An overview of the named and mapped genes for STB resistance.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"313",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Health Management - Different Approaches and Solutions",title:"Health Management",subtitle:"Different Approaches and Solutions",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The development in our understanding of health management ensures unprecedented possibilities in terms of explaining the causes of diseases and effective treatment. 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\r\n\tThe rise of robotic technology continues in the new century, taking firm steps towards becoming a part of humanity day by day. Robots have become a part of both industrial production and human life, increasingly taking their place in factories, hospitals, schools, the military system, streets, and homes. As a result of this rapid involvement of robotic structures in modern life, scientists are accelerating both theoretical and applied studies on robotic manipulators. This book focuses on the latest developments in kinematics, dynamics, control, simulation tools, optimization, and structural design of serial, parallel, and hybrid robot manipulators. I would like to thank all the authors who will contribute to the book with their novel ideas in advance. During the last years, there was intense research on Ankylosing Spondylitis (AS) and related disorders, which were found to have a strong association with the HLA-B27 allele. Further studies showed that 92% of the population variance is due to genetic factors, and only a fraction of AS genetics can be explained by the influence of HLA-B27. Updated information on the genomic and auto-immune knowledge on AS is an important component of this book, calling attention to markers of disease activity, possible pathways, and the interaction with the gut microbiome, which are a step forward in the knowledge of the pathophysiology of AS, providing markers which are targets for the more recent biologic therapies.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tAn update on clinical manifestations, their assessment, monitoring, and imagiology, including peripheral arthritis, enthesopathy, and extra-articular findings, and, the differential diagnosis with other diseases which evolves with axial and peripheral calcifications will be provided.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tAn important component of this book must be dedicated to the more recent treatments namely with biologic therapies but focusing also on new small molecule inhibitors and experimental therapies.
Wheat is one of the most important sources of food worldwide. Data from FAOSTAT indicate that the need is still growing, indicated by the steadily increasing yield since 1961 (Figure 1). The need for an enhanced wheat production combined with stagnation in the area cultivated (Figure 1) leads to a demand for a more effective and higher yielding wheat production.
\nDevelopment in wheat cultivation in the years 1961–2016. The primary y-axis displays the area harvested in Mha (red line) and the secondary y-axis displays the yield in tones pr. ha (blue line). Data from FAOSTAT.
Marker-assisted selection (MAS) or molecular breeding offers an opportunity to accelerate the traditional breeding. Traditional breeding is based on phenotypic selection of genotypes obtained from crosses. Genotype × environment (G×E) interaction is a common problem including time-consuming and costly procedures of phenotyping. By employing molecular markers, desirable genes can be fixated in early generations of the breeding program. In addition, molecular markers are unaffected by environmental conditions and are detectable in all stages of the plant growth. Scientists and breeders across the world implement MAS in breeding programs [1].
\nMAS is based on the concept of genetic linkage between loci. This describes the tendency of loci located closely together on the same chromosome being more likely to be inherited together in a recombination event during meiosis. Thus, two alleles located very close on the chromosome will almost always be inherited together.
\nMolecular markers are used in MAS to highlight a place on the chromosome close to or in a specific gene of interest. The technique is based on detecting different alleles (polymorphisms) between several individuals. Due to genetic linkage, the molecular marker will reveal if the linked allele is present or not in a line. Several types of molecular markers exist, depending on the type of polymorphism. In today’s MAS, markers detecting single nucleotide differences are usually employed.
\nPlant diseases are a major constraint in wheat production and significant resources are allocated to control various diseases. The relatively long growing season of winter wheat renders it vulnerable to a range of diseases and breeding for disease resistance is generally thought to be the first line of defence [2]. Disease resistance is generally separated into quantitative and qualitative resistance. Qualitative resistance is most often controlled by a single gene and follows the gene-for-gene hypothesis. Thus, an R gene in the host can specifically interact with an
One of the most important foliar diseases in wheat is Septoria tritici blotch (STB), caused by the fungus
Resistance gene | \nMarker type | \nMarker name | \nLocation | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
SSR | \nXbarc74, Xgwm335 | \n5BL | \n[8] | \n|
SSR | \nXwmc406, Xbarc008 | \n1BS | \n[9] | \n|
SSR | \nXwmc83 | \n7AS | \n[11] | \n|
SSR | \nXgwm111, Xgwm44 | \n7DS | \n[16] | \n|
SSR | \nXgwm44 | \n7DS | \n[17] | \n|
SSR | \nXgwm369 | \n3AS | \n[12] | \n|
SSR | \nXgwm160, Xwmc219, Xwmc319 | \n4AL | \n[18] | \n|
SSR | \nXgwm146, Xgwm577 | \n7BL | \n[19] | \n|
SSR | \nXfbb226, XksuF1b | \n2BL | \n[20] | \n|
SSR | \nXgwm848 | \n1D | \n[21] | \n|
SSR | \nXbarc008 | \n1BS | \n[22] | \n|
SSR | \nXwmc219, Xgw313 | \n4AL | \n[21] | \n|
SSR | \nXwmc396 | \n7BL | \nWheat gene catalogue | \n|
SSR | \nXwmc500, Xwmc632 | \n3BS | \nWheat gene catalogue | \n|
SSR | \nXgwm494 | \n3DL | \n[23] | \n|
SSR | \nXhbg247 | \n5AL | \n[23] | \n|
SSR | \nXgpw5176, Xgpw3087 | \n6DS | \n[24] | \n|
SSR | \nXbarc119b | \n1BS | \n[25] | \n
An overview of the named and mapped genes for STB resistance.
The name of the resistance gene, marker type, marker name, the location on the genome and the reference are indicated.
One of the more promising resistance genes identified in recent years is
In order to obtain the most resistant wheat variety, breeders should take a number of things into account. Since qualitative resistance genes often conform to the gene-for-gene hypothesis, they are readily overcome by the pathogen. Due to the high frequency of genetic recombination of
Fusarium head blight (FHB) is an important disease in all wheat growing countries. Epidemics occur frequently, especially under seasons with regular rainfall [29]. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has stated that FHB is the most devastating plant disease since the rust epidemics in the 1950s. FHB contaminates the grain with mycotoxins, in turn restricting its use for both animal and human consumption [30]. The disease is caused by several species of
Chemical control and crop management are not sufficient to control FHB; thus, breeding resistant varieties plays a key role. Conventional breeding involves repeated testing of breeding lines under natural or artificial inoculations. This process is time-consuming, costly, and prone to influence by environment. Thus, it is relevant to supplement phenotypic selection with MAS for FHB resistance. [32]. FHB resistance is generally divided into three types: resistance to initial infection (type I), resistance to spreading of the pathogen in infected tissue (type II) and resistance to DON accumulation (type III) [33]. Several studies have demonstrated that FHB resistance is of quantitative nature [29]. Furthermore, the expression of resistance is highly dependent on the pathogen, the environment and the host [34], in turn complicating phenotypic selection. Several QTL for FHB resistance have been identified and located during recent years [29]. The first QTL for type II resistance was identified in the spring wheat ‘Sumai 3’ on chromosome 3BS. This QTL was named
Resistance gene | \nMarker type | \nMarker name | \nLocation | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
SSR | \nXgwm493, Xgwm533 | \n3BS | \n[42] | \n|
SSR | \nXgwm133, Xgwm644 | \n6BS | \n[40] | \n|
SSR | \nXhbg226, Xgwm149 | \n4B | \n[41] | \n|
SSR | \nXgwm304, Xgwm415 | \n5A | \n[43] | \n|
KASP | \nWg1s_snp1 | \n1AS | \n[44] | \n|
SSR | \nXsdauK66, Xcfa2240 | \n7DS | \n[45] | \n
Overview of the FHB-resistant genes identified in wheat using molecular markers.
Wheat stripe rust, mostly designated as ‘yellow rust’ (YR), causes major yield losses every year. The disease is caused by
Breeding for YR resistance was initiated in 1905 by Biffen [47]. To date, more than 70 genes (
Resistance gene | \nMarker type | \nMarker name | \nLocation | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
SSR | \nXgwm501 | \n2BL | \n[55] | \n|
SSR | \nXgwm526 | \n2BL | \n[56] | \n|
SSR | \nXbarc8, Xgwm493 | \n1BS | \n[57] | \n|
CAPS | \nCssfr6 | \n7D | \n[58] | \n|
SSR | \nXgwm508, Xbarc136 | \n6BS | \n[54] | \n|
SSR | \nXwmc776 | \n4AL | \n[59] | \n|
SSR | \nXwmc11, Xwmc532 | \n\n | [60] | \n|
SNP | \nIWA7257 | \n6BS | \n[61] | \n
A selection of the genes conferring YR resistance identified by molecular markers.
Several incidences have been reported where
Wheat is grown in large parts of the world and is used for animal feed or for a wide range of products such as pasta, biscuits, cakes and bread. The end-use quality differs greatly between wheat cultivars and is influenced by several traits, e.g., grain hardness, grain protein content, gluten content and composition and starch properties. Quality should therefore be an important focus in wheat breeding programs. However, wheat quality cannot be easily determined phenotypically, and different methods are preferred in different countries and industries. Methods for testing quality are typically time-consuming and costly and require relatively large amounts of grain, which is typically not available until late stages of breeding programs. Thus, markers for wheat quality traits can be very useful, as they enable screening of a high number of lines and can be used early in breeding programs [65, 66].
\nGrain hardness influences milling, flour and end-use properties of wheat. Flour from grain with hard endosperm texture has higher water absorption than flour from soft grain and is therefore preferred for bread-making. A soft endosperm texture leads to less starch granule damage during the milling and consequently to lower water absorption, which is preferred in the production of biscuits and cakes. Grain hardness is primarily controlled by the
Allele | \nChange in protein | \nPrimer sequences, 5′–3′ | \nPCR product | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Wild-type | \nF: ATGAAGGCCCTCTTCCTCA R: TCACCAGTAATAGCCAATAGTG | \n448 bp | \n[73, 74] | \n|
Large deletion | \nF: ATGAAGGCCCTCTTCCTCA R: TCACCAGTAATAGCCAATAGTG | \nNull (0 bp) | \n[73, 74] | \n|
Wild-type | \nF: ATGAAGACCTTATTCCTCCTA R: CTCATGCTCACAGCCGC | \n240 bp | \n[70, 73] | \n|
Gly to Ser pos. 46 | \nF: ATGAAGACCTTATTCCTCCTA R: CTCATGCTCACAGCCGC | \n240 bp | \n[70, 73] | \n|
Leu to Pro pos. 60 | \nF: ATGAAGACCTTATTCCTCCTA R: TCACCAGTAATAGCCACTAGGGAA | \n448 bp* | \n[67, 73] | \n|
Trp to Arg pos. 44 | \nF: TGCAAGGATTACGTGATGGA R: TCACCAGTAATAGCCACTAGGGAA | \n300 bp for pyrosequencing | \n[67, 71] | \n|
Trp to stop codon pos. 39 | \nF: TGCAAGGATTACGTGATGGA R: TCACCAGTAATAGCCACTAGGGAA | \n300 bp for pyrosequencing | \n[71, 75] | \n|
Trp to stop codon pos. 44 | \nF: TGCAAGGATTACGTGATGGA R: TCACCAGTAATAGCCACTAGGGAA | \n300 bp for pyrosequencing | \n[71, 75] | \n|
Cys to stop codon pos. 56 | \nF: TGCAAGGATTACGTGATGGA R: TCACCAGTAATAGCCACTAGGGAA | \n300 bp for pyrosequencing | \n[71, 75] | \n
Alleles of
Digest with restriction enzyme
The characteristic viscoelastic properties of wheat dough are due to a network of gluten proteins that is formed when flour is mixed with water. Thus, gluten is a major factor contributing to wheat quality. High grain protein content is typically associated with high quality, since roughly 80% of the grain protein is gluten [76]. However, both the amount and the composition of gluten affect wheat quality. Gluten consists of two types of proteins: polymeric glutenins and monomeric gliadins. Glutenins can be classified as low or high molecular weight (LMW or HMW) subunits, while gliadins can be classified as α, β, γ or ω types [77, 78]. The most important HMW glutenins, LMW glutenins, and gliadins are encoded by the
Locus | \nChr. arm | \nPrimer sequences, 5′–3′ | \nPCR product | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
1AL | \nFAM: AAGTGTAACTTCTCCGCAACA VIC: AAGTGTAACTTCTCCGCAACG Common: GGCCTGGATAGTATGAAACC | \nFAM: VIC: | \n[84, 97] | \n|
1BL | \nF: ACGTGTCCAAGCTTTGGTTC R: GATTGGTGGGTGGATACAGG | \nOthers: 0 bp | \n[98] | \n|
1DL | \nFAM: ATAGTATGAAACCTGCTGCGGAG VIC: ATAGTATGAAACCTGCTGCGGAC Common: TACTAAAAAGGTATTACCCAAGTGTAACTT | \nFAM: VIC: | \n[84, 99] | \n|
1AS | \nF: TTCAGATGCAGCCAAACAA R: GCTGTGCTTGGATGATACTCTA | \nOthers: 0 bp | \n[86, 87] | \n|
F: TTCAGATGCAGCCAAACAA R: TGGGGTTGGGAGACACATA | \nOthers: 0 bp | \n|||
1BS | \nF: ATCAGGTGTAAAAGTGATAG R: TGCTACATCGACATATCCA | \nOthers: 0 bp | \n[88] | \n|
F: CACCATGAAGACCTTCCTCA R: CACCATGAAGACCTTCCTCA | \nOthers: 0 bp | \n|||
F: CCAAGAAATACTAGTTAACACTAGTC R: GTTGGGGTTGGGAAACA | \nOthers: 0 bp | \n
Important HWM and LMW glutenin loci, their chromosomal location and primer sequences for detection of alleles with positive effects on wheat quality.
Favourable alleles are marked in bold.
The wheat-rye translocation 1BL.1RS has been employed in many breeding programs as it carries resistance genes against powdery mildew and rusts. Markers for the resistance genes can be used to test for the absence or presence of the translocation in wheat varieties [100]. Alternatively, markers for
Locus | \nPrimer sequences, 5′–3′ | \nPCR product | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|
F: TGATCTGGCCACAAAGGGA R: CATTGGCCACCAATTCCTGT | \n[96] | \n||
F: TGATCTGGCCACAAAGGGC R: CATTGGCCACCAATTCCTGT | \n|||
F: GGTAGGGAGGCGAGAGGCGAG R: CATCCCCATGGCCATCTCGAGCTA | \n[106] | \n||
F: CCGTCACAAGATTTACAGGGTTG R: TTATGGATCTCTTTATGTCTGTGT | \nOthers: 0 bp | \n[103] | \n|
F: TCTCCAAGAGGGGAGAGACA R: TTCCTCTACCCATGAATCTAGCA | \nNo | \n[105] | \n
Additional loci influencing wheat quality traits.
Favourable alleles are marked in bold.
Ref. [103] identified a gene,
Genes from wild wheat relatives might also be used for improving quality in modern cultivars. Backcrossing can be used to transfer the genes into breeding material. In this case, MAS is useful since offspring containing the desired genes easily can be detected, and linkage drag can be reduced. One example of such a gene is
Trait-linked DNA markers have been identified for numerous traits in wheat, including disease resistance and grain quality. Employing such markers in MAS offers several advantages to wheat breeding compared to conventional phenotypic selection and laborious analysis of grain quality. These advantages include the fixation of desirable traits at an early stage of the breeding program and marker-assisted backcrossing in order to transfer agronomically important genes from wild relatives to cultivated wheat.
\nIn addition, DNA markers are neutral to both environment and tissue type. Thus, they can be employed at any plant developmental stage and independent on environmental conditions during selection. This is particularly relevant for selection for disease resistance. DNA markers further offer the possibility for targeted pyramiding of several resistance genes, a task impossible by phenotypic selection due to complex host-pathogen interactions. To secure durable resistance, it is important to combine qualitative and quantitative resistance in a given line. Here, molecular markers can be used to combine both resistances.
\nAs DNA markers have been correlated to numerous traits, they can be employed to combine, e.g., resistance and grain quality in the early generations. Consequently, DNA markers are being employed in early generations to select for several traits, in turn reducing the number of lines entering replicated, multi-location trials. Similarly, the number of samples for laboratory analysis of grain quality can be reduced. In effect, the application of MAS can lead to an optimisation of resources demanded by any given breeding program, allowing the breeder to focus phenotypic selection on highly multi-genic traits, difficult to handle with MAS, e.g., yield.
\nFollowing developments in technologies and statistical genetics, the application of DNA markers in breeding is rapidly changing. While MAS has been employed to select for traits controlled by one/few genes, genomic selection will allow accurate selection for traits affected by numerous genes.
\nOnce genomic selection has been validated in breeding programs, it can be implemented in combination with MAS. This will further improve selection efficiency and accuracy for disease resistance and quality parameters as well as for multi-genic traits such as yield.
\nThis chapter is the result of the experience working with students of Italian L2 and, in particular, of the observation of their need to improve the competence of language use, that is, communicative competence. This competence involves different communicative dimensions even the most “hidden” and “subtle” ones but no less essential for the purposes of effective communication, such as the paraverbal (e.g., prosody) and nonverbal (facial expressions, gestures, postures) aspects which give form and meaning to our words and specify our utterances in ways that escape our awareness. Very often, when we find ourselves talking with a nonnative speaker, especially when we misinterpret each other, these paraverbal and non-verbal aspects come to light and call into question our complex competence as speakers because they represent a substantial part of our intentions and attitudes.
\nOnly recently, in Italy, scholars have devoted themselves to the research on prosodic competence in L2, and the works dealing with this competence from a pedagogical perspective are even smaller. Indeed, emotional competence is one of the most overlooked aspects of communicative competence in teaching a native and a nonnative language. In a linguistic scenario that is ever more diversified in our eyes, the conspicuous presence of students with different cultural and linguistic backgrounds draws the attention of educational institutions toward the need to adopt language teaching approaches that should be able to cope with the multilingual and multicultural complexity of our schools.
\nThe first part of the chapter will be devoted to give an overview of the main tenets of the interface between prosody and pragmatic competence in L2, and it will introduce the reader to some of the outcomes of the research in the field, focusing on experimental studies that have been conducted with learners of Italian as L2.
\nThe second part of the chapter will focus on the instructional practice to show how it is possible to improve the emotional competence of L2 learners through some teaching activities in the language classroom.
\nThe study of the vocal expression of emotions is based on the analysis of complex structures that regulate the communication process: the voice constitutes a fundamental unit of measure within the emotional phenomenon. As D’Urso and Trentin explain: “the relationship between voice and emotion is based on the assumption that the physiological reactions typical of an emotional state, modifying the breathing, the phonation and the articulation of the sounds, produce appreciable variations in the acoustic indices detectable in the production of discourse” ([1], p. 58). The human voice, among its multiple potentialities, is able to convey different meanings and nuances through its own modulation. These prosodic modifications, which represent suprasegmental entities, merge with the segmental characteristics typical of each language. When we express an emotion, the meaning of our communicative act is conveyed not only by the voice and individual characteristics but also by the choice of the lexicon, by the way we organize our speech, and, of course, by the way we articulate sounds. As Poggi and Magno Caldognetto [2] maintain, there are four segmental resources that regulate the linguistic nature of emotional speech:
\n\n
\n
\n
\n
Much of the research on emotional speech has attempted to identify common trends in the interpretation of vocal expressions of emotions at an intercultural level. This approach should provide an indirect proof of the existence of universal (or specifically cultural) elements in emotional communication. However, there is a series of studies—less numerous—focused on the analysis of acoustic parameters and their variation at the interlinguistic level.
\nThe research conducted by Scherer and other scholars has undoubtedly the merit of having conducted a systematic analysis, also examining cultures distant from each other. In this regard, we recall a study conducted in 2001 [3] which involved subjects from nine different countries (European, North-American, and Asians), in order to test their ability to recognize emotions expressed in another language (German). The body of emotional stimuli—conveyed through a nonsense sentence and pronounced by professional actors—included five emotions: joy, sadness, fear, anger, and disgust (along with neutral productions). The results showed an index of accuracy in identifying emotions equal to 50%. However, the percentage of correct decoding has not proven to be homogeneous in all the samples considered, since the Indonesian group has reached the lowest percentage, while the sample of German listeners recorded the highest percentage (in-group advantage), followed by the American group. The authors have attempted to explain the phenomenon, hypothesizing that linguistic closeness played an important role in the decoding process (language distance hypothesis). This accounted for the much higher percentage obtained by the British and the Dutch than the speakers of Romance languages (Italian and French) and above all with respect to the Indonesians (not belonging to the Indo-European family).
\nIn addition to linguistic factors, sharing the same social codes and similar communication styles also plays an important role in the recognition of emotions. As Elfenbein and Ambady ([4], p. 204) explain: “It is possible that recognition is higher when the emotions are both expressed and perceived by members of the same cultural group” (see in-group advantage hypothesis). In this regard, Elfenbein and Ambady have suggested that the contact and the interaction between cultures, as well as the sharing of some cultural traits, can favor the decoding of emotions (cultural proximity hypothesis). On the basis of this hypothesis, “members of cultures who share ideas of individualism or collectivism, power structure, and gender roles, need to be more successful at decoding each other’s emotional expressions than members of cultures that are less similar” ([5], p. 409). In fact, according to the authors, the variability of the recognition indices is due not only exclusively to ethnic, geographical, or linguistic factors but also to the absence of mutual involvement between the cultures considered. To support this finding, some research has shown that the index of accuracy in the recognition of emotions at the cross-linguistic level is higher when the contact (even by telephone) between the cultures examined is greater [4]. Similarly, members of linguistic minorities within a given country would be able to decode more accurately the vocal expressions produced by members belonging to the majority culture than the latter in the reverse situation.
\nResearch on vocal expression and the perception of emotions in a second language are not numerous. The interest in this aspect of communication in L2 is relatively recent; however, the acoustic-perceptive investigations have highlighted some problems related to the management of emotional speech in a second language, with an emphasis on linguistic, cultural, and social factors.
\nAs we pointed out above and as suggested by Dewaele, the typological and cultural distance from the target language can influence the ability of learners to manage emotional speech in L2: “SLA research shows that learners from ‘distant’ cultures experience significantly greater difficulties in identifying emotion in the L2 and in judging the intensity of that emotion than do fellow learners from ‘closer’ cultures with similar levels of proficiency” ([6], p. 375). In this regard, the first studies in L2 [7, 8] have shown that the competence linked to the vocal communication of emotions depends to a large extent on the degree of familiarity and knowledge of the cultural context of the target language [9].
\nDifficulties also exist on a purely prosodic level. A study conducted by Holden and Hogan [10] explored the perception of paralinguistic intonational trends in Russian and English learners, with the aim of evaluating “the emotional and attitudinal ‘confusion’ that may arise in the use of foreign intonation in L2” ([10], p. 70). The authors started from the consideration that the differences existing between the two linguistic systems in relation to pitch range are often the cause of misunderstanding in the interactions between Russian learners of English and native English speakers, highlighting the tendency of the latter to interpret intonation variations judged as neutral by native Russian speakers, as signs of anger or irritation.
\nFor this reason, the groups involved were asked to evaluate different types of utterances (interrogative and exclamative) based on their emotional value, in order to verify “if there would be a significant change in the judgment of selection of 10 emotions and attitudes with a change of intonation, while keeping other phonetic factors constant” ([10], p. 67). The utterances were manipulated to reproduce the English intonation in Russian sentences and vice versa. Participants were also asked to evaluate the differences between original and manipulated productions.
\nResults showed that in relation to positive emotions, native English speakers judged the pitch of their own language “higher” than that of native Russian speakers in polar questions. Furthermore, native English speakers have shown themselves to be more sensitive to the intonation of the Russians than to the latter, who on the contrary have shown a lower sensitivity to the variations in tone of the English language. However, in relation to pitch range, both groups “reacted more negatively to the greater pitch range of Russian intonation in exclamations and yes-no questions” ([10], p. 84), giving the original statements in Russian a greater negative value than to the English originals, defined instead as more “passive” in the WH questions. As Ladd points out ([11], p. 94): “English and Russian listeners interpreted differences in sentences in broadly the same way, regardless of their specific cultural norms about what count about ‘neutral’”.
\nOn the perception of paralinguistic intonation patterns in a second language, the study by Chen [12] focused on learners of Dutch of English origin (with a low level of competence) and on Dutch learners of English (with an advanced level of competence), in order to verify whether the prosodic variations linked to biological codes convey universally shared meanings on an emotional level. The adopted methodology was taken up by Chen et al. [13]. Even in this case, the groups involved have demonstrated a lingual-specific sensitivity to the paralinguistic intonation patterns produced in a foreign language (in this case a second language). Comparing the two studies, the author found out that “L2 English listeners differ from L1 Dutch listeners differ from L1 English listeners” ([12], p. 163). According to the author, the influence of L1 could have played an important role in the interpretation of prosodic variations:
\nFirst, there is strong evidence from both L2 English and L2 Dutch listeners that L1 transfer plays an important role in interpreting paralinguistic intonational meaning in L2, as in interpreting linguistic intonational meaning in L2. Also, there is an indication that L2 listeners may activate their knowledge about intonational universals embodied in the biological codes (in particular, Gussenhoven’s Effort Code), which accounts for L2 Dutch listeners’ native-like behavior in the perception of “emphatic” as signaled by pitch register.
\nIn relation to the level of competence, Chen suggested that from the first phases of acquisition, the learners were able to catch some differences on the paralinguistic level between L1 and L2, to then improve this knowledge in the more advanced stages of the interlanguage.
\nThe study by de Abreu and Mathon [14] focused on the perception of spontaneous emotional speech, which investigated the role of prosody in encouraging or hindering the recognition of emotions by a group of Portuguese French L2 learners. The stimuli consisted of some portions of spontaneous speech drawn from a corpus of prank calls made by a radio host against public institutions and service encounters, in order to trigger a reaction of anger in the victims. The linguistic content of the statements has been obscured by introducing white noise, “in order to keep only the prosodic information” ([14], p. 2). The subjects, native French speakers and Portuguese learners of L2 French with an intermediate level of competence, were involved in two tasks: the first aimed at the recognition of the statements of anger (decision task), and the second asked to evaluate the productions in terms of intensity (evaluation task). The recognition rates recorded for both groups (50% for the Portuguese and 62% for the French) led the authors to claim that “prosodic information represents enough information to allow subjects recognizing anger” ([14], p. 4). However, some differences emerged in the interpretations of anger utterances. In some cases, Portuguese learners evaluated utterances that contained pauses, repetitions, and errors as emotional productions other than anger (“not anger”) unlike the French. In other words: “it seems that Portuguese do not consider a sentence said with anger when there are disfluencies, unlike French listeners” ([14], p. 4). In terms of production, Komar [15] proposed a contrastive analysis of emotional speech produced by Slovenian speakers in English and by native English speakers. The elicitation of emotions was entrusted to the reading of a dialog in English. The results highlighted the tendency of Slovenes to use a “flat,” less dynamic intonation than natives, mainly due to the diversity of the two intonation systems. As Komar explains ([15], p. 4):
\nThere are two main reasons for Slovenes sounding flat in English. First, the Slovenes produce the falling tones in a much narrower pitch range than the English, and second, the step up in pitch from the end of the falling pre-tonic segment and the beginning of the falling tone is significantly smaller compared to the step-up in pitch made by the English speakers.
\nThese two factors, together with the state of anxiety and discomfort felt when one is not competent in a language, could be responsible for some communicative failures in interactions with native English speakers, who, according to the author, would be inclined to judge the less dynamic intonation of the Slovenes as a sign of disinterest and scarce participation (or rudeness). On a perceptive level, some studies have shown that access to the verbal and vocal content of the emotional message is not as automatic in L2 as it is in the native language [16, 17, 18]. In this regard, Chua Shi and Schirmer [19] have explored the process of integrating linguistic content with prosodic indexes in native and nonnative speakers of English of different origins. The stimuli consisted of a series of terms with positive, negative, and neutral valence, pronounced in a happy, neutral, or sad tone. In two separate experiments, the participants expressed a judgment about the emotional value of the stimulus based exclusively on the lexical content; later, they focused on the tone of the voice, thus excluding the linguistic level. The results showed some similarities between the two groups, in particular with regard to response times: “More importantly, both native and non-native listeners responded faster and more accurately when verbal and vocal emotional expressions were congruent as compared to when they were incongruent” ([19], p. 1376). In the case of incongruent verbal and vocal stimuli, the participants’ reaction was similar, regardless of the level of competence possessed. In light of this, the authors have suggested that “the integration of verbal and emotional expressions occurs as readily in one’s second language as it does in one’s native language” ([19], p. 1376). Graham et al. [20] verified the ability of a group of native and nonnative English speakers to recognize some emotional productions made by native English speakers. The results showed that learners with a higher level of competence were not able to recognize more accurately the proposed stimuli. According to the authors, the ability to decode cannot be acquired in the absence of an intensive exposure to the cultural context of the target language or without a didactic intervention aimed at developing these skills.
\nBhatara et al. [21] explored the relationship between competence in L2 and the ability to recognize positive and negative emotions in the target language, specifically American English. The subjects involved were of French origin, with a variable level of competence (established on the basis of the participants’ self-assessment). The perceptive experiment involved listening to some utterances in English made by professional actors and the decoding of the emotions expressed through a multiple-choice test. Afterward, the participants were asked to evaluate (on a scale) the pleasantness, the power, the alertness, and the intensity of the emotional stimuli. In addition to whole utterances, the stimuli also included simple vocalizations (or affect bursts). The results showed that learners with a high level of competence were not facilitated in the recognition of emotions, especially positive ones (joy, pride, interest, and relief). According to the authors, the increase in the proficiency of the English language could have compromised the perception and recognition of positive emotional states rather than facilitating it, concluding that: “increasing understanding of the L2 may be accompanied by a slight decrease in ability to understand subtle differences between positive emotions among other speakers” ([21], p. 11).
\nThe correlation between the level of competence of the L2 (perceived by the learner) and the ability to recognize emotions therefore appears to be in doubt. However, recent studies [22] have shown that a high level of competence in the target language corresponds to greater accuracy in decoding positive audiovisual stimuli; moreover, cultural distance seems to influence recognition rates (as already reported in cross-linguistic studies).
\nIn the Italian context, the studies that have investigated this particular aspect of communication in the acquisition process of the Italian L2 are still rather small. Recent studies [23] analyzed the emotional speech produced by Chinese learners of Italian with a high level of competence (C1 level of CEFR). A sample of native Italian speakers was also involved in the experiment. Emotions were elicited through a card task, i.e., a verbal interaction activity between two participants involved in a card game. As the authors explain, this procedure was adopted in order to elicit “emotional linguistic reactions in the players and arouse five different emotions (anger, anxiety, disgust, fear and surprise)” ([23], p. 82). The emotional productions collected were analyzed using Praat, taking into consideration the following parameters: duration and number of syllables, full pauses and silent pauses, and maximum and minimum values of f0. Based on these measurements, time, articulation rate, and pitch range (in semitones) were calculated. The analyses also considered the presence of affect bursts.
\nIn relation to native Italian, the results confirmed the well-known distinction between high and low activation emotions. The expressions of anger, fear, and surprise were characterized by high f0 values and a wide tonal extension; on the contrary the expression of disgust presented lower values, being a low activation emotion. The emotional speech of the Chinese did not show, however, this variability: “as a matter of fact, F0 height and tonal range are quite steady in the whole corpus. The only exception is represented by anger and fear that are expressed with slightly higher values. These data seem to suggest that Chinese learners vary their pitch account to distinguish different emotional states in the case of native Italian speakers” ([23], p. 83). Production in nonnative Italian was generally characterized by a slowing of speech rate (due to the attempt to articulate single words with greater precision). The use of a modulated intonation and variable in the expression of emotions seems therefore to be a common tendency in learners of a second language. This data was also reported in some pilot studies [24, 25] conducted on Indonesian and Polish students, whose productions highlighted similar intonation contours in all the emotions investigated (joy, anger, sadness, fear, surprise, disgust, and neutral speech). Furthermore, the perceptive investigations conducted in these studies have suggested the hypothesis that the emotional speech produced by the learners in Italian L2 may be not very effective in terms of communication, leading to misunderstanding with native speakers [25].
\nThe role of L1 transfer in emotional speech in Italian L2 was explored in a recent pilot study [26], which involved native Italian speakers (three males and two females) and Russian (two females) and Persian (one male and one female) Erasmus students with a B2 level of competence. All the students involved in the study were following an Italian (grammar and communication course), within the same class, at the University of Calabria, and they had lived in Italy for 9 months at the time of the experiment. The elicitation of emotions has been entrusted to the reading of a text, which has been inserted a standard phrase: “It is not possible” (adapted by [27, 28]), translated into the three native languages. To favor the identification of the subject, they were invited to express the required vocal emotion and equivalent facial expression simultaneously. The participants had the opportunity to repeat their performances several times, in order to reduce any inhibitions or insecurities due to the presence of the microphone.
\nThe learners were invited to express their emotions in their language and later in Italian. The parameters investigated were divided into two macro-categories: temporal (computed in milliseconds of the total duration of the target sentence and of the speech rate); intonation, i.e., the pattern and the values of the fundamental frequency (f0), initial frequency (onset), final frequency (offset), the average frequency, and the melodic excursion of the utterance (calculated in semitones). From the results emerged that in relation to the temporal parameters (total duration and speech rate), with equal number of syllables, all the emotional statements produced by the learners in their native language were shorter than those articulated in Italian L1, with the sole exception of the neutral utterance. This pattern has suggested the hypothesis that Russians and Persians, when they express themselves in Italian, fail to adequately control the elocution parameter, especially when the behavior of emotion differs significantly from that of the native Italian, thus determining emotional productions “different” from those expected. Indeed, it was observed that the emotional utterances produced by the learners in Italian L2 did not differ from those produced in their L1. The effect of transfer is, therefore, confirmed. In relation to the intonation parameters, the F0 excursion of the emotional utterances produced by the native Italian tended to be more extended than that produced in L2. The analysis of the utterances produced in the learners’ L1 showed, both in Russian and in Persian, a more reduced tonal excursion than native Italian, resulting in a clearly more monotonous production. In fact, a less dynamic intonation characterized the productions in Italian of both groups (to a greater extent, the statements produced by the Russian participants showed a narrower frequency range than the Persians, which instead managed to better modulate the intonation, in some cases approaching the target language). In this case, it was difficult to attribute the lack of dynamism of the learners’ speech to a real prosodic transfer, as, as already mentioned, such behavior can be justified by the discomfort felt when speaking a foreign language and even more so in contexts that invest the emotional sphere.
\nFrom a recent study [29], a heterogeneous picture emerged in relation to the L1 of the learners involved (Russians, Tunisians, and Spaniards). The acoustic verification of the emotional productions made by the students in their L1 and in Italian showed a clear evidence of transfer, especially in the speech of the Tunisians, who tended to reproduce in Italian intonational contours very similar to those of their native language. In the productions of the Russians and the Spaniards, instead, the contours, partially overlapping and rather monotonous, lost part of their auditory distinctiveness. According to the authors, the productions in L2, in some ways confused and very often not congruent on a pragmatic level, represent an indication of the difficulty faced by learners when they realize in a different language a complex paralinguistic phenomenon such as emotions.
\nIn this section, we will deal with the implementation of a training for the classroom practice. Learners involved in this study are Persian and Russian students who participated in the research described in the previous paragraph. The structure of the training is partly structured following the didactic approach of the task which is defined by Nunan as follows:
\nA piece of classroom work that involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to express meaning and in which the intention is to convey meaning rather than to manipulate form. The task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right with a beginning, middle and an end. ([30], p. 4)
\nDuring the lesson, students concentrate on the meaning and not on the linguistic form and are involved in tasks that simulate or reproduce what happens outside the school context. However, reflection on the language may arise during the work in class and therefore from the need of the learners to reach the communicative objective they have set for themselves. Given the experimental nature and the prosodic focus of the activities, we have planned tasks of different nature that the students have prepared to face a reflection on the paraverbal and non-verbal elements of the emotions that were the object of the training. The first activity involving learners on the theme of emotions is a meta-pragmatic activity. The next phase of the experimentation focused on the presentation of linguistic and communicative inputs of an emotional nature. The learners viewed some film clips showing examples of emotional states (verbal and non-verbal) and were involved in role-play activities. Other non-verbal activities prepared the learners for the actual task which consisted in the planning and realization of a dubbing. Previous studies [31, 32, 33, 34] have shown that video technologies are a didactic tool with a strong motivational component, able to involve and stimulate learning in an environment free from anxieties and apprehensions. To assess the effectiveness of the training, we adopted a cross-analysis of learners’ production and perception skills—through acoustic analysis and auditory tests—before and after the training. This allowed us to highlight any improvement following the didactic intervention and to formulate further hypotheses. The auditory tests and the acoustic analysis were carried out according to the procedures described above.
\nNow let us see in detail the articulation of the training which took place over 4 weeks and was divided into four phases.
Phase 1: Meta-pragmatic activities: brainstorming
The aim of the initial phase was to provide language learners with space for a reflection on the language. The meta-pragmatic activity was aimed at an exchange of impressions and information on the modalities of expression of emotions in the learners’ countries of origin in order to identify the main criticalities experienced by the learners in the interactions with the natives. This reflection also allowed learners to check the correspondence between the emotional labels proposed in Italian and those used in their L1. In this phase emerged the first criticality experienced by the learners of both groups in the interactions with the natives, due to the Italian habit of amplifying the volume of the voice, during the verbal exchange. Especially in Persian culture, this vocal variation is interpreted as a display of anger. This difference is often the origin of misunderstandings and misinterpretations.
Phase 2: Exposure to linguistic inputs and focus on prosodic aspects
This phase, which we can consider a phase of preparation for the actual tasks, has been focused on exposure to linguistic input, taken from Italian films and from the corpus of emotions produced by the natives. In particular, in the case of films, other non-verbal aspects (facial expression, gestures, postures, distance between interlocutors, etc.) involved in the expression of emotions were also identified. Subsequently, we gave the students a description of the mode of expression from a vocal point of view, focusing on the prosodic features [28, 34]. For example, as far as anger is concerned, we have given some information on the physiological alteration (irregular breathing, increased heart rate, etc.) and on the effects observable in speech (sustained speed, increase in intensity, etc.). The objective was to develop the awareness of the psychophysical changes and the effects on the vocal aspects triggered by the emotional states considered above. One of the activities proposed to the learners, who were working in a multilingual environment, was the vision of the clips without the audio, after which they were asked to guess the messages and then to try to realize the acoustic characteristics of the emotional expression conveyed by the messages themselves.
Phase 3: Non-verbal communication practice
The third phase of the training included the performance of some exercises related to non-verbal communication. Learners were divided into pairs and placed back to back. Afterward, they had to reproduce an emotional state by repeating the sequence of numbers from 1 to 4 (to avoid any interference of a semantic nature), letting the other person guess the reproduced emotional state. Some emotions have been expressed more easily (e.g., anger, sadness, and joy); others, however, have raised some difficulties (e.g., disgust and fear), both in production and recognition. In general, learners have learned to “play” with the intonation and the voice, managing to capture the emotional nuances, beyond the linguistic content of the message.
\nLearners were then involved in a series of playful activities such as interpreting certain dialogic parts characterized by a specific emotional context (e.g., an unexpected encounter between two friends, in which emotional states emerged, i.e., joy, sadness, anger, etc.) and then improvising a similar dialog resorting to some expressions used by the protagonists (see Appendix). The theatrical component of these activities gave the students the opportunity to use other non-verbal components during simulations. In order to enhance the focus on prosodic aspects, students carried out shadowing exercises, in which they were asked to listen to the emotional stimulus produced in Italian and to replicate it (in the shortest possible time) in terms of rhythm and intonation. In this last phase, learners had the opportunity to put into practice the suggestions provided in the previous phase.
Phase 4: The dubbing task
The actual task consisted in the realization of the dubbing. In our study, we selected some scenes (see Appendix) taken from an Italian film,
Acoustic analysis ad auditory assessment: results
The data collected in the first and last phase of the training were subject to an acoustic analysis. Furthermore, before the training began, an auditory test was presented to both groups containing the six considered emotions (together with the neutral speech), performed by a native Italian speaker, in order to highlight any initial critical points. The hypotheses formulated at the outset were confirmed by the results obtained, highlighting the presence of concrete difficulties in the management of emotional speech by the subjects involved, both in terms of production and in terms of their auditory recognition. The acoustic analysis revealed some elements worthy of reflection. First of all, among all the investigated parameters, the most resistant index seems to be the intonation contour. Moreover, the analysis of learners’ emotional speech in their L1 confirmed the hypothesis of the influence of the prosodic structures of the native language on those of the target language. In the melodic contour the emotions produced in L2, different phenomena of prosodic transfer can be noticed; the native language of the learners acts as a powerful filter that slows down, and sometimes blocks, the acquisition of the new intonation patterns. For example, the intonation contour of sadness realized by the Russian learners in L2, at least before the training, is similar to the one they produce in their native language, while the melodic excursion related to surprise never reaches hearing adequacy in the L2 of Persian learners, being less modulated than that of native Italian, but approximate to the melodic excursion of native Persian. In Figure 1 we report by way of example the intonation contour relating to the sadness produced in Italian by a Russian learner. Before the training, the contour, placed in a wide tonal space, settles on high F0 values (EM: 11 ST); after the training we can see not only a re-dimensioning of the melodic excursion (7.7 ST) but also the correct positioning of the final contour; in this last case, the hearing result is obviously improved. However, it should be pointed out that emotional intonations only partially improve, and not all, under the action of training.
\nWaveform and intonation contour of the sentence
Learners are able to better control temporal parameters, duration, and speech rate and consequently to adapt them to the new linguistic model (Figures 2 and 3). These two parameters therefore show greater ductility, and presumably these are the ones that contribute to improving the auditory responses of the subsequent experimental phase. For example, the speech rate, anger, surprise, joy, and disgust found in Russian learners before teaching training show a strong conditioning by their native language, an effect that is, however, reduced after the training phase (Figure 2). The overall improvement was proven by the decoding of native speakers1: learners’ emotional productions after the training have been recognized by native speakers much more than the pre-training productions (Figure 4). On the level of auditory recognition, the learners have shown a marked improvement in their decoding skills, correctly recognizing the emotions that initially caused major problems (although the Persian group encountered some difficulties).
\nSpeech rate. Comparison of Russian learners’ productions before (it-L2pre) and after (it-L2post) the training. The figure also shows the variation of speech rate in learners’ L1 (R-L1).
Speech rate. Comparison of Persian learners’ productions before (it-L2pre) and after (it-L2post) the training. The figure also shows the variation of speech rate in learners’ L1 (P-L1).
Percentages of mean recognition accuracy of emotional sentences produced by learners before (it-L2pre) and after (it-L2post) the training.
The results of this study lead us to some more general considerations regarding possible interpretations on the acquisition of prosody in L2, including some observed transfer phenomena. Although the linguistic distance between L1 and L2 potentially constitutes an obstacle to the acquisition of new prosodic structures and their decoding, cultural distance plays in many cases a very important role in the elaboration of the perception and production of emotional states. From a verbal report conducted with the Russian and the Persian learners, extremely different communication profiles emerged with respect to the target language, and their perception of emotion is interpreted and adapted according to the cultural norms. In particular, the strong discomfort of the Persians arises from a different interpretation of the non-verbal signals of the Italian natives; for example, in Persian culture, prolonged eye contact is often decoded as an act of defiance; the voice volume of the conversation tends to remain rather calm, and the use of gestures is moderate. In the Italian culture, a communicative exchange is instead based on maintaining a visual contact, interpreted as a sign of attention, sincerity, and participation; moreover, in a normal conversation, participants continually resort to gestures and facial expressions to emphasize the message, and the volume of the voice adapts to the general emphasis and tends to rise considerably. All this is interpreted by Iranian speakers as an act of aggression; on the other hand, the Italians themselves could interpret the non-verbal behavior of the Persians as signs of coldness and low emotional participation.
\nThese are therefore two essentially different communicative styles that are often the cause of misunderstandings due to the reciprocal tendency to interpret emotional speech according to its own cultural and linguistic parameters, considering them universally shared. As we have observed at length in the course of our discussion of the emotional phenomenon, vocal productions that manifest certain emotional values in a given culture can, in another, characterize contexts that are not specifically emotional or neutral. The difficulties encountered by the Persian learners in the interpretation of some verbal and non-verbal behaviors of Italians amply demonstrate this aspect. We therefore hypothesize that the transfer is not only of a prosodic nature, but that it has deeper roots, closely linked to the behavioral patterns that we have learned to manage and decode since our infancy and that are part of an adult’s cultural and emotional memory. In this perspective, the management of emotional speech in an L2 is not limited to the correct use of the intonation structures of the target language, but involves deeper levels, perhaps less sensitive to the educational intervention. Moreover, the transfer acts as a sort of filter that the learner uses to elaborate the hypotheses on the target language being not the mere passage of a structure from one language to another. The development of an emotional competence in the target language represents, as we know, a delicate and personal path. However, we believe that focused instruction, similar to what we have proposed, can positively contribute to the process of interaction between very different linguistic and cultural systems.
\nAs a matter of fact, the training carried out in this study, beyond the cultural and typological distance existing between the native languages involved in the experiment, has nevertheless produced positive effects. A long-term verification still remains to be carried out, in order to determine whether the phenomena under investigation have been actually acquired.
\nScreenplay: “The Last Kiss” by Gabriele Muccino, 2000.
\nLa Confessione
\nThe confession
\nAnna irrompe nello studio del marito psicologo (Emilio), mentre questi è impegnato con una paziente.
\nAnna breaks into the studio of her husband, the psychologist (Emilio), while he is engaged with a patient.
\nA.:
A.: Here we are!
\nE.:
What happened?
\nA.:
A.: In your opinion, nothing relevant, isn’t it?
\nE.:
I’m working.
\nA.:
I see it.
\nE.:
And then go out and come back in 45 minutes, when I’m done.
\nA:
I have to talk to you.
\nE.:
\n
So couldn’t you talk to me in 45 minutes or tonight, when I get home?
\nA.:
NO!
\nE.: (rivolgendosi alla paziente)
(turning to the patient) She’s my wife, don’t worry.
\nA.:
I have to tell you this
(Emilio si alza e si avvicina minaccioso alla moglie)
\n(Emilio gets up and approaches her wife threateningly)
\nA: (sarcastica)
(sarcastically) God, what a fear! I’m provoking a reaction!
\nE.:
But you’ve been drinking, haven’t you?
\nA.: Ah, now I’ve been drinking, huh?
\nTonight, I leave you, my dear, you understand what
\nI said? I’ll leave you forever!
\nE.:
Out now! Out! (yell out)
\nA.: TI HO TRADITO! Hai capito che ho detto? TI HO TRADITO!
\nArrivederci e tante scuse per il disturbo
\n(rivolgendosi alla paziente).
\nI HAVE BETRAYED YOU! You understand what
\nI said? I CHEATED ON YOU!
\nGoodbye and many apologies for the trouble
\n(addressing the patient).
\nI would like to thank Emanuela Paone for the careful and extensive revisions, suggestions, and the helpful comments on the chapter.
\n"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\n\n\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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Implications for parent education and prevention of risks for early and excessive exposure to digital technologies are discussed.",book:{id:"9043",slug:"parenting-studies-by-an-ecocultural-and-transactional-perspective",title:"Parenting",fullTitle:"Parenting - Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective"},signatures:"Loredana Benedetto and Massimo Ingrassia",authors:[{id:"193200",title:"Prof.",name:"Loredana",middleName:null,surname:"Benedetto",slug:"loredana-benedetto",fullName:"Loredana Benedetto"},{id:"193901",title:"Prof.",name:"Massimo",middleName:null,surname:"Ingrassia",slug:"massimo-ingrassia",fullName:"Massimo Ingrassia"}]},{id:"72823",title:"Helicopter Parenting and Adolescent Development: From the Perspective of Mental Health",slug:"helicopter-parenting-and-adolescent-development-from-the-perspective-of-mental-health",totalDownloads:951,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Helicopter parenting is a unique form of parenting style that is generally described as highly intensive and highly involved with the children. A particular parenting style influences all phases of development and life style of adolescent. Helicopter parents overly protect their children from the difficulties by setting some set of instructions without consideration of the uniqueness of their children. Recent literature has got huge attention on this parenting style and debating the pros and cons on the development of child. Higher life satisfaction and better psychological wellbeing have been found in the children of highly intrusive parents. When there are positive effects of helicopter parenting, there are negative outcome and impacts that have also been studied. The difficulties in emotional regulation, academic productivity, and social skills among children raised by helicopter parenting have been reported in the literature. Low self-efficacy, lack of trust on peers, and alienation from peers have also been associated with helicopter parenting. The chapter highlights the associated aspects of childhood and adolescence, raised by helicopter parenting. As parents have their own concern about raising their children in certain manner, it is important to understand the underlying mechanism of parenting style. Therefore, this chapter also describes the theoretical framework. The associated mental health issues and supportive psychological intervention to be also discussed.",book:{id:"9043",slug:"parenting-studies-by-an-ecocultural-and-transactional-perspective",title:"Parenting",fullTitle:"Parenting - Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective"},signatures:"Deepika Srivastav and M.N. Lal Mathur",authors:[{id:"320545",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Deepika",middleName:null,surname:"Srivastav",slug:"deepika-srivastav",fullName:"Deepika Srivastav"},{id:"322605",title:"Dr.",name:"M.N.Lal",middleName:null,surname:"Mathur",slug:"m.n.lal-mathur",fullName:"M.N.Lal Mathur"}]},{id:"45760",title:"Parenting and Culture – Evidence from Some African Communities",slug:"parenting-and-culture-evidence-from-some-african-communities",totalDownloads:9583,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"3440",slug:"parenting-in-south-american-and-african-contexts",title:"Parenting in South American and African Contexts",fullTitle:"Parenting in South American and African Contexts"},signatures:"Patricia Mawusi Amos",authors:[{id:"162496",title:"Mrs.",name:"Patricia",middleName:"Mawusi",surname:"Amos",slug:"patricia-amos",fullName:"Patricia Amos"}]},{id:"72914",title:"Parent-Adolescent Relationship and the Impact of Substance Dependency within the Trajectory of Adolescent Substance Use Disorder",slug:"parent-adolescent-relationship-and-the-impact-of-substance-dependency-within-the-trajectory-of-adole",totalDownloads:645,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Adolescents strive for freedom and autonomy; thus, communication with their parents needs to be enhanced. Building solid healthy relationships at this stage of their lives is of utmost importance to help them cope with the changes and challenges they are experiencing. The purpose of this chapter is to explore the parent-adolescent relationship in the substance dependency field. The focus is on the relationship between parents and their adolescents who have a substance use disorder. Parenting adolescents poses its own set of challenges, making it difficult to build and maintain healthy parent-adolescent relationships. We argue that although adolescent substance use disorder has been extensively researched, the relationship between parents and adolescents with substance use disorder has surprisingly not received the same attention. It is this gap that this chapter seeks to address. With this in mind, the ecological systems theory was employed here to shed light on the importance and significance of developing healthy parent-adolescent relationships. The findings show that the parent-adolescent relationship primarily informs the daily living of both the parents and the adolescents. The parent-adolescent relationship is therefore very important as it represents whole-family functioning.",book:{id:"9043",slug:"parenting-studies-by-an-ecocultural-and-transactional-perspective",title:"Parenting",fullTitle:"Parenting - Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective"},signatures:"Faith Mathibela and Rebecca Mmamoagi Skhosana",authors:[{id:"317920",title:"Mrs.",name:"Faith",middleName:null,surname:"Mathibela",slug:"faith-mathibela",fullName:"Faith Mathibela"}]},{id:"56390",title:"Introductory Chapter: Sociology of Knowledge and Epistemological Paradox of Globalization",slug:"introductory-chapter-sociology-of-knowledge-and-epistemological-paradox-of-globalization",totalDownloads:1823,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"5924",slug:"epistemology-and-transformation-of-knowledge-in-global-age",title:"Epistemology and Transformation of Knowledge in Global Age",fullTitle:"Epistemology and Transformation of Knowledge in Global Age"},signatures:"Zlatan Delić",authors:[{id:"31746",title:"Dr.",name:"Zlatan",middleName:null,surname:"Delic",slug:"zlatan-delic",fullName:"Zlatan Delic"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"276",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:36,paginationItems:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:32,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. 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