List of selected water quality standards reviewed and compared.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10904",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Fusarium - An Overview of the Genus",title:"Fusarium",subtitle:"An Overview of the Genus",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Fusarium is a large cosmopolitan genus of ascomycete fungi that are among the most important toxigenic plant pathogens causing seed and soil-borne diseases in a wide variety of agricultural crops worldwide. Fusarium species are broadly distributed in soil, root and plant tissues, and other organic substrates. Almost all species are able to generate mycotoxins, as secondary metabolites, that cause different physiological responses in plants. This book provides an overview of recent research on Fusarium species in the fields of metabolites, pathogenicity, plant-pathogen interactions, and management strategies in agricultural practices.",isbn:"978-1-83968-736-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-735-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-737-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95213",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"fusarium-an-overview-of-the-genus",numberOfPages:110,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"49d9063e43f94bd1517d65fbc58b93c3",bookSignature:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10904.jpg",numberOfDownloads:718,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 8th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 6th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 4th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 23rd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 22nd 2022",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"100573",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Mahyar",middleName:null,surname:"Mirmajlessi",slug:"seyed-mahyar-mirmajlessi",fullName:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/100573/images/system/100573.png",biography:"Dr. Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi is a highly experienced plant pathologist with expertise in disease management, plant-pathogen interactions, and biological control. He received an MSc in Plant Pathology with a specialization in the genetic diversity of plant-pathogenic fungi. He earned a Ph.D. in Molecular Plant Pathology from the Estonian University of Life Sciences. He continued as a postdoctoral researcher in plant protection at Ghent University (UGent), Belgium. Dr. Mirmajlessi has been contributing as a reviewer and editorial board member for a number of scientific journals. He has also published several research articles in various international peer-reviewed journals. Currently, he is a senior research associate at the Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, UGent, Belgium.",institutionString:"Ghent University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Ghent University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Belgium"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"151",title:"Pure Microbiology",slug:"pure-microbiology"}],chapters:[{id:"79683",title:"Fusarium Wilt: A Destructive Disease of Banana and Their Sustainable Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101496",slug:"fusarium-wilt-a-destructive-disease-of-banana-and-their-sustainable-management",totalDownloads:86,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Banana is one of the most important fruit crops. The major losses in banana mainly due to the fungal wilt disease which is caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense. The pathogen is mainly soil bone and saprotrophic in nature that’s why its management is very difficult. The yearly losses of banana by this disease in the world is ranging from 60 to 90% and in India 30–40%. Sustainable management of panama wilt is must to overcome these losses occur in banana. The management strategies for longer duration through crop rotation, organic amendment, application of micronutrient like silicon (Si), borax, host-pathogen interaction, hormonal induction of defence response, biological control, transgenic approach, disease resistance developed by somaclonal variation. These approaches are mainly emphasized for long term management of the panama wilt disease.",signatures:"Ram Niwas, Gireesh Chand and Ramesh Nath Gupta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79683",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79683",authors:[{id:"423044",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Ram",surname:"Niwas",slug:"ram-niwas",fullName:"Ram Niwas"},{id:"424857",title:"Dr.",name:"Gireesh",surname:"Chand",slug:"gireesh-chand",fullName:"Gireesh Chand"},{id:"424858",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramesh Nath",surname:"Gupta",slug:"ramesh-nath-gupta",fullName:"Ramesh Nath Gupta"}],corrections:null},{id:"79480",title:"Potato Dry Rot Caused by Fusarium spp. and Mycotoxins Accumulation and Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100651",slug:"potato-dry-rot-caused-by-em-fusarium-em-spp-and-mycotoxins-accumulation-and-management",totalDownloads:85,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dry rot of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is an important postharvest disease during storage. The decay can be caused by several different species of Fusarium spp., such as, F. sambucinum, F. coeruleum, F. oxysporum, F. avenaceum, F. culmorum. The pathogen of Fusarum spp. causing dry rot of potato is considerable different in different countries and regions. The typical symptom of potato dry rot is sunken and wrinkled brown to black tissue patch on tuber with less dry matter and shriveled flesh. Fusarium spp. only invades host through wound or natural orifice during pre-harvest, storage and transportation period. Some Fusarium species infection associated with mycotoxins accumulation, which has phytotoxicity and mycotoxicoses in humans and animals. Synthetic fungicide is the main strategy to control the dry rot of potato, however, there are series of problem, such as environmental pollution, pathogen resistance. An integrated approach to manage the disease includes the introduction of resistant cultivar, appropriate cultural practices, and storage conditions combined with the application of synthetic fungicides pre-harvest or post-harvest. Moreover, some chemical fungicides and microbial antagonists have been integrated into potato dry rot management.",signatures:"Huali Xue and Zhimin Yang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79480",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79480",authors:[{id:"425420",title:"Prof.",name:"Huali",surname:"Xue",slug:"huali-xue",fullName:"Huali Xue"},{id:"429049",title:"Ms.",name:"Zhimin",surname:"Yang",slug:"zhimin-yang",fullName:"Zhimin Yang"}],corrections:null},{id:"79069",title:"Fusarium Soilborne Pathogen",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100597",slug:"fusarium-soilborne-pathogen",totalDownloads:100,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fusarium species are among the most persistent species of soilborne fungal pathogens. They cause severe economic damage in different agricultural production (potato, wheat, rice, etc.) due to the mycelia and chlamydospores that play a role during the infection of host plants. Our review has explored various studies on Fusarium species. The mechanisms involved in enhancing the protective ability of the Fusarium strain have been discussed. Furthermore, the current chemical and biological control methods to minimize Fusarium species’ impact on crops were highlighted. Future directions in the attempt to improve the control of Fusarium soilborne pathogens have been discussed.",signatures:"Leonce Dusengemungu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79069",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79069",authors:[{id:"423031",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Leonce",surname:"Dusengemungu",slug:"leonce-dusengemungu",fullName:"Leonce Dusengemungu"}],corrections:null},{id:"79176",title:"Current Status of Fusarium and Their Management Strategies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100608",slug:"current-status-of-em-fusarium-em-and-their-management-strategies",totalDownloads:208,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fusarium spp. is one of the most economically important plant pathogens causing a wide range of plant diseases with significant crop losses globally. Fusarium wilt is a major problem all over the world. Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium solani, Fusarium fujikuroi are economic importance species in worldwide. Fusarium solani causing disease in many agriculturally crops and favored by high temperatures and warm moist soils. The fungus produces three types of asexual spores; microconidia, macroconidia and chlamydospores serve as propagules in infecting host plants and found endophytes and saprophytes. The color of the colony, length and shape of the macroconidia, the number shape of microconidia and the presence or absence of chlamydospores are key features for the differentiation of Fusarium species. Pathogens, forms over 100 formae speciales cause disease in dicot and monocot plant species and infecting a variety of hosts. Vegetative compatibility Groups (VCG) is used to differentiate their races. Resistant cultivars and bio-control agents (Trichoderma spp., and Psedomonas spp.) have been used to manage the disease.",signatures:"Amar Bahadur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79176",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79176",authors:[{id:"422984",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Amar",surname:"Bahadur",slug:"amar-bahadur",fullName:"Amar Bahadur"}],corrections:null},{id:"79705",title:"Fusarium Disease of Maize and Its Management through Sustainable Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100575",slug:"fusarium-disease-of-maize-and-its-management-through-sustainable-approach",totalDownloads:127,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fusarium causing disease in maize is probably the one of the most serious diseases among the crop plants all over the world. It not only damages the maize plant, reduces its potential yield and its nutritional values but imposes threatening to the human life through the induction of mycotoxin development. F. graminearum and F. moniliforme syn. Fusarium verticillioides are two important maize pathogens that cause substantial damage to its ear, stalk and foliage, causing contamination of grains with mycotoxins. Since conventional methods of controlling the diseases including the chemical methods proved not enough for total control of the disease with creating situation even worse for our surroundings, the application of PGPR and PGPF can play significant role to control the damage caused by Fusarium.",signatures:"Zerald Tiru, Parimal Mandal, Arka Pratim Chakraborty, Ayon Pal and Sanjoy Sadhukhan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79705",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79705",authors:[{id:"424199",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Zerald",surname:"Tiru",slug:"zerald-tiru",fullName:"Zerald Tiru"},{id:"435431",title:"Dr.",name:"Arka Pratim",surname:"Chakraborty",slug:"arka-pratim-chakraborty",fullName:"Arka Pratim Chakraborty"},{id:"436686",title:"Dr.",name:"Parimal",surname:"Mandal",slug:"parimal-mandal",fullName:"Parimal Mandal"},{id:"436688",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayon",surname:"Pal",slug:"ayon-pal",fullName:"Ayon Pal"},{id:"436689",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanjoy",surname:"Sadhukhan",slug:"sanjoy-sadhukhan",fullName:"Sanjoy Sadhukhan"}],corrections:null},{id:"79720",title:"Importance of the Natural Incidence of the Fusarium Genus in Food Crops Established in Northern México",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100595",slug:"importance-of-the-natural-incidence-of-the-em-fusarium-em-genus-in-food-crops-established-in-norther",totalDownloads:112,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The incidence of the Fusarium genus causing root rot is reviewed in crops showing high importance for food supply and to obtain regular income by farmers in the highlands of Northern México. Pathogen incidence was evaluated under field conditions in multiple sampling locations for common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and several chili peppers (Capsicum annuum) local cultivars (landraces and bred cultivars). Five commercial plots for registered and certified seed were also evaluated in common beans to be used in the ‘seed refreshing program’ implemented for the cultivar Pinto Saltillo, considered as the main variety sown in the highlands of México. High Fusarium genus incidence and its interactions with other fungi species, such as Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium spp., cause high losses in plant population, commercial yield and seed quality in food crops grown in Northern México. The natural incidence of plant disease caused by the Fusarium genus and its negative effect on crop survival and the reduction of commercial yield and seed quality is fully reviewed. Plant disease resistance, crop breeding and the influence of the environmental conditions were also considered.",signatures:"Julio César Ríos Saucedo, María Gabriela Ramírez-Valadez, Saúl Santana Espinoza, Maihualy Martínez-Fernández and Rigoberto Rosales-Serna",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79720",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79720",authors:[{id:"226125",title:"Dr.",name:"Rigoberto",surname:"Rosales-Serna",slug:"rigoberto-rosales-serna",fullName:"Rigoberto Rosales-Serna"},{id:"423632",title:"MSc.",name:"María Gabriela",surname:"Ramírez-Valadez",slug:"maria-gabriela-ramirez-valadez",fullName:"María Gabriela Ramírez-Valadez"},{id:"423633",title:"MSc.",name:"Maihualy",surname:"Martínez-Fernández",slug:"maihualy-martinez-fernandez",fullName:"Maihualy Martínez-Fernández"},{id:"423634",title:"MSc.",name:"Saúl",surname:"Santana-Espinoza",slug:"saul-santana-espinoza",fullName:"Saúl Santana-Espinoza"},{id:"435231",title:"Dr.",name:"Julio César",surname:"Ríos-Saucedo",slug:"julio-cesar-rios-saucedo",fullName:"Julio César Ríos-Saucedo"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8954",title:"Biostimulants in Plant Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ac0eb3328820cca42cb7d6cdbfca4ec2",slug:"biostimulants-in-plant-science",bookSignature:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi and Ramalingam Radhakrishnan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8954.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"100573",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Mahyar",surname:"Mirmajlessi",slug:"seyed-mahyar-mirmajlessi",fullName:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8997",title:"Microorganisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d4bb9c77b89f8baf2716d1fb84c5bd9f",slug:"microorganisms",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Mona Shaaban, Abdelaziz Elgaml",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8997.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10906",title:"Fungal Reproduction and Growth",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f84de0280d54f3b52e3e4585cff24ac1",slug:"fungal-reproduction-and-growth",bookSignature:"Sadia Sultan and Gurmeet Kaur Surindar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10906.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"176737",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",surname:"Sultan",slug:"sadia-sultan",fullName:"Sadia Sultan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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\r\n\tAnimal behavior is an animal's response to an action, environment, person, or stimulus after the integration of genetic, sensory, neural, endocrine, and influencer components. The success of the response is an important factor for the survival of living things and the continuation of the species. Learning the behavior is a very important issue that serves as a guide in the adaptation and management of living things. This book, it is aimed to explain the history of behavioral science (Ethology), instinct, domestication, the effects of physiological and biochemical factors, hormones, and the nervous system on animal behavior. Moreover, there will be a comprehensive overview of genetic control of animal behavior, animal learning, offspring care, defense, foraging, sexual behavior, social behavior, migration, sleep, navigation, studies on animal behavior, abnormal animal behavior, and the factors that can cause these behaviors. The book will be an alternative resource for students and educators in biology, veterinary medicine, agriculture, psychology, sociology, and environmental sciences.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-936-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-935-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-937-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"db1dacc9284b2fc73f38fa985a586e15",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Volkan Gelen and Dr. Abdulsamed Kükürt",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11810.jpg",keywords:"Conditioning, Natural Behaviors, Domestication, Genetics, Environment, Physiology, Sleep Behavior in Animals, Hibernation, Circadian Rhythm, Migration, Parental Care, Reproductive",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 6th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 15th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 14th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 2nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 1st 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr.Gelen gained his veterinary degree from Kafkas University Veterinary Faculty. 2011, he was rewarded with undergraduate term first place and he received the best poster award at the 8th national veterinary biochemistry congress. Dr. Gelen served as the director of the animal experiments research and application center.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Kükürt is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He also served as the director of the animal experiments research and application center.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. 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A preliminary study of the status of lake eutrophication reported that more than 60% of the 90 lakes being studied were nutrient rich [1] with a few of them especially the urban lakes experiencing algal blooms, which affect human uses of the water, such as recreation and aesthetic values, while other lakes faced macrophyte infestation problems [2]. To address these widespread challenges, developing specific standards for lakes is necessary before introducing a monitoring programme and identifying management measures for improving lake water quality. At present, there are only two national standards of water quality in Malaysia, namely the National Water Quality Standards (NWQS) and the National Drinking Water Quality Standards (NDWQS), which were developed for the purpose of river and drinking water protection. Currently, lake monitoring efforts have focused on using the NWQS due to the unavailability of specific water quality criteria for lakes. In an earlier work, it has been shown that the majority of the lakes studied were categorized as suitable for recreational purposes, although, they did experience eutrophication [2].
\nNumerous ambient water quality criteria and standards have been introduced and published in various countries throughout the world [3] and compiled based on different uses [4]. Many of these criteria were developed for different protection objectives, mostly for drinking and/or recreation, and derived using different methodologies. Some countries propose unified regulatory standards that classify all water bodies based on beneficial uses [5]. Other countries use general standards which are applied to the water bodies for multiple purposes, with different numerical limits set for different types of water bodies, such as rivers, canals, lakes and coastal waters [6]. In some countries, such as Japan, a specific law to preserve lake water quality, better known as the Clean Lake Law, has been established to protect and improve water quality in the water bodies. Individualized measures have had to be developed in Japan due to differing water quality conditions, sources and causes of pollution amongst lakes [7]. In many states in the United States, site‐specific criteria incorporating lake basin features and maximum load have been proposed, such as in the cases of Lake Erie and Lake Tahoe [8, 9]. As national standards for river and marine waters are available, specific criteria and standards for lakes are also needed so that Malaysia can ensure the sustainable management and protection of this lentic water due to its inherent characteristics.
\nThis work describes the efforts in developing a National Lake Water Quality Criteria and Standards (NLWQCS) for Malaysia. The paper will be presented in three ways: (i) a review of the lake water quality criteria and standards in existing literature; (ii) classification and criteria, based on multi‐stakeholder consultations and published data and (iii) discussion of the role of this standard for lake management. The main objective in developing these criteria is to provide a standardized reference for the monitoring and management of lakes, based on a consensus of local experts and stakeholders, namely the lake managers and lake owners such the state authority, state water authority and government agencies.
\nVarious definitions of criteria and standards have been reviewed by Ward [10]. In this paper, the term ‘water quality criteria’ is defined as the level of constituents or state of the physical, chemical, radiological, biological and aesthetic properties of water that determine its suitability for specific uses. The term standard follows the definition by Streeter [11] which is ‘an operational goal or objective’, such as to enable concerted efforts towards sustainable management of lakes, rather than an established regulatory criterion with legal ramification. The methodology adopted in establishing water quality standards usually involves: (i) identifying the designated or beneficial water uses and (ii) selecting the water quality parameters and determining the necessary limiting criteria to protect the most vulnerable of the beneficial uses.
\nReviews of available standards in existing literature were carried out, covering various water quality standards both in Malaysia and worldwide. The local literature evaluated includes the NWQS [12], Putrajaya Lake Water Quality Standards (PLWQS) [13] and the NDWQS [14], as well as the draft document of guidelines for recreational water [15]. Reference was also made to a compendium on water quality regulatory frameworks and selected international standards and guidelines in different continents such as the United States, European Union, Japan, Brazil and Australia as listed in Table 1. The reviews were conducted in order to determine the designated water use, and water quality parameters and values. In terms of threshold limits, emphasis for selecting the threshold limit was given to local criteria and lake data from literature. This is followed with criteria or threshold limits from other countries or states with similar tropical conditions such as Brazil, the Philippines, Florida State in the United States and northern Australia. Threshold values of some of the criteria involving human health are based on well‐adopted criteria in the developed countries.
\nAdditionally, three stakeholder consultations were organized in 2015 to obtain consensus from stakeholders and expert judgements on the criteria. In the first stakeholder consultation, identified stakeholders were presented with a preliminary idea of the classification and criteria followed by sharing of experience with other international lake standards namely the Japanese lake criteria. Stakeholders were identified randomly comprising selected water quality experts, government agencies and water supply companies. In addition to minutes of discussion, questionnaires were also distributed to stakeholders to identify the need and parameters most important for such standard and to record their input. Second stakeholder consultation was held during the national lake research committee forum to refine the classification of the proposed NLWQCS and the parameter threshold limits.
\nThe national lake research committee consists of experts in various disciplines concerning lakes, and key representatives from federal government agencies and ministries in charge of lake management. In this forum, the role of the standards was also discussed and deliberated. The third stakeholder consultative session involved reviewing the proposed standard by various stakeholders in 45 federal and state jurisdictions, namely the lake owners, with regard to the development of the criteria. A separate engagement with selected experts was carried out to review the improvements made to the criteria resulting from the stakeholder consultations. The final NLWQCS was presented and disseminated in a seminar involving stakeholders. Figure 1 shows the development process of the NLWQCS.
\nCountry/region | \nStandards and/or guidelines | \nPurposes or classification | \n
---|---|---|
Australia & New Zealand | \nAustralian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality 2000 | \nRecreation; aquatic ecosystems | \n
Brazil | \nCONAMA Resolution 274, 2000 | \nBeneficial uses | \n
Canada | \nGuidelines for Canadian Recreational Water Quality 2012 | \nRecreation | \n
EU | \nEU Bathing Water Directive 2006 | \nBathing | \n
EU Water Framework Directive 2000 | \n||
Japan | \nBasic environmental law 1967; environmental quality standards regarding water pollution 1986 | \nBeneficial uses (protection of natural environment, fishery, drinking, irrigation, industrial water, environmental conservation) | \n
\n | Law concerning special measures for the preservation of lake water quality 1984 | \nLake | \n
Malaysia | \nNational Water Quality Standards | \nBeneficial uses | \n
\n | National Drinking Water Quality Standards; Raw water quality guidelines | \nDrinking | \n
\n | Putrajaya Lake Water Quality Standards | \nRecreational | \n
South Africa | \nSouth African Water Quality Guidelines: recreational uses | \nRecreation | \n
South African Water Quality Guidelines: aquatic ecosystem | \nAquatic ecosystems | \n|
South African Water Quality Guidelines: domestic uses | \nDomestic uses | \n|
South African Water Quality Guidelines: domestic uses | \nIrrigation | \n|
South African Water Quality Guidelines: industrial uses | \nIndustrial uses | \n|
South African Water Quality Guidelines: agricultural uses | \nAquaculture; livestock dewatering | \n|
UK & Ireland | \nUK The bathing water regulations 2013 | \nBathing | \n
Ireland Water Quality (Dangerous substances) Regulations, 2001 | \nDangerous substances | \n|
Quality of Bathing Waters Regulations, 1992 | \nBathing | \n|
United States | \n2012 Recreational Water Quality criteria | \nRecreation | \n
State of Ohio Water Quality Standards | \n||
Lake Tahoe Basin Water Quality Plan | \n||
State of Michigan Water Quality Standards | \n||
Florida\'s surface water quality standards | \n||
Various | \nWHO Recreational Water Quality Guidelines | \nRecreation | \n
List of selected water quality standards reviewed and compared.
The development process of the NLWQCS.
In general, most of the standards were developed to protect the use of water for human health purposes, such as drinking, bathing, and other resource efficiency such as industry, livestock dewatering and aquaculture [4]. The protection of aquatic health has been emphasized in the United States, Brazil, Australia and Japan. The criteria and number of parameters differ between the guidelines and standards. As drinking water standards are already established in Malaysia, emphasis in this work is placed on other human health applications, namely recreational, as well as aquatic life health. The commonly used criterion proposed by USEPA to measure human health is based on carcinogenicity and toxicity [10]. All recreational water quality criteria focus on microbiological parameters affecting human health. Microbial hazards are considered to be the primary concern by the WHO as they have the largest impact on health in terms of waterborne disease, especially when compared to chemical hazards which are usually associated with long‐term exposure [16]. The Canadian recreational guidelines emphasize
Within many standards and guidelines for recreational water, pH, clarity and colour are the most frequently prescribed physical and aesthetic parameters monitored (Table 2). Additionally, temperature and turbidity are important physicochemical and aesthetic parameters in Canadian Guidelines, while odour and floating objects are of concern within Australian and South African recreational guidelines, respectively. Turbidity is frequently used as a substitute for total suspended solids (TSS) and clarity, with numerical values specified in some standards or guidelines, such as in Australia and Malaysia.
\nOf common concern in terms of the chemical parameters for recreational water were total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP), due to their ability to cause nuisance algal growth. Japan\'s regulations specified TN and TP of 0.2 mg/l and 0.01 mg/l, respectively for bathing purposes, while Lake Tahoe specifies TN and TP of 0.15 mg/l and 0.008 mg/l, respectively [8]. In Malaysia, the PLWQS and NWQS only list TP. In the United States, ammonia is also monitored in the various states’ standards such as Ohio, Michigan and New York. In these US states, the narrative standard states that the water should be free of ammonia, or should contain amounts that cannot cause nuisance growths of aquatic weeds and algae. However, national recommendations on nutrient criteria were developed by USEPA and consider the region and waterbody approach by dividing the country into 14 nutrient ecoregions and four water body types, including lakes, reservoirs and wetlands [20]. Ranges of reference values were adopted in Australia to provide guidelines for managers to characterize ambient conditions [21]. In many regulations and guidelines, specific site studies are recommended to determine the appropriate concentrations for preserving the individual lakes [6, 9]. The number of chemicals criteria (specifically toxicants and pesticides) has increased greatly over the years [3]. More than 100 pesticide parameters have been specified in Australian guidelines [6]. The most typical pesticides mentioned due to health‐related concerns are Aldrin, DDT, chlordane, lindane, endosulfan, malathion, paraquat and parathion.
\n\n | Units | \nAustralia1a | \nAustralia1b | \nBrazil2 | \nCanada3 | \nEU4 | \nJapan5 | \nMalaysia | \nSouth Africa | \nUnited States | \nUK | \n|||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 6 | \n7 | \n8 | \n9 | \n10 | \n11 | \n12 | \n13 | \n14 | \n15 | \n16 | \n
Temperature | \n°C | \n15–35 | \n\n | \n | NR | \n\n | \n | ±2 | \n\n | ±2 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | NR | \n\n | \n |
Transparency | \nm | \n>1.6 | \n\n | NR | \n>1.2 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | 0.6 | \n>1 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | 16 | \n\n | \n |
Odour | \n– | \nNR | \n\n | NR | \n\n | \n | \n | NOO | \n\n | NOO | \n\n | 1 ton | \n\n | \n | NR | \nNR | \nNR | \n\n |
Taste | \n– | \n\n | \n | NR | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | NOT | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | NR | \n\n | \n |
floatables | \n– | \n\n | \n | NR | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | Nil | \nNR | \n\n | \n | \n | NR | \nNR | \n\n | NR | \n
pH | \n– | \n5–9 | \n6–8 | \n6–9 | \n5–9 | \n\n | 6.5–8.5 | \n6–9 | \n6.5–9 | \n6.5–9 | \n\n | 6–9 | \n\n | \n | \n | 6.5–8.5 | \n6–8.5 | \n\n |
Colour | \nTCU | \nNR | \n\n | <75 | \nNR | \n\n | \n | 150 | \n15 | \n150 | \n\n | NR | \n\n | \n | NR | \nNR | \n\n | \n |
Turbidity | \nNTU | \n\n | 2–200 | \n<100 | \n50 | \n\n | \n | 50 | \n5 | \n50 | \n\n | 1 | \n\n | \n | \n | NR | \n≤29 | \n\n |
Hardness | \n\n | 500 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 250 | \n500 | \n250 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
Oil & grease | \nmg/L | \nNR | \n\n | NR | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | NR | \n≤5 | \n\n |
TSS | \nmg/L | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | ≤5 | \n50 | \n\n | 50 | \n\n | \n | <100 | \n\n | NR | \nNR | \n\n | \n |
DO | \nmg/L | \n>6.5 | \n\n | >6, >5 | \n\n | \n | ≥7.5 | \n5–7 | \n\n | 5–7 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
TP | \nmg/L | \n\n | 0.01 | \n0.025 | \n\n | \n | ≤0.01 | \n0.2 | \n\n | 0.05 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 0.01 | \n\n | \n |
TN | \nmg/L | \n\n | 0.35 | \n10 | \n\n | \n | ≤0.2 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | NR | \n\n | NR | \n0.114 | \n\n | \n |
BOD | \nmg/L | \n\n | \n | 3–5 | \n\n | \n | \n | 3 | \n\n | 3 | \n\n | \n | NR | \n\n | NR | \n\n | \n | \n |
COD | \nmg/L | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | ≤3 | \n25 | \n\n | 25 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | NR | \n\n |
Chlorophyll‐a | \nμg/l | \n\n | \n | 3 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 0.7 | \n<15 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | 0.9 | \n\n | \n |
Counts/100ml | \n35 (230) | \n\n | \n | ≤70 | \n\n | \n | \n | 0 | \n\n | ≤130 | \n\n | \n | 126 (235) | \n\n | \n | 900 | \n||
Enterococci | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | ≤400 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 330 | \n|
Faecal coliform | \nCounts/100 ml | \n150 (1000) | \n\n | 1000 | \n\n | \n | \n | 400 | \n0 | \n100 | \n≤130 | \n\n | \n | \n | 5000 | \n200 (800) | \n\n | \n |
Total coliform | \nCounts/100 ml | \n\n | \n | 5000 | \n\n | \n | 1000 | \n5000 | \n0 | \n5000 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
Enteric virus | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 0 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
Cyanobacteria | \n\n | >15,000 | \n\n | \n | ≤100,000 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | NR | \n
Microcystin | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | ≤20 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
BGA | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | >6 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 0 | \n0 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | |
Cadmium | \nmg/L | \n0.005 | \n\n | 0.001 | \n\n | ≤0.45 | \n≤0.01 | \n0.01 | \n0.003 | \n0.002 | \n\n | \n | 0. | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
Lead | \nmg/L | \n0.05 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | ≤0.01 | \n0.05 | \n0.01 | \n0.05 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
Arsenic | \nmg/L | \n0.05 | \n\n | 0.05 | \n\n | \n | ≤0.01 | \n0.05 | \n0.01 | \n0.05 | \n\n | \n | 0.01 | \n\n | 0.01 | \n≤0.05 | \n0.05 | \n\n |
Mercury | \nmg/L | \n0.001 | \n\n | 0.0002 | \n\n | ≤0.07 | \n≤0.0005 | \n0.001 | \n0.001 | \n0.0001 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | # | \n# | \n0.012 | \n\n |
Chromium (IV) | \nmg/L | \n0.05 | \n\n | 0.02 | \n\n | \n | ≤0.05 | \n0.05 | \n0.05 | \n0.05 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | # | \n# | \n\n | \n |
Copper | \nmg/l | \n1 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 0.02 | \n1 | \n0.02 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | # | \n# | \n\n | \n |
Comparison of selected parameters in different water quality standards and guidelines.
1 Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality 2000, (a) recreation, (b) aquatic ecosystems.
2 CONAMA Resolution 274, 2000.
3 Canada, Recreation water quality 2012.
4 EU Bathing Water Directive 2006.
5 Basic environmental law; environmental quality standards regarding water pollution.
6 National Water Quality Standards.
7 National Drinking Water Quality Standards.
8 Putrajaya Lake Water Quality Standards.
9 South African Water Quality Guidelines: recreational uses.
10 South African Water Quality Guidelines: domestic uses.
11 South African Water Quality Guidelines: aquatic ecosystem.
12 Quality criteria for water 1986/2012.
13 State of Ohio Water Quality Standards.
14 State of New York Nutrient standard plan.
15 Florida\'s surface water quality standards.
16 The bathing water regulations 2013.
Water quality criteria for aquatic health are mostly chemical criteria that require knowledge of aquatic toxicity and environmental fate data. Most of aquatic ecosystems criteria are derived from toxicity data from multiple receptors in order to determine the ranges of tolerance for different organisms, including targeted protective species in relation to pollutants [3]. The commonly used criterion proposed by USEPA to measure the aquatic ecosystem health is usually the chronic effect value and the acute effect value. The minimum amount of data required for deriving water quality criteria for protecting freshwater aquatic environments varies between countries, as critically reviewed by Sha et al. [3]. In the United States and Europe, concentration approach is used with numeric criteria developed for cold water and warm water fish. In Australia, ecological health criterion is used compared to the contaminant limits approach adopted in the United States and Europe. Four biological criteria or indicators, namely species richness, species composition, primary production and ecosystem function, were recommended for assessing the ecosystem health [21]. When compared to developed countries where water quality criteria are well established for biota such as fish, specific information regarding the effects of pollutants that affect biota are very limited in tropical countries such as Malaysia. A recent work by Shuhaimi et al. has identified the acute test value for four heavy metals, namely iron, lead, nickel and zinc, on local biota [22].
\nDissolved oxygen (DO), pH and turbidity levels are also important for aquatic life. Fish and other aquatic organisms could not survive if DO levels were less than 4 mg/l, and pH levels lower than 4 or above 11. For protecting specific wildlife such as salmonids, turbidity is specified in many standards in the United States and Alaska [23]. Various effects of turbidity and suspended solid concentrations include reduced growth, abundance, survival and feeding, fatality, altered behaviour and displacement [23]. The recommended criteria for turbidity vary as follows: <50 NTU for Canada and Malaysia, <100 NTU for Brazil and 2–200 NTU for tropical Australia. In the United States, numerical turbidity standards for protecting fish and aquatic habitats lie within 5–25 units above natural levels [23].
\nThere are numerous criteria or limits for heavy metals due to their impact on both human and aquatic health. Almost all standards require criteria for lead, arsenic, mercury, cadmium and chromium. In the United States, criteria for most metals such as lead, cadmium, chromium and copper are based on natural logarithms of total hardness [24, 25] and are targeted for protecting human health. In Australia, numeric guideline values for maximum concentration are prescribed for about 17 parameters relating to heavy metals, while in South Africa a total of 12 parameters are listed [6, 26]. References on the lake conditions were made based on published literature [27–30].
\nA total of 32 local and four international experts were involved in the first stakeholder consultation. The findings from the first consultative process identified the need for the standards to be based on real data. They also stressed the need to consider the timing of data collection, the weather and the lake characteristics. Water quality parameter will differ with depth, and if sample is taken during daytime or night‐time and during dry and wet weather conditions. The findings in the second consultative process further refined the classification of the proposed NLWQCS and the threshold limits of parameters that may affect water quality. The need to engage with various stakeholders in the state jurisdiction was also highlighted. The state authority and/or state water authority can decide whether water standard is to be used throughout the state for managing or controlling activities within lakes within the state. The application of water quality criteria in Malaysia can be regulatory, depending on regulation and law, or voluntarily such as to support in maintaining water quality for respective uses.
\nThe findings of the third consultative process include further refinement of the threshold values based on various monitoring experiences by the respective stakeholders. In the consultation process, stakeholders were divided into four groups to discuss the individual classification. Discussions were focused on the parameters that need to be identified as criteria determining the class. Other toxicants criteria were also reviewed by the groups. The main parameters of concern in determining of threshold limits includes chlorophyll‐
The development of the NLWQCS aims at providing a tool stakeholders and lake owners can use manage a lake or reservoir. NLWQCS applies to all lakes, reservoirs, ponds and wetlands. The proposed standard is divided into four categories, which were suggested as targets for the respective lakes to achieve [31] based on designated uses proposed by the respective authorities. Categories A and B were criteria to be applied for lakes used for recreational environment: Category A for primary body contact such as bathing, diving, skiing and wind‐surfing activities, and Category B for secondary body contact such as boating, cruising and angling. Category A is the more stringent of the two and included criteria for parameters related to waterborne disease. The contaminant limits for certain parameters in Category A is more stringent than the raw water for drinking standard. Categories C and D were criteria to be applied for lakes that are productive and meant for fisheries and other economic activities: Category C for protection of aquatic health, and Category D for other limited uses. Category D is allowed to be more turbid, have higher concentrations of TSS and nutrients, and have lower transparency.
\n\nThe main parameters identified for the different classes are categorized as (i) physical parameters; (ii) nutrients; (iii) biochemical and microbial constituents and (iv) other toxicants. Only approximately 23 physical‐chemical parameters were identified to determine the categories. Factors considered in parameter selection include simplicity of measurement, availability of measuring devices and the reasonable cost of sampling and analysis [31]. Aesthetic parameters such as colour, odour, taste, floating objects, transparency, turbidity and suspended solids are emphasized in all categories for lake management. These parameters reflect aesthetic values of the lake and most can be measured easily. Normal temperature was set at 28 ± 3°C [31]. Nutrient parameters relate to ammonia nitrogen, nitrate‐nitrogen and TP. Hardness, which influences heavy metals, is deliberated to be around 50 mg/l.
\nThe proposed criteria for lake water quality are given in Table 3. The criteria in this work are based on established criterion found in the literature assuming similar health and aquatic life effects will be experienced when levels of water quality parameters exceeding the criteria. In terms of aesthetic parameters, floating objects, colour and odour are rarely reported on in the literature. Suitability for swimming has been associated with the clarity or the depth of light penetration into water. The clarity of Malaysian lakes mentioned in the literature range between 0.3 m and 5.7 m [2, 27]. This parameter is associated with the colour of the water, levels of turbidity, algae and suspended solids. Guidelines for water clarity or Secchi depth were set at 1.2 m and 1 m in Canada and South Africa, respectively as being the minimum visibility level for water to be suitable for swimming [17, 18]. In Australia and New Zealand, the visual clarity level based on Secchi depth required to ensure swimmer safety in wadeable areas was recommended as 1.6 m [6]. A survey of perception for bathing in New Zealand found a Secchi depth of 1.5 m as the aesthetic consideration [32]. Currently, no survey has been carried out to measure perception for bathing in Malaysia. In the NLWQS, a lower threshold limit of 0.6 m was set following experience in Putrajaya. TSS in most lakes were generally found to be less than 20 mg/l, except in Sembrong and Aman Lakes which are known to experience algal bloom that can reach about 50 mg/l. DO concentrations in Malaysian lakes are highly variable and depend on the timing of the sampling. DO <5 mg/l is common for lakes located in peat swamp areas. In terms of nutrient parameters, TP was set to below <0.01 mg/l for primary contact and <0.05 mg/l for the other classes [31]. Nutrient values (specifically TP) were very high in many lakes and needed to be controlled to decrease eutrophication problems. Monitoring is necessary to ensure informed decision making regarding effective management measures to control nutrient inputs. These values are consistent with the limits set in Japanese regulations and at Lake Tahoe for bathing purposes, and are much more stringent than the PLWQS which specified higher TP value (0.05 mg/l) for its ambient recreational standard.
\nParameter | \nUnit | \nCategory A | \nCategory B | \nCategory C | \nCategory D | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Temperature | \n°C | \nNormal ±3 | \nNormal ±3 | \nNormal ±3 | \nNormal ±3 | \n
| \n|||||
Hydrogen carbonate | \nmg/L | \n<200 | \n<200 | \n**a | \n**a | \n
Total dissolved solids | \nmg/L | \n1,000>k | \n1,000>k | \n1,000>k | \n1,000>k | \n
Nitrite-N | \nmg/L | \n0.04i | \n0.4a | \n0.4a | \n0.4a | \n
Total nitrogen (TN) | \nmg/L | \n0.35f | \n0.35f | \n0.35 | \n0.35 | \n
6a | \n6 | \n8 | \n|||
25a | \n25 | \n50 | \n|||
15000cf | \n15000cf | \n15000cf | \n|||
Faecal Coliform | \nMPN/ 100ml | \n150fg | \n<1000g | \n5000 (20000)*a | \n5000 (20000)*a | \n
5000a | \n50000a | \n50000a | \n|||
1200g | \n3000h | \n3000h | \n|||
230c | \nnvd | \nnvd | \n|||
ndi | \nnvd | \nnvd | \n|||
ndi | \nnvd | \nnvd | \n|||
ndi | \nnvd | \nnvd | \n|||
Nde | \nnvd | \nnvd | \n|||
Enteroviruses | \nPFU/L | \nnvd | \nnvd | \nnvd | \nnvd | \n
Microcystin–LR | \nµg/L | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
Aluminium | \nmg/L | \n0.1ji | \n0.1ji | \n0.05i | \n0.05i | \n
Antimony | \nmg/L | \n0.03i | \n0.03i | \n0.03i | \n0.03i | \n
Argentum | \nmg/L | \n0.05k | \n0.05>k | \n0.05>k | \n0.05>k | \n
Barium | \nmg/L | \n0.1g | \n0.1 | \n1ai | \n1ai | \n
Beryllium | \nmg/L | \n0.004i | \n0.004i | \n0.004i | \n0.004i | \n
Boron | \nmg/L | \n1ai | \n1ai | \n1ai | \n1ai | \n
Calcium ion | \nmg/L | \n200 | \n200 | \n**a | \n**a | \n
Chloride | \nmg/L | \n250j | \n250 | \n250 | \n250 | \n
Chromium | \nmg/L | \n0.05ac | \n0.025ac | \n0.05ac | \n0.05ac | \n
Cobalt | \nmg/L | \n0.05c | \n0.05c | \n0.05c | \n0.05c | \n
Combined Chlorine | \nmg/L | \n>1.0 | \n>1.0 | \n>1.0 | \n>1.0 | \n
Copper | \nmg/L | \n0.02ai | \n0.02>ai | \n0.02>ai | \n0.02>ai | \n
Fluoride | \nmg/L | \n1 | \n1 | \n1.5f | \n1.5f | \n
Iron | \nmg/L | \n1ai | \n1 | \n1 | \n1 | \n
Magnesium | \nmg/L | \n150k | \n150 | \n150 | \n150 | \n
Manganese | \nmg/L | \n0.1ai | \n0.1 | \n0.1 | \n0.1 | \n
Potassium ion | \nmg/L | \n200 | \n200 | \n200 | \n200 | \n
Silver | \nmg/L | \n0.05ai | \n0.05 | \n0.05 | \n0.05 | \n
Sodium | \nmg/L | \n200k | \n200k | \n200k | \n200k | \n
Sulphur | \nmg/L | \n0.05ai | \n0.05 | \n0.05 | \n0.05 | \n
Zinc | \nmg/L | \n3k | \n3k | \n5ai | \n5ai | \n
1,2-dichloroethane | \nµg/L | \n30k | \n30k | \n30 | \n30 | \n
2,4-D | \nµg/L | \n30k | \n30k | \n70ai | \n70ai | \n
2,4-DB | \nµg/L | \n90k | \n90k | \n90 | \n90 | \n
2,4-dichlorophenol | \nµg/L | \n90k | \n90k | \n90 | \n90 | \n
2,4,5-T | \nµg/L | \n9k | \n9k | \n10ai | \n10ai | \n
2,4,5-TP | \nµg/L | \n4ai | \n4ai | \n4ai | \n4ai | \n
2,4,6-trichlorophenol | \nµg/L | \n200k | \n200 | \n200 | \n200 | \n
Acrylamide | \nµg/L | \n0.1g | \n0.1>g | \n0.1>g | \n0.1>g | \n
Alachlor | \nµg/L | \n20k | \n20>k | \n20>k | \n20>k | \n
Aldicarb | \nµg/L | \n10k | \n10>k | \n10>k | \n10>k | \n
Aldrin / Dieldrin | \nµg/L | \n0.02i | \n0.02>i | \n0.02i | \n0.02i | \n
Anionic Detergent MBAS | \nµg/L | \n1000k | \n1000>k | \n1000>k | \n1000>k | \n
Atrazine | \nµg/L | \nnvd | \nnvd | \nnvd | \nnvd | \n
BHC | \nµg/L | \n2ai | \n2ai | \n2ai | \n2ai | \n
Benzene | \nµg/L | \n10f | \n10f | \n10f | \n10f | \n
Benzo(a)pyrene | \nµg/L | \n0.01c | \n0.01c | \n0.01c | \n0.01c | \n
Bromate | \nµg/L | \n10>g | \n10>g | \n10>g | \n10>g | \n
Bromodichloro methane | \nµg/L | \n60>k | \n60>k | \n60>k | \n60>k | \n
Bromoform | \nµg/L | \n100>k | \n100>k | \n100>k | \n100>k | \n
Carbofuran | \nµg/L | \n7>k | \n7>k | \n7>k | \n7>k | \n
Carbon Chloroform Extract | \nµg/l | \n500ai | \n500ai | \n500ai | \n500ai | \n
Chlordane | \nµg/L | \n0.08ai | \n0.08ai | \n0.08ai | \n0.08ai | \n
Chloroform | \nmg/L | \n0.2>k | \n0.2 | \n0.2 | \n0.2 | \n
Cyanide | \nmg/L | \n0.05g | \n0.05g | \n0.05g | \n0.05g | \n
DDT | \nµg/L | \n2>k | \n2 | \n2 | \n2 | \n
Dibromoaceto nitrile | \nµg/L | \n100>k | \n100>k | \n100>k | \n100>k | \n
Dibromochloro methane | \nµg/L | \n100>k | \n100>k | \n100>k | \n100>k | \n
Dichloroacetic acid | \nµg/L | \n50>k | \n50>k | \n50>k | \n50>k | \n
Dichloroaceto nitrile | \nµg/L | \n90>k | \n90>k | \n90>k | \n90>k | \n
Endosulfan | \nµg/L | \n10ai | \n10ai | \n10ai | \n10ai | \n
Epichlorohydrin | \nµg/L | \n4f | \n4f | \n4f | \n4f | \n
Free Residual Chlorine | \nmg/L | \n1.5i | \n1.5i | \n1.5i | \n1.5i | \n
Glyphosate | \nµg/L | \n200k | \n200k | \n200k | \n200k | \n
Heptachlor | \nµg/L | \n0.05ai | \n0.05ai | \n0.05ai | \n0.05ai | \n
Hexachloro benzene | \nµg/L | \n1>k | \n1>k | \n1>k | \n1>k | \n
Lindane | \nµg/L | \n2ij | \n2ij | \n2ij | \n2ij | \n
MBAS/BAS (Methylene Blue) | \nµg/L | \n200f | \n200f | \n200f | \n200f | \n
MCPA | \nµg/L | \n2>k | \n2>k | \n2>k | \n2>k | \n
Methoxychlor | \nµg/L | \n20>k | \n20>k | \n20>k | \n20>k | \n
Mineral Oil | \nµg/L | \n300>k | \n300>k | \n300>k | \n300>k | \n
Oil & Grease (Emulsified Edible) | \nmg/L | \n7:Ni | \n7:Ni | \n7:Ni | \n7:Ni | \n
Oil & Grease (Mineral) | \nmg/L | \n0.04:Ni | \n0.04:Ni | \n0.04:Ni | \n0.04:Ni | \n
Paraquat | \nµg/L | \n10ai | \n10ai | \n10ai | \n10ai | \n
Parathion | \nµg/L | \n30k | \n30k | \n30k | \n30k | \n
PCB | \nµg/L | \n0.1ai | \n0.1ai | \n0.0001 | \n0.0001 | \n
Pendimethalin | \nµg/L | \n20>k | \n20>k | \n20>k | \n20>k | \n
Pentachlorophenol | \nµg/L | \n9>k | \n9>k | \n9>k | \n9>k | \n
Permethrin | \nµg/L | \n20>k | \n20>k | \n20>k | \n20>k | \n
Pesticides | \nµg/L | \nnvd | \nnvd | \nnvd | \nnvd | \n
Phenol | \nµg/L | \n5g | \n5g | \n5g | \n5g | \n
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons | \nµg/L | \nnvd | \nnvd | \nnvd | \nnvd | \n
Propanil | \nµg/L | \n20>k | \n20 | \n20 | \n20 | \n
Selenium | \nmg/L | \n0.01fj | \n0.01f | \n0.01f | \n0.01f | \n
Simazine | \nµg/L | \n20k | \n20k | \n20k | \n20k | \n
Sulphate | \nmg/L | \n250j | \n250>j | \n250>j | \n250>j | \n
t-DDT | \nµg/L | \n0.1ai | \n0.1ai | \n0.1ai | \n0.1ai | \n
Tetrachloroethene and Trichloroethene | \nµg/L | \n10gj | \n10gj | \n10gj | \n10gj | \n
Total indicative dose | \nµg/L | \nnvd | \nnvd | \nnvd | \nnvd | \n
Total organic carbon (TOC) | \nµg/L | \nnvd | \nnvd | \nnvd | \nnvd | \n
Toxicants (heavy metal, organics) | \nµg/L | \n# | \n# | \n# | \n# | \n
Trichloroacetic acid | \nµg/L | \n100>k | \n100>k | \n100>k | \n100>k | \n
Trichloroaceto nitrile | \nµg/L | \n1>k | \n1>k | \n1>k | \n1>k | \n
Trihalomethanes–Total | \nµg/L | \n1000>k | \n1000>k | \n1000>k | \n1000>k | \n
Tritium | \nµg/L | \nnvd | \nnvd | \nnvd | \nnvd | \n
Vinyl chloride | \nµg/L | \n5>k | \n5>k | \n5>k | \n5>k | \n
Gross-alpha | \nBq/L | \n0.1ai | \n0.1ai | \n0.1ai | \n0.1ai | \n
Gross-Beta | \nBq/L | \n1ai | \n1ai | \n1ai | \n1ai | \n
Radium-226 | \nBq/L | \n<0.1ai | \n<0.1ai | \n<0.1ai | \n<0.1ai | \n
Strontium-90 | \nBq/L | \n<1ai | \n<1ai | \n<1ai | \n<1ai | \n
National Lake Water Quality Criteria and [C2]Standards 2015 [30].
NV, not visible; NOO, no obvious odour; NOT, no obvious taste; nd, not detected; nvd, no value determined.
aDOE [12].
bHealth Canada [17].
cANZECC [6].
e WHO [16].
f Ministry of Health, unpublished report.
g EPA Ireland [40].
h Conversion using USEPA ratio (126
i Perbadanan Putrajaya [13].
j CONAMA [5].
k NDWQS.
* maximum not to be exceeded.
# parameter not fully established.
Biochemical and microbiological parameters suggested in the standard include BOD, COD, total and faecal coliforms,
Stakeholders recommended monitoring of five heavy metals in lakes, namely arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury and nickel, due to their toxicity in human health. Some of these chemicals were frequently detected in many rivers throughout Malaysia [12]. Arsenic was classified as very toxic and widely associated with industrial pollution from the mining industry, dye manufacturers, the glass and ceramics industry, fertilizers and pesticides [40]. High arsenic levels were reported in post‐mining lakes such as Blue Lake, due to its use in the gold mining process. This has led to the barring of the lake for any human activities [41, 42]. Both cadmium and lead are potentially hazardous to most forms of life and are considered to be toxic to aquatic organisms. The main environmental sources of cadmium are discharges from mining, metal smelters and agricultural uses of sludge, pesticides and fertilizers. For lead, the main sources are anthropogenic activities such as runoff associated with lead emissions from gasoline‐powered motor vehicles, and industrial and municipal wastewater discharges [26, 40]. Mercury is of major concern in the natural aquatic environment due to its extreme toxicity to aquatic organisms, high concentrations of which in water bodies are associated with industrial pollution. Information on many toxicants, in particular pesticides in Malaysian lake water quality were not found in the literature. The threshold limit for many toxicants provided here presents as a starting point for monitoring of the pollutants. Future studies on threshold levels of toxicants in lakes are needed to confirm and validate the criteria.
\nThe proposed standards were based on expert judgement and the best available information found in the literature. Part of the role of the NLWQCS is to provide the directional targets for research and management programmes. The standards can be used to guide rehabilitation measures and conservation efforts as well as to develop management measures to address eutrophication issues. The standards are proposed to be non‐binding and to be gradually improved as more information and data are gathered by the stakeholders. As water quality monitoring in lakes in still in infancy, this NLWQCS does not provide a plan for enforcement to enable protection of the uses nor become an established regulatory criterion with legal ramification. However, the criteria can also be used by the respective agencies and stakeholders to assist in monitoring and to classify various lakes under their regulatory or management controls for their fitness for different uses.
\nIn the proposed document, the sampling strategy was not described in detail. Water quality in lakes is known to differ temporally and spatially, both horizontally and vertically depending on lake depth. Seasonal and daily variations associated with irradiance, along with dissimilarity in surface waters’ mixing related to weather patterns can induce variations in temperature, DO and the transportation of nutrients or pollutants. Thermal and chemical stratification are common features of deeper lakes which affect the water quality being monitored. Variations in water quality are also dependent on the composition of discharges over both short and extended periods. Discharges from housing, commercial buildings and industry can vary within a day, a week or a season. Domestic discharges depend on the homes’ occupancy, which is usually higher during the early morning, at midday and in the early evening, while industrial discharges depend on operation hours. Higher home discharges and lower industrial discharges could happen during weekends and festive seasons. Exceedances of bacterial indicator to health risk were also temporally sporadic and geographically limited with the reduction of pollutant loading not necessarily reducing the health risk [43]. Narrative criteria were proposed in NLWQCS namely to consider the size and shape of the lake when choosing a sampling location, so that the site selection is representative of the whole lake. The choice of site for routine water monitoring sampling can make a significant difference to the classification of microbial water quality [44], owing to the hydrodynamics and proximity of pollutant sources.
\nWith respect to the criteria for protecting aquatic life in the NLWQCS, many limitations exist due to unavailability of extensive data. The criteria in this are mostly based on chronic and acute effect values in temperate countries which have different species. Most of the water quality criteria were also based on a single pollutant model which mostly targeted single species instead of community response [3]. Some of the criteria for aquatic life protection adopted the same value for the human health protection criterion assuming that the effects to all types of aquatic life, all stages of their life cycle and the whole aquatic community are similar. Further research is much needed on deriving the chronic and acute effects of many pollutants on freshwater local species in order to establish more accurate criteria for protecting the Malaysian aquatic environment.
\nIn these criteria, the sampling methodology aims at testing the ambient condition of the lakes via a minimum of three sets of samples, to be monitored at least twice a year, once in the dry and once in the wet season. The proposed depth is surface measurement, in accordance with standard methods [45]. However, adult chest depth at ∼1.2–1.5 m is the most common sampling depth recommended in the United States and Canadian recreational guidelines, due to strong evidence in the form of the mathematical relationship between indicator organism density and swimmer illness. Intensifying the number of samples and frequency of monitoring may provide a better representation of the lake\'s overall water quality and trends. A minimum frequency of once per week during the swimming season was recommended by Canadian guidelines [17] and monthly by the UK and a few US states [9, 46, 47], in order to make more informed decisions regarding lake suitability for recreation. As bathing or swimming activities in lakes is not widely practiced in Malaysia, nor is there a specific swimming season, monitoring measures will depend on the authority\'s management budgets.
\nIn order to determine the extent of violation or compliance levels, this standard proposes the 90th percentile of sampling results to be considered as acceptable for determining any class. Few guidelines or standards such as in the United States propose the use of dual limits, with the first being a maximum limit for the geometric mean concentration over an interval, and the second being a single‐sample maximum or threshold limit set to better evaluate the water quality in both the short‐ and long‐term. The short‐term limit is usually set over a 30‐day interval and aims at addressing immediate water quality issues, while the long‐term limit is set over the duration of the swimming season and aims to address chronic contamination problems. Other standards such as that of the UK advocate the use of percentage compliance levels, mostly of 95% or 90% [46] and some others such as Japan use annual averages [48]. The 90th percentile was taken into account following stakeholder consensus, the values of which consider top end variability in the distribution of water quality and also in order to curb influence of possible small sample sizes. The water quality classification of risk or status was not described in the NLWQCS due to unavailability of reference data.
\nFinancial issues relating to water testing were collectively identified by the stakeholders as major challenges for NLWQCS implementation. Water quality monitoring was usually performed based on the parameters to estimate the water quality and Carlson\'s trophic state index [49] due to limited funds. Pathogenic parameters such as
The importance of this work is to develop criteria that can be used for sustainable management of lakes and reservoirs in Malaysia. The lake criteria and standards are proposed to be non‐regulatory to promote monitoring efforts by various stakeholders. The development of such a criteria and standard, however, may be limited by time constraints, fund allocations and expert knowledge as well as the variability of environmental data. Future work will look into governing the standard with an appropriate methodology and regulatory framework to ensure an effective national standard for application.
\nThis research was supported by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of Malaysia (no. P23170009000421). We acknowledge the contribution of various stakeholders in the consultative sessions, meetings and surveys. We also would like to express our gratitude to the study team including Akashah Majizat, Zelina Zaiton Ibrahim, Normaliza Noordin, Yusof Ishak and Nurul Hasni Abdullah for their effort.
Cardiac electrophysiology study (EPS) is helpful to assess the heart’s electrical system. This is an invasive percutaneous cardiac procedure used for the investigation and treatment of certain arrhythmias. During the examination, catheters are inserted to the appropriate position within the heart mainly via large veins to record the electrical signals of the heart and to pace from different localized areas. In this way, EPS can help evaluating the function of the conduction system, determining the mechanisms of brady- and tachyarrhythmias, and identifying areas which may be the targets of often curative catheter ablation. Many cardiac arrhythmias that previously required the use of potentially harmful antiarrhythmic drugs can now be routinely cured in the electrophysiology laboratory by means of transcatheter ablation techniques.
In this chapter, the basics of cardiac electrophysiological studies are presented.
Equipment necessary for EPS includes an operation table, fluoroscopy unit, recorders, programmable stimulator, a multichannel lead switching box, an oscilloscope, and emergency instruments. In addition, tools for vascular access and electrode catheters are also required [1]. A standard schematic set-up for typical EPS is shown in Figure 1.
Standard schematic set-up for typical electrophysiology study. Abbreviation: RF—radiofrequency.
Electrical signals from humans obtained by surface or intracardiac electrodes are <10 mV in amplitude. These electrocardiograms must be amplified and filtered before digitalization, displaying, and storage for interpretation and analysis [2]. Amplification means the increase of the signal’s amplitude. However, the signals are plagued with electrical noise, thus amplification results in increasing not only the original signals but the amplitude of noise also. For this reason, avoidance of extraneous signals is essential: all electrical tools used in EPS should be appropriately earthed and shielded. In addition, filtering is required to eliminate unnecessary components of the electrical signals. High-pass filters remove components below a given frequency, while low-pass filters eliminate high-frequency components of the electrical signal. Electrophysiological signals are often contaminated with power line noise (i.e., 60 Hz in North America and 50 Hz in Europe), thus notch filtering is often used to eliminate it [3].
Standard ECG devices run at 25 mm/s Increasing the paper output speed, subtle ECG findings hidden in the tracings become more evident. During an EPS, surface ECG leads and intracardiac electrocardiograms (IEGM) are generally displayed and interpreted at a sweep speed of 100 or 200 mm/s (Figure 2).
Same normal sinus beat at a paper speed of 25, 50, 100, and 200 mm/s.
For a standard EPS, a standard number of four catheters is necessary. Based on the operator’s decision, EPS is also feasible using only three diagnostic catheters. Diagnostic catheters have two or multiple electrodes, and for each pair of consecutive electrodes, a distinct intracardiac electrogram gets recorded. Traditionally, catheter placement is carried out under fluoroscopy guidance. In the EP lab, three main fluoroscopy projections are used: anteroposterior (AP), left anterior oblique (LAO), and right anterior oblique (RAO) views (Figure 3).
Standard catheter positions in left anterior oblique (LAO), anteroposterior (AP), and right anterior oblique (RAO) projections. Abbreviations: CS—coronary sinus decapolar catheter; HRA—high right atrium; RVa—right ventricle apex.
A diagnostic catheter is positioned from the femoral vein and contacted with the lateral wall of the right atrium at right atrium—superior vena cava junction.
The coronary sinus runs transversely in the left atrioventricular groove on the posterior side of the heart. A multielectrode catheter is inserted into the coronary sinus from femoral, jugular internal, or subclavian vein. For femoral approach, steerable catheters are used. CS catheter allows to record IEGMs coming from the left atrium and ventricle. Moreover, this position is easily reproducible and serves as a reference point during the EPS. Thus, CS catheters play an important role in EP labs.
For recording His bundle electrogram, a catheter is inserted via femoral vein to the high septal part of the right ventricle and pulled back slowly with clockwise torquing till characteristic His bundle electrogram appears.
A diagnostic catheter is advanced from femoral vein to apical right ventricle, which allows to record local ventricular IEGMs.
Generally, IEGMs mean the electrical activity between two electrodes at the tip of the catheter (bipolar recording) [4]. The main difference between surface ECG and IEGMs is that the surface ECG records a summation of the electrical activity of the heart, while in contrast, IEGMs show only the electrical activity of a localized area, i.e., IEGMs are local intracardiac electrograms. Importantly, these are displayed together on the monitor system facilitating accurate interpretations of the electrical signals (Figure 4).
Snapshot from an electrophysiology study. The upper four channels represent lead I, II, V1, and V6 of surface ECG. The paper speed is 200 mm/s. on the distal His (His d) channel, we can recognize three different wavefront characteristics of the His bundle: the first one is the A (atrial) wave (synchronous to P wave on surface ECG), the last is called V (ventricular) wave (synchronous to QRS complex on the surface ECG). In the middle, a sharp signal represents His bundle electrogram. AH interval could be measured from the beginning of A to the sharp His signal. HV interval is measured on the His bundle electrogram from the beginning of the His deflection to the earliest identified ventricular activity on the surface ECG. CS electrograms show atrial activation (synchronous to P wave on surface ECG again). Note that first activation occurs on CS 9,10 which is the proximal pair of electrodes. CS 9,10 is at the ostium of the coronary sinus, thus these electrodes are the closest to the sinus node. In the case of a correctly positioned CS catheter, CS 9,10 should be activated first during normal sinus rhythm. Finally, a local ventricular electrogram can be easily identified on the catheter at RVa position. Asterix represents PA interval.
After catheter placement, a routine EPS starts with the measurement of basic intervals [4]. Ideally basic intervals should be measured during sinus rhythm.
The PA interval represents the interval between the earliest atrial activation (recording in any channel) in the region of the sinus node and at the region of the atrioventricular node. Usually, the earliest atrial activation is represented by the P wave onset on the surface ECG. Normal value is 25–55 milliseconds (ms).
AH interval represents the conduction time from the low-right atrium at the interatrial septum through the atrioventricular (AV) node to the His bundle. It is measured between the atrial electrogram recorded by the His bundle catheter and the beginning of the His electrogram itself. The normal range is 55–150 ms [4]. The AH interval is sensitive to autonomic tone. A prolonged AH interval may indicate AV nodal disease or high vagal tone, whereas a shorter than normal AH can occur during sympathetic activation.
HV interval reflects conduction through the His-Purkinje system and is measured on the His bundle electrogram from the beginning of the His deflection to the earliest identified ventricular activity on the surface ECG. An HV interval of 35–55 ms is considered normal. In the presence of anterograde conducting accessory pathway, the HV interval may be shorter. Prolonged HV interval represents infrahisian conduction disturbances.
Time measurements are reported in milliseconds in the case of EP procedures. To characterize the heart rate, the cycle length (CL) is used instead of the frequency. CL represents the length of time between each atrial or ventricular beats. For example, a tachycardia with a heart rate of 150 beats per minute has a CL of 400 ms (Figure 5). The faster the heart rate the shorter the CL.
Atrial pacing at a cycle length of 400 ms, which means a rate of 150 beats per minute. Sharp pacing artifacts are present before P waves. P waves are negative in the inferior leads (pacing from coronary sinus ostium). Paper speed is 100 mm/s.
Besides IEGM recordings, electrode catheters previously inserted in the heart are also used for pacing. An external stimulator is connected to the catheters. When pacing starts, electrical current is passed by catheters resulting in cardiac cells’ depolarization near the catheter’s electrode. The depolarization of these cells generates an electrical wavefront, spreading over the heart as the impulse originating from the sinus node. As a result, stimulator pacing generates cardiac impulse artificially. Carefully positioned catheters can impulse the heart from almost any position. During the EPS, pacing is used to introduce electrical impulses in predetermined patterns and at precise time intervals. Such pacing is called programmed stimulation [1]. Programmed stimulation consists of the main type of pacing technique: burst and extrastimulus pacing.
Burst pacing consists of implementing a series of electrical impulses (so-called drive train) at a fixed cycle length. By definition, each impulse is called S1 and the difference between the impulses is the same (Figure 6).
Ventricular burst pacing from RVa position. Note the pacing artifact on RVa channel and before the QRS complexes. Pacing cycle length is fixed (500 ms). Paper speed is 50 mm/s.
Extrastimulus testing means introduction of a drive train (usually 8 beats, S1) followed by one or more extrastimuli with shorter coupling interval than the cycle length of the drive. S2 means the first programmed extrastimulus, S3 is used for the second, and so on (Figure 7).
Atrial extrastimulus testing from coronary sinus catheter (CS). The drive train consists of 8 beats at a cycle length of 400 ms is followed by an extrastimulus with a shorter coupling interval (300 ms). Ablation catheter (ABL) is in the His region showing His bundle electrogram. Paper speed is 50 mm/s.
During EPS, refractory periods of cardiac tissues can be characterized by measuring effective, functional, and relative refractory periods [5].
Most commonly used as it is part of a routine EPS. It represents the longest coupling interval that fails to capture the tissue or be conducted over the structure (Figure 8).
Programmed atrial stimulation from CS 9,10. Drive cycle length is 400 ms. Panel A shows ventricular contraction (i.e., QRS complex) after S2 extrastimulus at a coupling interval of 240 ms. However, Panel B represents atrioventricular block after S2 extrastimulus at a coupling interval of 230 ms. In this case, effective refractory period of the AV node (AVNERP) is 230 ms.
A routine EPS does not include the measurements of the functional and relative refractory period. Functional refractory period means the lower limit shortest “output” coupling interval that can be produced by any “input” interval. Relative refractory periods represent the point at which latency begins to occur. RRP means “input” interval to a tissue at which the “output” interval just begins to differ from the “input” interval.
This chapter summarized the basics of electrophysiological studies of the heart. The author sincerely hopes that the chapter may have contributed to a deeper understanding of the world of electrocardiograms.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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\\n\\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Pristupom na stranicu www.intechopen.com slažete se s ovim odredbama, sa svim primjenjivim zakonskim odredbama, te se slažete s poštovanjem svih lokalnih zakona. Korištenje i/ili pristup ovoj stranici temelji se na potpunom prihvaćanju ovih odredbi. Svi materijali na ovoj stranici zaštićeni su primjenjivim zakonima o autorskim pravima i žigu.
\n\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
\n\nKlijent, stranka, vi, vaš odnosi se na vas, osobu koja pristupa ovoj stranici i prihvaća IntechOpenove Odredbe i uvjete;
\n\nKompanija, tvrtka, mi, naše odnosi se na tvrtku IntechOpen;
\n\nStranke, strane odnosi se na klijenta i na nas, ili samo na klijenta ili nas.
\n\nSve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
\n\nOsim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
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\n\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
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\n\nOve Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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When a robot works in a structured environment, its automation is easier than in a non-structured environment in which case its modeling is quite difficult and presents a high computational effort. To overcome this difficulty, series elastic actuator (SEA) has been applied in compliant robotic grasping. Unlike rigid actuators, a SEA contains an elastic element in series with the mechanical energy source. Such an elastic element gives SEAs tolerance to impact loads, low mechanical output impedance, passive mechanical energy storage, and increased peak power output. The spring has to be able to support the loads, but it cannot be too stiff; otherwise, system impedance will be high. This chapter describes a comparison between two types of SEA, an electric series elastic actuator (ESEA) and a hydraulic series elastic actuator (HSEA), for four-legged dynamic robot application. The parameters employed in the comparison are bandwidth, output impedance, time response, power density, and dynamic range. The results indicate that HSEA is a better actuator than ESEA for a weight carrying four-legged dynamic robot because of its higher power density and dynamic ratio with desirable output impedance, time response, and bandwidth.",book:{id:"5245",slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Arnaldo Gomes Leal Junior, Rafhael Milanezi de Andrade and\nAntônio Bento Filho",authors:[{id:"182082",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafhael",middleName:"Milanezi De",surname:"Andrade",slug:"rafhael-andrade",fullName:"Rafhael Andrade"},{id:"185372",title:"Dr.",name:"Antônio",middleName:null,surname:"Bento Filho",slug:"antonio-bento-filho",fullName:"Antônio Bento Filho"},{id:"185373",title:"MSc.",name:"Arnaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Gomes Leal Junior",slug:"arnaldo-gomes-leal-junior",fullName:"Arnaldo Gomes Leal Junior"}]},{id:"51618",doi:"10.5772/63575",title:"Validation and Experimental Testing of Observers for Robust GNSS-Aided Inertial Navigation",slug:"validation-and-experimental-testing-of-observers-for-robust-gnss-aided-inertial-navigation",totalDownloads:1697,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"This chapter is the study of state estimators for robust navigation. Navigation of vehicles is a vast field with multiple decades of research. The main aim is to estimate position, linear velocity, and attitude (PVA) under all dynamics, motions, and conditions via data fusion. The state estimation problem will be considered from two different perspectives using the same kinematic model. First, the extended Kalman filter (EKF) will be reviewed, as an example of a stochastic approach; second, a recent nonlinear observer will be considered as a deterministic case. A comparative study of strapdown inertial navigation methods for estimating PVA of aerial vehicles fusing inertial sensors with global navigation satellite system (GNSS)-based positioning will be presented. The focus will be on the loosely coupled integration methods and performance analysis to compare these methods in terms of their stability, robustness to vibrations, and disturbances in measurements.",book:{id:"5245",slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Jakob M. Hansen, Jan Roháč, Martin Šipoš, Tor A. Johansen and\nThor I. Fossen",authors:[{id:"132264",title:"Prof.",name:"Tor Arne",middleName:null,surname:"Johansen",slug:"tor-arne-johansen",fullName:"Tor Arne Johansen"},{id:"179630",title:"Prof.",name:"Thor",middleName:"I",surname:"Fossen",slug:"thor-fossen",fullName:"Thor Fossen"},{id:"179647",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:null,surname:"Šipoš",slug:"martin-sipos",fullName:"Martin Šipoš"},{id:"179649",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Rohac",slug:"jan-rohac",fullName:"Jan Rohac"},{id:"181258",title:"Mr.",name:"Jakob Mahler",middleName:null,surname:"Hansen",slug:"jakob-mahler-hansen",fullName:"Jakob Mahler Hansen"}]},{id:"51357",doi:"10.5772/63746",title:"Muscle‐Like Compliance in Knee Articulations Improves Biped Robot Walkings",slug:"muscle-like-compliance-in-knee-articulations-improves-biped-robot-walkings",totalDownloads:1675,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the compliance effect of dynamic humanoid robot walking. This compliance is generated with an articular muscle emulator system, which is designed using two neural networks (NNs). One NN models a muscle and a second learns to tune the proportional integral derivative (PID) of the articulation DC motor, allowing it to behave analogously to the muscle model. Muscle emulators are implemented in the knees of a three‐dimensional (3D) simulated biped robot. The simulation results show that the muscle emulator creates compliance in articulations and that the dynamic walk, even in walk‐halt‐stop transitions, improves. If an external thrust unbalances the biped during the walk, the muscle emulator improves the control and prevents the robot from falling. The total power consumption is significantly reduced, and the articular trajectories approach human trajectories.",book:{id:"5245",slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Hayssan Serhan and Patrick Henaff",authors:[{id:"184415",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Henaff",slug:"patrick-henaff",fullName:"Patrick Henaff"},{id:"185026",title:"Dr.",name:"Hayssam",middleName:null,surname:"Serhan",slug:"hayssam-serhan",fullName:"Hayssam Serhan"}]},{id:"51486",doi:"10.5772/64305",title:"Design, Implementation and Modeling of Flooding Disaster-Oriented USV",slug:"design-implementation-and-modeling-of-flooding-disaster-oriented-usv",totalDownloads:1905,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Although there exist some unmanned surface platforms, and parts of them have been applied in flooding disaster relief, the autonomy of these platforms is still so weak that most of them can only work under the control of operators. The primary reason is the difficulty of obtaining a dynamical model that is sufficient rich for model-based control and sufficient simple for model parameters identification. This makes them difficult to be used to achieve some high-performance autonomous control, such as robust control with respect to disturbances and unknown dynamics and trajectory tracking control in complicated and dynamical surroundings. In this chapter, a flooding disaster-oriented unmanned surface vehicle (USV) designed and implemented by Shenyang Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences (SIA, CAS) is introduced first, including the hardware and software structures. Then, we propose a quasi-linear parameter varying (qLPV) model to approach the dynamics of the USV system. We first apply this to solve a structured modeling problem and then introduce model error to solve an unstructured modeling problem. Subsequently, the qLPV model identification results are analyzed and the superiority compared to two linear models is demonstrated. At last, extensive application experiments, including rescuing rope throwing using an automatic pneumatic and water sampling in a 2.5 m radius circle, are described in detail to show the performance of course keeping control and GPS point tracking control based on the proposed model.",book:{id:"5245",slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Junfeng Xiong, Feng Gu, Decai Li, Yuqing He and Jianda Han",authors:[{id:"9884",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuqing",middleName:null,surname:"He",slug:"yuqing-he",fullName:"Yuqing He"},{id:"9921",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianda",middleName:null,surname:"Han",slug:"jianda-han",fullName:"Jianda Han"},{id:"185358",title:"Dr.",name:"Junfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Xiong",slug:"junfeng-xiong",fullName:"Junfeng Xiong"},{id:"185359",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Gu",slug:"feng-gu",fullName:"Feng Gu"},{id:"185360",title:"Dr.",name:"Decai",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"decai-li",fullName:"Decai Li"}]},{id:"50812",doi:"10.5772/63506",title:"Fish-Like Robot Encapsulated by a Plastic Film",slug:"fish-like-robot-encapsulated-by-a-plastic-film",totalDownloads:1585,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Underwater robots are currently utilized to evaluate water quality and the undersea landscape. Small-sized underwater robots are especially useful in improving the spatial resolution of the measurements, yielding high-quality data. This chapter describes a small-sized fish-like robot, with its surface composed of a flexible thin plastic film. Its internal components, including an actuator, could be encapsulated in the plastic film using a vacuum packaging machine. To simplify the waterproofing and pressure resistance properties of the fish-like robot, its internal components can be filled with insulating fluid. The plastic film on the surface has electromagnetic-wave-transmitting properties, allowing sensors to be arranged within the device, enabling assessment of its autonomous locomotion using infrared sensors. Robot attitude can be altered, based on geography of its internal components, floating blocks, and insulating fluid. This attitude could be especially determined by the differences in densities between the floating block and insulating fluid. Evaluation of attitude control showed that an insulating fluid heavier than water allows a large variation.",book:{id:"5245",slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Mizuho Shibata",authors:[{id:"180106",title:"Dr.",name:"Mizuho",middleName:null,surname:"Shibata",slug:"mizuho-shibata",fullName:"Mizuho Shibata"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"51224",title:"Series Elastic Actuator: Design, Analysis and Comparison",slug:"series-elastic-actuator-design-analysis-and-comparison",totalDownloads:3481,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"In general, actuators are built to be as stiff as possible to increase the bandwidth. When a robot works in a structured environment, its automation is easier than in a non-structured environment in which case its modeling is quite difficult and presents a high computational effort. To overcome this difficulty, series elastic actuator (SEA) has been applied in compliant robotic grasping. Unlike rigid actuators, a SEA contains an elastic element in series with the mechanical energy source. Such an elastic element gives SEAs tolerance to impact loads, low mechanical output impedance, passive mechanical energy storage, and increased peak power output. The spring has to be able to support the loads, but it cannot be too stiff; otherwise, system impedance will be high. This chapter describes a comparison between two types of SEA, an electric series elastic actuator (ESEA) and a hydraulic series elastic actuator (HSEA), for four-legged dynamic robot application. The parameters employed in the comparison are bandwidth, output impedance, time response, power density, and dynamic range. The results indicate that HSEA is a better actuator than ESEA for a weight carrying four-legged dynamic robot because of its higher power density and dynamic ratio with desirable output impedance, time response, and bandwidth.",book:{id:"5245",slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Arnaldo Gomes Leal Junior, Rafhael Milanezi de Andrade and\nAntônio Bento Filho",authors:[{id:"182082",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafhael",middleName:"Milanezi De",surname:"Andrade",slug:"rafhael-andrade",fullName:"Rafhael Andrade"},{id:"185372",title:"Dr.",name:"Antônio",middleName:null,surname:"Bento Filho",slug:"antonio-bento-filho",fullName:"Antônio Bento Filho"},{id:"185373",title:"MSc.",name:"Arnaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Gomes Leal Junior",slug:"arnaldo-gomes-leal-junior",fullName:"Arnaldo Gomes Leal Junior"}]},{id:"50884",title:"Autonomous Quadrocopter for Search, Count and Localization of Objects",slug:"autonomous-quadrocopter-for-search-count-and-localization-of-objects",totalDownloads:1758,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter describes and evaluates the design and implementation of a new fully autonomous quadrocopter, which is capable of self‐reliant search, count and localization of a predefined object on the ground inside a room.",book:{id:"5245",slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Nils Gageik, Christian Reul and Sergio Montenegro",authors:[{id:"168230",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Nils",middleName:null,surname:"Gageik",slug:"nils-gageik",fullName:"Nils Gageik"},{id:"168231",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio",middleName:null,surname:"Montenegro",slug:"sergio-montenegro",fullName:"Sergio Montenegro"},{id:"181110",title:"MSc.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Reul",slug:"christian-reul",fullName:"Christian Reul"}]},{id:"51432",title:"CODA Algorithm: An Immune Algorithm for Reinforcement Learning Tasks",slug:"coda-algorithm-an-immune-algorithm-for-reinforcement-learning-tasks",totalDownloads:1556,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This document presents the design of an algorithm that takes on its basis: reinforcement learning, learning from demonstration and most importantly Artificial Immune Systems. The main advantage of this algorithm named CODA (Cognition from Data). Is; it can learn from limited data samples- that is given a single example and the algorithm will create its own knowledge. The algorithm imitates from the Natural Immune System the clonal procedure for obtaining a repertoire of antibodies from a single antigen. It also uses the self-organised memory in order to reduce searching time in the whole action-state space by searching in specific clusters. CODA algorithm is presented and explained in detail in order to understand how these three principles are used. The algorithm is explained with pseudocode, flowcharts and block diagrams. The clonal/mutation results are presented with a simple example. It can be seen graphically how new data that has a completely new probability distribution. Finally, the first application where CODA is used, a humanoid hand is presented. In this application the algorithm created affordable grasping postures from limited examples, creates its own knowledge and stores data in memory data in memory in order to recognise whether it has been on a similar situation.",book:{id:"5245",slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Daniel R. Ramirez Rebollo, Pedro Ponce Cruz and Arturo Molina",authors:[{id:"181021",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Rodrigo",surname:"Ramirez Rebollo",slug:"daniel-ramirez-rebollo",fullName:"Daniel Ramirez Rebollo"},{id:"181149",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce",slug:"pedro-ponce",fullName:"Pedro Ponce"},{id:"181151",title:"Dr.",name:"Arturo",middleName:null,surname:"Molina",slug:"arturo-molina",fullName:"Arturo Molina"}]},{id:"51357",title:"Muscle‐Like Compliance in Knee Articulations Improves Biped Robot Walkings",slug:"muscle-like-compliance-in-knee-articulations-improves-biped-robot-walkings",totalDownloads:1678,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the compliance effect of dynamic humanoid robot walking. This compliance is generated with an articular muscle emulator system, which is designed using two neural networks (NNs). One NN models a muscle and a second learns to tune the proportional integral derivative (PID) of the articulation DC motor, allowing it to behave analogously to the muscle model. Muscle emulators are implemented in the knees of a three‐dimensional (3D) simulated biped robot. The simulation results show that the muscle emulator creates compliance in articulations and that the dynamic walk, even in walk‐halt‐stop transitions, improves. If an external thrust unbalances the biped during the walk, the muscle emulator improves the control and prevents the robot from falling. The total power consumption is significantly reduced, and the articular trajectories approach human trajectories.",book:{id:"5245",slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Hayssan Serhan and Patrick Henaff",authors:[{id:"184415",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Henaff",slug:"patrick-henaff",fullName:"Patrick Henaff"},{id:"185026",title:"Dr.",name:"Hayssam",middleName:null,surname:"Serhan",slug:"hayssam-serhan",fullName:"Hayssam Serhan"}]},{id:"51053",title:"Recent Developments in Monocular SLAM within the HRI Framework",slug:"recent-developments-in-monocular-slam-within-the-hri-framework",totalDownloads:1890,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter describes an approach to improve the feature initialization process in the delayed inverse-depth feature initialization monocular Simultaneous Localisation and Mapping (SLAM), using data provided by a robot’s camera plus an additional monocular sensor deployed in the headwear of the human component in a human-robot collaborative exploratory team. The robot and the human deploy a set of sensors that once combined provides the data required to localize the secondary camera worn by the human. The approach and its implementation are described along with experimental results demonstrating its performance. A discussion on the usual sensors within the robotics field, especially in SLAM, provides background to the advantages and capabilities of the system implemented in this research.",book:{id:"5245",slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Edmundo Guerra, Yolanda Bolea, Rodrigo Munguia and Antoni\nGrau",authors:[{id:"13038",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoni",middleName:null,surname:"Grau",slug:"antoni-grau",fullName:"Antoni Grau"},{id:"18024",title:"Dr.",name:"Yolanda",middleName:null,surname:"Bolea",slug:"yolanda-bolea",fullName:"Yolanda Bolea"},{id:"163432",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:null,surname:"Munguia",slug:"rodrigo-munguia",fullName:"Rodrigo Munguia"},{id:"165970",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Edmundo",middleName:null,surname:"Guerra",slug:"edmundo-guerra",fullName:"Edmundo Guerra"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1291",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 4th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/86.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vito Bobek works as an international management professor at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria. He has published more than 400 works in his academic career and visited twenty-two universities worldwide as a visiting professor. Dr. Bobek is a member of the editorial boards of six international journals and a member of the Strategic Council of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia. He has a long history in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. His own consulting firm, Palemid, has managed twenty significant projects, such as Cooperation Program Interreg V-A (Slovenia-Austria) and Capacity Building for the Serbian Chamber of Enforcement Agents. He has also participated in many international projects in Italy, Germany, Great Britain, the United States, Spain, Turkey, France, Romania, Croatia, Montenegro, Malaysia, and China. Dr. Bobek is also a co-founder of the Academy of Regional Management in Slovenia.",institutionString:"Universities of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Austria",institution:{name:"Universities of Applied Sciences Joanneum",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}},editorTwo:{id:"293992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Horvat",slug:"tatjana-horvat",fullName:"Tatjana Horvat",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hXb0hQAC/Profile_Picture_1642419002203",biography:"Tatjana Horvat works as a professor for accountant and auditing at the University of Primorska, Slovenia. She is a Certified State Internal Auditor (licensed by Ministry of Finance RS) and Certified Internal Auditor for Business Sector and Certified accountant (licensed by Slovenian Institute of Auditors). At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. At the leading business newspaper Finance in Slovenia (Swedish ownership), she is the editor and head of the area for business, finance, tax-related articles, and educational programs.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Primorska",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"87",title:"Economics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/87.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"327730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jaime-ortiz",fullName:"Jaime Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002zaOKZQA2/Profile_Picture_1642145584421",biography:"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments in several universities around the world. 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His teaching interests revolve around global economies and markets while his research focuses on topics related to development and growth, global business decisions, and the economics of technical innovation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Houston",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"88",title:"Marketing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/88.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"203609",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hanna",middleName:null,surname:"Gorska-Warsewicz",slug:"hanna-gorska-warsewicz",fullName:"Hanna Gorska-Warsewicz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSD9pQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-14T11:58:32.jpeg",biography:"Hanna Górska-Warsewicz, Ph.D. is Associate Professor at Warsaw University of Life Sciences and Head of Department of Food Market and Consumption Research. She specializes in the subject of brands, brand equity, and brand management in production, service, and trade enterprises. She combines this subject with marketing and marketing management in both theoretical and practical aspects. Prof. Hanna Górska-Warsewicz also analyzes brands in the context of trademarks, legal regulations and the protection of intangible. She is an author or co-author of over 200 publications in this field, including 8 books. 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