and Sepsis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"15ab9e0f38bdfb589c1dd56f8211a860",slug:"infectious-process-and-sepsis",bookSignature:"Vincenzo Neri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7920.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170938",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",surname:"Neri",slug:"vincenzo-neri",fullName:"Vincenzo Neri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6352",title:"Gastrointestinal Surgery",subtitle:"New Technical Proposals",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f75fc66eb312d3a8a6be8256c5ffb279",slug:"gastrointestinal-surgery-new-technical-proposals",bookSignature:"Vincenzo Neri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6352.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170938",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",surname:"Neri",slug:"vincenzo-neri",fullName:"Vincenzo Neri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8443",title:"Gastrointestinal Stomas",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2e8dfeaf7ef41c96a76cb124dccbac94",slug:"gastrointestinal-stomas",bookSignature:"Vincenzo Neri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8443.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170938",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",surname:"Neri",slug:"vincenzo-neri",fullName:"Vincenzo Neri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10314",title:"Esophagitis and Gastritis",subtitle:"Recent Updates",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"018c77c0b435770edd232fbdf706d573",slug:"esophagitis-and-gastritis-recent-updates",bookSignature:"Vincenzo Neri and Monjur Ahmed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170938",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",surname:"Neri",slug:"vincenzo-neri",fullName:"Vincenzo Neri"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"206355",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Monjur",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"monjur-ahmed",fullName:"Monjur Ahmed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206355/images/system/206355.jpeg",biography:"Monjur Ahmed, MD, FRCP, is an Associate Professor of Medicine, at the Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. He has been a practicing gastroenterologist for twenty-four years. He has a special interest in biliary diseases, gastrointestinal bleeding, colon cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, eosinophilic esophagitis, gastrointestinal motility disorders, and dysphagia. He also serves as an editor-in-chief of the World Journal of Gastrointestinal Oncology.",institutionString:"Thomas Jefferson University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Thomas Jefferson University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"825",title:"Current Topics in Tropical Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef65e8eb7a2ada65f2bc939aa73009e3",slug:"current-topics-in-tropical-medicine",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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The importance of monitoring vital processes and parameters in various industries has led to the discovery of small analytical devices known as biosensors. The emergence of these devices has provided solutions to various applications including drug discovery, disease diagnosis, biomedicine, food safety and processing, environmental monitoring, defence, and security [1, 2] as depicted. Biosensors are analytical devices used to investigate the presence of an analyte of interest in a sample. By definition, these are self-sufficient integrated devices that provide qualitative and semi-quantitative analytical data through the use of a biological recognition element that is coupled to a transduction element. The sole purpose of these analytical devices is to rapidly provide accurate and reliable information about an analyte of interest in real time [3, 4, 5, 6].
Generally, biosensors are composed of three main components as depicted in Figure 1. These include a biological sensing element, physicochemical detector or transducer and a signal processing system [8]. Biological sensing elements are used to interact with the analyte of interest to generate a signal. Sensing elements normally include materials such as tissues, microorganisms, organelles, cell receptors, enzymes, antibodies, and nucleic acids. The signal generated through the interaction of the sensing element and the analyte of interest is then transformed to a measurable and quantifiable electrical signal via the transducer. The signal processing system therefore amplifies the electrical signal and conveys it to a data processor that produces a measurable signal in the form of a digital display, print out or color change [9, 10].
Basic scheme of a biosensor. Picture adapted from Korotkaya [
The concept of a biosensor is an ancient phenomenon. The first reported concept of a biosensor dates back to 1906 when Cremer [11] discovered that the concentration of an acid suspended in an aqueous solution is equivalent to the electric potential generated between sections of the solution when separated by a glass membrane. This led to the development of the concept of pH by Soren Peder Lauritz Sorensen in 1909, which was followed by the development of an electrode to measure this pH in 1922 by Hughes [12]. This paved way for the development of what is known as a “true biosensor” in 1959 by Leland C. Clark, Jr., who is affectionately known as the “father of biosensors”. Clark developed a sensor for detecting glucose in biological samples, using a glucose oxidase electrode that detects the presence of either oxygen or hydrogen peroxide. Since then, great strides have been made in developing highly sensitive and selective biosensing devices [13, 14]. The emphasis of this chapter is on the design, development and applications of biosensors. Various components that constitute a biosensor as well as the working principle of biosensors will be presented. Moreover, various types of biosensors will be highlighted and various fields where these devices are used will also be discussed.
A successful biosensor is composed of two main components, mainly a biological receptor or sensor element and a transducer. A signal processing unit that usually contains a display or printer is normally used in conjunction to a biosensor as depicted in Figure 2.
Biosensor design showing the various components necessary for generating a signal. Picture adapted from [
This component is also known as a sensor or detector element and is responsible for sensing or detecting the presence and/or the concentration of the target analyte or substance. This is a biological component, which serves as a biochemical receptor that specifically recognizes the target analyte [15]. When the biological receptor interacts with a target analyte, it generates a signal in the form of light, heat, pH, charge or mass change [11]. This material should be highly specific, stable under storage conditions and must be immobilized. Furthermore, the biological receptor should be capable of selectively detecting the target compound or analyte in the test sample. According to Paddle [16], the biological receptor determines the sensitivity of the entire device through the generation of the physicochemical signal that is monitored by the transducer [16, 17].
This component can be a tissue, microorganism, organelle, cell receptor, enzyme, antibody or nucleic acid etc. These can be grouped into two categories, namely catalytic and non-catalytic receptors [18]. The catalytic group of biological receptors are used in devices intended for continuous monitoring of substances at millimolar or micromollar concentrations. These include enzymes, tissues and microorganisms. The non-catalytic group is used mainly in biosensor devices that measure analytes such as steroids, drugs, and toxins etc. which usually occur at very low concentrations (micro to picomollar range). These are non-reusable devices which can only be used once and discarded thereafter. Such receptors include antibodies, antigens, nucleic acids etc. [17, 19, 20].
A transducer forms the second main component in the design of a biosensor. Generally, a transducer is a material that is capable of converting one form of energy to another [11]. In a biosensor, a transducer is responsible for converting the biochemical signal received from the biological receptor, which is a result of the interaction between the target analyte and the biological receptor, into a measurable and quantifiable signal which can be piezo-electrical, optical, electrochemical etc. The transducer detects and measures the change that occurs during biological receptor – analyte interaction [21]. An example of a transducer is a pH sensor in a glucose biosensor. An enzyme, known as glucose oxidase, is used as a biological receptor which binds glucose and converts it to gluconic acid in the presence of oxygen. The pH sensor (transducer) then detects the change in pH (due to production of gluconic acid) and converts it into a voltage change [22, 23]. The following features are recommended when a transducer is designed; specificity to the target analyte, analyte concentration range, response time and suitability for practical applications. Ideally, a transducer should be highly specific to the analyte, give measurement at the lowest analyte concentration within the shortest time possible [24].
As indicated in the aforementioned sections, a biosensor comprises of a biological receptor coupled with a transducer and signal processing unit, and thus operate on the basis of signal transduction. The combination of these components is designed to convert the biological response into a corresponding electrical response and ultimately a measurable output. In simpler terms, biosensors are responsible for the quantitative analysis of a molecule by relating its biological action into a measurable signal [25]. Initially, the molecule of interest in the test sample binds or interacts specifically with the biological receptor, resulting in a physiological change. This further alters the physicochemical properties of the transducer that is in close proximity to the biological receptor. This further leads to a change in the optical or electronic properties of the transducer which is further converted into an electrical signal which is detectable [26].
The signal generated by the transducer can either be a current or voltage, depending on the type of biological receptor. If the output from the transducer is in the form of a current, then this will be converted into an equivalent voltage. Also, the output voltage is usually very low and masked by a high frequency noise signal, which then requires further alterations, processing and amplification through various filters within the signal processing unit. Finally, the output generated from the signal processing unit should be comparable to the biological quantity being measured [27].
Owing to the nature of the applications in which biosensors are used in, several characteristics or parameters have to be met when a biosensor is designed. These characteristics define the performance and usefulness of a biosensor.
This is considered as the most important characteristic of a biosensor. The sensitivity of a biosensor is defined as the relationship between the change in analyte concentration and the intensity of the signal generated from the transducer. Ideally, a biosensor should generate a signal in response to small fluctuations in the concentration of the target analyte. Depending on the application, biosensors are required to detect analytes in the ng/ml or fg/ml concentration ranges. This is usually important for medical applications and environmental monitoring purposes [28, 29].
This refers to the ability of the biosensor to selectively bind and respond only to the desired analyte, in the presence of other molecules or substances. When a signal or response is generated from interactions with an analyte that is different from the target analyte such is termed a false positive result. This is common in biosensors with poor selectivity, thus failing in clinical applications. Selectivity is a very important feature especially in medical applications where the test sample or sample matrix, usually blood or urine, contains numerous molecules that are quite similar to the target analyte and compete for binding to the biological receptor [22, 30].
Stability of the biosensor is a very important characteristic especially for biosensors used for continuous monitoring. This feature determines the ability of the biosensor device to resist change in its performance over a period of time in response to interruptions arising from external factors. These can be in the form of temperature, humidity or other environmental conditions. Such interruptions have the potential to induce inaccuracies in the output signal during measurement, thereby affecting the precision and accuracy of the biosensor device [11]. This is because transducers and other electronic components that comprise the biosensor device are mostly temperature sensitive and this can greatly influence their stability. Also, temperature can affect the integrity of the biological receptor as this component tends to degrade with fluctuations in temperature [22].
A detection limit is defined as the lowest concentration of the target that is able to elicit a measurable signal or response. Ideally, a biosensor should have the lowest detection limit, especially if it is to be used in medical applications where the target analyte might be present at very low concentrations [22].
This is also one of the most important features in biosensing, and refers to the ability of the biosensor device to produce matching output signals or results in duplicate experimental runs. The capability of the biosensor to meet this criteria relies on the transducer which is required to perform in a precise and accurate manner [11].
This property determines the time it takes for the biosensor to generate a signal or response following the interaction of the biological receptor with the target analyte [26, 27].
Biosensor linearity determines the accuracy of the signal obtained, in response to a set of measurements with differing concentrations. This attribute gives insight into the resolution of the biosensor, defined as the minimal change in the target analyte concentration that will elicit a response from the biosensor. This is a very important attribute for a biosensor since most applications require a biosensor to measure a target analyte over wide concentration ranges [11, 22].
The first step in developing a biosensing device involves investigating the target analyte and understanding how this analyte interacts with certain biological molecules. Once this has been established, the following tasks are critical:
Selection of a biological receptor: the specificity and selectivity of a biosensor to the analyte of interest is dependent upon the biological receptor used. A suitable receptor with high affinity for the analyte is thus recommended. Having knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages of various biological receptors in different biosensor applications is very important in selecting a suitable receptor [10, 15, 28].
Selection of a suitable immobilization method: for any biological molecule to operate reliably as a biological receptor, it requires attachment onto the surface of a transducer. This process is known as immobilization. Various methods have been used for this task and include adsorption, entrapment, covalent attachment, micro encapsulation and cross linking [31, 32].
Selection of a transducer element: the transducer element greatly influences the sensitivity of the biosensor device. Employing the right transducer will result in a device with increased sensitivity while the sensitivity is more likely to be compromised by the use of an ineffective transducer [33, 34].
Biosensors are classified according to their biological receptors or transducer elements. Figure 3 displays a flowchart illustrating the different types of biosensors based on the biological receptors and transducer elements [36]. Some of the biosensors shown in the figure will be discussed further in subsequent sections.
Flowchart showing the various types of biosensors classified based on their transducing elements and biological recognition elements [
These type of biosensors form the most researched and reported biosensors based on biological receptors [37, 38]. Enzyme biosensors, useful tools for monitoring rapid changes in metabolite levels in real-time, include pure enzyme preparations or biological processes. They have been derived on immobilization processes such as van der Waals forces, ionic or covalent bonding. In 1967, Updike and Hicks [39] successfully developed a working electrode for the detection of glucose levels and this is considered the first biosensor in the world. The well-known enzymatic biosensors today are glucose and urea biosensors. However, glucose biosensors are most popular among researchers and are reportedly the mostly commercialized biosensors. The glucose biosensor, which was developed by Clark, is made up of glucose oxidase immobilized within a dialysis membrane which is integrated inside oxygen electrodes. Enzymatic biosensors are known for their prolonged use and reusability due to the fact that enzymes used as biological receptors cannot be consumed. Thus, the detection limit and the lifetime of enzyme based biosensors is greatly enhanced by the stability of the enzyme [40].
Another group of biosensors based on a biological receptor is DNA biosensors. The most attractive feature of biosensors is the high selectivity of biosensors for their target analytes in a matrix of chemical or biological elements. DNA biosensors, which use nucleic acids as their biological receptors, detect proteins and non-macromolecular compounds that interact with certain DNA fragments known as DNA probes or DNA primers. The interaction observed stems from the formation of stable hydrogen bonds between the double helix nucleic acid strands [41]. To develop DNA biosensors, immobilization of the probe becomes the most crucial step. The strong pairing of lined up nucleotide strands between bases in their complementary parts influences biosensors based on DNA, RNA, and peptide nucleotide acids to be the most sensitive tool [42]. Lucarelli
The most commonly applied classification of biosensors is based on the type of transduction element used in the sensor. These biosensors are grouped into three main categories, known as electrochemical biosensors, mass-based biosensors and optical-based biosensors. The working principles of each of the three biosensors are different and can thus be implemented in a variety of applications. Below is a brief description of the different types of biosensors and their working mechanisms. Some of the subclasses under the types of biosensors will also be explained.
Electrochemical biosensors, which are the best in the detection of hybridized DNA, DNA binding drugs, glucose concentration, etc., measure the electrical potential difference caused by an interaction between an analyte and the membrane/sensor surface. There is proportionality between the electrical potential difference and the logarithm of the electrochemically active concentration of the material. The current flowing through the system or the potential difference between the electrodes as a result of the redox reactions involving the analyte are employed for its quantification in the sample. Electrochemical biosensors have gained popularity as compared to optical biosensors in the sense that they do not suffer from the many disadvantages optical biosensors experience. They have a more stable output, high sensitivity, fast response and are not prone to interferences. Electrochemical measurements are mostly preferred for sensing applications [44, 45, 46, 47]. Electrochemical biosensors can further be classified into various types based on the measuring electrical parameters. These include conductimetric, amperometric, potentiometric and impedimetric sensors [48].
Conductometric biosensors measure the electrical conductivity of the solution in the course of a biochemical reaction. When electrochemical reactions produce ions or electrons, the overall conductivity or resistivity of the solution changes. Due to poor signal-to-noise ratio, they are less commonly used in biosensing applications, particularly when the biological receptor used is an enzyme. However, these biosensors remain useful in the detection of affine interactions [49, 50].
Potentiometric biosensors measure changes in pH and ion concentrations resulting from antigen/antibody interactions. Although potentiometric biosensors are the least common of all biosensors, different strategies for the development of these biosensors are found. The working principle relies on the fact that when a voltage is applied to an electrode in solution, a current flow occurs because of electrochemical reactions. The voltage at which these reactions occur indicates a particular reaction and particular analyte. Some of the known potentiometric biosensors include those used for the detection of
This is perhaps the most common electrochemical detection method used in biosensors. This high sensitivity biosensor can detect electroactive species present in biological test samples [54]. Amperometric-based biosensors detect the difference in current potentials during redox reactions when antigen/antibody pairing occurs. The most common amperometric biosensors use the Clark oxygen electrode. Amperometric biosensors have been developed for the indirect detection of
Impedimetric-based biosensors monitor changes in impedances upon antigen/antibody interaction. Impedance, which usually employs a circuit bridge as a measurement tool, is well suited for detection of bacteria in clinical specimens, to monitor quality and to detect specific food pathogens. Moreover, these biosensors are useful in controlling industrial microbial processes [57].
Piezoelectric biosensors are a group of analytical devices working on a principle of affinity interaction recording. A piezoelectric platform or piezoelectric crystal is a sensor part working on the principle of change in oscillations due to mass bound on the piezoelectric crystal surface. Piezoelectric biosensors, which are considered as mass-based biosensors, produce an electrical signal when a mechanical force is applied. An example of piezoelectric biosensor is the quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) model. The working principle of QCM is depicted in Figure 4. Quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) is a very popular tool that is used extensively in the electronic industry. Currently, these tools are used as attenuators in electronic devices and they have a typically fundamental mode frequency of 1–20 MHz. Though higher frequencies provide good opportunities for a sensitive assay, QCM with high frequencies have been reported to exhibit several drawbacks such as their fragility and also the technologically demanding equipment needed for their manufacture [58]. The basic material used in the development of the QCM sensor consists of quartz crystal, which is equipped with metal electrodes. A sensitive coating material on the sensor surface is used to enable detection of the target analyte in the environment. An appropriate electronic circuit is necessary to make conversion of the measured quantity to an electrical signal [59].
Basic working principle of Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM) sensor [
Optical biosensors are based on the interaction of a sensing element with electromagnetic radiation. They consist of a light source, as well as numerous optical components to generate a light beam with specific characteristics and to beeline this light to a modulating agent, a modified sensing head along with a photodetector. An optical surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensor can detect the refractive index changes on the surface of sensor chips, label-free and in real-time. Although different optical methods such as absorption, fluorescence, luminescence, internal reflection, surface plasmon resonance, or light scattering spectroscopy utilized herein are becoming popular, fluorescence and surface plasmon resonance enabled spectroscopies still remain the most and widely researched and applied methods [60, 61].
Over the last two decades, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) based biosensors have emerged as important and useful tools due to their unique features for real-time and label-free detection of biomolecular interactions [62, 63]. SPR technology has opened a new avenue for many important applications in the field of sensing due to their attractive sensing capabilities, light weight, compactness and easy implementation [64, 65, 66, 67]. The SPR phenomenon has been widely used in biosensing, chemical sensing and environmental sensing applications such as protein–protein hybridization [68, 69], enzyme detection [70, 71] and protein-DNA hybridization. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR), as a physical phenomenon, is not restricted only to events occurring in thin planar metal films. A broad spectrum of differently nanostructured surfaces as well as noble metal nanoparticles are frequently employed for fabrication of SPR-based assays [72, 73, 74, 75].
However, conventional commercial SPR-based biosensors and experimental devices are often represented by instruments, which utilize Kretschmann’s scheme of plasmon excitation [65]. SPR-based biosensors can be employed to characterize interactions between biomolecules immobilized onto the metal film sensor surface and their counterparts in liquid sample in real time and without labelling. Indeed, these biosensors are actively used to measure binding constants, kinetics of biomolecular interactions and to perform concentration measurements [66]. In turn, these applications make SPR-based biosensors very useful in pharmacological, biomedical, environmental and food studies.
The first practical sensing application of SPR sensors for biomolecular detection was reported by Liedberg and Nylander in 1983 [67]. Since then, SPR biosensors have experienced rapid development in the last two decades and have become a valuable platform for qualitative and quantitative measurements of biomolecular interactions with the advantages of high sensitivity, versatile target molecule selection, and real-time detection. For this reason, SPR sensors are now widely adopted for meeting the needs of biology, food quality and safety analysis, and medical diagnostics.
Over the past decade, many SPR sensors have been reported in applications such as biomolecular interaction analysis, medical diagnostics, environmental monitoring, and food safety [69, 71, 73]. Traditional SPR devices generally require expensive equipment, complicated optics, and precise alignment of the components [74, 75], features that hinder the development of a portable device. Current portable SPR devices still require a portable computer to run the instrument and are about the size of a lunch box.
Conventional ‘off-site’ analysis requires the samples to be sent to a laboratory for testing. These methods allow the highest accuracy of quantification and the lowest detection limits, but are expensive, time consuming and require the use of highly trained personnel. Due to the above drawbacks, there has been a great interest in the technology of biosensors. There has been a phenomenal growth in the field of biosensor development in recent years with emerging applications in a wide range of disciplines. These include environmental monitoring, disease detection, food safety, defence, drug discovery and many more as depicted in Figure 5 below. A summary of the few and selected representatives and examples of developed applications of biosensors is given below.
Various applications where biosensors have been used. Picture adapted from [
Biosensors have been used extensively in the food industry for quality control and assurance purposes. These include applications in the agricultural field during crop production and also during food processing. Quality control remains a major part of food production and is responsible for the production of healthy food with a prolonged shelf life and also complies with regulations. Biosensors have been used as on-line or at-line quality sensors that make it possible for quality sorting, automation and reduction of production cost and production time. Also, biosensors have been developed to detect particular compounds in foods. These devices detect chemicals or biological agents that contaminate food or might indicate the presence of unwanted substances in food. Moreover, biosensors have been developed for monitoring and estimating cross-contamination of surfaces and food products [77, 78, 79, 80].
Environmental pollution has an impact on human health and can therefore compromise the quality of life. Depending on the purpose, sensitive and selective methods are needed for both quantitative and qualitative determination of target analytes. Biosensors have found widespread use in environmental monitoring for the detection of chemical agents, organic pollutants, potentially toxic elements and pathogens that might pose a health hazard. Biosensors such as immunosensors, aptasensors, genosensors and enzymatic biosensors are amongst the most preferred for environmental monitoring. These are known to use antibodies, aptamers, nucleic acids and enzymes as biological receptors. For example, a biosensor was developed to detect pesticides such as organophosphate and carbamate and also monitor their effects on the environment. Biosensors detect pollutants by measuring colour, light, fluorescence or electric current [81, 82, 83, 84].
Most of the biosensors reported in the past years are found to be based on the phenomena of molecular interactions which are essentially employed in various forms at different scales. In the discipline of medical science, the applications of biosensors are growing rapidly. Some of the applications that have benefited from the emergence of biosensors include cancer detection and monitoring, cardiovascular disease monitoring, and diabetes control. Cancer diagnosis and treatment are of great interest due to the widespread occurrence of the diseases, high death rate, and recurrence after treatment. In medicine, biosensors can be used to monitor blood glucose levels in diabetics, detect pathogens, and diagnose and monitor cancer progression [85]. The use of emerging biosensor technology could be instrumental in early detection of cancer for effective treatment administration [86]. By measuring levels of certain proteins expressed and/or secreted by tumor cells, biosensors can detect presence of a tumor, whether benign or cancerous, and also give information of whether treatment is effective in reducing or eliminating such cancerous cells [87, 88].
Cardiovascular diseases, which are the primary cause of death are still considered as one of the biggest dilemma the world is facing with about one million people suffering from it. The ability to detect such diseases earlier may result in the reduction of mortality cases. Some of the sensing techniques that have been used herein include immunoaffinity column assay, fluorometric assays, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay [89, 90, 91]. However, the above techniques are laborious, and therefore require well trained and qualified personnel and are time consuming. Therefore, biosensors are being used for the detection of cardiac markers and early diagnosis. Biosensors have been reported to offer vast advantages over conventional diagnosis assays since they are established on electrical measurements and also employ biochemical molecular recognition elements which gives a desired selectivity with a particular biomarker of interest [92, 93].
Biosensors continue to offer solutions and control of various processes across a range of applications. As technology advances, new methods that will result in the development of even better biosensors are emerging, and these seek to address all limitations associated with these devices. The development of biosensors revolves around their sensitivity, specificity, cost effectiveness and ability to detect small molecules. This is mostly determined by the right combination of a biological receptor and a transducer element, components which form the basis of a biosensor.
The authors would like to thank the DSI/Mintek Nanotechnology Innovation Centre for financial assistance towards this project.
Authors report no conflict of interest.
Electrospinning (ES), as a nanotechnology, exhibits strong evolution of materials used across a broad spectrum from bioactive (microorganisms-infused for biomedical applications) to manufacturing (adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation of the mimetic for mechanical, chemical and electrochemical applications) nanofibers [1]. The advent of bioeconomy and innovation technological development presented opportunities for remarkable progress in the expansion of methods and multiple applicability for the electrospun nanofibers. Waste biomass and other recyclable materials are also finding use in ES as an adaptable and sustainable innovative approach for making ultrathin fibers [2]. Valorization of biomass waste materials such as plant biomass, waste plastic, industrial effluent and other waste biomass streams have been processed through various technologies to produce a wide range of higher hierarchical recycled fibrous products. These including biodegradable bio plastic, filtration membranes, nanofibers as macro, micro and nanomaterials. Advancement in innovative ES techniques allows for intrinsic control of the physicochemical factors, including physical (morphology, diameter, orientation); surface (volumetric dispersion, porosity and thickness) and chemical (functional groups) characteristics of the final product [2].
Electrospinning method entails the utilization of voltage to create an electric field, polymer solution of specific concentration and electrospinning pump to introduce the spinneret onto collector plate. The resulting products are electrospun nanofibers characterized by their fibrous morphology, three-dimensional (3D) porous framework, nanoscale and chemical character that enable unique capabilities across multiple fields; which are difficult to create using conventional methods. Thermally induced phase separation nanofibers, and electrospun nanofiber scaffolds, for example, are being developed and are widely regarded as an emerging technology and a potential strategy for biosensing, drug delivery, soft tissue regeneration, hard tissue regeneration, and wound healing. The capacity to alter numerous control aspects of the functional scaffold, such as fiber geometrical features and alignment, architecture, and subsequent material performance, is the technique’s most prominent feature [1]. More importantly, electrospinning allows for the creation of a wide range of novel materials, including polymer alloys, nanoparticles, and active agents.
Nanofiber preparation employing the ES method has proved to be a future-proof materials technology, with numerous appealing characteristics such as outstanding mechanical properties and large specific surface areas. Due to the versatility, utility, and simplicity of the ES technology, the fibers produced are particularly appealing for numerous applications from a simple process capable of producing diverse morphologies [3]. The use of metal organic frameworks (MOFs) due to its flexible and functionalized molecular structures, nanofibers composites were fabricated as a novel molecular system with highly engineered structures for tailored applications. The usage of MOFs/carbon nanofibers (CNFs) as good electrode materials in energy transformation and storage technologies that include supercapacitors, sensors, and electrocatalysts is one of the most basic applications [4].
Electrospinning for materials technology of the future have seen a wide range of innovations of the technology including home-made re-designing of the technology to improve the ES apparatus reproducibility. Thus hybrid electrospun structures on different types of polymers have been developed and optimized to create products for various applications [5]. This chapter explores electrospinning innovation technology and the materials of the future, their properties and characteristics and applications. The focus materials of the future will be products fabricated from recyclable waste biomass materials as a way of valorization for higher hierarchical bioeconomic products.
The ability to tailor structural and morphological aspects of electrospun materials, such as the surface topography of nanofibers, and their porosity that allows enhanced mimicking of the manufactured material matrix, has sparked interest in the ES technology. This is accomplished by the ability to modify the electrospinning assembly in numerous ways in order to combine polymers with a wide range of materials (incorporate active materials such as drugs, inorganic catalysts, growth factors, functional groups and DNA/RNA as necessary in the various applications of the fabricated nanofibers [6]. Figure 1 is a schematic diagram showing a simple set up of the electrospinning system.
Schematic illustration of vertical electrospinning setup [
Mokhtari et al. compared the technical assembly of the electrospraying and the electrospinning systems. This is because the two systems have different mechanisms of performing the fabrication of carbon materials they produce in unique distinct ways as shown in Figure 2. Electrospinning (Figure 2a) supports the formation of micro-scale and in some cases nano-scale fibers while the formation of thin films is facilitated by the electrospraying system (Figure 2b) aids in the formation of thin films [7]. As a result of insufficient polymer-chain entanglements in the polymer chains network, it was discovered that applying a high voltage below the minimum concentration causes electrospraying rather than electrospinning.
(a) Schematic drawing of a typical electrospray setup. (b) Schematic drawing of a typical electrospinning setup.
It was observed that varying the ratio of the polymer solution and the electrospinning potential difference results in the formation of unique materials ranging from beaded carbon deposits, heterogeneous fibers, uniform fibers, and entangled fibers [7]. Advanced efforts to improve electrospinning performance and the quality of the nanofibers while increasing cost-effective productivity of electrospinning and other nanofiber assembly technologies include integration of key concepts of conventional fiber production methods with nanotechnology. Electro-blowing, gas-jet/gas-assisted electrospinning, and solution blowing, which advanced from melt blowing, combined with electro-centrifugal processing, centrifugal spinning, near field electrospinning with dip-pen nanolithography, and XanoShear, which combines shearing with wet spinning, are among the merged electrospinning conceptual technologies [8].
A look into a study of electrospinning as a versatile technique for fibrous material manufacturing in advanced fabrication of the electrospun biopolymer-based biomaterials compared the conventional needle-based and an innovative needless-based electrospinning processes. Figure 3 presents the unique feature of the needless-based ES process is that the polymer solution is positioned in a bath and a high voltage polarized spinning mandrill is immersed into the bath.
Electrospinning setups needle-based (left) and needleless (right) [
When the rotating mandrill comes into contact with the grounded collection electrode, it collects a thin layer of polymer solution, which is subsequently subjected to an electric field. The electrostatic forces of the field at the needle’s tip, or the thin layer of polymer solution at the rotating mandrill, overcome the solution’s surface tension, pushing it to form several or a single Taylor cone, as illustrated in Figure 4. On its way to the collector, the charged polymer jet from the cones is ejected and extended. The solvent evaporates from the solution, weakening the continuous jet of pure polymer and depositing it in a fibrous form on the collector [2].
Needleless roller for electrospinning of polymer solutions.
A needleless mechanism performs the electrospinning of the polymer solution from the surface of a revolving roller. The roller is partially immersed in a tank containing material to be electrospun, as shown in Figure 4. On the roller’s surface, a layer of consistently new material is generated by a rotating roller. When compared to needle electrospinning, the technique produces a large number of Taylor cones on the roller’s surface, resulting in the technology’s industrial applicability in mass manufacture of nanofibers materials [9].
Complex fibrous nanostructures have been prepared through manipulation of many experimental parameters of a multifluid electrospinning process. This is an innovative shift from the traditional single-fluid blending electrospinning process. However, there are difficulties in using multifluid processes, such as compatibility concerns of set up parameters including fluids, rate of stock feed and average proportions, interfacial tensions, and electrospinning sustainability [10]. Mass production of nanofibers using electrospinning was determined through the development of the macromolecular ES principle. The molecular flow in the spinning process, as well as the molecular direction in nanofibers, can be tailored to advance the electronic, and physico-chemical properties of nanofibrous materials, which influence their applications, molecular orientation in nanofibers, and structural hierarchical significance [11]. Several recent methods were developed to manufacture nanofibers using macromolecular ES processes. For example, industrial yarn production processes were only applicable for solution electrospinning via the innovative conceptualized gas-assisted melt ES. (GAME) as shown in Figure 5.
Macromolecular electrospinning equipment showing a possible laminar flow in the suction tube [
The unique characteristic of the innovative technique is the observed occurrence that turbulent air applies a pulling force, subsequently leading to an increase in output and a 10% reduction in melt jet width, with an additional 20-fold thinning when the air jet temperature is increased [12].
Multi-temperature control electrospinning (MTCES) is a practical way to spin molten polymers on a submicron level fiber than the conventional molten/solution ES. The molten precursor polymer was treated to quad-heating regions in the proposed MTCES design: needle, nozzle, rotating area, and collector to augment and regulate fiber size and morphology. The nozzle, spinning thermal parameters and dimensions, electric field, and flow rate of the MTCES are all adjusted to change the fiber diameter [13]. The MTCES setup is depicted in Figure 6. The technical mechanism demonstrates that the jet propagation begins to bend significantly near the collector at 25°C, and at 80°C, a strong melt jet propagation increases the dwelling time of the jet in the rotary region, demonstrating a distinct multi-control ES scheme, which was characterized by extensive preliminary work and models that used the same or similar setup schemes.
The multi-temperature control electrospinning setup showing the multi-heating zone melt electrospinning [
Energy materials have been fabricated by ES techniques as an alternative to fossil fuels and environmental mitigation initiatives. The nanofibrous materials produced by ES are extensively used in electrochemical energy storage devices. This is because the materials have inherent excellent properties, including an increased surface area, high dimensional ratio, good flexibility, high permeability, with several functionalities. A shift from the conventional ES methods saw the development of innovative enhanced ES techniques that produce nanofibers with novel special hierarchical nanostructures [14].
The core-shell structure was chosen because of its distinctive features, which can help to improve the preferred properties. Co-electrospinning creates core-shell fibers by filling two distinct precursor solutions into the double nozzles, as shown in Figure 7 [14].
Scheme for coaxial electrospinning [
The simplicity of setup and low cost, together with the ability to fabricate nanofibers with a wide range of compositions and morphologies, has aided ES technology’s innovative advancement. Electrospinning-created nanofibrous structures provide appealing extracellular matrix conditions for the fixing, migration, and variation of materials matrix, including those giving rise to hard structure regeneration. The creation of structural materials regenerating nanofibers has been utilized by ES technology developments, which include material simulating composite/hybrid configurations and surface functionalization such as mineralization [16].
A special trifluid electrospinning technology was also developed as an innovation to the co-electrospinning process. This advancement provided for complex multi-chamber nanostructures for designing novel functional nanomaterials. The complex structure consisted of a collective shell and two independent openings of a multi-chamber nanostructure, with each having its own unique complex property, and these compartments form a total composite assembly within a region limited by nanofiber diameter. The sheath-separate-core fused nanostructure synchronized the functionalities of the three ES monolithic nanocomposites to afford a smart regulated release profile of a multi-chamber nanostructure, with each chamber characterized by distinct intrinsic complex property, and the structural compartments constituting a whole fused structure inside a section restricted by the diameter of nanofiber as shown in Figure 8 [17].
Designs of the complex spinneret for implementing trifluid electrospinning: (a) a digital image showing a full view of the spinneret; (b) front view; (c) side view; and (d) a diagram about the organization of a structural outlet from three inlets [
Precision electrospinning, enabled by recent improvements in ES technology, is being envisioned as a viable option for fabricating 3D nanofibrous materials with a desired microstructure. Internal access to setup parameters such as solvent and fiber collecting method has increased intrinsic control of final nanofibrous architecture creation mechanism, as shown in Figure 9 [18].
Setup used to form 3D nanofibrous scaffold using a negatively charged electrode or negative ion generator [
Plastic and other waste materials from industrial, domestic and agricultural activities, are the modern scourge on the face of the planet. The global call for re-use and recycle is gaining tremendous recognition with scientist scrambling for innovative ways of using waste materials in the circular economy. Waste biomass has been explored as an alternative source of polymers that may be used in wide range of ES processes targeting specific valorized products. As new materials use emerge and novel materials are electrospun into nanofibers, it is becoming increasingly critical to grasp current breakthroughs in biomass conversion into polymer sources for nanofibrous structures in order to fully exploit their potential. Advancements in waste biomass conversion technologies such as bio digestion, pyrolysis of plastic, and waste agricultural plant biomass wastes into bio oils and other polymers have preceded this.
Biomass is organic substances that is renewable and comprises plants and animals matter and may be combusted for heat or treated into renewable polymeric materials or fuels using a range of technologies. Most of the biomass end up as environmental waste materials that contaminate the land, rivers and oceans. Waste biomass include waste plant materials from crops, animal waste (dung and sewage), industrial waste in the form of effluent coming from industries such as petrochemical, food processing, textile dye effluent, pharmaceutical, and solid waste biomass including plastics, plant residues, (bagasse and other dregs), timber offcuts and sawdust, pulp and paper processing waste etc. These various biomass waste streams may be used as an alternative source of polymeric materials that may be used in electrospinning to produce materials for the future. Three classes of the waste biomass will be discussed namely synthetic waste biomass, natural flora waste biomass and natural fauna-based waste biomass.
Plastic is the largest solid waste biomass on the face of the earth’s surface while textile and pharmaceutical effluent are major synthetic liquid waste biomass. Unless great strides are made to valorize these waste streams and find hierarchical bioeconomic applications of these materials, they will persist in the environment as contaminants. Due to its tunable features, including wettability, surface charge, transparency, elasticity, porosity, and surface to volume proportion, various polymeric fibrous nano materials have been developed as simulated extracellular matrix. Using ES nanofibers of natural polymers (NPs) and synthetic polymers (SPs) as simulated extracellular matrix for tissue regeneration, a comprehensive investigation identified five basic kinds of nanofibrous polymers. NP–NP composites, NP–SP composites, SP–SP composites, cross-linked, and modified polymers with mineral materials are some of the polymers available [19]. Polycaprolactone (PCL), polylactic acid (PLA), poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) are some of prevalent well-known synthetic polymers [20, 21].
In recent years, a variety of processing technologies have been utilized in the manufacture of polymeric fibrous nano materials, including drawing, 3D printing, template synthesis, phase separation, self-assembly, ES, and so on. Synthetic ES nanofibrous materials processing allows for internal control of the electrospinning mechanism and foster chemical crosslinking to generate covalent connections between polymeric fibers. In either in situ electrospinning or post-spinning crosslinking, this manipulation is done to target qualities of the material of application in which the fibers will be used. Highly porous electrospun nanofibrous membranes, for example, have sparked a lot of interest in water filtering applications. Figure 10 presents some of the common synthetic biomass materials used in ES of nanofibers. The creation of a reduced pore size and its distribution is highly favored by a thicker membrane with a lower mean fiber diameter, albeit the influence of membrane thickness is rather restricted. A high flux microfiltration (MF) sheath was fabricated based on efficient control of the total composite structure containing the electrospun layer thickness of 200 ± 10 m and a mean fiber diameter of 100 ± 20 nm [22].
Synthetic polymers used in electrospinning of nanofibrous materials.
A previous study looked at the spinnibility of various polymers, such as aqueous poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) dispersed in alcohol-to-water mixtures. Fiber production was found to be possible with viscosities ranging from 1 to 20 poises and superficial tensions of 35−55 dynes/cm. Electrospinning, however, was not feasible at viscosities more than 20 poises due to flow instability produced by the solution’s high cohesiveness [23].
Spongy pomelo peels, rice husk, rice straw, sugar cane bagasse, coffee beans, coconut shells, and peanut shells have all been investigated as alternative sources of carbonaceous materials from biomass. In comparison to other carbonaceous precursors, these and other natural plant/floral biomass resources have grown increasingly appealing due to their availability, low cost, easy accessibility, and environmental friendliness. As a result, floral biomass has gotten a lot of attention in the electrospinning, biomedical, and energy storage fields [24]. Okara, soy pulp, or tofu dregs, for example, is a pulp made up of insoluble components of the soybean that remain after pureed soybeans are filtered for soy milk and tofu manufacture. Recent reviews have reported on the feasibility of ES fibrous nano materials made from a variety of decomposable and biocompatible matter, including natural proteins like floral and faunal collagen, gelatin, silk, chitosan, and alginate [25].
The preparation of the waste floral/plant biomass for ES of nanofibrous materials involves a number of steps that extract plant proteins in the insoluble parts of the waste biomass. Silk fibroin (SF), for example, is made by degumming raw silk fibers twice with a 0.5% (W/W) NaHCO3 base medium at 100°C, over half an hour period followed by rinsing with warm dH2O. At 70°C for 6 h, degummed silk (SF) is dispersed in a ternary aqueous medium of calcium chloride-ethanol-water (1:2:8 in molar ratio). The SF was filtered and lyophilized after 3 days of dialysis using cellulose hollow sheath (250-7u; Sigma) in dH2O to get the regenerated SF sponges. Dispersing the SF sponges in 98% methanoic acid (Aldrich) for 3 h makes SF solutions. The molar quantities of SF solutions for electrospinning range from 3% to 15% by weight [26].
Extracted silk fibroin was used to prepare silk electrospinning as presented in Figure 11. Electrospun SF nanofibers with varied silicon fibroin concentrations of 3%, 6%, 9%, and 12% are shown in SEM micrographs. The most prevalent natural polymers used as ES nanofiber materials include chitosan, collagen, gelatin and silk [20, 21]. Natural polymer nanofibers present distinguished features like biodegradability and biocompatibility, a phenomenon that makes them suitable materials in biological environments. Figure 12 presents some of the abundant natural polymers adapted for ES nanofibers production. Chitin and its over 50% deacetylated derivative, chitosan, for example, are commonly used natural polysaccharides as scaffolds. Blending with other materials are thus required to tailor-make materials with a set of acceptable features and attributes in order to achieve a stronger composite. Chitin/silk fibroin (chitin/SF) nanofibers, for example, were used to make novel ECM scaffolds [27].
SEM micrographs of electrospun SF nanofibers with concentration of (a) 3%, (b) 6%, (c) 9%, and (d) 12% [
Natural polymers used in electrospinning of nanofibrous materials.
Biocompatibility and biological activity are two characteristics of natural polymers. However, these polymers have some drawbacks, such as engineering and processing difficulties due to poor mechanical strength, restricted processing and manufacturing capacities, batch-to-batch variability, and the possibility of pathogen transmission [20]. Collagen and proteoglycans, for example, make up the majority of the body’s natural extracellular matrices (ECMs), which vary in composition depending on tissue type. Nanofibrous scaffolds made of collagen fused with glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), the major constituent of proteoglycans like condroitin sulfates and hyaluronic acid, are suitable for creating a perfect scaffold that mimics the natural ECM. Collagen and GAGs’ utility, on the other hand, has been limited because of their exorbitant price and poor mechanical qualities. In biomedical applications, this phenomenon can be addressed by fusing natural polymers such as proteins polymeric strands and polysaccharides fibrous materials, which can improve biotic transformation of cells and accelerate tissue development [27].
Most of the insoluble floral biomass is in the form of lignocellulosic and chitin material. The success of tapping into the floral biomass as a resource for ES of nanofibrous material depends on the ability to depolymerize the lignin and chitin long polymer chains. It is these polymers that will be used for ES processes to produce electrospun nanofibers. Recently, there has been renewed interest in producing carbon fibers from sustainable cellulosic precursors [28]. The abundance and cost effectiveness of cellulose as a material generator, as well as the relatively ecologically friendly fiber production methods used preceded this interest. Recent research on regenerated cellulose fibers from a fluid crystalline fabrication route as a carbon fiber precursor generated strands with a modulus of 140 GPa for the shell area and 40 GPa for the core area, indicating that CNFs resulting from nano-sized cellulosic precursors are even more competent as physical reinforcement than micron-sized fibers; because of their reduced diameters, providing a greater surface area for bonding and stress transfer [29].
Animal manure, agricultural residues, organic portion of municipal solid garbage, industrial waste biomass, and natural vegetation cycle waste are all examples of enormous amounts of organic waste produced by many sectors. Similarly, fauna waste biomass, primarily in the form of keratin, a durable, fibrous protein found in advanced vertebrates (mammals, birds, and reptiles) and human epithelial cells, has been widely employed in ES for the creation of nanofibrous materials. Millions of tons of keratin-containing biomass are produced by the food business, particularly the meat market, slaughterhouses, and wool manufacturers. These sectors are rapidly expanding, with the United States, Brazil, and China accounting for more than 40 million tons of fauna-based biomass annually [30]. Inadequate management of these organic wastes can harm the environment by polluting water and air, lowering people’s quality of life [31].
If controlled with scientific interventions, organic waste no longer persists as garbage, but instead becomes a rich source of substrate, polymers, and molecules for the production of a variety of value ES nanofibrous products [32]. Detailed studies explored potential applications of the fauna generated organic waste in the production of biogas for energy production. Human waste is disposed of as sewage in the form of biological wastewater. Technological advances unravelled biological wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) as an approach to converting biomass into rich materials for precursor molecules for polymerization in ES nanofibrous material fabrication or for energy production [33]. Fauna waste biomass in the form of dung (Figure 13), piggery or fowl wastewater treatment with purple phototrophic bacteria was explored as a promising platform for electrospinning biomass resource recovery process under optimized operational conditions [34].
Fauna biomass: cow dung is co-digested with sewage for production of gas in an anaerobic bio digester.
It is important to note that fauna waste biomass is a natural phenomenal bio digestive process of converting lignocellulosic and chitin organic biomass and transform it into shorter chains of polysaccharides and other polymeric substrates for ES nanofibrous materials production. Anaerobic bio digestion followed by catalytic polymerization of biogas molecules such as methane, ethane and propane, will produce tailor-made polymeric materials that may be used in electrospinning production of carbon nanofibrous materials. Figure 14 is an advanced industrial scale bio digestion plant for production of biogas.
Sewage treatment plant for gas production.
Bio digestion of fauna waste biomass is a significant alternative supply of materials for electrospinning of nanofibrous materials when modern methods are used. Previous research on bio digestion of fauna waste biomass for methane production found that the influence of pre-treatment results in a substantial increase in gas production of up to 67%, with a 52% methane content in the biogas. As a result, it was determined that pretreatment of both feed and biomass improves biogas output but not methane content [35]. According to recent studies, the valorization of bio or organic waste is being prioritized in order to tackle the rapid accumulation of waste generated from food production activities, as well as to create sustainable feedstock for industrial materials and chemicals in place of fossils and synthetic materials (see Section 3.1). Biogas, compost, and small platform molecules are currently produced from biowaste via anaerobic bio digestion, fermentation, and thermo-chemical methods as shown in Figure 15. There are currently no commercial low-temperature chemical methods for valorizing organic lignin fractions as feedstock for modified compounds. Thus, research has been conducted to fill this technological gap, demonstrating that moderate thermal hydrolysis of municipal bio-waste manure reserve is a safe, environmentally sustainable, and affordable process for transforming lignin-like material from compost into value-added specialty chemicals for the production of ES nanofibrous materials (Figure 15) [37].
Auger/screw pyrolysis reactor concept using heat carrier [
Biomass is a readily available and long-lasting ES material that may be turned into carbon based smart energy storage device and other uses. For carbon nanofiber manufacture, many strategies were used to meet various goals, including an increased productivity, easy dimensional parameters manipulation, energy efficient, and a high turnover. Nonetheless, several critical features of biomass-based fibrous carbon nano materials are yet to be extensively studied, thus information gaps still exist for each process to be supplied. As a result, more research is needed to expand our knowledge of the essential characteristics of various processes in order to generate highly desirable precursor materials for ES fibrous carbon nano materials manufacture from organic matter for sustainable materials manufacturing and energy smart storage applications [38].
An example of fauna waste biomass material rich in extractable materials for ES nanofibers materials is feathers from the poultry industry. Chicken feathers, comprises 90% raw keratin protein and 70% amino acids, can be employed as one of the primary sources for extracting keratin. Keratin is used in a variety of industries, including biotechnology, waste management, cosmetics, and medicine [39]. Waste feathers can be converted into keratin in a cost-effective and environmentally beneficial manner. Keratin is an insoluble protein of the cytoskeletal element with a size of 8–10 nm that belongs to a group known as intermediate filaments (IFs). Keratin is a fibrous protein with a helical structure, as seen in Figure 16, and is the ecosystem’s third most prevalent natural biomass polymer after chitin and cellulose [41].
An α-helix and β-pleated sheet keratin and the molecular structure [
Electrospun fibers fabricated from waste biomass sources has resulted in manufacturability of bioactive electrospun nanofibers and has been reported as potential drug delivery agents [42], wound dressing with antibacterial activity, filtration, cosmetics, protective clothing, electrical applications [43] catalysis [44], food industry [44], facial mask [45], and smart energy storage devices, such as supercapacitors as illustrated in Figure 17.
Applications of nanofibers in different fields for day to day activities.
Natural biopolymer electrospun products are made up of ultrafine fibers that are reusable, nontoxic, biocompatible, biodegradable and antibacterial properties. The fibers have been reported to possess excellent physical and chemical characteristics such as high degrees of crystallinity, aspect ratio, large specific surface area, number of surface hydroxyl groups, thermal resistance and excellent mechanical properties [45, 46]. However, the substantial chemical and energy consumption associated with the isolation of macro-sized fibers to nano-sized fibers creates manufacturing hurdles for waste bioactive electrospun nanofibers [46]. As a result, findings on waste bioactive electrospun nanofibers are still in their infancy in the literature [46].
In the biomedical field, literature reports on manufactured products made from biomass electrospun fibers range from medication delivery agents to biomaterials [42], wound dressing with antibacterial activity, facial mask [45], and tissue regenerative biomedical applications as presented in Figure 18.
Illustration of various applications of bioactive electrospun fibers in the biomedical field [
The ultrafine fibers have been previously reported to result in high-performance filters and applicability in facial masks [45, 47]. Various ultrafine fiber filters have been created that can filter particles larger than 10 nm with excellent efficiency. Spider-web network filters are described in the literature as having a combination of extremely efficient, long-range electrostatic property, low air resistance, and great transparency [45, 47]. Viruses can be blocked by ultrafine fiber filters [47]. Irrespective of the challenges associated with the fabrication of bioactive electrospun fibers products. The choice of polymer used aid in fabricating fibers with antimicrobial activities [45].
Figure 19a presents a typical electrospinning technology. Choice of polymer, concentration, flow rate, needle, and tip-to-collector distance all affect fiber quality. Figure 19b shows various types of electrospun fibers. The structure of a hybrid filter that works as both a filter and a hydrophobic layer is shown in Figure 19c and d.
(a) Scheme of electrospinning technology. (b) Various SEM images of electrospun nanofibers. (c) Scheme of generally utilized masks. (d) The proposed structure of electrospun ultrafine fibrous masks.
Facial masks constructed from electrospun biomass possess key characteristic performance features that has the potential to outcompete with the masks in the market. Advantages of biomass electrospun masks vary from the transparent, reusability, antiviral, degradable smart masks that possess filtration, thermal stability, and water resistance [45]. The facial mask technique has a wide range of possible uses, including filtration systems in water treatment, protective garments, and cosmetics [45].
As a result of the structure and bioactivity of loaded pharmaceuticals remaining unaltered during the spinning process, electrospun drug-delivery agents drew interest. They also reduced in vitro drug burst release and can contain a range of biomolecules [48]. Drug delivery agents fabricated from all forms of cellulose polymer results in drug delivery systems that are hydrophilic, eco-friendly, bio-degradable, and biocompatible [42].
Incorporation of NPs, natural biomass onto the polymer through the electrostatic interaction between their functional groups has a stabilizing effect on NPs [44, 49]. These electrospun catalyst found application in catalysis, supercapacitors, corrosion inhibition, and within the food industry natural polymers [44, 49].
Carbon-based supercapacitors with a large interactive surface and high permeability have sparked interest in natural floral and faunal waste materials, owing to the growing ecological consciousness. Electrospun cellulose-based supercapacitors are still in the laboratory stage, despite their rich carbon abundance of roughly 44%, great stability, and exceptional permeability linked with its hierarchical conformation and exceedingly efficient rigid lateral chains in cellulose [49]. The energy density of cellulose-based supercapacitors is low [49]. Hence the poor electrical performance and cell voltage. Another limitation is time consumption associated with economic factor in the optimization stage of cellulose electrospun mats.
As an alternate technique for increasing the electrochemical properties of lignin/cellulose nanofiber electrodes, creating compound electrode materials with a lignin/cellulose backbone can be used to address these constraints [49, 50]. Literature presented flexibility, wide surface area, outstanding mechanical flexibility, and particularly good electrical conductivity, composite nanofibers and ES activated carbon fiber network (ACFN) as attributes to improved performance. When employed as supercapacitor electrodes, they have a high electrical performance, a phenomenon attributed to their pseudo-capacitance [51, 52]. As a result, ACFNs lignin/cellulose nanofiber composites could be an attractive electrode material for biomass-based flexible supercapacitors [49]. Furthermore, when the electrolyte penetrates the micropores of the electrospun mats, as shown in Figure 20, the characteristics of the electrospun biomass composites can be adjusted, allowing for the wettability feasible with the preferred electrolyte [53].
Supercapacitive cell with thin film-coated carbon powder-based electrodes and free-standing and flexible flexible carbon nanofiber electrodes in conjunction with a polymer electrolyte [
In aqueous electrolytes, heteroatoms have been reported to enhance wettability of carbonaceous surfaces [54]. Lignin has a lot of oxygen functional groups and a lot of active hydrophilic surface. However, biomass-derived ECNF p-doped performed worse relative to the commercial CF. The lower performance could be attributable to the starting material’s higher number of oxygen functional groups. P-doping has been reported to block micro/mesopores, reduce conductivity and electron transport [50]. Jet viscosity of the polymer was not measured, as such further research still has to be done.
As a result, environmentally friendly biomass electrospun fibers with improved performance in working electrochemical devices have demonstrated that the fabrication of future smart energy storage materials will be ecologically viable, providing a completely green alternative to the powering of transportation and conventional storage [50].
The versatility of waste biomass electrospun fibers, as well as their controllable physical and chemical properties, make them a model technique for electrode fabricating and flow media for a variable of smart energy devices, with the ability to reduce mass transport and activate overpotentials, thereby increasing competence [50]. Natural biomass is being used as a polymer of choice because of its capacity to infuse sustainable principles in electrochemical device materials. This also contributes to their capacity to increase the use of renewable electricity through their application [50]. Lignin is a waste by-product derived from natural flora that has been documented to exist in three different types: Different molecular weights and mechanical and thermal stabilities of kraft (KL), ethanol organosolvents (EOL), and phosphoric acid lignin (PL) [50]. For vanadium redox couples, electrospun carbon nanofibers produced from PL and KL at 9 kV demonstrated excellent cyclic voltammetry electrochemical performance. Figure 20 clearly illustrates potential electrical products that can be fabricated from waste biomass electrospun fibers. Redox flow batteries (RFBs), fuel cells, and metal air batteries are some of the potential products shown in Figure 20 [50]. The use of electrospun material in RFBs is still in its infancy and requires further development. Nonetheless, the improved redox couple’s catalytic activity of waste biomass electrospun fibers provides an alternate solution to commercial electrodes’ high overpotential when discharge current density is large [50].
Electrospun fibers made from waste biomass have the potential to be used in redox flow batteries because they form microstructures with large surface areas and mass transport qualities in the electrodes. Similarly, improved biomass electrospun fiber applicability in fuel cells and metal air batteries offers a conductive-advanced structure for the gas diffusion layers that can dope and/or support catalytic nanoparticles, as well as electrochemically active fibers [50].
The advancement of electrospinning (ES) technologies and the industrial production of ES fibrous carbon nano materials to suit or facilitate different bioeconomic uses was aided by technical innovation. It may be inferred that the capacity to change the electrospinning assembly in various ways, in order to combine different materials with a wide variety of properties as well as incorporate active elements, will have a substantial impact on the production of materials in the future. By combining essential concepts from traditional fiber manufacturing techniques with nanotechnology, the performance of electrospinning technology and the quality of nanofibers can be increased. In comparison to other carbonaceous precursors, natural flora and fauna waste biomass for future electrospinning material technology has become increasingly appealing due to its abundance, low cost, easy accessibility, and environmental friendliness. Most of the insoluble floral biomass is in the form of lignocellulosic and chitin material while the soluble biomass is in the form of proteins and polysaccharides. Fauna waste biomass is mainly in the form of keratin. Millions of tons of keratin biomass are produced by industry, particularly the meat market, slaughterhouses, and wool manufacturers. The determination of marketable low thermal chemical procedures to valorize bio and organic waste lignin fractions as feedstock for commercial chemicals will be the focus of future work aimed at advancing electrospinning materials.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
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\n\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
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\n\n\n\n\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. 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Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:[{id:"324514",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabina",middleName:"N.",surname:"Valente",slug:"sabina-valente",fullName:"Sabina Valente"},{id:"326375",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Abílio",middleName:"Afonso",surname:"Lourenço",slug:"abilio-lourenco",fullName:"Abílio Lourenço"},{id:"329177",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"zsolt-nemeth",fullName:"Zsolt Németh"}]},{id:"58969",title:"Corruption, Causes and Consequences",slug:"corruption-causes-and-consequences",totalDownloads:27714,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Corruption is a constant in the society and occurs in all civilizations; however, it has only been in the past 20 years that this phenomenon has begun being seriously explored. It has many different shapes as well as many various effects, both on the economy and the society at large. Among the most common causes of corruption are the political and economic environment, professional ethics and morality and, of course, habits, customs, tradition and demography. Its effects on the economy (and also on the wider society) are well researched, yet still not completely. Corruption thus inhibits economic growth and affects business operations, employment and investments. It also reduces tax revenue and the effectiveness of various financial assistance programs. The wider society is influenced by a high degree of corruption in terms of lowering of trust in the law and the rule of law, education and consequently the quality of life (access to infrastructure, health care). There also does not exist an unambiguous answer as to how to deal with corruption. Something that works in one country or in one region will not necessarily be successful in another. This chapter tries to answer at least a few questions about corruption and the causes for it, its consequences and how to deal with it successfully.",book:{id:"6487",slug:"trade-and-global-market",title:"Trade and Global Market",fullTitle:"Trade and Global Market"},signatures:"Štefan Šumah",authors:[{id:"228073",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Sumah",slug:"stefan-sumah",fullName:"Stefan Sumah"}]},{id:"55499",title:"Human Resources Management in Nonprofit Organizations: A Case Study of Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts",slug:"human-resources-management-in-nonprofit-organizations-a-case-study-of-istanbul-foundation-for-cultur",totalDownloads:2426,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The aim of this study is to investigate the efficiency and importance of human resources management in nonprofit organizations. The understanding was included to the literature as personnel management at the beginning of the twentieth century and it turned into an approach as human resources management in the 1980s. It could be observed that many organizations, which deem the human as the most critical stakeholder, adopt a traditional way of personnel management in operating human resources. The employees play a key role in the success of an organization. For this reason, subjects such as recruitment, training, development, career management, performance appraisal, occupational health, and safety are the fundamental functions of human resources management. The study examines to what extent these roles are evaluated through a case study. The subject matter of the study is the most powerful culture and art foundation in Turkey. Compared to many other nonprofit organizations, the foundation actively performs a variety of services within a year worldwide. The fact that the total number of employees might rise up to 800, including the field personnel, indicates the need of a good functioning human resources management. The human resources practices of the foundation are examined and evaluated within that scope.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Beste Gökçe Parsehyan",authors:[{id:"189113",title:"Dr.",name:"Beste",middleName:null,surname:"Gokce Parsehyan",slug:"beste-gokce-parsehyan",fullName:"Beste Gokce Parsehyan"}]},{id:"59152",title:"Marketing Strategies for the Social Good",slug:"marketing-strategies-for-the-social-good",totalDownloads:1681,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Social network sites (SNS) have proven to be a good environment to promote and sell goods and services, but marketing is more than creating commercial strategies. Social marketing strategies can also be used to promote behavioral change and help individuals transform their lives, achieve well-being, and adopt prosocial behaviors. In this chapter, we seek to analyze with a netnographic study, how SNS are being employed by nonprofits and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) to enable citizens and consumers to participate in different programs and activities that promote social transformation and well-being. A particular interest is to identify how organizations are using behavioral economic tactics to nudge individuals and motivate them to engage in prosocial actions. By providing an understanding on how SNS can provide an adequate environment for the design of social marketing strategies, we believe our work has practical implications both for academicians and marketers who want to contribute in the transformation of consumer behavior and the achievement of well-being and social change.",book:{id:"6583",slug:"marketing",title:"Marketing",fullTitle:"Marketing"},signatures:"Alicia De La Pena",authors:[{id:"196878",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"De La Pena",slug:"alicia-de-la-pena",fullName:"Alicia De La Pena"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"4",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83170",title:"Understanding Happiness in the Pacific Islands: A Qualitative Study with University Staff in Fiji",slug:"understanding-happiness-in-the-pacific-islands-a-qualitative-study-with-university-staff-in-fiji",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106771",abstract:"The concept of happiness has been the subject of critical analysis throughout the Western philosophical thought. Current conceptualizations focus on the role of cultural traditions and consumerist societal values. However, there is increasing scientific evidence that happiness is a product of multiple factors, the specific pattern of which differs across cultures. Yet, the cross-cultural literature tends to condense this into a Western–individualist versus non-Western-collectivist happiness dichotomy. This overlooks the vast diversity in global collectivist societies and more research is needed from under-represented, indigenous populations. This study aims to provide a qualitative exploration of the definitions, experiences, and outcomes of happiness within a professional sample of Indigenous Pacific Fijian and Indian-Fijian ethnic groups. The data revealed eight inter-related themes that, together, suggest the experience of happiness in Fijians is a product of collectivist cultural and religious structures, individual goals and needs, and the practical environment (housing and land systems) of the Pacific Islands. This model of happiness both supports and extends existing literature from other non-Western populations. Importantly, the mix of indigenous, colonial, and environmental influences which seem to underlie the Fijian understanding of happiness support the call for contextualized analyses and socioecological approaches to happiness and well-being research.",book:{id:"11444",title:"Happiness - Biopsychosocial and Anthropological Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11444.jpg"},signatures:"Annie Crookes and Meg A. Warren"},{id:"78868",title:"Foreign Direct Divestment Phenomenon in Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries",slug:"foreign-direct-divestment-phenomenon-in-selected-sub-saharan-african-countries",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100304",abstract:"Foreign direct divestment can occur for either external or internal factors. The determinants of FDI are also the same determinants for FDD. FDD might lead to numerous negative economic factors such as a decline in economic development, reduction in employment and might also cripple the facilitation in technology transfers. In this paper, the FDD concept in the Sub-Saharan African countries was investigated using annual data spanning from 1998 to 2018. The panel autoregressive distributive lag was used to develop the FDD model. The findings of the panel ARDL long run equation revealed that lending rates and urbanisation have a negative and significant influence on foreign direct investment. Further, the findings revealed an insignificant influence of real gross domestic product per capita on FDI. Finally, trade openness showed a positive significant impact on foreign direct investment. We recommend policies that increase FDI through the cost of borrowing since increasing this results in foreign direct divestment. Real gross domestic product per capita cannot be used for policy making purposes in the study. Trade openness makes a country more accessible on the world market and thus, policies that promote foreign trade such as exporting complex and sophisticated products, trade liberalisation, free trade agreements and open trade systems could help reduce the presence of foreign direct divestment in the selected countries. Finally, urbanisation deter foreign direct investment, therefore countries should invest more on infrastructure and reduce poverty in rural areas to transform them into urban areas to decrease urbanisation.",book:{id:"10977",title:"Macroeconomic Analysis for Economic Growth",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10977.jpg"},signatures:"Ombeswa Ralarala and Masenkane Happiness Makwala"},{id:"83148",title:"Private Practice Social Work in the Arab World: Sultanate of Oman as a Model",slug:"private-practice-social-work-in-the-arab-world-sultanate-of-oman-as-a-model",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106284",abstract:"This chapter aims to discuss the reality of the private practice social work profession in the Arab world from both research and practice perspectives. Furthermore, it identifies the most significant obstacles to the spread of its agencies. Additionally, this chapter discusses several fundamental concepts in this field, such as private practice, private practice agencies, and private practitioners. By referring to scientific research undertaken in the Arab world and, in particular, Oman society, a systematic scientific approach is significant to private practice and its themes. Finally, the author will wrap up the chapter by discussing the findings of one of his studies that identified the obstacles to the spread of private practice.",book:{id:"11095",title:"Social Work - Perspectives on Leadership and Organisation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11095.jpg"},signatures:"Emad Saleh"},{id:"81124",title:"Views of South Sudanese Secondary School Teachers about the Use of Humour in the Mathematics Classroom",slug:"views-of-south-sudanese-secondary-school-teachers-about-the-use-of-humour-in-the-mathematics-classro",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103007",abstract:"This chapter reports the views of South Sudanese secondary school teachers about the use of humour in the mathematics classroom as a teaching and learning tool. The use of humour as a pedagogical toolkit in a mathematics classroom is something that has not yet been seriously or widely considered and how the teachers, especially South Sudanese teachers, would react to the use of humour in the classroom was not yet known. An opinion survey containing six (6) close-ended questionnaire items or statements related to the use of humour in the classroom was distributed to ten (10) secondary schools located within and around Juba city. About sixty-five (65) South Sudanese secondary school teachers responded to the survey. Posed was a research question intended to explore the general views, attitudes, or opinions of South Sudanese secondary school teachers: What do South Sudanese secondary school teachers think about the use of Humour-Supported Instructional Approach (H-SIA), a proposed-alternative method of teaching and learning mathematics at secondary school level? Findings of this opinions survey indicate that South Sudanese secondary school teachers’ overall average views are positive toward the use of humour in the classroom setting. The average majority of the surveyed secondary school teachers appeared keen and seemed eager to welcome experimentation with new ways of teaching and learning in the classroom. Hence, it is recommended that classroom teachers be always encouraged and allowed a certain degree of freedom to explore and try out new ways of teaching and learning. It is suggested, however, that teachers be first provided with necessary proper training about how to use humour appropriately, effectively, and creatively in the classroom environments.",book:{id:"11279",title:"Advances in Research in STEM Education",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11279.jpg"},signatures:"William Deng Tap, Helicopter Mark Bulbul and Biar Simon Ajang"},{id:"83149",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ungrading, Grading Contracts, Gamification and Game-Based Learning",slug:"perspective-chapter-ungrading-grading-contracts-gamification-and-game-based-learning",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105967",abstract:"This chapter will explore considerations for the adoption of grading contracts with the possible addition of the mechanics of game design, game-based learning, or gamification. The motivation for this approach is to ensure equity and inclusion in the classroom by creating a compassionate environment to enhance student engagement and learning. When introduced in the appropriate way, teachers can track students’ progress without the imposition of the added stress and fear that conventional assessment practices engender. Sometimes referred as “ungrading,” the adoption of these strategies prioritizes the progress of each individual student and re-envisions learning as a series of achievements that students complete and level-up to take on a series of successive challenges based on previous accomplishments not unlike the playing of a video game. If virtual reality can be called an empathy machine, a well-crafted video game is a learning and engagement machine. In other words, the magic “sauce” of video games is that players put in untold hours and effort to learn new skills and are rewarded by the sense of mastery and achievement.",book:{id:"11481",title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice for STEAM and social sciences education",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg"},signatures:"Gregory Garvey"},{id:"83040",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility and Social Report: A Case Study in the Basque Country",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility-and-social-report-a-case-study-in-the-basque-country",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105511",abstract:"This chapter illustrates the case of the Spanish company Telefónica SA, a world leader in the telecommunication industry. The main research question is to understand if social responsibility can play a main role in an uncertain scenario. Or better, understand how Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) can be organized, managed, and measured to be considered a sustainable choice detached from any greenwashing policy. In terms of the socioeconomic environment with the combination of external social and economic conditions that influence the operation and preformation of an organization, the company should be a system not only capable of generating profits but at the same time contributing to society and environmental protection, integrating social responsibility as a strategic investment in the framework of their competitive strategy, in their management tools and their operations. The analysis of this case study aims to offer a model of CSR analysis and measurement tools such as the social report for managers who will have to face the important challenges of sustainable growth in compliance with the 2030 Agenda and SDGs paradigm (Sustainable Development Goals).",book:{id:"11602",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg"},signatures:"Vincenzo Basile"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:302},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 17th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. 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He previously worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel; University of the Free State, South Africa; and Central University of Technology Bloemfontein, South Africa. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan. He has published more than seventy-four journal articles and attended several national and international conferences as speaker and chair. Dr. Kendrekar has received many international awards. He has several funded projects, namely, anti-malaria drug development, MRSA, and SARS-CoV-2 activity of curcumin and its formulations. He has filed four patents in collaboration with the University of Central Lancashire and Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases. His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. 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