Reported groundwater abstraction rate and estimated groundwater depletion per country with ranges of uncertainty for the year 2000 [21].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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\r\n\tThe goal of this book will be to introduce the current change in ambulatory care affected by the new development of medical knowledge, new technology, and social ethics. The COVID-19 pandemic plays an important role in the acceleration of the adoption of telehealth or telemedicine in medical care. Both patients and medical providers adopt it quickly. The new devices make it possible for remote measuring or monitoring vitals or other physical parameters and communication pathways that provide other tools for medical providers to change the pattern of management of different chronic diseases, like hypertension, diabetes, obesity, congestive heart failure, etc. Some techniques can switch some procedures from the hospital to the patient’s home or clinic so, which will not just make such procedures more convenient for patients but also save expense on medical care. The quality of medical care will improve once both medical providers and patients understand such changes, and cooperate proactively. Medical providers can learn how and what tools they can update and apply for caring for patients. Patients can understand and learn how to proactively engage in their health management.
\r\n\r\n\tThe quest to ensure a perfect patient safety record is at the heart of the decades-long quest to improve quality, enhance value, and increase trust in our healthcare delivery systems. Beginning with the landmark report, To Err Is Human, the Institute of Medicine set an ambitious agenda for the medical community to reduce the number of patients harmed by healthcare-related errors and preventable adverse events. As a result, large-scale initiatives were initiated, including electronic medical records, trainee work hours restrictions, and the advent of evidence-based care bundles. To help support the effort, various governmental and non-governmental agencies established funding for patient safety research and actively fostered the development of well-defined Patient Safety Goals via the National Quality Forum. Parallel to targeted efforts aimed at reducing human and systemic errors leading to patient harm, legislative efforts resulted in bills intended to increase public reporting of medical errors and a paradigm shift allowing public support of the concept that most patient injuries are a result of system failures and not provider errors. This book will intend to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in patient safety, featuring an easy-to-follow, vignette-based format that focuses on the most important evidence-based developments in this critically important area.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-192-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-191-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-193-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"fa37d79f81893fd0a9ab346ae1c3e4a9",bookSignature:"Dr. Xin-Nong Li",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12102.jpg",keywords:"Pandemic, Telehealth, Communication, High Technology, Chronic Disease, Remote, Monitor, Quality, Diabetes, Hypertension, Digital Device, Cardiovascular Disease",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 23rd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 22nd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 10th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 9th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Li, MD, graduated from Sun Yat-Sen University of Medical Sciences as an Outstanding Student. He later retrained as a resident in the department of internal medicine at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. He gained rich professional experience by working at Basel University, Switzerland, the University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA, and Medical School, the University of California at Davis. He is a Fellow of the American College of Physicians and a member of the American Medical Association.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"345917",title:"Dr.",name:"Xin-Nong",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"xin-nong-li",fullName:"Xin-Nong Li",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/345917/images/system/345917.jpg",biography:"Dr. Xin-Nong Li, MD is an internal medicine specialist in Fair Oaks, CA. Dr. Li completed a residency at U Pittsburgh MC Shadyside. He currently practices at Xin-Nong Li, MD, and is affiliated with Mercy San Juan Medical Center. He accepts multiple insurance plans. Dr. Li is board-certified in Internal Medicine.\r\n\r\nEducation:\r\nU Pittsburgh MC Shadyside, Residency Hospital — 1999\r\nU Pittsburgh MC Shadyside, Internship Hospital — 1997\r\nSun Yat Sen University Med Sci, Medical School — 1982",institutionString:"Sutter Health",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Sutter Health",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"466997",firstName:"Patricia",lastName:"Kerep",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/466997/images/21565_n.jpg",email:"patricia@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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For which not only the already available sources of energy are inadequate and have dwindled because their reserves are nearing to depletion. Therefore, along with other aspects for development in the field of agriculture, the field of research and exploration of new sources of energy is also the focus of interest of agro-researchers. Sun is an eternal center of energy, where solar fuel is being converted into solar energy by the fusion process since the birth of solar system. The use of solar energy is of central importance to meet energy demands. Fortunately, the blessings of Almighty Allah are that the solar energy has many features, which can be used directly and indirectly. For ensuring a sustainable future and addressing the increasingly serious impacts of climate change, especially global warming, developing countries are urgently seeking to switch from traditional energy to renewable energy [1]. Solar energy is abundant, free, and non-polluting; hence, it is considered one of the most competitive choices of all the renewable energy choices [2]. The agricultural sector also uses different methods to take advantage of these different features of solar energy for different applications. For example, the thermal properties of solar energy are used to dry foodstuffs, vegetables, crops, and meat, etc., which is a direct use of it. Drying of these goods is done by direct use of solar energy, but it needs long time which is a waste of time, also it is more likely to be contaminated with dust, malnutrition, food, insects and flies. In addition, unpredictable climate changes, such as wind and rain, can cause serious damages. In modern times, a variety of solar dryers are used for such direct use of solar energy. For the last few decades, solar energy has been used in various ways after converting it to other forms of energy such as chemical energy and especially electrical energy for various services and research has been given much importance for improvement of the conversion methods to capture solar energy. The conversion of solar energy into electrical energy “soletrical energy” has greatly increased the use in various spheres of life. Much research is being done in the field of agriculture for use of soletrical energy. And its use is sure to not only alleviate energy shortages for a variety of purposes, but is also a cheap, easy, unlimited and widely available source of energy on the whole earth throughout the year. The use of this soletrical energy for water pumping, lighting, pesticides spray, and various types of machinery such as tractors, etc., is being innovated day by day in agriculture. But utilization of solar energy in agriculture in this way is still limited, lot of awareness and research is required to be beneficiary of this blessings and hope of future energy requirements.
This chapter includes the awareness of solar energy and potential role of solar energy in the development of the agricultural sector and agroindustry. To avail the benefits of solar energy and consume it to perform various agro-affairs through different applications are discussed in this chapter. Moreover, research done so far to improve the agricultural sector through its use in various ways is also covered in this study. This study will provide coordination between energy researcher and farmers to utilize solar energy with its different characteristics.
The solar energy is a solar or sun fuel generating at the sun spreading everywhere in the universe and all planets of solar system rely on it. This is also named as clean energy, green energy, alternative energy or sustainable energy. This is the origin of most of the energy sources on earth. The solar energy coming from the sun is in the form of radiations of a range of values. Most of solar energy is captured in the interstellar space and only a small part of solar energy reaches on the earth. But this small quantity of solar energy reaching on earth surface in only one hour is still higher than the energy generated by all other available sources including hydro, nuclear and fossil fuels etc. At the sun about 4,000,000 tons of solar fuel is converted into energy per second, which is so huge comparatively to the conversion ability of a 1000-MW nuclear power station on earth having the capacity of converting only 0.130 Kg of nuclear fuel into energy in one year. The earth receives about 1366 watts per square meter from the sun, generally which varies with latitude [3]. All the accumulated energy in any form in the earth is because of solar energy, i.e., fossil fuels consisting of natural gas, oil and coal depends directly or indirectly on it. Moreover, all energy reserves are nearly equal to solar energy got from sun only in 20 days. Solar energy is such a fuel which will be lost with the universe. Utilization of solar energy is not a new concept or thinking, human being is utilizing this energy since its birth. Solar energy consists on a spectrum of range of wavelengths of radiations having different energies but most of the solar energy reaches on the earth surface consists on visible light and infrared light as shown in Figure 1. Although ultra violet part of this solar energy spectrum is higher in energy strength but lower in intensity. The more intensive part of this spectrum lies in visible part ranging from ~400 nm to 700 nm. Each part of this spectrum has its importance related to applications, i.e., white light for visible purpose lies in the part of solar spectrum 400 nm to 700 nm.
Solar radiation spectrum [
The assessment of solar energy available in a particular region of the earth is necessary to further harness the source. Because, sustainable and affordable energy supply has strong correlation with the socioeconomic development of any country [5, 6]. Therefore, G20 countries that includes Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the European Union consumes about 80% of the total energy. Most of the global energy requirements are meet from nonrenewable fossils fuels such as coal, oil and gas. Only, 9% energy requirements are meet by wind and solar energy globally for electricity generation. The global power mix trends of the year 2019 reveals that the increase in solar energy among other renewable sources is 24% i.e., about double than the addition of wind energy in a particular year [7].
The estimation of solar energy potential depends on many factors among the land cover is a major factor in the selection of a suitable area for solar PV generation installation. Direct solar resource is either estimated based on the Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) or the Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI). However, actual solar potential for a region should be assessed by considering geographic, technological and economic potential. Because all the energy reaching to the earth surface cannot be harnessed due to geographically restricted areas, technological limitations due to limited efficiency of solar modules and energy production cost. For example, technological development directly determines the efficiency of the solar power transition. Initially, the PV modules efficiency of monocrystalline solar cells was 15% in 1950 which has now increased to 28% and polycrystalline reached 19.8% [8]. Similarly, governmental policy plays an important role in solar PV generation operation. Therefore, for a comprehensive solar energy potential analysis technological potential, economic potential, and other factors should be considered in addition to the solar energy resource. Researchers are assessing the global solar energy potential by considering these factors. For assessment of the solar potential of 147 countries, the data of Global horizontal irradiance (GHI) air temperature, PV power production potential, Index of seasonal, levelized cost of electricity and economic was used in GIS environment. In addition, some auxiliary data like terrain characteristics, built-up areas, population clusters, tree cover density, land cover and water bodies etc. data was also used to assess the technical potential for solar energy.
The Global Solar Atlas is prepared by Solargis that provides the easy access to solar resource and photovoltaic power potential data globally. Global Solar Atlas 2.0, is a free, web-based application developed and operated by the company Solargis s.r.o. on behalf of the World Bank Group, utilizing Solargis data, with funding provided by the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP). Maps and GIS data are available for 147 countries on online resources (Figure 2).
Solar power potential of Pakistan,
The direct solar radiation, having potential of concentrated Solar Power (CSP) and photovoltaic (PV), ranges 5–5.5 KWH/m2 /day for more than 300 days a year in Southern Punjab. The range in almost all areas of Punjab is 4–6.5 KWH/m2 /day [9].
Climate change is caused by the human’s activities relating to energy uses, as carbon dioxide emission is increasing 1.3% annually for the duration of 2014–2019 [10]. Meanwhile, the energy sector taking the responsibility by supporting the policies in technologies and renewable technologies are leading the energy market globally for new energy generation capacity [10]. The year 2020 was a best year for photovoltaic and wind energy market with almost 115GW and 71 GW were added respectively [11, 12]. However, the pace of world’s energy transition from traditional fossil fuels to these renewable technologies is far from alignment with Paris Agreement [10]. Although 90% of total electricity energy will be generated with renewable supply by 2050, for which 63% of total electricity needs will be supplied by wind and solar photovoltaics [10]. Solar photovoltaic installed power generation would reach to 14000 GW by 2050 [10]. Solar energy and solar photovoltaic are attractive candidates to fulfill the electricity needs for domestic utility and to run electric vehicles, also cooling and heating requirements.
Solar technologies are in common use in simple forms like drying in sun and basking in sunshine since the birth of earth, and people are using some other simple solar technologies including solar water heating and solar cookers by consuming direct sunshine or solar energy. The global solar PV market has rapidly grown by 50% over the past decade [13]. During 2011, more than 29 Giga Watt (GW) new solar PV industry was installed worldwide which was 70% increase compared to the year 2010. Global PV capacity exceeded 69 GW with 70% installed in European countries. During 2017, close to 73 GW of solar capacity added worldwide [7]. Since last few decades, solar energy is being used by converting it into electrical energy with the help of devices called solar cells or photovoltaic devices. These devices are now set up on the hope to fulfill the energy needs and becoming a technology ladder. Another energy converting device is thermocouple which consists on a pair of semiconducting wire with one end connected and other ends are free and when connected end side heated with solar energy than a potential difference is appeared across free ends. Under ordinary sun light efficiency of thermocouples is very low but concentrated sun energy can increase the efficiency of thermocouples. Solar cells convert directly sunlight energy to electricity while thermocouple convert heat from sunlight into electricity [3]. A schematic flow chart of solar energy utilization via different ways is shown in Figure 3.
Utilization of solar energy via different ways.
Technology at agricultural farms is changing and improving rapidly. These developments are improving the farm machinery and equipment, farms facilities and buildings, both for crops and animals at farms. As we all know solar energy is the largest and cheapest energy resource on earth. Solar energy can easily fulfill energy provision and supply at agriculture farms. Various solar energy absorbing devices and systems have been developed and are in work for agricultural applications. This includes solar thermal and electric devices such as solar spraying machine, solar greenhouse heating, solar crop dryers, solar water pumps, ventilation for livestock, solar aeration pumps, solar electricity etc.
Solar PV pumping systems are quite helpful to operate the pressurized irrigation system. Specifically, solar pumps may be useful as water lifting devices in irrigation canals and also to evenly distribute water in those areas where traditional water systems could not have access, such as in the elevated hilly lands.
The solar pesticides sprayer machine is designed for small farmers to improve their productivity. They can easily carry and handle these machines with rechargeable batteries and direct solar illumination options. Mostly pesticide spraying activity is done in the day time, so these spray machines could be used by directly capturing solar energy, which prevents the installation of batteries in these machines. Also, solar powered seed spreading and sowing machines introduce a simple and convenient way of seeds spreading and sowing to small fields, and also in those areas where traditional machinery could not be available. It will be more useful for small farmers and agrarian society. Thus, solar-powered automatic pesticide sprayer and seed sowing machines will facilitate farmers to leave the heavy-duty machines and also provide easy access to work in remote areas of the countryside where general machinery is not readily available [14]. Today radio frequency controlled solar sowing machines are also designed to provide farmers eco-friendly sowing and spreading of seeds. These RF solar controlled sowing machines work with the help of blue tooth, which sow the seeds at controlled depth and distance between seeds [15].
One of the applications of solar energy in agriculture is a solar drying system which is based on variety of options. Solar dryers are available different shapes and structures. Different types of solar dryer are available for various applications, which is used for drying of agricultural products like potatoes, grains, carrots and mushrooms. Depending upon heating arrangement active dryers and passive dryers are two main types. In active solar dryers, external means are used for solar energy heat transfer, like pumps and fans are used for solar energy flow from solar energy collector to crops drying beds, while passive dryer heat is circulated in natural way by wind pressure or buoyancy force or with the combination of these both [16].
Generally, greenhouses around the world use sunlight to meet their lighting needs for photosynthesis, but they are not ready to use the sun for heat. Rather, they rely on conventional energy sources, such as oil or gas, to produce greenhouse temperatures for winter plant growth. However, solar-powered greenhouses (SGHs) are built to use solar energy for both heating and lighting. Also, these greenhouses reduce the damage caused by excess solar energy from the ambient to the greenhouse during hot sunny periods. A controlled environment is available in these SGHs.
Tractor is a fundamental machinery in agriculture, which made the farming much easier and increased the crops yield and production. Tractor converted the agriculture farming into agroindustry by performing lot of functions with the help of variety of tools and equipment. Usually, tractors consume oil to run and work, which increases the budget of farming also cause the pollution in atmosphere by producing carbon dioxide during combustion. Solar powered tractors became good option which could work directly under the sun by consuming solar energy through PV system in day time and also could continue working in night time with the help of utilizing energy stored in batteries. Although solar powered tractors are in preliminary stage of development but results are hopeful for bright agriculture future [17].
Tractor is a most important and central technology and machinery at any agricultural farm. A tractor provides power to perform many tasks, including plowing, seeding, planting, fertilizing, spraying, cultivating, and harvesting crops at farms. Tractor are also used for transporting crops and materials at farms and market. Modern agricultural developments and to increase production to accomplish the needs of human being best farming can be done by using multifunctional compact tractors. Tractors have great social and economic impact on agricultural activities.
Commonly tractors use diesel oil as an energy source. Solar machinery and tractors use solar energy converted in to electricity. One way of using solar energy in form of electrical energy is by using solar panels fixed on machinery or tractors, a schematic diagram is shown in Figure 4.
Schematic diagram of solar powered tractor [
Another way of using solar energy is converting it into electricity at solar power station and charging the batteries of tractors. But in this way energy stored in batteries of a solar electric tractor is very small and a tractor could not work for a long time with a single charging of batteries at solar power station. A challenge for solar electric tractors working in the fields is that the energy density of batteries is low which reduce the working efficiency of tractors. Also charging time of batteries is comparatively is large so exchangeable batteries idea could be used to run tractors for long time [18].
Irrigation is a basic need for the crops to grow that play to meet the global food demand. Irrigation demands for crops can be meet by three different sources categorized as green water, blue water and non-renewable groundwater. Green water refers the use of effective precipitation for crop growth that is stored in the soil root zone and blue water to the surface freshwater available in rivers, lakes, reservoirs and the groundwater. Agriculture sector is the major water consumers in the world and accounts for approximately 70% consumption of fresh water [19]. An estimated 67% of the world’s crop production still comes from rainfed agriculture [20], where crops requirements are fulfilled from the water held in the root zone of soil. Moreover, the large solar energy potential i.e., more than 6 kWh/m2 and existence of underground water potential make the solar irrigation well suited for arid and semi-arid regions.
In Asia, especially Pakistan, China, India, and the United States account for 68% of fresh water withdrawals for irrigated agriculture, out of which ~34% is consumed by India only. In Pakistan and India, about 37 million electric and diesel tubewells have been installed in the irrigated area. Therefore, there is great potential to convert these tubewells on solar energy. In Pakistan, there is a 2,900,000 MW solar energy potential due to its geographical location with more than 300 sunshine days, 26-28°C average annual temperature and 1900–2200 kWh/m2 annual global irradiance [9]. The southern part of Pakistan where annual Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) is above 5 kWh/m2/day which is ideally suitable for photovoltaic technologies for irrigation. In Pakistan, about 1.1 million tubewells exist out of which 0.8 million are diesel operated and 0.3 million are electric. The use of tubewells have increased in Pakistan because the surface water supplies are not sufficient to meet the irrigation requirements. Therefore, significant withdrawal is done from the groundwater resources that ranks Pakistan at 4th in the world. Overall, at global scale, estimated groundwater abstraction ranges between 600 and 1100 km3 yr.−1 [21]. For the year 2000 the reported abstraction rate and estimated groundwater depletion per country with range of uncertainty of India, United States, China and Pakistan is given in Table 1.
Country | Abstraction (km3 yr−1) | Depletion (km3 yr−1) | D/A (%) |
---|---|---|---|
India | 190 (±37) | 71 (±21) | 37 (±19) |
United States | 115 (±14) | 32 (±7) | 28 (±9) |
China | 97 (±14) | 22 (±5) | 22 (±9) |
Pakistan | 55 (±17) | 37 (±12) | 69 (±48) |
Reported groundwater abstraction rate and estimated groundwater depletion per country with ranges of uncertainty for the year 2000 [21].
Significant withdrawal of groundwater shows the importance and the potential of solar energy in irrigation as a substitute of fossil fuels and ultimately providing an environmentally sustainable solution to address the climate changes. Therefore, solar based irrigation can provide a sustainable solution for groundwater pumping which otherwise requires expensive and unreliable energy. Solar powered tubewells have several advantages over traditional systems. For example, diesel or propane engines require not only expensive fuels but also create noise and air pollution. Moreover, the overall initial cost, operation and maintenance cost, and replacement of a diesel pump are 2–4 times higher than a solar photovoltaic (PV) pump. Therefore, solar water pumping system is a cost effective, environment friendly and have low maintenance solution that makes it ideal system for pumping groundwater particularly for remote locations.
Solar energy can also be used for pumping water from the storage ponds to irrigate the crops. However, solar irrigation is coupled with the High Efficiency irrigation Systems (HEIS) for potential use of available water. Because, it is believed that an economics of solar-powered pumping systems can only be justified, if it is properly designed and linked with high-efficiency irrigation systems such as drip, bubbler, sprinkler or bed and furrow irrigation methods. For example, recently, in Pakistan, solar coupled drip irrigation systems have been installed on 21,255 acres during three years (2016–2017 to 2018–2019) [22]. Moreover, promotion of high value Agriculture through HEIS envisages installation of solar systems on 20,000 acres, especially the water scares and saline groundwater areas. Therefore, there is great potential to adopt the innovative solution for the areas where the solar systems have been installed due to limited water availability and saline areas. Moreover, there is increasing trend in farmers that can be observed to use these solar pumps for surface irrigation in the plain areas. Moreover, these solar pumps are used to irrigate limited lands of farmers. Therefore, after fulfilling the irrigation requirements the energy can be used for other purposes at farm level. However, there is little evidence to use this available energy where option to connect with the grid is not available. Grid connected solar pumping system is being considered economically viable in the rural areas. For example, a study shows that Levelized Energy Cost (LEC) of the grid-connected SWPS through Life Cycle Cost (LCC) is 4–54% less than the off-grid system depending on the size of the pump [23]. Therefore, it is necessary to provide the alternate utilization of the available energy of solar pumping system for better capacity utilization and economic viability, especially for larger solar pumping units.
Solar water pumping is based on photovoltaic (PV) technology that converts sunlight into electricity to pump water. The PV panels are connected to a motor (DC or AC) which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is used to operate a pump to pump out the water from the ground. The capacity of a solar pumping system to pump water is a determined on the basis of head, flow, and power to the pump. The water pump will draw a certain power which a PV array needs to supply. A typical solar pumping system comprise of a pumping unit, solar panels, inverter, PV mounting structure and foot valves etc. The details of the solar pumping system components and its design can be found in literature [24, 25]. Solar water pumps may be categorized as submersible, surface, and floating water pumps. Submersible pumps are preferred to extract the required quantity of water from deeper depths. However, surface pumps are useful to extract water from the shallow groundwater aquifers. The temperature beyond 25°C decreases the solar output. The dust accumulation also decreases the PV panels efficiency. If a sprinkler cleaner/cooler is not installed then it requires the additional 25–30% PV panels to accommodate the dirt and temperature effects. However, it depends on the air quality conditions of the region. The use of a sprinkler for dust removal and reducing the temperature effects has been found to improve PV solar panel performance by 7–9%. Moreover, solar powered pumping systems efficiency can be increased up to 20% by manually tracking the solar panels. The use of automatic sun tracking improves the pump efficiency but increase the system cost considerably [25].
Preservation of crops to keep them without rotting and decomposition for long time is essential activity in agriculture. It is required to keep them fresh and nutritious to carry them from fields to consumers. This process of preservation may be from domestic to industrial level depending upon farm size and crops distribution strategies. Different preservation methods include freezing, canning, drying and dehydration. Among these, drying of crops and food is simple and easy method which can work at any temperature and environment. Drying is an easy way to remove moisture from crops and food products in order to keep them with desired content of moisture. It also extends the storage life and enhancement of quality for long time. Basically, drying involves some heating process to vaporize moisture from crops and food products kept in dryers. In earlier time, drying was done by putting crops in open sun, but this method was more likely to be contaminated with dust, malnutrition, food, insects and flies. Thus, from last few decades, many sophisticated dryers are used to remove moisture from foods and crops. Main parameter to control is the temperature of crops which is done by providing certain amount of flow of heat. This heat can be provided by hot air blow through the crops, which may be very costly set up. Fortunately, solar radiations are better source of heat, and solar thermal energy can be used for drying purpose to dry crops, foods, vegetables, grains and any other crops’ products. These solar dryers are made in different shapes, sizes and structures to enhance their activity. In these solar dry Different types of solar dryers are in practice for various applications depending on method of heat transfer, their geometry and structure, such as [16];
Active dryers
Passive dryers
Integrated dryer
Distributed dryer
Mixed mode dryer
Solar cabinet dryer
Green house dryer
Most of these solar drying systems either active or passive can be identified in further three sub-classes of solar dryers [26];
Direct (integral) type
Indirect (distributed) type
Hybrid (mixed mode) type
A most common solar dryer is based on racks design attached with a solar collector, which can collect solar energy in higher amount and can achieve higher drying temperature in result. Solar collector could be a simple black box managed with a transparent cover. Natural convection or an ordinary solar fan could be used to flow the hot air from solar collector to the crops placed on the racks as shown in the Figure 5. In agroindustry for large scale applications mechanized solar dryer is used, which is an active dryer type, in which solar heated boilers are used to heat the air, and forced to by fans to approach the crops’ beds [28].
Indirect solar dryer based on solar collector, racks and chimney [
Fertilizers have central role in the modern agriculture to increase the yield of crops. For fertilizers production ammonia is one of the most important chemicals, which is produced through a well-known Haber-Bosch thermochemical process. By this process 140 million tons of ammonia is being produced per year. This ammonia production consumes large amount of energy nearly 2.5 exajoule per year. To run the process hydrogen is obtained from methane which results 340 million tons of CO2 per year [29]. Due to huge costs for establishment of plants, centralized production of ammonia with <100 plants worldwide are in function. For better utilization of fertilizers decentralization of traditional fertilizers is compulsory. To overcome these hardens solar energy-based fertilizations is a good option. Solar energy can convert dinitrogen into such nitrogen products which became nutrients for crops. Such nitrogen products produced by the solar energy are called solar fertilizers. The possibility of producing solar fertilization at country’s level may be able to reduce cost of nitrogen based nutrient production by minimizing costs of transportation across the international borders. Also, it will provide employment to jobless workers at country level. Organizing solar fertilizers in developing countries will improve agriculture in remote areas of each country and farmers could become comfortable and satisfied. Above all solar fertilizers will reduce and cut off methane consumption and carbon associated threats to environment. Solar fertilization production is simply based on solar energy, water and nitrogen from air to produce nitrogen-based fertilizers near or at the farms, which also an eco-economic advantage. Management of these solar fertilizers will reduce ammonia use. A study revealed that 250 petajoules of energy/year could be saved by reducing10% use of ammonia or urea-based fertilizers [30].
The developments of solar fertilization need good and reliable strategy for dinitrogen fixation at ambient temperature. These developments can be made by the help of bioengineering, and catalysis research under precise conditions and approach [31, 32]. Such fixation of nitrogen in solar fertilizers can be accomplished by efficient electrochemical and photochemical natural process, which are expected to have significant lower concentration of nitrogen. These solar fertilization with lower concentration is characteristically safer and enable better nutrient managing [33]. The solar fertilizer production is similar in some aspects to the solar hydrogenation production, as light absorption, catalysts’ reaction and energy transfer from absorbent material are involved in both processes. However, solar fertilizers would be integrated with agriculture farm infrastructure and for different application. Some of the key aspects of such processes required for production of solar fertilizers include capture or absorption of solar energy, catalysis reaction and separation process for production of solar fertilizers [34, 35, 36, 37, 38]. In this whole process of solar fertilizer production sun energy from sun light or solar fuel is absorbed by solar cells and/or photocatalytic particles which provide a potential to initiate an electrochemical reaction to convert dinitrogen, oxygen and water in to nitrogen products like nitrates and including ammonia in aqueous solution schematically shown in the Figure 6.
As production of solar fertilizers is based on absorption of utilization of solar fuel by solar energy from sun and converting it to chemical energy by two ways;
After absorption of the solar energy the conversion of molecular dinitrogen, oxygen and water is the central process of production of solar fertilization. For this a catalyst is required to dissociate triple bond of dinitrogen at favorable temperatures. Most approaches for this nitrogen dissociation have focused on chemical reduction of nitrogen to produce ammonia. For nitrogen reduction one of the best catalysts is based on carbon which shows an efficiency of 5% for electrical-to-ammonia in an aqueous solution [39].
The chemical separation process for generation of reactants and convert the effluents to a fertilizer is an important step of solar fertilization technology. Because nitrates, ammonia and urea are water soluble which make a challenge for separation and concentration of products. Aqueous electrolytes are used in many electrochemical techniques for this separation process. Generally, these separation process require sophisticated techniques and processes for particular catalyst. This separation can be moderated with supported catalysts [40].
Schematic diagram of solar absorption, catalysis reaction and separation process for solar fertilizers’ production [
Milk value chain from small dairy forms to market could be improved by using solar cooling technology. Milk cooling technology is costly and mostly small dairy farm (SDF) owners have lake of facilities for this purpose. Usually, these SDF owners are associated in dairy cooperatives which are responsible for managing to collect the milk from member owners and then supply collected milk to market or dairy plants. Lake of facilities of milk cooling in hot weather under warm climate conditions can lead to high bacterial contamination in milk. Solar dairy farming is based on solar technology.
An emergency and simple way of saving milk is by using ice or freezers for cooling purpose. But, most of SDF exists in remote areas where transmission lines are not possible. In these areas solar powered freezers is a good option. Ice produced in these freezers could be used in milk cans for a better and effective cooling. Different institutions are working for developments of solar dairy farms specially for milk cooling. At Institute of Agricultural Engineering of the University of Hohenheim a solar milk cooling system has been designed which is based on the utilizations of ordinary milk-cans in Tunisia. In these designed solar dairy farms solar freezers are being used to produce ice for milk cooling. These milk canes can preserve milk for six to sixteen hours depending on amount of ice put in milk cans [41]. These solar dairy farms have great potential to improve dairy values and more efficient in remote and off grid areas by using environment friendly and clean energy. Figure 7 dairy farmers’ comments and observations on the impacts that those farmers experienced due to use of solar technology [41].
Sterilization process is an important activity at dairy farm for which low temperature steam is used. Parabolic trough collectors are commonly used to generate steam and other high temperature applications. At dairy farms solar water heater could be installed to raise the water temperature from 27–67°C [42]. A lot of furnace oil and other fuels could be saved by using solar heating at dairy farms.
Effect of small-scale solar milk cooling [
All crops at agriculture farms needs proper environment including moister in air, temperature and light intensity. These parameters have great impact on for crops growth and yield, but we have not any control on them. All these parameters are controlled and determined by the nature, which are never remain constant and all time favorable. A lot of variations exist in environment and weather, sometime favorable and sometime very bad for crops. For continuous production at agriculture farms a favorable environment and conditions are required. Such a proper environment and promising conditions could be provided at solar greenhouse. Solar greenhouse is a covered structure where crops and vegetables are grown under favorable climate conditions and proper environment for the growth and production of plants. In greenhouse a controlled sunlight is managed for photosynthesis and also an adequate temperature is maintained suitable for plants whether outside is hot or cold. Vegetables could be grown throughout the year in these solar greenhouses. In these greenhouses solar energy is collected and stored in many ways and therefore they differ in designs. There are many parameters that effect the growth of plants in solar greenhouses. Among these parameters’ intensity of sunlight, temperature of greenhouse, temperature of surroundings, humidity of greenhouse and surroundings, nutrients and carbon dioxide etc. Greenhouses provide such an environment to plants that they can grow in controlled conditions and optimized values of all these parameters.
Sunlight, water and carbon dioxide are essential ingredients to produce carbohydrate and oxygen in photosynthesis process occurred in the chlorophyll of chloroplasts of plant cells. Initially chloroplast is responsible of absorption of sunlight and then for following chemical reaction.
These carbohydrates are used in the growth of the plants. In the respiratory process the energy is released which is used for the growth of plants and fruits. Better control of sunlight is responsible of efficient photosynthesis process and carbohydrate production. Sunlight intensity varies from beginning of day to time of noon from 0 to 150000 lux respectively. It also varies for weather difference like in cloudy days light intensity goes lower and some types of plants could not grow appropriately. For low and high sunlight intensity level, the photosynthesis process very much effected and plant’s growth and yield are limited. Sunlight intensity is different required for photosynthesis in different plants like cucumber can grow in high intensity of sunlight, while tomato, lettuce and carrot need lower intensity of sunlight. Light intensity can be increased in the regions where light intensity is lower by different methods like by painting the walls and roof of greenhouses. Moreover, additional lighting may be required in the darken days to increase the light intensity as well its duration. For this additional lighting different types of lamps are used which are powered by solar cells.
Other than sunlight temperature is another parameter which should be optimum for biochemical reactions in the different types of plants. Temperature of plants surroundings and soil is very much dependent on sunlight intensity, humidity, air velocity and carbon oxide in the greenhouse. Temperature may affect different activities like food and water in root system, transportation of minerals in stems and leaves, and photosynthesis process. Also, for different stages of development of plants like germination, growing, flowering, fruit beginning and fruit reap or maturation, different temperature is required as shown in Figure 8.
Optimum temperature at night for growth and production [
Humidity in greenhouse environment plays a vital role in plants’ growth and health, as relative humidity ranging from 30 to 70 percent is perfect for plants’ growth, while comparatively higher relative humidity i.e., more than 90 percent is harmful for plants’ health as it provides a suitable environment to pathogenic organisms’ growth. Solar greenhouses provide controlled humidity in the environment and surroundings of plants growing within the greenhouse, where generally relative humidity between 55 to 65 percent and environment temperature between 20 to 25°C could be controlled.
Air transport affect the evaporation of water, availability of
Effect of air speed on leaf’s growth [
The design of a solar powered greenhouse is different from an ordinary greenhouse in following few aspects;
Glazing should be oriented in such a way that it can receive maximum solar energy.
Use different heat storage materials to hold solar heat in winter.
Use such glazing materials which minimize heat loss.
Natural ventilation used for cooling in summer.
Two primary solar greenhouse designs are; i, Shed Type, & ii, Quonset Hut [44]. The orientation of shed type solar greenhouse is based on its length side along east to west direction as shown in Figure 10A [44]. Its north wall is painted or covered with some reflective material. The Quonset huts do not have any covered or insulated wall. Their structures are so that absorption of solar energy and distribution of solar heat is enhanced. Although insulation of solar greenhouse walls is required to minimize the solar heat losses, as shown in Figure 10B [44].
(A) Shed type solar greenhouse; (B) Quonset solar greenhouse [
Technologies at agricultural farms are improving rapidly to facilitate farmers and bringing innovations in farming business. But this rapid increase of technology dependent agriculture farming required lot of energy resources. Also, the energy consumption increases the production cost of agriculture products. To overcome these energy and cost issues cheaper, easily and abundantly available energy sources are required. Fortunately, sun is a huge source of energy with abundant solar fuel on it, which can last till the life of earth. Thus, the solar energy is the largest and cheapest energy resource available on earth. Solar energy can easily fulfill energy need and supply at agriculture farms. Solar energy-based agriculture farms can easily accomplish energy requirements and reduce cost production. Utilization of solar energy at agricultural farms includes different types of machinery and equipment depending on task to accomplish by using different characteristics of solar energy like heating or converted in some other form of energy, such electrical or chemical. These applications include solar thermal and electric devices such as solar spraying machine, solar greenhouse heating, solar crop dryers, solar water pumps, ventilation for livestock, solar irrigation pumps, solar electricity etc. These solar energy equipped machineries also include radio frequency solar controlled sowing and spreading of seeds. Solar energy is a trustful and reliable source to compensate all requirements of energy for future.
This work was supported by Higher Education Commission Pakistan (HEC) through “National Research Program for Universities (NRPU)” project No: 10304/Punjab/ NRPU/R&D/HEC/ 2017 HEC is gratefully acknowledged for this support.
Medical equipment is a product that can directly affect human lives. They have been and are considerable investments and in many cases have high maintenance costs. That is why it is important to have a well-planned, managed maintenance program that can keep medical equipment in a reliable, safe, and available medical service. In addition, such a management program extends the life of the equipment and minimizes the cost of its maintenance [1].
A modern medical equipment maintenance strategy includes periodic inspection procedures to which preventive maintenance (PM) and corrective maintenance (CM) are added when necessary. Performance inspections ensure that the equipment operates correctly within the limits set by the manufacturer or according to the standards in force for that type of equipment. Safety inspections ensure that the equipment is safe to use for both patients and operators. Preventive maintenance (PM) aims to extend the life of the equipment and reduce the downtime of medical equipment [2].
In addition, there may be some hidden issues that can be easily detected during a scheduled inspection. The technical inspection procedure of medical equipment only ensures that the device is in good working order at the time of inspection and cannot eliminate the possibility of a malfunction during future use. It must be borne in mind that by their nature, electrical and mechanical components can be damaged at any time. Corrective maintenance (CM) restores the operation of a defective device and allows it to be put back into operation in optimal parameters.
Planning a maintenance program requires more effort to establish a comprehensive medical equipment management program. There are a number of critical factors to consider:
Inventory – types and models of medical equipment to be followed by technical staff and the steps by which they are specifically included in specific maintenance programs;
Methodology – identify the method by which maintenance will be provided to the medical equipment included in the program;
Resources – the financial, technical, and human resources included in the program.
In the process of planning a maintenance program, it is essential to determine the types of medical equipment they need to be included in a maintenance management program. This fact will depend on the types of medical services to be provided covered by the program, ranging from primary care clinics to hospitals as well as the range of equipment in them. The clinical engineering department of the hospital is the one that has to identify and select the medical equipment to be included in the inventory and to include it in the maintenance program [3].
A maintenance program can be implemented in several ways, the variety of methodologies available at a given time must be taken into account. For example, the healthcare provider may enter into service contracts with device manufacturers, independent service organizations, or a combination of both, in addition to the assistance that their own technical staff can provide.
As for the resources needed for maintenance, they are difficult to predict. This requires a well-maintained maintenance history, personnel requirement calculations, test equipment as well as their technical knowledge to repair defective equipment. Outside suppliers are required for the maintenance of complex equipment. Maintenance often requires access to equipment that can be difficult to obtain due to budget constraints and purchasing difficulties, especially when buying from abroad (Table 1). In order to meet such challenges, it is important to consider the financial advance, technical, and human resources required to properly carrying out the planned activities [4].
Initial cost | Operating cost | |
---|---|---|
Space, tools, test equipment, and computer resources | Utilities, operation, maintenance, and calibration | |
Recruiting and initial training | Salaries and continuing education | |
Not applicable | Service contract, spare parts, and materials |
Financial resources required for a maintenance program.
A maintenance schedule is also based on a defined number of physical resources. This category includes workspace, tools and test equipment, consumables, spare parts, and maintenance and service manuals required to perform maintenance. Various testing tools and equipment are required to perform PM and/or CM procedures, depending on the type of medical equipment. It is possible to perform many PM and CM with a basic set of electronic service instruments and test equipment (e.g. temperature meter, voltmeter, power indicator, oscilloscope, and electrical safety meter) (Table 2). However, all these involve additional costs that must be provided in the financial and technological management.
Medical device | Test equipment required |
---|---|
All electrical equipment | Electrical safety analyzer |
ICU monitors and ECG machines | Simulators/arrhythmia simulators |
Defibrillators | Defibrillator analyzer |
Electrosurgical units | Frequency electrosurgical analyzer |
Ventilators, heart-lung machine, and anesthesia machine | Pneumatic tester and pneumatic flow meter |
Noninvasive blood pressure monitors | Noninvasive blood pressure simulator |
Anesthesia machines and ventilators, | Gas flow meters |
Test equipment for some medical device category.
Fortunately, in hospitals, we see more and more technology. And this can only make us happy, proving to us that medicine is advancing, so the diagnosis is made earlier and more precisely, the treatment is more personalized and more effective. Overall, technology allows us to better care for the patient for his/her benefit, but also for the doctor, who has powerful tools to practice his/her profession. At the same time, the presence of these increasingly sophisticated medical equipment comes with the need for medical engineers in hospitals who know how to use this equipment, to identify when they are not used correctly or when they no longer work at optimal parameters.
For a patient, the staff of a hospital means doctors, nurses, and sisters, and it is normal to be like that, because only with them they interact but, a hospital in order to operate continuously, 24/7, in safe conditions, there is a whole team of technicians behind it, which makes this possible. Someone has to make sure that the medical equipment, the ventilation systems, the medical gas systems, and the electrical network are working properly, and these are the bioengineers, the clinical engineers, and the medical engineers.
Operational management involves making very diverse decisions, which can be classified into two broad categories: strategic and tactical. Strategic decisions have a longer time horizon and are less structured than tactical ones. They focus on the entire organization, drawing certain lines and directions, while tactical decisions are more focused on departments, teams, and issues. Device management takes place within a generalized business model, so clinical engineers work in collaboration with the financial and procurement departments of the institution to ensure efficient management of technical equipment, but also assistance policies are properly implemented through the efficient use of financial resources [5]. Consequently, the role of clinical engineering includes the development of equipment support strategies, the management and periodic review of these strategies, as well as the management of both fiscal resources and specialized personnel. Various problems may occur with medical devices resulting from device malfunctions, equipment operation problems, or malfunctioning devices [6, 7].
The first maintenance policies developed consisted of interventions on the devices that worked until their accidental shutdown (breakdown) due to wear and tear or due to the occurrence of malfunctions. The intervention is considered satisfactory as long as the device/system is operating at a minimum acceptable level (reactive maintenance) [8].
The development and increase in the complexity of medical equipment have led to the modernization and updating of maintenance techniques and policies. The preventive and predictive activity makes it possible to plan the shutdown, prepare the intervention team, ensure the necessary spare parts, and respectively, reduce to a minimum the parking time for repair [9]. Predictive maintenance is a qualitative leap forward in a modern maintenance system, regardless of the scope or specifics of production, as it provides all the information needed to:
early detection of defects;
their location;
fault diagnosis; and
calculation of the safe operating time of the machine.
Many healthcare providers have now implemented continuous quality improvement programs based on innovation in the way care is provided in order to improve safety, control costs, and make these services more accessible and effective for patients. Staff involved in operational management also use risk management methodologies to optimize hospital resources to provide a healthcare technology management program that focuses on ensuring that the hospital’s clinical work can be performed safely and cost-effectively.
The lack of specialized technical staff, including medical bioengineers and clinical engineers in hospitals, as well as an inefficient maintenance system are the major causes that determine incidents of all kinds. This has been highlighted more than ever, during the pandemic, when hospitals and all their medical equipment were and still are overburdened. During this time, more than ever, we have realized that the rules and standards of hospital care (including the care of medical equipment, medical gas networks, ventilation, electrical networks, etc.) need to be improved, and maintenance policies need to be optimized as quickly as possible.
Healthcare is one of the largest industries in the world, with a high degree of diversity in terms of therapeutic activities and how they are performed. There is compelling evidence that while healthcare brings enormous benefits to all people, the frequency of errors and unwanted events is increasing, directly related to the development of innovation in biomedical technologies. Understanding and ensuring the safety of medical care is an extreme challenge in health system management [10].
For departments and organizations that target medical devices, whether they are manufactured or used, one of the key goals should be patient safety and risk management. Risk management is a complex process of identifying, analyzing, and responding to potential risks, through a documented approach, which uses material, financial, and human resources to achieve objectives, aiming to reduce their exposure to losses [11]. Thus, internal control is directly associated with risk management, because, through the measures taken, a functional framework is reasonably ensured that allows that entity to achieve its objectives [12].
The risk appetite of the organization must be clearly articulated in the policy, and this can be informed through legal and financial issues. Policy should also clearly define roles and responsibilities in risk management. There must also be a periodic review process in which each risk is reviewed to ensure that control measures are effective and that the residual risk is properly classified. The policy should set out the process, methods, and tools used to manage the risks within the organization.
Risk management is a cyclical process, which takes place throughout the course of an activity and involves several stages of work as shown in Figure 1.
Risk management cycle.
The first step in the risk management process involves focusing efforts on identifying all possible sources of risk that could affect in any way the development of the project or activity analyzed. Effective risk management assumes that risk identification is an ongoing process that allows the entity to connect to the process of change and adaptation. An efficient risk management process at the level of the entity must also take into account the priorities of the institutions under coordination/subordination or under authority, which contribute to the achievement of the objectives of the respective entity [13].
The sources of risk come from both inside and outside an organization that provides healthcare services. External sources are those sources of risk that are the result of events outside the organization under analysis. The main factors that can influence the external risk environment and that need to be taken into account are as follows:
regulations and/or legislation – each healthcare provider must identify those laws and regulations under which they operate and which define the limits of action of this entity;
modifying/updating the objectives – in some situations, the treatment of some risks by the managers of the organization is influenced by the external decisions that influence the own activities;
sometimes, budget cuts can affect the achievement/limitation or stoppage of some professional activities or the number of employees.
Due to the fact that in the case of external risk no preventive measures can be taken, the only way to act is by insurance. Internal sources are the result of events within the organization. These sources of risk can be controlled. In this category, we can distinguish the risks of using technology equipment, the risks of specialized labor, or the risks associated with organizational management. These risks can be prevented by simply eliminating the sources that produce them, which is possible due to the fact that they are generated by the activity of the organization, so they come from within it.
There are two main categories in the risk analysis process:
qualitative risk analysis;
quantitative risk analysis.
The results of the qualitative risk analysis are less accurate, as they are more indicative than precise. In the qualitative analysis, the Probability Impact Matrix technique can be used, a technique that combines the two components of risk, thus presenting an overview of it [10]. This method can be applied at several levels, with varying degrees of difficulty. Most healthcare organizations use a 535 risk matrix based on Australian standards AS/4360: 2004, where the two axes correspond to the scales for consequences, sometimes called severity and probability as illustrated in Figure 2 [14].
Probability impact matrix examples.
If these results are not satisfactory, the risk management also provides the quantitative analysis which presents results in numerical form as a result of the calculations made. If the risk analyst cannot give an accurate probability of such an event occurring, he/she can instead calculate the size of the losses or depreciations generated.
In this sense, risk management has developed a series of calculation methods and techniques such as [15]:
SWOT analysis (
Concatenation principle: by concatenating the risks, a chain of risky events is identified, and these will be analyzed together.
Script technique: this technique involves describing one or more possible ways of conducting an event from a concrete situation.
Expected value analysis.
Decision-based tree analysis.
Monte Carlo simulation method.
Measures should be taken to reduce the probability (possibility) of occurrence of the risk and/or to reduce the consequences (impact) on the results (objectives), if the risk is materialized. Risk response is a reduction in risk exposure if it is a threat.
If disposal is not feasible, control measures should be put in place:
Elimination or avoidance
Replacement
Control of risks at source
Separation and isolation
Safe working procedures
Training, instruction, and supervision
Personal protection
Other considerations: social assistance facilities, first aid, and emergency procedures
Lack of control can compromise the entire risk management process.
In general, the risk management framework should not be seen as a single task but should be continually reviewed to ensure that it remains fit for purpose. There are a variety of technical standards for medical devices designed to ensure the consistency of a device’s safety throughout its life [16, 17]. These should be seen as a starting point in the risk profile and are the basis of the medical device directives: directive on implantable active medical devices (90/385/EEC), Medical Devices Directive (93/42/EEC), and directive on in vitro diagnostic medical devices (98/79/EEC). Another useful standard is BS ISO 31100 which sets a framework for incorporating risk management into any organization [18].
A very important component in the management of medical technologies is represented by the realization of a maintenance program in which to take into account the characteristics and failures of medical equipment. At the moment of including such a maintenance strategy, a distinction will have to be made between older medical devices and high-tech devices, as they cannot be effectively managed if the same maintenance strategies are used [19]. The World Health Organization has issued guidelines for the application of corrective maintenance at the hospital level. Corrective maintenance is actually a whole process from identifying the defect to repairing the device and putting it back into operation.
The first step in the corrective maintenance process is to report a fault/incident to a user. Also, a malfunction can be found when a medical technician/bioengineer from the Department of Clinical Engineering performs the periodic technical inspection. In order to make the maintenance process more efficient, the first step is the realization of the finding and then the corrective maintenance is initiated. A reduction in the failure time of the defective medical device can be achieved when the medical technician/bioengineer performs some corrective maintenance steps himself/herself and uses internal expertise or external service providers. This corrective maintenance may be accomplished at various levels:
component level: old generation equipment requires isolation of the fault by troubleshooting and repairing the level of components. In the case of new generation medical equipment, electronic devices, repairing the level of components can be time-consuming and difficult. In addition, this type of maintenance is not feasible, so the repair of the board level or even the system level is applied.
board level: in the case of modern electronic equipment, the faults of a certain circuit board are isolated, and the entire board is replaced.
device or system level: in the case of modern equipment, troubleshooting and repairing at the plate level are sometimes difficult and time-consuming. Therefore, if the cost of a repair exceeds 60% of the value of the purchase of new equipment, it is more profitable to replace the entire device or subsystem.
The type of corrective maintenance applied at the hospital level is dependent on a number of cumulative factors including the availability of financial, physical, and human resources, as well as the urgency of a particular request for repair. One strategy that can be considered is the application of repairs at the device level, in emergency situations and when more time is available, the repair can be used at the plate level or at the component level. If it is proposed to repair the component level, parts may need to be replaced.
Replacement can be done with specialized parts from the manufacturer or with spare parts recovered from malfunctioning or obsolete equipment (only after the announced risk assessment).
In the event of an unforeseen fault, environmental factors must also be considered, such as stabilizing the power supply sources by using voltage regulators, installing uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), using surge protection devices and avoiding connection. Another important environmental aspect is the interaction of medical devices with other utility systems (e.g. medical gas and vacuum systems, temperature and ventilation control systems, water supply, and information technology).
There must be a permanent collaboration with the other categories of engineers in the organization in order to optimize the capacity of the utility systems so that the medical equipment works in optimal parameters. The environment in which medical equipment is used should be controlled in terms of temperature and humidity. There are situations in which some medical equipment is designed to be used in accordance with the specific climate of a country/region. In this case, the maintenance procedures in a particular country or region are adjusted according to these local factors. Other important environmental factors are the age and condition of medical equipment or old facilities built to old standards that are not applicable.
The actions required after the repair is completed include recalibration processes and a performance and safety inspection. These activities are essential for measuring device performance. Once these activities are completed, the medical equipment will be returned for use to the patient care.
In the case of corrective maintenance, a decisive role is played by the periodic technical verification, part of the preventive maintenance process. The technical file of the medical device in which any intervention made on the medical device is recorded is a reference document in corrective maintenance that helps to make decisions. Existing data in the worksheet includes the actions performed, the parts replaced, and their cost helps to identify if or when the parts need to be replaced again and helps to explain the condition of the parts during the current inspection.
An important aspect in the corrective maintenance process is the consideration of safety aspects. In this case, procedures must be included regarding the safety of the technical staff during maintenance, the safety of the user after maintenance, and the general control of infections. In order to increase the safety of service personnel, it is necessary to train and use personal protective equipment and knowledge of techniques that will allow technical personnel to work safely in dangerous conditions.
Following maintenance, in particular following procedures which could have affected the safety features of a medical device, the technical staff must check that the device is safe to use, mechanically and electrically. Particular attention shall be paid to the electrical safety of medical devices so that they are earth-proof and leakage current is measured to ensure that they are within the applicable limits. (In the absence of electrical safety test equipment, technical personnel must rely on careful repair techniques and simple electrical tests to verify the integrity of the device). Physicians should be advised to check the settings of the device and perform basic operational checks before using the device with patients [20].
An important conclusion we can draw is that the best maintenance strategy is to apply the mixed maintenance strategy. This process is due to the fact that we are talking about a very large number of medical equipment and complex technologies. The maintenance process must be divided between the parts: internal maintenance is adopted for surgical lamps, sciatic lamps, and telemetry devices. In the case of critical devices, maintenance is covered by full-risk agreements with authorized manufacturers or service centers.
External maintenance is adopted for anesthesia machines, mechanical ventilators, electrocardiographs, patient monitors, and surgical tables [21].
Good management of medical technologies at the hospital level can minimize malfunctions in medical devices. If we refer to developing countries, here the problem is the limited financial resources. In this case, a proper management of medical technologies, based on increasing reliability and reducing failures, could lead to the provision of good health services in limited economic conditions. Assessing the effectiveness of any maintenance program is critical to optimizing the use of available resources within the hospital. The emphasis cannot be placed solely on scheduled maintenance [22].
Patients’ access to an accurate diagnosis, effective treatment, or rehabilitation process with appropriate medical devices is related to the efficient management of the maintenance of medical devices. This process can increase the efficiency and productivity of medical technology resources, which is especially important when resources are limited (Figure 3) [23].
A summary of basics for evaluating and identifying the mode of operation within the clinical engineering department of any hospital.
A possible approach to medical technology management involves the inclusion of a priority analysis step. The division into three levels of emergency (high, medium, and low) can be proposed based on the operation and implementation of subsequent actions in appropriate stages, appropriate to urgency, criticality, and seriousness. This analysis of priorities can be done both in terms of preventive maintenance, corrective maintenance, and in the case of a replacement program. In this case, the management priority can be recognized by the maintenance [24]
Another operational diagram that can be applied to evaluate the management process of medical technologies is the Ishikawa diagram or the fish bone diagram. This diagram is a verbal tool that has the relationship between an effect (a problem) and all possible causes that influence the effect (Figure 4).
Ishikawa diagram or the fish bone diagram applied to the management process of medical technologies.
The optimization of the functions of the maintenance department can be obtained by implementing a procedure that includes three important aspects: the task of the annual maintenance plan, the time available for the technical department, and the amount of equipment to be maintained. Taking into account these parameters, it is possible to estimate the personnel necessary to perform the maintenance function, responding to the most critical component of the management act – human resources [25]
Block diagram of the process required to calculate the set proposed by the KPI, starting from technological, organizational, and financial data.
A proper evaluation of the medical equipment maintenance process should include the development of a checklist for evaluating medical technology management. Implementing a list can be helpful in ensuring the profitability of health facilities and the reliability of medical equipment. In addition, she/he is involved in decision-making in support of the selection, measurement, repair, and maintenance of medical equipment, in particular for capital equipment managers and hospital medical engineers, and also for the evaluation of this process.
An example of a maintenance management evaluation checklist proposes the inclusion of 15 indicators: type of medical equipment, quality control tests, application of training processes, correct storage of medical equipment and spare parts, existence of maintenance contracts, supervision of the process of operation, the existence of the decommissioning procedure, the existence of the reintegration system in use/system and the reporting of adverse events, ensuring the supply of electricity in optimal conditions, implementation of a process of continuous development of maintenance, general administration, management, and allocation of a separate budget for medical equipment maintenance services [23].
Another approach to evaluating the management process was implemented by Herrera-Galán and included evaluating the performance of the maintenance function by implementing management audits. Assessments include equipment availability, response to a service request, monitoring and control of biomedical equipment, staff training, quality of work performed by maintenance technicians, workload of maintenance technicians, control of work performed by maintenance technicians, effectiveness of annual planning, and maintenance and performance of the department. The results of this research show that the audit technique is a valuable checklist in evaluating the performance of a hospital. And in this case, it was highlighted that the most critical component of the results of a management audit is human resources [26].
Amerion et al. managed to identify the effective factors that influence the management of medical technologies at the level of a military hospital. Following the study, 26 components with an important influence on the management process were extracted. These are user training, human resources, user engagement and experience, the foreign exchange market, regular checks, and trade name. Attention to the evaluation of these components could reduce maintenance costs and increase the lifespan of medical equipment. The process of training users that must be continuous and the quality of human resources are the two main aspects [27].
A general conclusion regarding the implementation of management strategies in the maintenance of medical equipment shows us that the necessary adequate resources underlying are human resources, material, financial, and documentation resources [28].
The maintenance of medical equipment becomes more expensive every year, and to optimize maintenance programs and reduce total cost of ownership, hospital management structures are constantly looking for solutions to extend the time of operation of equipment, in the required safety and technical performance and through the efficient use of available resources. The analysis and substantiation of capital expenditures in medical organizations must be based on quantifiable factors, with a direct impact on the full associated costs. In order to optimize operating and support costs, medical technology management structures develop medical equipment maintenance programs, based on assessments and prioritization, based on risks and costs. The development of alternative plans for medical equipment must take into account the complexity and large number of existing equipment, the skills of its own specialists and their number, the technical means of calibration and control, and the budgetary resources available.
In this regard, healthcare facilities need to implement evidence-based maintenance strategies, through the development of prioritization procedures aimed at a balanced assessment of relevant factors in the life of medical equipment, through an integrated approach to the elements of reliability-based maintenance, on risk-based conditions and maintenance.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Today's modern hospital is highly dependent on different types of medical equipment to help diagnose, monitor, and treat patients. Medical equipment maintenance is important to reduce costs, reduce patient dissatisfaction, treat the patient in a timely manner, and reduce mortality and risks during patient care. Good maintenance management is important to have well-planned and implemented programs through which hospitals can minimize medical device failures or other problems with the operation of medical equipment. Medical equipment plays an important role in the hospital system; therefore, the acquisition, maintenance, and replacement of medical equipment are key factors in hospitals for the implementation of the health service. Thus, in order to ensure the quality of medical devices for the provision of medical care, it is imperative to evaluate the safety of using hospital maintenance management. In order to achieve these goals, hospitals must develop checklists that identify the state of performance of medical equipment maintenance. It is essential for clinical managers and engineers not only to increase the capacity of the hospital but also to predict the risks of sudden failure. Given the lack of unique and comprehensive maintenance management checklists, the current goal is to design and develop medical equipment maintenance management checklists.
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Ligthart and Toon (A.)M.M. Ansems",authors:[{id:"98477",title:"Dr.",name:"Tom",middleName:null,surname:"Ligthart",slug:"tom-ligthart",fullName:"Tom Ligthart"}]},{id:"63120",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80087",title:"The Comprehensive Utilisation of Red Mud Utilisation in Blast Furnace",slug:"the-comprehensive-utilisation-of-red-mud-utilisation-in-blast-furnace",totalDownloads:956,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"State-of-the-art formation of red mud during industrial processing of bauxite in the Sverdlovsk region (Russian Federation) is presented. Red mud chemical composition is presented, and an analysis of existing ways in which they are utilised is executed. In the Institute of Metallurgy of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, red mud is utilised by introducing it into the charge for the production of iron ore sinter and pellets following the use of sinter and pellets in the blast furnace charge. Metallurgical properties of sinter and pellets (reducibility, strength, softening and melting temperatures) with different contents of red mud in iron ore raw materials are also presented, including the technology of red mud usage in ferrous metallurgy carried out through industrial and laboratorial tests. Additionally, the main technical and economic indicators of blast furnace smelting (productivity, coke consumption, chemical composition of pig iron and slag, etc.) are presented. The possibility and expediency of utilisation of red mud in a blast furnace are shown.",book:{id:"7557",slug:"recovery-and-utilization-of-metallurgical-solid-waste",title:"Recovery and Utilization of Metallurgical Solid Waste",fullTitle:"Recovery and Utilization of Metallurgical Solid Waste"},signatures:"Andrey Dmitriev",authors:null},{id:"37118",doi:"10.5772/33969",title:"Size Reduction by Grinding as an Important Stage in Recycling",slug:"comminution-as-an-important-stage-in-recycling",totalDownloads:5432,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"2254",slug:"post-consumer-waste-recycling-and-optimal-production",title:"Post-Consumer Waste Recycling and Optimal Production",fullTitle:"Post-Consumer Waste Recycling and Optimal Production"},signatures:"Marek Macko",authors:[{id:"98075",title:"Dr.",name:"Marek",middleName:null,surname:"Macko",slug:"marek-macko",fullName:"Marek Macko"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"77881",title:"Chemical Recycling of Polyolefins (PE, PP): Modern Technologies and Products",slug:"chemical-recycling-of-polyolefins-pe-pp-modern-technologies-and-products",totalDownloads:441,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Chemical recycling is one of the most intensively developed potential solutions for the global plastic waste issue. This broadly defined term covers several different technologies that lead to many diverse products. Polyolefins (polyethylene and polypropylene) can be chemically recycled by pyrolysis (cracking) or gasification. These polymers’ chemical composition and structure make them a great potential source of valuable hydrocarbons or carbon atoms for syngas production. Thermal and catalytic cracking of polyethylene and polypropylene can be optimised to maximise specific types of hydrocarbons that, after optional additional processing, such as hydrotreatment, steam cracking or distillation, can be used as intermediates in petrochemical plants, fuels or fuel components, monomers for polymerisation of new, virgin polymers or as specialty chemicals (final market products). Gasification of plastic waste transforms polymers into a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, which can be further used as a source of these gasses, transformed into chemicals and fuels, or used directly to produce energy. This chapter presents all of these process paths with examples of existing technologies and their level of technology readiness and perspectives for scale-up.",book:{id:"10855",slug:"waste-material-recycling-in-the-circular-economy-challenges-and-developments",title:"Waste Material Recycling in the Circular Economy",fullTitle:"Waste Material Recycling in the Circular Economy - Challenges and Developments"},signatures:"Daria Frączak",authors:[{id:"353408",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Daria",middleName:null,surname:"Frączak",slug:"daria-fraczak",fullName:"Daria Frączak"}]},{id:"77840",title:"Recent Advances in Pre-Treatment of Plastic Packaging Waste",slug:"recent-advances-in-pre-treatment-of-plastic-packaging-waste",totalDownloads:370,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"There is an urgent need to close the loop of plastic waste. One of the main challenges towards plastic packaging waste recycling is the presence of a variety of contaminants. These contaminants include organic residues, additives, labels, inks and also other plastic types that can be present in the waste stream due to missorting or in multimaterial structures (e.g. multilayer films in packaging). In this context, pre-treatment processes are a promising route to tackle the difficulties that are encountered in mechanical and chemical recycling due to these contaminants. This chapter gives better insight on the already existing pre-treatment techniques and on the advances that are being developed and/or optimized in order to achieve closed-loop recycling. Some of these advanced pre-treatments include chemical washing to remove inks (deinking), extraction methods to remove undesired plastic additives and dissolution-based pre-treatments, such as delamination and dissolution-precipitation techniques.",book:{id:"10855",slug:"waste-material-recycling-in-the-circular-economy-challenges-and-developments",title:"Waste Material Recycling in the Circular Economy",fullTitle:"Waste Material Recycling in the Circular Economy - Challenges and Developments"},signatures:"Rita Kol, Martijn Roosen, Sibel Ügdüler, Kevin M. Van Geem, Kim Ragaert, Dimitris S. Achilias and Steven De Meester",authors:[{id:"95620",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitris S.",middleName:null,surname:"Achilias",slug:"dimitris-s.-achilias",fullName:"Dimitris S. Achilias"},{id:"414071",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Kol",slug:"rita-kol",fullName:"Rita Kol"},{id:"414291",title:"Prof.",name:"Steven",middleName:null,surname:"De Meester",slug:"steven-de-meester",fullName:"Steven De Meester"},{id:"421741",title:"Prof.",name:"Kim",middleName:null,surname:"Ragaert",slug:"kim-ragaert",fullName:"Kim Ragaert"},{id:"421889",title:"Mr.",name:"Martijn",middleName:null,surname:"Roosen",slug:"martijn-roosen",fullName:"Martijn Roosen"},{id:"421890",title:"Mrs.",name:"Sibel",middleName:null,surname:"Ügdüler",slug:"sibel-ugduler",fullName:"Sibel Ügdüler"},{id:"421891",title:"Prof.",name:"Kevin M.",middleName:null,surname:"Van Geem",slug:"kevin-m.-van-geem",fullName:"Kevin M. Van Geem"}]},{id:"63364",title:"Comprehensive Utilization of Iron-Bearing Converter Wastes",slug:"comprehensive-utilization-of-iron-bearing-converter-wastes",totalDownloads:1128,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Basic oxygen furnace (BOF) sludge is composed of not only valuable iron but also impurities like Zn, Pb, and some alkaline oxides. It is collected from wet cleaning system in steelmaking plants. How to deal with these double identity wastes? Will the traditional landfill treatments result in environmental pollution? What technologies have been developed recently, and is it actually useful? In this chapter, physical-chemical properties and mineralogical phases of converter sludge were characterized, and different recycling technologies were introduced. The proven metalized pellet-producing process would be highlighted that green pellets made from iron-bearing sludge are dried and preheated in a traveling grate firstly, and then reduced at high temperature in a rotary kiln or a rotary hearth furnace (RHF) to get direct reduced iron (DRI), served as a good iron source for blast furnace.",book:{id:"7557",slug:"recovery-and-utilization-of-metallurgical-solid-waste",title:"Recovery and Utilization of Metallurgical Solid Waste",fullTitle:"Recovery and Utilization of Metallurgical Solid Waste"},signatures:"Hu Long, Dong Liu, Lie-Jun Li, Ming-Hua Bai, Yanzhong Jia and Wensheng Qiu",authors:null},{id:"77937",title:"An Evaluation of Recycled Polymeric Materials Usage in Denim with Lifecycle Assesment Methodology",slug:"an-evaluation-of-recycled-polymeric-materials-usage-in-denim-with-lifecycle-assesment-methodology",totalDownloads:291,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Today, World economy is only 8.6% circular, which creates a huge potential in materials reuse. To close the Emission Gap by 2032, this percentage needs to be doubled. The circular economy ensures that with less virgin material input and fewer emissions. With the help of effective recycling technologies, virgin material use can be decreased and especially petroleum based materials impact can fall within planetary boundaries. This book chapter analyzes different chemical and biological recycling technologies, their advantages and challenges in denim production. Moreover, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) analysis will be used to evaluate the environmental impact of recycled polymeric materials usage in denim fabrics. Finally, it concludes by challenges and the future of chemically recycled materials in denim production and opportunities to evaluate waste as a raw material to design circular systems.",book:{id:"10855",slug:"waste-material-recycling-in-the-circular-economy-challenges-and-developments",title:"Waste Material Recycling in the Circular Economy",fullTitle:"Waste Material Recycling in the Circular Economy - Challenges and Developments"},signatures:"Sedef Uncu Aki, Cevza Candan, Banu Nergis and Neslihan Sebla Önder",authors:[{id:"172112",title:"Prof.",name:"Cevza",middleName:null,surname:"Candan",slug:"cevza-candan",fullName:"Cevza Candan"},{id:"304795",title:"Prof.",name:"Banu",middleName:null,surname:"Nergis",slug:"banu-nergis",fullName:"Banu Nergis"},{id:"320710",title:"Ms.",name:"Neslihan Sebla",middleName:null,surname:"Önder",slug:"neslihan-sebla-onder",fullName:"Neslihan Sebla Önder"},{id:"357366",title:"Dr.",name:"Sedef",middleName:null,surname:"Uncu Aki",slug:"sedef-uncu-aki",fullName:"Sedef Uncu Aki"}]},{id:"63272",title:"Treatments and Recycling of Metallurgical Slags",slug:"treatments-and-recycling-of-metallurgical-slags",totalDownloads:1416,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Steelmaking plants continuously strive to reduce the environmental load in the steelmaking process, resulting in the recycling of energy, water, and other byproducts. In this chapter, techniques for the treatment and recycling of metallurgical slags are described. Metallurgical slags are considered secondary raw materials and are used or added during the process to improve steelmaking practice. Steelmaking slag added into ladle slags makes it possible to minimize slag line wear. BOF-converter slags are also applied in buildup, foaming, or slag splashing practices carried out to prolong the lifespan of refractory lining. Also, EAF slags are commonly used to avoid refractory wear and decrease energy consumption. It is known that cement concrete is one of the most common building materials. Blast furnace crystallized slags are used in cement production, in different percentages. In this sense, understanding the properties of slags is a prerequisite to apply them in different functions. This chapter deals with the measurement and modeling of thermochemical properties of slags, thermophysical properties, and interproperty correlations. Different experimental tests applied in slag characterization are also detailed.",book:{id:"7557",slug:"recovery-and-utilization-of-metallurgical-solid-waste",title:"Recovery and Utilization of Metallurgical Solid Waste",fullTitle:"Recovery and Utilization of Metallurgical Solid Waste"},signatures:"Elena Brandaleze, Edgardo Benavidez and Leandro Santini",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"889",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. 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