Variables for the environmental quality/Health index in Eq. 1.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83968-921-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-920-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-922-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9528d3b1ff011d68022c4fa750b4bc24",bookSignature:"Dr. Kieran Richard Hickey",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8491.jpg",keywords:"Tornadoes Causes, Characteristics, Features, Impacts, Temporal Variability, Spatial Variability, Regional Change, Climate Change, Climatological Context, Trends, Patterns, Projections",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 28th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 26th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 25th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Kieran R. Hickey is currently Head of the Department of Geography and also Head of the School of the Human Environment at the University College Cork, in addition, he is a Fellow of the Royal Meteorology Society and the Royal Geographical Society.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"17924",title:"Dr.",name:"Kieran",middleName:"Richard",surname:"Hickey",slug:"kieran-hickey",fullName:"Kieran Hickey",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/17924/images/system/17924.jpg",biography:"Dr. Kieran R. Hickey is a Senior Lecturer in Physical Geography in the School of the Human Environment in University College Cork, Rep. of Ireland where he is currently Head of the Department of Geography and also Head of the School of the Human Environment. He earned his B.A. in Geography and Economics in 1986 and his M.A. in Geography in 1990 from University College Cork, Republic of Ireland and his D.Phil from Coventry University, England in 1997. His research is in storms and hurricanes, climate change, historical climatology and climate disasters. He is a Fellow of the Royal Meteorology Society and the Royal Geographical Society. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"58421",title:"The Corbusier Dream and Frank Lloyd Wright Vision: Cliff Detritus Vs. Urban Savanna",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71908",slug:"the-corbusier-dream-and-frank-lloyd-wright-vision-cliff-detritus-vs-urban-savanna",body:'For the last 50 years, investigators have been seeking quantitative methods to predict and assess the visual and environmental quality of the landscape. The literature on this subject is vast. Mo et al., reviews much of this pertinent literature and discusses the perceptions of respondents in North America, France, Portugal, and P.R. of China. One of her and her colleagues’ findings suggests that Europeans and North Americans may have broad similar perceptions about landscape [1]. Asians may have a different sensibility concerning environmental preference. Concurrently, Partin et al., studied the response of participants to computer generated images and reported that the perception of computer images was similar to the perception of photographs of landscapes [2]. In other words it was possible for investigators to present computer generated images to respondents and obtain a similar response as if the respondents were examining photographs. He also demonstrated how a small study could be folded into a larger and widely studied set of images to obtain stable and reliable results. In addition, Burley et al., presented a model that predicted a high proportion of explained respondent preference [3]. The model included esthetic, economic, ecological, functional, and cultural requirements. Their work provides the current background and theory concerning the types of variables presently used in developing predictive models. In their study, they specifically addressed the reclamation of Detroit’s “gray-fields”. The study team employed an investigative approach to evaluate Frank Lloyd Wright’s vision for cities, called “Broadacre City” to current visions for Detroit, and with the past environmental conditions of Detroit. They concluded that the new visions for Detroit and Frank Lloyd Wright’s vision was indeed significantly preferred over past built environments. Liu and Burley and Yilmaz and Burley provide additional background concerning the variables that Mo et al. and Partin et al., have employed [4, 5]. Liu and Burley noted that respondents can have widely dispersed expectations concerning values and criteria to assess landscapes; yet Yilmaz and Burley note that collectively and statistically, strong and reliable predictive equations evaluating landscapes can be generated from respondents, explaining up to 90% of the variance in respondent preferences [5].
During this timeframe, Lu et al., examined the Lower Muskegon watershed, located on the west side of the lower peninsula in Michigan [6]. He and his colleagues studied images of urban areas, farmland, wetlands, and forests and attempted to construct an environmental quality map of his study area. The result he obtained through statistical analysis revealed that the relationship between his predictions in the map and the real photographs are in concordance and at a reasonable (95%) confidence level. He concluded that visual/environmental quality could be mapped and reliably predicted in the Lower Muskegon Watershed. These recent studies provide a setting for our investigation.
As an extension of Lu’s et al., research, we were interested in applying this approach to all of the southern part of Michigan. We wanted to make a validated map of southern Michigan. In addition we were interested in examining the transformation of environmental quality in the Detroit metropolitan area, comparing pre-settlement environments from the 1800s to current conditions. In addition, we desired to compare the environments of greater Detroit with the vision held by Le Corbusier [7]. Le Corbusier envisioned a grand sea of urban forest penetrated by multiple-function buildings spreading endlessly across the urban landscape. Two structures were build in France applying his principles, one in Marseilles and the other in Rezé-les-Nantes. The experiment ended there. However, the broad expanse of towers forming the city of Shanghai, with a population of 25 million people, is a modern version, expressing this vision. We were interested in assessing the perceived environmental quality of Detroit and Shanghai with the evaluation equation.
Michigan is located in the Great Lakes Region of the United States of America. Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas. These two peninsulas are linked by the Mackinac Bridge. The Upper Peninsula is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac. The Lower Peninsula whose shape looks like a mitten was chosen as the study area. The area of this research is known as Southern Michigan, which is no further north than N. 44.2 in latitude (Figure 1). The majority of people live in this southern portion of Michigan containing many more people than the other part of Michigan. Cities in the study area include: Grand Rapids, Battle Creek, Benton Harbor, Jackson, Kalamazoo, Flint, Pontiac, Bay City, Midland, Holland, Saginaw, Muskegon, East Lansing, Ann Arbor, and Metropolitan Detroit.
Location of the study area and related study areas (north is at the top of the figure).
Le Corbusier’s Unité d’Habitation of Nantes-Rezé, France was built in 1955 [7]. Nantes is a French port along the Loire River, in western France. The structure contains a school at the top level. From this basic idea emerged in Shanghai a vast collection of towers, many multi-function. The architectural towers emerged over 100 years after the a French Concession trading port south of the Chang Jiang (Yangtze River), along the sea coast was established. Since the 1990s, Shanghai has experienced extensive redevelopment with towers extending sometimes as far as the eyes can see (Figure 2).
A model of the central urban core of shanghai in 2007 copyright © 2007, Jon Bryan burley, all rights reserved, used by permission.
The methodology to evaluate large areas of urban and rural landscape was similar to Lu et al. [6]. Lu et al. explains in great detail the methodology. In summary, images of various landscapes across the Michigan study area were collected and randomly sorted into two groups: one group to assist in making a prediction and another group to validate or refute the prediction. From the first group, scores for the images were generated by employing an Eq. (1) developed by Burley [8]. This paper by Burley, published in 1997 is the formative paper in this line of work and investigators interested in understanding the fundamentals of this line of research are urged to examine this paper. Once one has obtained the scores, then the scores are applied to similar land-uses to form a map predicting environmental quality. Next the second group of images are compared to predictions made by the map through the use of Kendall’s Concordance, a statistical technique that examines and tests for significant agreement/similarity [9, 10]. If the scores agree, then it is possible to make a reliable visual quality prediction map. Jin also provides more detail, step-by-step concerning this methodology [11]. Investigators seriously interested in applying this methodology should obtain copies of Lu et al., and Jin for a full and complete explanation [6, 11]. Single images can also be scored and compared with other images with this equation. Scores below 50 are very biospheric, meaning the image contains predominantly plants, water, sky, and flowers. Images in the 60s contain some roads or buildings. Images that are 70 and above are rather noospheric with some images scoring in ranges over 110 (highly un-preferred images).
where (See Table 1):
HEALTH | environmental quality index |
---|---|
X1 | perimeter of immediate vegetation |
X2 | perimeter of intermediate non-vegetation |
X3 | perimeter of distant vegetation |
X4 | area of intermediate vegetation |
X6 | area of distant non-vegetation |
X7 | area of pavement |
X8 | area of building |
X9 | area of vehicle |
X10 | area of humans |
X11 | area of smoke |
X14 | area of wildflowers in foreground |
X15 | area of utilities |
X16 | area of boats |
X17 | area of dead foreground vegetation |
X19 | area of wildlife |
X30 | open landscapes = X2 + X4 + (2 × (X3 + X6)) |
X31 | closed landscapes = X2 + X4 + (2 × (X1 + X17)) |
X32 | openness = X30 − X31 |
X34 | mystery = X30 × X1 × X7/1140 |
X52 | noosphericness = X7 + X8 + X9 + X15 + X16 |
Variables for the environmental quality/Health index in Eq. 1.
The test statistics are provided in Eqs. 2 and 3. The statistics are based upon rankings of treatment scores across rows. In this case the rows are pairs of images between two treatments: the predicted score for a randomly chosen site in the study area and the actual score from a photograph taken at that location. There are 30 rows (pairs of scores) for this study (n = 30) The treatments are the columns (m = 2). The rankings are summed and squared, to compute Kendall’s W value Eq. (2). (Rj)2 is the sum of the squares of the rankings for a column in computing the Kendall’s W value [8, 9].
Kendall’s W value is a number ranging between 0 and 1. When W is near 0, there is no strong overall trend of agreement among the respondents. If W is near 1, then the responses could be regarded as close to unanimous in their agreement. The W test statistic approximates a Chi-square distribution with n−1 degrees of freedom (Eq. 3). If computed values for Chi-square (Eq. 3) are greater than significant values in a Chi-square table for n−1 degrees of freedom (in this case 29 = 30–1), then there is a high level of agreement/concordance—the predicted scores and the actual scores are in agreement.
The sample of images gathered in the investigation include forested lands (Figure 3), agricultural lands (Figure 4), residential environments (Figure 5) (known as urban savanna), downtown-like environments (Figure 6) (know as cliff detritus) and industrial sites (Figure 7) [12].
Image of sample number 26 of a forested landscape in southern Michigan (visual score of 54.40120) — Copyright © 2011, Yuemin Jin, all rights reserved, used by permission.
Image of sample number 16 of a farmland landscape in southern Michigan (visual score of 59.12320) — Copyright © 2011, Yuemin Jin, all rights reserved, used by permission.
An image of a residential landscape (urban savanna with visual quality score of 61.58117), sample number 10 — Copyright © 2011, Yuemin Jin, all rights reserved, used by permission.
An image of sample number 12 of a downtown environment (cliff detritus with a visual score of 69.28333) — Copyright © 2011, Yuemin Jin, all rights reserved, used by permission.
An image of sample number 22 of an industrial environmental (with a visual score of 86.56068) — Copyright © 2011, Yuemin Jin, all rights reserved, used by permission.
Table 2 presents the rankings of the images from the study. The predicted ranks are scores generated by developing a map of the study area. The actual scores are values taken and measured from a random site in the study area. Kendall’s Concordance analysis revealed a Chi-square score of 51.8 (see Min for details) [8]. This value is larger than 49.58788 (a 99% confidence level (p ≤ 0.01) for 29 degrees of freedom. Since 51.8 is larger than 49.58788, the predicted scores and the actual scores are in agreement at a 99% confidence level (p < 0.01). These results suggest that it is possible to construct an environmental/visual quality map of Southern Michigan that is relatively reliable (Figure 8).
Property | Predicted Ranking | Images from Set Number 2 | Actual Score | Set 2 Ranking |
---|---|---|---|---|
Industrial | 3 | 55 | 107.80 | 1 |
Downtown | 8 | 42 | 89.68 | 2 |
Industrial | 3 | 52 | 83.12 | 3 |
Industrial | 3 | 51 | 82.92 | 4 |
Commercial | 13 | 31 | 82.12 | 5 |
Downtown | 8 | 45 | 81.84 | 6 |
Downtown | 8 | 41 | 77.91 | 7 |
Industrial | 3 | 54 | 77.12 | 8 |
Commercial | 13 | 33 | 76.05 | 9 |
Downtown | 8 | 43 | 75.23 | 10 |
Commercial | 13 | 32 | 74.15 | 11 |
Downtown | 8 | 44 | 74.04 | 12 |
Residential | 23 | 39 | 73.41 | 13 |
Commercial | 13 | 35 | 72.92 | 14 |
Industrial | 3 | 53 | 67.91 | 15 |
Commercial | 13 | 34 | 66.76 | 16 |
Farmland | 18 | 46 | 66.15 | 17 |
Residential | 23 | 36 | 65.50 | 18 |
Residential | 23 | 38 | 62.66 | 19 |
Farmland | 18 | 47 | 62.13 | 20 |
Residential | 23 | 37 | 61.68 | 21 |
Residential | 23 | 40 | 61.64 | 22 |
Forested | 28 | 58 | 55.1 | 23 |
Forested | 28 | 59 | 55.09 | 24 |
Farmland | 18 | 49 | 54.74 | 25 |
Forested | 28 | 60 | 54.71 | 26 |
Forested | 28 | 56 | 53.83 | 27 |
Forested | 28 | 57 | 53.74 | 28 |
Farmland | 18 | 48 | 53.27 | 29 |
Farmland | 18 | 50 | 51.94 | 30 |
The predicted rankings of sites across Michigan and the actual scores and ranking of images on those sites.
A map of the predicted environmental/visual quality of southern Michigan.
While maps as artifacts are interesting to inspect, we were interested in examining the environmental quality transformation of the environment in our study area, especially the Detroit metropolitan area. The Detroit metropolitan area is in the southeast portion of the study area (Figure 7). The area is comprised of numerous communities with the city of Detroit at its core. The area can be characterized as containing competing communities, distributed, and entrepreneurial. Using the middle-ages as a metaphor, the Detroit metropolitan area can be described as having a weak monarchy and ailing centralized authority (Detroit proper), with strong nobility and robust vassal states (the suburbs). Instead of one dominant business district, there are many competing commercial centers, industrial zones, and visions for urban organization [13, 14, 15, 16]. The expansive metropolitan area is quite vibrant, enterprising, active, and engaging, at the cost of its core. While Detroit proper is suffering, the suburbs are thriving. Visitors to the Detroit metropolitan area are often surprised how normal, active, and busy the suburban communities are, because in the news, the perception is that the area is ailing. However, it is primarily the core that is failing and the rings around the core are thriving. It is in this setting that we desired to examine urban transformation.
We applied our results in this study to a 2008 land-use map of the Detroit metropolitan area, supplied by SEMCOG (Southeast Michigan Council of Governments) [17]. The result was a map of the generalized environmental/visual quality for the Detroit metropolitan region (Figure 9). We then applied our results to a map from the 1800s containing pre-settlement land cover data [18]. This resulted in a map of the generalized and estimated environmental/visual quality from 200 years ago (Figure 10).
A map of the 2008 predicted environmental/visual quality of the seven county Detroit metropolitan area, divide each value by 10 to obtain the correct decimal reading.
A map of the predicted environmental/visual quality of the seven county Detroit metropolitan area for the 1800s, divide each value by 10 to obtain the correct decimal reading.
The values (integers) in the legend for Figures 9 and 10, must be divided by 10 to obtain the environmental quality score (an artifact of the GIS software employed, where no floating point decimal was used). To interpret the scores, Burley notes that scores in the 30s indicate highly preferred environments. Scores in the 50s and 60s are often modestly preferred environments. Scores in the 70 are less preferred and scores near 100 are not preferred [19]. The 95% confidence interval for any scores is +5 points [20]. Thus it takes a separation of 10 points for any pairs of images to be notably different as perceived by respondents.
We subtracted the scores from Figure 9 with the scores from Figure 10, producing Figure 11. This map (Figure 11) represents the expected change environmental/visual quality for the last 200 years. The light gray areas indicate the landscape where the greatest negative change occurred, meaning where the environmental/visual quality became worse. Some areas actually improved in visual quality (Figure 12). The improvement primarily took place on grassland and dunes that become vegetated with woody plants.
A map of change/transformation in environmental/visual quality over 200 years. The light gray areas indicate where the change tended towards less preferred environments. The mid-gray levels indicate no detectible change and the dark gray areas indicate a slight improvement in environmental/visual quality.
A map of change/transformation in environmental/visual quality over 200 years. The blue areas indicate zones with a slight improvement in environmental/visual quality.
The largest transformations (as much as 30 points) came from landscapes that were forested to environments that became industrial areas, downtowns, and large multi-unit housing complexes, often comprising the cliff detritus. Most of the cliff detritus is centered around and in Detroit proper, representing an evolution of transformations as the urban area grew. Cliff detritus allows planners and designers to provide higher densities of human populations and activities. The idea is that creating density is less expensive, offering affordable solutions and preserving more countryside [21]. The problem is that cliff detritus, whether in Paris, France, San Francisco, California, or Detroit, Michigan is considered relatively marginal as a place to live when compared to the Loire River Valley, France, Marin County, California, or Charelvoix, Michigan. The environmental preference models employed in this study only reconfirm the obvious but often unstated. Packing people into less preferred cliff detritus environments may potentially be an inhuman planning and design choice.
Smaller transformations near zero or only modest changes (statistically insignificant transformations), can found in the change from woodland (55) to urban savanna (61) (note the change must be great than 10 points to be statistically notable). Much of the land transformation has been from woodland (55) to agriculture (61) to urban savanna (61). The change actually took place with the felling of trees and installation of agriculture. Transforming the agriculture to urban savanna produced predominantly no change. For us, this in an interesting observation as urban sprawl is often portrayed as an undesirable effect. Yet, urban savanna with its highly diverse and productive gardens are environmentally/visually acceptable, high in wildlife diversity, productive in biomass growth, diverse in vegetation composition, and extensive food production, meaning that the urban savanna has some positive attributes [12, 22]. The urban savanna represents a relatively new and evolving ecology, possibly being equal in value and contribution to greenways and other efforts to preserve natural areas in the urban fabric. We are not proposing the urban savanna replace greenways, rather we are suggesting that the urban savanna has been undervalued. In addition, the pre-settlement landscape of the study area did not consist of landscape with strong visually pleasing environments (scores in the 20s, 30, and 40s) such as those in the American mountain west. Therefore the measured changes from woodland to agriculture to urban savanna were not drastic.
Recently planners, designers, citizens, and public employees have been embracing ideas first presented by Frank Lloyd Wright concerning the distributed and savanna-like character of the urban fabric [23, 24]. Long held notions about transforming landscape into extensive cliff detritus are being reconsidered. Figures 13 and 14 are images from L Corbusier’s project in Rezé-Nantes. Figure 13 scores 73.4 and Figure 14 scores over 110 (the upper limit for the regression line predicting environmental quality). These scores indicate the environment is much less preferred than much of the environment in Detroit. In addition, Figures 15 and 16are images from the tower urbanscape of Shanghai. Figure 15 scores 78.41 and Figure 16 scores 79.12, similar to a score for Figure 13. The expanse of towers is much less preferred than the urban savanna of metropolitan Detroit. The pastoral urban savanna is being given a renewed look. Our study provides some insight into why this fresh approach is being explored in the Detroit Metropolitan area. If these reinventions of the Detroit metropolitan area’s cliff detritus are successful, we could imagine the environmental/visual quality scores of these areas to significantly improve (20 to 30 points) over the next generation. We encourage other investigators to employ this approach to study other areas of the world.
This is an image of the le Corbusier structure in Rezé-Nantes. This building is popular for artists and architect to live within — Copyright © 2012, Jon Bryan Burley, all rights reserved, used by permission.
This is an image of the ground floor area le Corbusier structure in Rezé-Nantes and illustrates the realities of urban structures — Copyright © 2012, Jon Bryan Burley, all rights reserved, used by permission.
A view from an urban dwelling across the shanghai towers — Copyright © 2017, Haoxuan Xu, all rights reserved, used by permission.
Another view of the shanghai urbanscape, even with the sea of urban trees, the image does not score well — Copyright © 2017, Haoxuan Xu, all rights reserved, used by permission.
Predictive, respondent based models have been constructed to measure environmental and visual quality. This work is based upon over 50 years of research by investigators in the social, recreational, and planning and design disciplines/profession. The attributes of the landscape can be measured to form reliable maps of environmental/visual quality, providing a metric to assess landscapes, including urban landscapes. We were able to produce such a metric map for southern Michigan. Then, we applied our approach to study landscape transformation in the Detroit metropolitan area. We discovered that from the 1880s until 2008, much of the area had only modest change from woodland, to agriculture to urban savanna. Some small areas even improved. The predominant areas with degraded environments were in the large cliff detritus complex near and within Detroit. Much of this cliff detritus is being transformed again to resemble a pastoral urban savanna, similar to visions for the urban fabric as originally expressed by Frank Lloyd Wright. Numerous authorities, planners, and designers have developed visions concerning the creation of urban environments, from densely packed skyscrapers to pastoral living spaces. We believe our approach allows investigators to evaluate these visions and assess, measure, and quantify the environmental perceptions of these visions.
Plants are sessile in nature and, as a result, they do not have the capability to escape from the site of unfavorable environment. As per circumstances, plants often face the challenges to grow under adverse environmental conditions such as water deficit or excess, high intense light, low or high temperature, salinity, heavy metals, UV rays, insect and pests attack, etc. These stresses wield adverse effects on plant growth and development by inducing many metabolic changes, such as the occurrence of an oxidative stress [1, 2, 3]. As a principal cause of global crop failure, abiotic stresses decrease average yields for major crops by more than 50% [4]. Abiotic stresses impact on growth, development and productivity, and significantly limit the global agricultural productivity mainly by impairing cellular physiology/biochemistry via elevating reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. The production of ROS during abiotic stresses results from pathways such as photorespiration, the photosynthetic apparatus, and mitochondrial respiration. Additionally, pathogens and wounding or drought or osmotic stress have been also shown to activate the production of ROS by NADPH oxidases [5, 6, 7, 8]. The enhanced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) during stress can pose a threat to cells, but it is also thought that ROI act as signals for the activation of stress-response and defense pathways [9, 10]. Thus, ROS can be viewed as cellular indicators of stress and as secondary messengers involved in the stress-response signal transduction pathway.
However, several anabolic and catabolic processes like photosynthesis and respiration occur as part of common aerobic metabolism. It has been proved that ROS are generated in different cellular compartments as mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes, cytoplasm or in the extracellular space, known as apoplast by action of different enzymes [11, 12]. In vegetative tissues, approximately 1–2% of total molecular oxygen consumption drives to the creation of ROS in normal conditions. This percentage increases when plants are subjected to stress conditions such as salinity, drought, cold stress, or high temperatures. ROS are the species generated through the reduction of molecular oxygen (O2) that includes some free radicals such as superoxide (O2•−), hydroxyl radical (OH•), alkoxyl (RO•), and peroxyl (ROO•), and nonradical products like hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and singlet oxygen (1O2), etc. [11, 12, 13]. ROS generation is an unavoidable part and by-product in various metabolic processes, where 240 μM s−1 O2•− and 0.5 μM H2O2 can be observed in plants under optimal growth conditions. Further, abiotic stresses may significantly enhance the generation of varied ROS (and their reaction products) in plant cells, where stressed cells may exhibit accelerated ROS generation up to 720 μM s−1 O2•− and 5–15 μM H2O2 [14, 15] (Figure 1).
The concept of homeostasis condition (A) and imbalance (B) between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidants.
Plants have lot of antioxidant systems that protect them against these potential cytotoxic effects. Antioxidant enzymes are the most important components in the scavenging system of ROS. Major nonenzymatic antioxidants include ascorbic acid (AsA), glutathione (GSH), phenolic compounds, alkaloids, nonproteinaceous amino acids, and α-tocopherols. Alternatively, the battery of enzymatic antioxidants includes ascorbate peroxidase (APX), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (GR), catalase (CAT), monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), peroxidase (POX), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), guaiacol peroxidase (GOPX), and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) [15]. Considering the major enzymatic antioxidants, SOD (EC 1.15.1.1) is ubiquitous metalloenzymes [16, 17] that constitute the first line of defense against reactive oxygen species (ROS). In living cells, SODs catalyze the dismutation of the superoxide radicals (O2.−) into hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and oxygen (O2) and play an important role in protecting the cells against the toxic effect of superoxide radicals produced in different cell compartments [18]. In plants, the role of SOD during environmental adversity has received much attention since reactive oxygen species have been found to be produced during many stress conditions.
Superoxide dismutases (SODs: EC 1.15.1.1) are ubiquitous metalloenzymes [16, 17] that constitute the first line of defense against reactive oxygen species (ROS) and one of the most effective components of the antioxidant defense system in plant cells against ROS toxicity. Until reported in plants [19], SOD was recognized as a group of metalloproteins having no known function. Based on the metal cofactor at active site, SODs are categorized into three main groups and are believed to present in all oxygen-metabolizing cells and are also in all subcellular compartments like mitochondria, chloroplasts, nuclei, cytoplasm, peroxisomes, and apoplasts, etc. [20, 21]. It constitutes one of the major enzymatic components to detoxify superoxide radicals by catalyzing its dismutation to H2O2 [22]. By removing O2•−, SODs decrease the risk of OH• formation via the metal catalyzed Haber-Weiss-type reaction because this reaction has a 10,000-fold faster rate than the spontaneous dismutation [11]. This enzyme is unique that its activity determines the concentrations of O2•− and H2O2, the two Haber-Weiss reaction substrates, and it is therefore likely to be central in the antioxidant defense mechanism [23, 24]. The SOD system of higher plants exhibited into multiple isoforms, which are developmentally regulated and are highly reactive against exogenous stimuli. The significance in the efficiency of all SODs has been confirmed in the direct or indirect metabolism of diverse ROS and its reaction products in numerous studies [11, 19, 25]. According to the active site metal, the multiple SOD isoforms are classified into three major groups (types): Fe-SOD (iron cofactor), MnSOD (manganese cofactor), and Cu/ZnSOD (copper and zinc as cofactors; copper is the redox active catalytic metal). While in bacteria, another type of SOD called nickel SODs (Ni-SODs) has also been reported by many researchers with nickel as metal cofactor [19, 26, 27, 28]. These multiple SOD isoforms are designated to specific cell compartments namely Fe-SODs are located in plastids, Mn-SODs in mitochondrial matrix and peroxisomes, and they also have been found in cell wall, while Cu/Zn-SODs occur in cytosol, peroxisomes, plastids, and possibly extracellular space [19, 29, 30, 31]. All SODs are encoded by nuclear genes and targeted to their respective subcellular localization by an amino terminal guiding sequence (Table 1).
SOD isozymes | Structure | Subcellular localization | Sensitivity |
---|---|---|---|
Cu/Zn-SOD | Homodimeric and homotetrameric | Cytosol, chloroplast, peroxisome, mitochondria | H2O2 and KCN |
Mn-SOD | Homodimeric and homotetrameric | Mitochondria, peroxisome | CHCl3:CH3CH2OH but not to H2O2 and KCN |
Fe-SOD | Homodimeric and tetrameric | Cytosol, chloroplast, peroxisome, Mitochondria | H2O2 but not to KCN |
Ni-SOD | Only reported in prokaryotes |
Types of plant SOD, subcellular location, and sensitivity.
Different types of environmental stresses such as heat, cold, drought, salinity, and chemical contaminants commonly result in enhanced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and demand an effective scavenging system to prevent oxidative damage to living cells under such conditions. Thus, the understanding of the plant responses to these abiotic stresses has become a prerequisite in order to develop crop plants tolerating abiotic stresses. Nevertheless, as an important component of plant defense machinery within a cell, SODs are major enzymatic components of the cellular defense system against abiotic stress-accrued enhanced ROS. SODs are ubiquitous to aerobic organism and catalyze the dismutation of superoxide to molecular oxygen and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Under normal conditions, the resulting H2O2 is effectively scavenged by catalase and peroxidase enzymes. Hereunder, recent reports available on the modulation of SODs in abiotic-stressed plant species are discussed.
It has been observed under numerous studies that the higher the SOD activity or higher number of isoforms, greater the potential to remove ROS. The upregulation of SODs is implicated in combating over-produced ROS due to biotic or abiotic stresses and has a crucial role in the survival of the plant under stressful environment. Significant increase in total leaf SOD activities as well as some extra SOD isoforms (in some studies) has been reported in many plant species under various types of abiotic stresses, namely drought, salt, and heavy metals (Cu, Cd, etc.), in a number of crops like Arabidopsis, mulberry [32], tomato [33], Brassica juncea [34, 35], Treaticum aestivum [36], Hordeum vulgare, Vigna mungo [37], citrus [38], etc. The abundance of SOD transcripts is observed in response to various abiotic and biotic stresses to distinct the oxidative stress that exerts a significant role in stress tolerance. Over-expressing transgenic plants of various SOD isoforms increases enhanced tolerance to oxidative stress and to other environmental stresses. These results have been reported in many crops and model species including Arabidopsis, alfalfa, rice, potato, poplar, and tobacco [39]. There have been many reports in the development of stress tolerant plants with increased expression of different SODs namely over-expressed Mn-SOD in GM Arabidopsis [40] and tomato [41] exhibited higher tolerance to salt, Cu/Zn-SOD overexpression in tobacco plant exhibited tolerance toward multiple stresses [42]. Furthermore, Lee et al. [43] reported that combined overexpression of Cu/Zn-SOD and ascorbate peroxidase in GM Festuca arundinacea plant exhibited multiple tolerance against drought (Methyl vilogen), H2O2, Cu, and Cd.
Berwal et al. [44] studied the SOD isozymes pattern of 13 coconut genotypes comprising six tall, five dwarfs along with two reciprocal hybrids of WCT (tall) with COD (dwarf). Among the genotypes studied, a significant variation was observed in SOD enzyme activity as well as in SOD isoforms pattern. A total of 8–14 SOD isoforms were detected in different coconut cultivars (Figures 2 and 3). The variation was observed only in Mn-SOD isoforms, while Fe-SOD (two) and Cu/Zn-SOD (five) isoforms were similar in all the analyzed cultivars; these isoforms have already been identified in coconut by Kumar et al. [25]. Mn-SOD isoforms varied from one to five in numbers. Among the tall cultivars, WCT, FMST, and WCT X COD showed highest number (five) of Mn-SOD isoforms as well as highest enzymatic activity followed by LCT while TPT, PHOT, and ADOT showed only single isoform for Mn-SOD. All dwarfs studies showed that they had similar SOD isozyme profile for all SODs, that is, one Mn-SOD, five Cu/Zn-SOD, and two Fe-SOD isoforms. They also observed that Mn-SOD does not follow the Mendelian pattern of inheritance, that is, reciprocal crosses showed Mn-SOD isoform pattern similar to their mother palm.
Manganese superoxide dismutase (Mn-SOD) isoform variability in coconut genotypes (circled): (A) tall accessions and (B) dwarf accessions [44].
Manganese superoxide dismutase (Mn-SOD) isoform pattern of WCT, COD, and their reciprocal crosses [44].
Rajgopal et al. [45] also studied the tolerance level of different coconut cultivars including the abovementioned cultivars on the basis of some physiological parameters like stomatal conductance, leaf water potential, and epicuticular wax content and scored them with 1–20 rank and WCT X WCT and FMST secured first and second ranks, respectively. Since, Berwal et al. [44] reported maximum SOD isoforms in WCT and FMST cultivars and the same are already reported as highest stress tolerant cultivars. Similarly, Kumar et al. [38] evaluated basal enzymatic antioxidative metabolism in the developing leaves of commercially grown citrus such as grapefruit, Hamlin (sweet orange), and kumquat. Young leaves of kumquat exhibited lower rates of lipid peroxidation and H2O2 generation as compared to grapefruit and sweet Hamlin. The total superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, which catalyzes the transmutation of superoxide ion to H2O2, was twofold higher in kumquat than grapefruit and sweet orange. Kumquat also showed more superoxide dismutase isoforms activities (Figure 1. Isoforms of superoxide dismutase (SOD; Panel A) and band intensities (Panel B) in developing leaves of different genotypes of citrus and kumquat at pp. 93, Kumar et al. [38]).
Despite the higher superoxide dismutase activity in kumquat, it had substantially lower H2O2 than grapefruit and Hamlin; and this is well-known that kumquat has greater resistance towards oxidative stresses. Gueta-Dahan et al. [46] also reported in citrus, callus, and cold-acclimated mandarin fruits and suggested higher SOD activity conferred greater resistance to salt and chilling stress (Figure 8. SOD activities in salt-sensitive (L) and salt-tolerant (R) citrus cells at pp. 465). Vysniauskiene et al. [47] reported higher SOD activity in frost-resistant potato hybrids than that of in frost-sensitive Solanum tuberosum “Matilda.”
Activities of cytosolic and chloroplastic Cu/Zn-SOD isozymes and cytosolic APX (cAPX), as well as their corresponding mRNA transcripts, were increased by drought treatment of pea plants [48]. Similarly, osmotic stress increased the Mn-SOD transcript abundance in maize [49]. The higher level of gene expression corresponding to this isozyme as well as for Cu/Zn-SOD, were also increased by chilling stress in tobacco plants [50]. It has been reported in many studies that higher level of Mn-SOD is linked with abiotic stress tolerance and Melchiorre et al. [51] reported photo-oxidative stress tolerance, lower oxidative damage, and higher H2O2 in Triticum aestivum plant transformed with Mn-SOD gene from Nicotiana plumbaginifolia. Wang et al. [40] also reported overexpression of Mn-SOD gene in Arabidopsis leads to salt tolerance. Similarly, Rubico et al. [52] reported mild water stress tolerance and higher photosynthetic activity in Medicago sativa L. plants transformed with Mn-SOD and Fe-SOD from Nicotiana plumbaginifolia and Arabidopsis thaliana.
Superoxide dismutase is known as the first line of defense against oxidative stresses in plants and play most vital role is scavenging the reactive oxygen species produced during metabolic processes as well as under abiotic stress conditions. From the above discussion, it is clear that the plant has more native or induced SOD activity that showed more tolerance toward abiotic stresses. Many studies have proved that higher the native SOD activity along with more number of SOD isoforms makes the plants more capable to scavenge the ROS generated during stressed condition more effectively. As reported by Berwal et al. [44] in coconut and Kumar et al. [38] in citrus species that the cultivar having more number of native SOD isoforms showed more tolerance against drought stress. Therefore, the native SOD isozyme profile can be used as a stable biochemical marker for screening of crop germplasm for abiotic stress tolerance.
"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality. Throughout the world, we are seeing progress in attracting, retaining, and promoting women in STEMM. IntechOpen are certainly supporting this work globally by empowering all scientists and ensuring that women are encouraged and enabled to publish and take leading roles within the scientific community." Dr. Catrin Rutland, University of Nottingham, UK
",metaTitle:"Advantages of Publishing with IntechOpen",metaDescription:"We have more than a decade of experience in Open Access publishing. \n\n ",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"We have more than a decade of experience in Open Access publishing. The advantages of publishing with IntechOpen include:
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\\n\\n"In developing countries until now, advancement in science has been very limited, because insufficient economic resources are dedicated to science and education. These limitations are more marked when the scientists are women. In order to develop science in the poorest countries and decrease the gender gap that exists in scientific fields, Open Access networks like IntechOpen are essential. Free access to scientific research could contribute to ameliorating difficult life conditions and breaking down barriers." Marquidia Pacheco, National Institute for Nuclear Research (ININ), Mexico
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'We have more than a decade of experience in Open Access publishing. The advantages of publishing with IntechOpen include:
\n\nOur platform – IntechOpen is the world’s leading publisher of OA books, built by scientists, for scientists.
\n\nOur reputation – Everything we publish goes through a two-stage peer review process. We’re proud to count Nobel laureates among our esteemed authors. We meet European Commission standards for funding, and the research we’ve published has been funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Wellcome Trust, among others. IntechOpen is a member of all relevant trade associations (including the STM Association and the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers) and has a selection of books indexed in Web of Science's Book Citation Index.
\n\nOur expertise – We’ve published more than 4,500 books by more than 118,000 authors and editors.
\n\nOur reach – Our books have more than 130 million downloads and more than 108,170 Web of Science citations. We increase citations via indexing in all the major databases, including the Book Citation Index at Web of Science and Google Scholar.
\n\nOur services – The support we offer our authors and editors is second to none. Each book in our program receives the following:
\n\nOur end-to-end publishing service frees our authors and editors to focus on what matters: research. We empower them to shape their fields and connect with the global scientific community.
\n\n"In developing countries until now, advancement in science has been very limited, because insufficient economic resources are dedicated to science and education. These limitations are more marked when the scientists are women. In order to develop science in the poorest countries and decrease the gender gap that exists in scientific fields, Open Access networks like IntechOpen are essential. Free access to scientific research could contribute to ameliorating difficult life conditions and breaking down barriers." Marquidia Pacheco, National Institute for Nuclear Research (ININ), Mexico
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She performed research in perioperative autotransfusion and obtained the degree of PhD in 1993 publishing Peri-operative autotransfusion by means of a blood cell separator.\nBlood transfusion had her special interest being the president of the Haemovigilance Chamber TRIP and performing several tasks in local and national blood bank and anticoagulant-blood transfusion guidelines committees. Currently, she is working as an associate professor and up till recently was the dean at the Albert Schweitzer Hospital Dordrecht. She performed (inter)national tasks as vice-president of the Concilium Anaesthesia and related committees. \nShe performed research in several fields, with over 100 publications in (inter)national journals and numerous papers on scientific conferences. \nShe received several awards and is a member of Honour of the Dutch Society of Anaesthesia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Albert Schweitzer Hospital",country:{name:"Gabon"}}},{id:"83089",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Ojule",slug:"aaron-ojule",fullName:"Aaron Ojule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Port Harcourt",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"295748",title:"Mr.",name:"Abayomi",middleName:null,surname:"Modupe",slug:"abayomi-modupe",fullName:"Abayomi Modupe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Landmark University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"94191",title:"Prof.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"abbas-moustafa",fullName:"Abbas Moustafa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94191/images/96_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Moustafa got his doctoral degree in earthquake engineering and structural safety from Indian Institute of Science in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at Department of Civil Engineering, Minia University, Egypt and the chairman of Department of Civil Engineering, High Institute of Engineering and Technology, Giza, Egypt. He is also a consultant engineer and head of structural group at Hamza Associates, Giza, Egypt. Dr. Moustafa was a senior research associate at Vanderbilt University and a JSPS fellow at Kyoto and Nagasaki Universities. He has more than 40 research papers published in international journals and conferences. He acts as an editorial board member and a reviewer for several regional and international journals. His research interest includes earthquake engineering, seismic design, nonlinear dynamics, random vibration, structural reliability, structural health monitoring and uncertainty modeling.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Minia University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"84562",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbyssinia",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"abbyssinia-mushunje",fullName:"Abbyssinia Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Fort Hare",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"202206",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abd Elmoniem",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Elzain",slug:"abd-elmoniem-elzain",fullName:"Abd Elmoniem Elzain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kassala University",country:{name:"Sudan"}}},{id:"98127",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdallah",middleName:null,surname:"Handoura",slug:"abdallah-handoura",fullName:"Abdallah Handoura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Supérieure des Télécommunications",country:{name:"Morocco"}}},{id:"91404",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdecharif",middleName:null,surname:"Boumaza",slug:"abdecharif-boumaza",fullName:"Abdecharif Boumaza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Abbès Laghrour University of Khenchela",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"105795",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Ghani",middleName:null,surname:"Aissaoui",slug:"abdel-ghani-aissaoui",fullName:"Abdel Ghani Aissaoui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105795/images/system/105795.jpeg",biography:"Abdel Ghani AISSAOUI is a Full Professor of electrical engineering at University of Bechar (ALGERIA). He was born in 1969 in Naama, Algeria. He received his BS degree in 1993, the MS degree in 1997, the PhD degree in 2007 from the Electrical Engineering Institute of Djilali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes (ALGERIA). He is an active member of IRECOM (Interaction Réseaux Electriques - COnvertisseurs Machines) Laboratory and IEEE senior member. He is an editor member for many international journals (IJET, RSE, MER, IJECE, etc.), he serves as a reviewer in international journals (IJAC, ECPS, COMPEL, etc.). He serves as member in technical committee (TPC) and reviewer in international conferences (CHUSER 2011, SHUSER 2012, PECON 2012, SAI 2013, SCSE2013, SDM2014, SEB2014, PEMC2014, PEAM2014, SEB (2014, 2015), ICRERA (2015, 2016, 2017, 2018,-2019), etc.). His current research interest includes power electronics, control of electrical machines, artificial intelligence and Renewable energies.",institutionString:"University of Béchar",institution:{name:"University of Béchar",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"99749",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel Hafid",middleName:null,surname:"Essadki",slug:"abdel-hafid-essadki",fullName:"Abdel Hafid Essadki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Nationale Supérieure de Technologie",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"101208",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Karim",middleName:"Mohamad",surname:"El Hemaly",slug:"abdel-karim-el-hemaly",fullName:"Abdel Karim El Hemaly",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101208/images/733_n.jpg",biography:"OBGYN.net Editorial Advisor Urogynecology.\nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly, MRCOG, FRCS � Egypt.\n \nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Al Azhar University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"113313",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel-Aal",middleName:null,surname:"Mantawy",slug:"abdel-aal-mantawy",fullName:"Abdel-Aal Mantawy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:1683},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10542",title:"Molecular Epidemiology Study of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Complex",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"29279e34f971687dc28de62534335ac4",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yogendra Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10542.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10552",title:"Montmorillonite",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c4a279761f0bb046af95ecd32ab09e51",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Faheem Uddin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10552.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10281",title:"Nanopores",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"73c465d2d70f8deca04b05d7ecae26c4",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sadia Ameen, Dr. M. 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