Morphological characteristics of trypanosomes.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5752",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Celiac Disease and Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity",title:"Celiac Disease and Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book contains recent advances about CD and NCGS written in eight chapters and is divided in three sections. In the first section, the main hallmarks of both diseases are described, together with the current diagnostic criteria of CD and its influence on the response to the vaccination against hepatitis B virus infection. The second section is dedicated to the description of several techniques for gluten determination in foods and if its consumption is good for nonceliac people. Finally, the third section contains complementary information related to the description and application of novel endoscopic techniques for confirming the diagnosis of CD. Another topic describes the growing consumption of gluten-free products and the adherence to this type of diet.",isbn:"978-953-51-3178-6",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3177-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4799-2",doi:"10.5772/65184",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"celiac-disease-and-non-celiac-gluten-sensitivity",numberOfPages:144,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"47dfc5b8378b01d915127fa3c1169a90",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",publishedDate:"June 7th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5752.jpg",numberOfDownloads:12134,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:18,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:37,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 14th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 5th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 1st 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 1st 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 31st 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73208/images/system/73208.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Rodrigo, MD, is a Professor Emeritus of Medicine, at the University of Oviedo, Spain. He has been Chief of Gastroenterology Service at HUCA Hospital, Oviedo, for more than forty years. He obtained a Ph.D. in 1975 and has developed a long teaching and research career. Dr. Rodrigo has published 716 scientific papers, 435 written in English and the rest in Spanish. He has participated as the main investigator in forty-five clinical trials and has directed forty doctoral theses. He has contributed actively to the formation of around 100 specialists in gastroenterology working in his hospital and other hospitals in Spain and abroad. He has written around thirty-five book chapters and edited twenty-six books in his specialty and related diseases.",institutionString:"University of Oviedo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"16",institution:{name:"University of Oviedo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1021",title:"Hepatology",slug:"gastroenterology-hepatology"}],chapters:[{id:"54215",title:"Differential Hallmarks of Celiac Versus Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity",doi:"10.5772/67545",slug:"differential-hallmarks-of-celiac-versus-non-celiac-gluten-sensitivity",totalDownloads:1456,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS) is an intestinal tissue transglutaminase (TG2)- and IgE-independent form of GS. NCGS is approximately 6× more prevalent than the classical celiac disease (CD), and its incidence is on the rise. Because of its high relative prevalence and striking resemblance to other forms of GS, there is a greater need to develop new and accurate diagnostic assays to facilitate its definitive diagnosis. As the presence of serum anti-gliadin antibodies (AGA) in the absence of TG2 antibodies is suggestive of NCGS, several reports have recommended AGA immunoassays for differential diagnosis. Although AGA immunoassays are in general suitable for diagnostic purpose, to corroborate NCGS and to distinguish it from CD, a simultaneous use of CD-specific diagnostics, i.e., TG2 antibody-based assay, is also required. Due to lower accuracy of AGA assays than those of TG2-based ones, there will always be a chance (estimated to 5–10%) of misdiagnosing NCGS. Moreover, AGA-based diagnostics would not take into consideration the fact that NCGS is potentially triggered by not only gluten but also other molecules such as fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and polyols (FODMAPs). Therefore, a second generation of assays needs to be developed to differentiate NCGS from CD with high accuracy.",signatures:"Mahesh Mohan and Karol Sestak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54215",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54215",authors:[{id:"77951",title:"Dr.",name:"Karol",surname:"Sestak",slug:"karol-sestak",fullName:"Karol Sestak"},{id:"204823",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahesh",surname:"Mohan",slug:"mahesh-mohan",fullName:"Mahesh Mohan"}],corrections:null},{id:"54009",title:"Celiac Disease and HBV Vaccination",doi:"10.5772/67348",slug:"celiac-disease-and-hbv-vaccination",totalDownloads:1454,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Celiac disease (CD) is an immune-mediated systemic disorder elicited by gluten and related prolamins in genetically susceptible individuals, characterized by the presence of a variable combination of gluten-dependent clinical manifestations, CD-specific antibodies, HLA-DQ2 and HLA-DQ8 haplotypes, and enteropathy. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is an important global public health problem that can cause chronic liver disease, and it is associated to a high risk of death from cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Since 1982, a safe and effective HBV vaccine has been available, and recommendation for HBV vaccination has been extended to all infants to achieve protection against HBV infection. HBV vaccination is highly effective in eliciting a sustained immune response in immune-competent individuals. However, research papers have suggested that celiac patients may have low rate of protective antibodies after HBV vaccination. The failure of CD subjects to respond to HBV vaccination has great importance for public health policies as the nonresponders could be regarded as a reservoir for HBV. The aim of our work is to revise and to discuss the scarce literature on this field in order to provide clinical practice guidelines to establish the best surveillance program of response to HBV vaccine in CD pediatric patient.",signatures:"Caterina Anania, Francesca Olivero, Eugenia Olivero and Lucia\nPacifico",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54009",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54009",authors:[{id:"181185",title:"M.D.",name:"Lucia",surname:"Pacifico",slug:"lucia-pacifico",fullName:"Lucia Pacifico"},{id:"185268",title:"Prof.",name:"Caterina",surname:"Anania",slug:"caterina-anania",fullName:"Caterina Anania"},{id:"185269",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca",surname:"Olivero",slug:"francesca-olivero",fullName:"Francesca Olivero"},{id:"185270",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugenia",surname:"Olivero",slug:"eugenia-olivero",fullName:"Eugenia Olivero"}],corrections:null},{id:"54124",title:"Measurement of Gluten in Food Products: Proficiency‐Testing Rounds as a Measure of Precision and Applicability",doi:"10.5772/67424",slug:"measurement-of-gluten-in-food-products-proficiency-testing-rounds-as-a-measure-of-precision-and-appl",totalDownloads:1543,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In 2008, Codex Alimentarius endorsed the R5 Enzyme‐Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) method as Method Type 1 for gluten measurement in gluten‐free foods. The most recognized R5 ELISA test kit is the RIDASCREEEN® Gliadin (R7001; manufacturer R‐Biopharm). Beside collaborative tests that led to several international approved methods of this test kit, proficiency‐testing (PT) rounds are regularly performed in Europe by different PT providers. Results from these rounds were analyzed regarding the number of participating labs with acceptable results for the RIDASCREEN® Gliadin. All PT rounds document the excellent consistency and comparability of results. The data show that the RIDASCREEN® Gliadin R5 ELISA is also applicable to cake mix, oat‐based foodstuff, infant soya formula, cookies, canned boiled sausage, gravy thickener, pasta, and potato dumpling. These rounds also included the analysis of blank matrices. It was found that more than 95% of all participating laboratories correctly detected these samples as negative. Other gluten test kit manufacturers were analyzed as well, but due to the low number of participants using these test kits results were often only analyzed in a qualitative manner questioning the comparability of these kits to the RIDASCREEN® Gliadin R5 ELISA.",signatures:"Markus Lacorn, Susanne Siebeneicher and Thomas Weiss",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54124",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54124",authors:[{id:"178279",title:"Dr.",name:"Markus",surname:"Lacorn",slug:"markus-lacorn",fullName:"Markus Lacorn"},{id:"204541",title:"Dr.",name:"Susanne",surname:"Siebeneicher",slug:"susanne-siebeneicher",fullName:"Susanne Siebeneicher"},{id:"204542",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Weiss",slug:"thomas-weiss",fullName:"Thomas Weiss"}],corrections:null},{id:"54342",title:"Determination of Gluten Peptides Associated with Celiac Disease by Mass Spectrometry",doi:"10.5772/67547",slug:"determination-of-gluten-peptides-associated-with-celiac-disease-by-mass-spectrometry",totalDownloads:1613,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Gluten is a big protein network composed of monomeric fraction (prolamins) and polymeric fraction (glutelins), occurring in many cereal-based products, especially in those containing wheat. Gluten peptides can trigger food allergies and intolerances, including inflammatory reactions as the celiac disease, an autoimmune disorder of the small intestine characterized by mucosal degeneration and villous atrophy. The treatment is the permanent exclusion of gluten from diet. However, gluten analysis is a very difficult task, due to the high complexity of polypeptides and the lack of consensus on the most appropriate analytical method. Proteomics approaches, combining liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry in tandem (LC-MS/MS), have been pointed as the most promising non-immunological techniques for gluten detection. LC-MS analyses associated with bioinformatics and specific-prolamin database can solve methodological limitations since it is based on the accurate molecular mass of peptide biomarkers. One of the major contributions of proteomics has been the identification of epitopes of gluten peptides responsible for wheat-related diseases. Recent works have defined grain-specific gluten peptides and also the lowest concentration at which peptides could be confidently detected. Proteomic application for gluten quantification should support not only regulatory limits in processed foods, but also the safety of consumers about food labeled as gluten-free.",signatures:"Thais O. Alves, Carolina T. S. D'Almeida and Mariana S. L. Ferreira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54342",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54342",authors:[{id:"195807",title:"Prof.",name:"Mariana",surname:"Larraz Ferreira",slug:"mariana-larraz-ferreira",fullName:"Mariana Larraz Ferreira"},{id:"196428",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Thais",surname:"Alves",slug:"thais-alves",fullName:"Thais Alves"},{id:"204835",title:"BSc.",name:"Carolina",surname:"D'Almeida",slug:"carolina-d'almeida",fullName:"Carolina D'Almeida"}],corrections:null},{id:"54282",title:"Are Gluten-Free Foods Just for Patients with a Gluten-Related Disease?",doi:"10.5772/67523",slug:"are-gluten-free-foods-just-for-patients-with-a-gluten-related-disease-",totalDownloads:1605,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Gluten, the set of wheat proteins that gives properties for food processing, is the cause of celiac disease (CD), and patients require a gluten-free diet lifelong. There are other bad-called gluten-related diseases as non-celiac gluten sensitivity and irritable bowel syndrome, for which triggering compounds are unknown, while wheat allergies and carbohydrate intolerances are associated with other wheat proteins and fructans, respectively. The boundaries of each disease are not clear, inducing confusion for diagnosis and dilemma about the right diet. Nowadays, the people who are currently in a gluten-free diet exceed several times the expected number of those requiring dietary gluten exclusion. It is because people consider themselves as affected and dangerously decide to self-diagnose as gluten intolerant and adopt a gluten-free diet. The alternative compounds used in gluten-free foods to obtain the technological properties given by gluten could induce problems in some disease conditions or lead to undernutrition especially in children and adolescents. It is because some gluten-free foodstuffs are limited in vitamins and minerals and contain more fat and sodium than their conventional wheat analogues. Therefore, gluten-free is not a good option for persons without diagnosis; it should be understood as a therapy, prescribed and followed by specialists.",signatures:"Ana María Calderón de la Barca and Maria Esther Mejía-León",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54282",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54282",authors:[{id:"197194",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Maria",surname:"Calderon De La Barca",slug:"ana-maria-calderon-de-la-barca",fullName:"Ana Maria Calderon De La Barca"},{id:"197200",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Esther",surname:"Mejia-Leon",slug:"maria-esther-mejia-leon",fullName:"Maria Esther Mejia-Leon"}],corrections:null},{id:"54216",title:"Novel Endoscopic Techniques in Celiac Disease",doi:"10.5772/67423",slug:"novel-endoscopic-techniques-in-celiac-disease",totalDownloads:1876,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Celiac disease (CD) is a systemic, immune‐mediated illness that primarily affects the small bowel. A few decades ago, in the era of Watson and Crosby capsules, we used to sample the small bowel without even looking at it. Nowadays, with the continuous developing field of digestive endoscopy, we can even see the duodenal villi up closely, allowing for an optical, real‐time diagnosis of villous atrophy. Advanced endoscopic techniques such as magnification, chromoendoscopy (dye‐based and digital), water immersion, confocal endomicroscopy, endocytoscopy, and optical coherence tomography (OCT) have been evaluated in CD with good results: good agreement with histology, allowing for targeted biopsies and a reduction in the number of biopsies needed for diagnosis. Moreover, with the growing use of open‐access endoscopy in many parts of the world, endoscopy is now contributing to increasing the diagnostic rate of CD, by recognition of endoscopic markers in patients without clinical suspicion of this disease. This is however an observer‐dependent method; to overcome the endoscopists subjectiveness in assessing villous atrophy, in the last years, many papers have looked at means of computerized analysis of endoscopic images. Currently available data show that these automated, quantitative methods hold very promising for the future.",signatures:"Balaban Daniel Vasile, Popp Alina and Jinga Mariana",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54216",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54216",authors:[{id:"197233",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel Vasile",surname:"Balaban",slug:"daniel-vasile-balaban",fullName:"Daniel Vasile Balaban"},{id:"204532",title:"Dr.",name:"Alina",surname:"Popp",slug:"alina-popp",fullName:"Alina Popp"},{id:"204533",title:"Prof.",name:"Mariana",surname:"Jinga",slug:"mariana-jinga",fullName:"Mariana Jinga"}],corrections:null},{id:"54254",title:"Examining Non‐Celiac Consumers of Gluten‐Free Products: An Empirical Evidence in Spain",doi:"10.5772/67626",slug:"examining-non-celiac-consumers-of-gluten-free-products-an-empirical-evidence-in-spain",totalDownloads:1296,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter investigates the personal factors that influence intention to purchase gluten‐free products (GFPs) in Spain by non‐celiac consumers. To achieve this objective, a survey was conducted with 222 consumers in a medium‐sized Spanish town, Zaragoza, during March–April 2014 and, ordered bivariate probit model was estimated. The results suggest that intention to purchase is affected not only by self‐reported GFP knowledge but also by attitudes toward GFPs, gender, and education level.",signatures:"Tiziana de‐Magistris, Hind Belarbi and Wajdi Hellali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54254",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54254",authors:[{id:"72484",title:"Dr.",name:"Tiziana",surname:"De Magistris",slug:"tiziana-de-magistris",fullName:"Tiziana De Magistris"},{id:"204903",title:"MSc.",name:"Hind",surname:"Belarbi",slug:"hind-belarbi",fullName:"Hind Belarbi"},{id:"204904",title:"MSc.",name:"Wajdi",surname:"Hellali",slug:"wajdi-hellali",fullName:"Wajdi Hellali"}],corrections:null},{id:"54234",title:"I Can’t Eat That! Sticking to a Gluten-Free Diet",doi:"10.5772/67462",slug:"i-can-t-eat-that-sticking-to-a-gluten-free-diet",totalDownloads:1292,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Despite the benefits of a gluten-free diet (GFD), rates for strict adherence range from 42% to 91%. Studies have established the maximum tolerable daily dose at 50 mg/day and led the European Union to restrict labelling ‘gluten-free’ products to those with less than 20 mg/kg. Qualitative studies have determined that patients experience social problems in five areas: eating in the workplace, shopping, travelling, eating out and eating at home with others. These situations may lead to negative emotions and affect relationships. Therefore, further research into investigating the underlying factors behind effective adherence is essential, as is the need for a theoretical framework to design programmes to improve adherence and quality of life in coeliac patients. Albert Bandura´s Social Cognitive Theory can provide a better understanding of adherence and, moreover, a theoretical framework to design self-management programmes. Within this framework, the Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) model could provide a theoretical mechanism to better understand GFD adherence. The main aim of this paper is to review the factors related to GFD adherence and to present the HAPA model as a useful framework for the design of interventions to improve perceived self-efficacy, adherence to the diet and, thus, enhance quality of life in coeliac patients.",signatures:"Ricardo Fueyo-Díaz, Santiago Gascón-Santos and Rosa Magallón-\nBotaya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54234",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54234",authors:[{id:"202314",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Fueyo-Díaz",slug:"ricardo-fueyo-diaz",fullName:"Ricardo Fueyo-Díaz"},{id:"204604",title:"Dr.",name:"Santiago",surname:"Gascón-Santos",slug:"santiago-gascon-santos",fullName:"Santiago Gascón-Santos"},{id:"204605",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa",surname:"Magallón-Botaya",slug:"rosa-magallon-botaya",fullName:"Rosa Magallón-Botaya"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited 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Wavelet Encoder",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74512.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74512",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74512",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74512",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74512",chapter:{id:"70013",slug:"many-core-algorithm-of-the-embedded-zerotree-wavelet-encoder",signatures:"Jesús Antonio Alvarez-Cedillo, Teodoro Alvarez-Sanchez, Mario Aguilar-Fernandez and Jacobo Sandoval-Gutierrez",dateSubmitted:"May 18th 2019",dateReviewed:"August 22nd 2019",datePrePublished:"December 7th 2019",datePublished:"March 11th 2020",book:{id:"7623",title:"Coding Theory",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Coding Theory",slug:"coding-theory",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",bookSignature:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan and Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7623.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited 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Sandoval-Gutierrez",slug:"jacobo-sandoval-gutierrez",email:"jacobosandoval@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"305587",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Aguilar-Fernandez",fullName:"Mario Aguilar-Fernandez",slug:"mario-aguilar-fernandez",email:"maguilarf@ipn.mx",position:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"70013",slug:"many-core-algorithm-of-the-embedded-zerotree-wavelet-encoder",signatures:"Jesús Antonio Alvarez-Cedillo, Teodoro Alvarez-Sanchez, Mario Aguilar-Fernandez and Jacobo Sandoval-Gutierrez",dateSubmitted:"May 18th 2019",dateReviewed:"August 22nd 2019",datePrePublished:"December 7th 2019",datePublished:"March 11th 2020",book:{id:"7623",title:"Coding Theory",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Coding Theory",slug:"coding-theory",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",bookSignature:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan and Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7623.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"26327",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudhakar",middleName:null,surname:"Radhakrishnan",slug:"sudhakar-radhakrishnan",fullName:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"118717",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jesús Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Álvarez-Cedillo",fullName:"Jesús Antonio Álvarez-Cedillo",slug:"jesus-antonio-alvarez-cedillo",email:"jaalvarez@ipn.mx",position:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"305584",title:"Dr.",name:"Teodoro",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sanchez",fullName:"Teodoro Alvarez-Sanchez",slug:"teodoro-alvarez-sanchez",email:"talvares@citedi.mx",position:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"305586",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacobo",middleName:null,surname:"Sandoval-Gutierrez",fullName:"Jacobo Sandoval-Gutierrez",slug:"jacobo-sandoval-gutierrez",email:"jacobosandoval@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"305587",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Aguilar-Fernandez",fullName:"Mario Aguilar-Fernandez",slug:"mario-aguilar-fernandez",email:"maguilarf@ipn.mx",position:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},book:{id:"7623",title:"Coding Theory",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Coding Theory",slug:"coding-theory",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",bookSignature:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan and Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7623.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"26327",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudhakar",middleName:null,surname:"Radhakrishnan",slug:"sudhakar-radhakrishnan",fullName:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"9096",leadTitle:null,title:"Osteoarthritis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tWith modern development in the health sector and eradication of many communicable diseases and control of common non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, and cholesterol, people live longer with increasing life expectancy. Quality of life and activities of all population mainly the geriatric population has increased over the years. With the ageing population development of osteoarthritis is high with high demand developing and managing better techniques to maintain the natural joint as long as possible and reduce wear and tear and delay the onset of osteoarthritis development. Various techniques have been developed to prevent osteoarthritis development including modern stem cell therapy, and cartilage implantation.
\r\n\r\n\tThe gold standard of managing osteoarthritis being a joint replacement modern-day challenge is to develop implants that last longer so that patients can avoid revision surgery. Secondly due to the high demand for joint activities developing implants that give a high range of motion has been needed in the modern era. Developing minimal invasive techniques to introduce implants is another new development.
\r\n\r\n\tThe Book titled Osteoarthritis will aim to discuss all basic concepts to modern developmental areas and research that is available around the world in managing osteoarthritis.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book can be used as a text and as a reference book for all medical students to orthopaedic surgeons and trainees. This will be valuable to all modern researchers, physiotherapists and all medical personnel dealing with patients who has osteoarthritis.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d9a55912c7fa6b9ca3431f00d6cc98fe",bookSignature:"Dr. Hiran Wimal Amarasekera",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9096.jpg",keywords:"Initial Management, Modern Trends, Joint Replacement, Modern Implants, Stem Cell Therapy, Platelet Rich Plasma, Joint Debridement, Cartilage Implantation, Vulgus Correction, Correctional Osteotomy, Robotic Surgery, Navigation Techniques",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 26th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 4th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 3rd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 22nd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 20th 2020",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"67634",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiran",middleName:"Wimal",surname:"Amarasekera",slug:"hiran-amarasekera",fullName:"Hiran Amarasekera",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67634/images/system/67634.png",biography:"Hiran Amarasekera is a Consultant Orthopaedic Surgeon Currently practicing in Sri Lanka. After obtaining the MBBS from Kasturba medical college, Manipal, Inda, he completed the MS in Surgical sciences from the University of Colombo. He obtained the fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh (FRCS Ed) and board certification in 2003. \n\nHis special interests are in the areas of young adult hip and knee problems, sports injuries, lower limb arthroplasty, and keyhole joint surgery, and revision arthroplasty. His present research is focused on non-surgical and minimally invasive alternative treatment for osteoarthritis. He worked and trained in many countries for over twenty including India, Sri Lanka, Australia, United States, and the UK.\n\nAs a keen researcher, he has completed an MPhil from the University of Warwick and completed a research fellowship at the University of California Los Angeles, (UCLA). \n\nPresently, he works as a medical educator, as an honorary senior lecturer at the University of Kelaniya and Kothalawela Defense University in Sri Lanka. He is an examiner of medical students both in Sri Lanka and the UK and a course provider for Trauma courses run by the college of surgeons and was elected a fellow of Sri Lanka College of surgeons in 2013.\n\nDr. Amarasekera is the editor of the Journal of Sri Lanka Orthopaedic association and council member. He is a reviewer for the Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery (Br) e and Bone and Joint Journal (BJJ) and a member of the editorial board of the Sri Lanka Journal of Surgery (SLJS). \n\nHe has over 50 international publications, presentations and several book chapters to his credit and has reviewed over 100 papers for journals of BJJ and SLJS.\n\nAfter joining IntechOpen in 2012 he authored three book chapters and edited several open access books with them.",institutionString:"University of Warwick Science Park",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Warwick Science Park",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247041",firstName:"Dolores",lastName:"Kuzelj",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247041/images/7108_n.jpg",email:"dolores@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9500",title:"Recent Advances in Bone Tumours and Osteoarthritis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea4ec0d6ee01b88e264178886e3210ed",slug:"recent-advances-in-bone-tumours-and-osteoarthritis",bookSignature:"Hiran Amarasekera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9500.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67634",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiran",surname:"Amarasekera",slug:"hiran-amarasekera",fullName:"Hiran Amarasekera"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6755",title:"Recent Advances in Arthroscopic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c122c5b88bdc03c130d34ad2ac2d722",slug:"recent-advances-in-arthroscopic-surgery",bookSignature:"Hiran Wimal Amarasekera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6755.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67634",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiran",surname:"Amarasekera",slug:"hiran-amarasekera",fullName:"Hiran Amarasekera"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"52895",title:"Isolation and Cryopreservation of Trypanosomes and their Vectors for Research and Development in Resource‐ Constrained Settings",doi:"10.5772/65283",slug:"isolation-and-cryopreservation-of-trypanosomes-and-their-vectors-for-research-and-development-in-res",body:'\nCryopreservation is an established practice of freezing and storing valuable biological materials in liquid nitrogen for long periods of time for use in research, medicine, environmental studies, and technology development. These materials include parasites, vector tissues, and organs, a wide range of human stem cells, plants, microorganisms, etc. Research on these materials assists in understanding how ecosystems function, how disease transmission takes place, how human bodies function, and why some vectors of the same species are efficient at disease transmission whereas others are not able to transmit. Recognizing the importance of collections of biological materials to research and development and acknowledging the high cost of field sample collection in terms of financial resources and time, the management of the Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute (KETRI) has put in place an institutional policy of continuous collection of trypanosome parasites for cryopreservation. This took advantage of all field visits undertaken by various scientific research teams to different foci in Kenya, a country that is endemic for both human and animal trypanosomiasis. This resulted in the establishment of the KETRI Trypanosome Bank which currently has over 2000 isolates [1] from various hosts (tsetse flies, human, domestic and wild animals). Some of the recent collections include vectors of trypanosomiasis, the tsetse flies. Updating of the cryo‐bank with fresh trypanosome isolates is a continuous process.
\nTrypanosomes are extracellular protozoan parasites which cause debilitating disease in humans and animals. In humans, the disease is referred to as human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) or sleeping sickness, caused by two trypanosome species,
HAT is classified in the category of the most neglected tropical diseases. Current diagnostic tools have inadequate sensitivity and specificity, thus complicating disease diagnosis and staging. The drugs available for treatment are highly toxic and not very effective; patients die if untreated [4, 5]. In 2005, an annual prevalence of 50–70,000 HAT cases/year was reported, with incidence rates of 15–17,000 cases/year [6]. Although recent data from the World Health Organization (WHO) shows that the number of reported cases of HAT declined to less than 10,000 in 2009 leading to speculation that the disease could be eliminated [7, 8], there is great need to maintain vigilance through surveillance and research. This is informed by the fact that HAT was effectively controlled in the 1960s in many endemic countries; however, the disease re-surged due to breakdown in surveillance and control activities (Figure 1). WHO [9] has developed a roadmap for elimination of HAT by the year 2020, which involves development of new and better diagnostics and drugs [5, 8]. Cryo‐banks such as the KETRI Trypanosome Bank will therefore be important in contributing to this strategy in order to ensure that epidemics do not occur in future; and that dormant foci will be prioritized for elimination. One of the issues for which answers are sought is what happens in some traditional HAT foci when the disease is not reported in humans. Some of the new technological advances that are providing more insights include genetic analysis of both parasite and vector genomes and identification of specific proteins as targets for development of vaccines, new and sensitive diagnostic tests.
\nSleeping sickness as a reemerging disease.
Isolation and cryopreservation of new trypanosome strains from patients in different HAT foci ensures availability of these stabilates for use in parasitological, biochemical, molecular, serological and pharmacological investigations many years after their isolation from the host. Brun
Trypanosomes are isolated from infected hosts during active or passive disease surveillance activities. The infected hosts include humans, domestic and wild animals, as well as tsetse fly vectors. Parasites are isolated from biological fluids including blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and lymph node aspirates, and/or body parts of tsetse fly vectors. Depending on the host parasitemia and/or density of trypanosomes in the biological fluids at the time of isolation, trypanosomes can be either cryopreserved directly or propagated in immunosuppressed laboratory rodents prior to cryopreservation.
\nParasitological diagnosis of trypanosome infections in animals and humans can be made through microscopic examination of wet blood smears, stained thin and thick blood smears, smears of lymph node aspirates, and buffy coats [11]. Under normal field conditions when large numbers of animals are sampled, examination of buffy coats, obtained through capillary tube centrifugation technique (CTC) [12], is the preferred method of diagnosis due to its higher sensitivity compared to other microscopic techniques. Animals suspected to be infected with trypanosomes are bled from the ear vein into heparinized capillary tubes after which the 3/4 full capillary tubes are sealed at one end with plasticine and then spun in a hematocrit centrifuge at 10,000 revolutions per minute for 5 min. Blood separates into three portions, namely, the red blood cells, which settle at the bottom of the capillary, the plasma portion found at the top, and the buffy coat portion, which forms at the interface of the red blood cells and plasma. Trypanosomes are concentrated in the buffy coat portion of the centrifuged blood, thus enhancing the sensitivity of the test. In humans, diagnostic methods that are routinely employed to detect blood trypanosomes include (CTC), quantitative buffy coat (QBC), mini anion exchange centrifugation technique (mAECT), and modified mAECT [13]. For the diagnosis of trypanosomes in cerebrospinal fluid, available methods include single and double centrifugation and modified single centrifugation (MSC), with the MSC being easy to perform and as sensitive as the double centrifugation [13].
\nOnce confirmed positive, the density of trypanosomes in the relevant biological, fluid is determined. Whole blood is drawn from the jugular vein of the infected host into anticoagulant containing tubes and used to quantify the parasitemia using the matching method [14] for the Trypanozoon group of trypanosomes. Direct isolation is therefore determined by whole blood parasitaemia.
\nParasitemia is usually low in naturally infected hosts. However, the required density of between 3.2 × 107 trypanosomes/ml and 1.3 × 108 trypanosomes/ml may be obtained in a small proportion of the infected hosts, thus permitting direct cryopreservation of the stabilates. In such cases, the infected whole blood is mixed with either of the following cryoprotectants and processed:\n
20% glycerol in EDTA saline glucose (ESG), pH 8.0 in the ratio of 1:1.
Glycerol in the ratio of 1:4, that is, one part of the infected blood to four parts of glycerol.
Samples are then labeled and dipped into a vapor shipper liquid nitrogen cylinder for transportation from the collection site to the main laboratory for further processing. A vapor shipper is a liquid nitrogen cylinder which has a mechanism of absorbing liquid nitrogen into its system leaving the hollow space full of liquid nitrogen vapor, with temperature in the range of –60 to –80°C. In the laboratory, samples are removed from the vapor shipper and allowed to thaw on ice or at 4°C after which they are dispensed into plain capillary tubes (Figure 2), which are then sealed at one end using plasticine.
\nLoading plain capillary tubes with cryo‐protected infected blood sample.
Aluminum cane for holding the ampoules.
The loaded and sealed capillary tubes, approximately 18 in number, are then accommodated in a perforated 4.5 ml ampoule tube into which a label is inserted. The label has the laboratory sample identification number. The ampoule normally has two perforations, one at the top and the other at the bottom to allow direct contact of the sample with liquid nitrogen and at the same time continuous flow of liquid nitrogen from the top through the bottom perforations. Before permanent storage, a capillary is removed from the suspended sample and the viability of the trypanosomes confirmed. For ease of permanent storage in liquid nitrogen at –196°C, the ampoule is then placed on to an aluminum cane which has the capacity of holding at least two ampoules: one at the top and the other at the bottom of the cane. The cane is then placed into a canister, with each canister having a capacity of holding 14 canes. The canister is then immersed into liquid nitrogen in the permanent storage dewar (Figures 3 and 4) at –196°C.
\nStabilate storage dewars.
When the parasitaemia in the whole blood of the naturally infected host is low i.e. below 1.3×108 trypanosomes/ml, the anticoagulated infected blood sample is intraperitoneally inoculated into an immunosuppressed laboratory rodent. It is advisable to inoculate two rodents, usually mice, per positive blood sample (isolate). This is carried out in the field where the animals are given identification numbers and transported to the laboratory for monitoring. In the laboratory, the infected mice are maintained on commercial mice pellets (Unga Feeds Ltd., Kenya), provided with water
The most commonly used cryopreservative is 20% glycerol in EDTA saline glucose (ESG). ESG is first prepared by dissolving 8.00 g NaCl, 0.30 g KH2PO4, 2 g EDTA (disodium or dipotassium), and 2 g glucose in 800 ml distilled water, adjusting the pH to 8.0, and then topping up to 1 liter with deionized/distilled water. Glycerol is then added to the prepared solution at a ratio of 1:4 to make 20% glycerol in ESG. Recently, Triladyl® (MiniTüB GmbH and CO. KG, Tiefenbach, Germany), a commercially available culture medium that is traditionally used for preserving bull semen, has been found suitable for cryopreservation of trypanosomes. Triladyl is most efficient when added to the infected biological fluids/materials to a concentration of 40–90% [18, 19]. Triladyl has subsequently been adopted as an alternative cryopreservative at the KETRI Trypanosome Bank.
\nNaCl 8.00 g
KH2PO4 0.30 g
EDTA (disodium or dipotassium) 2 g
Glucose 2 g
Dissolve in about 800 ml distilled water, top up to 1 l.
\nDissolve 8.5 g NaCl in 1 l of distilled water
\nNa2PHO4 5.392 g/l
\nNa2HPO4 (H2O)12 (hydrous) 13.608 g/l
\nNaH2PO4 0.239 g/l
\nNaH2PO4(H2O) hydrous 0.276 g/l
\nNaH2PO4(H2O)2 hydrous 0.312 g/l
\nNaCl 1.7 g/l
\nGlucose 10.00 g
\nDissolve in about 800 ml distilled water; top up to 1 l.
\nBiological materials from infected vertebrate hosts (blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and lymph node aspirates) and/or body parts of tsetse fly vectors are processed as previously described [17, 20, 21]. Briefly, samples with a concentration of more than 6.3 × 107 trypanosomes/ml are mixed with a cryopreservative (20% glycerol in ESG or 40–90% Triladyl) at a ratio of 1:1. The diluted sample is then loaded into an ampoule and wrapped or held in a cooling jacket which is suspended into the vapor space of a liquid nitrogen shipper (temperature range of –60 to –80°C) for transportation to the laboratory. Samples from infected humans or animals with parasite counts below 6.3 × 107 trypanosomes/ml (equivalent to antilog 7.8) [14], or suspects with a low packed cell volume (usually <25%) are inoculated into laboratory rodents for amplification/propagation [19]. The rodents may be immunosuppressed using either cyclophosphamide at 100 mg/kg daily for three consecutive days or by gamma‐irradiation at 600 rads (6 gray) for 6 min before the inoculation [22, 15]. Swiss white mice are preferred for propagation of most species of trypanosomes, while Mastomys natalensis are preferred for
\n
Immunosuppressed mice
Mice pellets
Sawdust
Disposable 1 ml syringes and needles gauge 26
Trypanosomes either from the cryo‐bank or from infected hosts (humans/animals) or tsetse flies
Glycerol
Cotton wool
Tissue paper
Capillary tubes (plain)
Plasticine
4.5 ml plastic ampoules
Liquid nitrogen
Cooling jacket
The following information is collected and recorded:\n
Host of isolation
Locality (georeferenced) and year of isolation
Scientist who did the isolation
Number of passages the trypanosomes has undergone before cryopreservation
The prepatent period of the infected mice after each passage, if several passages have been done
The duration of infection in the infected mice between the time of inoculation and sacrifice of the mouse for cryopreservation
Species of trypanosome
Physical location of the sample in the cryo‐bank
In event of cryopreservation from the natural host:\n
The suspected infected blood sample is injected into immunosuppressed mice
The infected mice are monitored for development of parasitemia
Cryopreservation carried out as outlined above
At the KETRI trypanosome cryo-bank, the first parasite population isolated from the field is the original or primary isolate. If the parasite numbers are high, the primary isolate is cryopreserved as original field isolate; however, in order to sustain/maintain the original cryopreserved sample and to produce adequate material for research, the original isolate is expanded in the appropriate animal model and cryopreserved as a derivative of the original sample, but with a different bank reference number from the first passage number. Subsequent passages or derivatives of the same are given different reference numbers in order to monitor the use and performance of the particular isolates. Clones may be prepared either from the primary or subsequent passages or both. All these events are monitored and recorded for future reference and when issuing materials for research.
Following receipt of the duly signed and approved request form from the scientist, the person incharge of issuance of cryopreserved material records the physical position of the sample in the cryo‐bank. The sample is retrieved from its position, the ampoule cork opened; and using a pair of forceps, the reference number is confirmed. One capillary is removed and transferred into an ampoule placed on ice for thawing. The remaining stabilate is returned into its position in the bank before it thaws.
\n\n
Use 1 ml syringe and 26‐gauge needle
Fill the syringe with phosphate saline glucose (PSG) pH 8.0 up to 0.2 ml
Using a diamond pencil cut the sealed end of the capillary tube containing the trypanosome stabilate
Insert the needle into the capillary and suck the contents
Pull the piston and mix the contents with the PSG buffer thoroughly
Remove the air bubbles and place a drop of the mixture on the microscope slide, cover with a cover slip, and examine the parasitemia at 400 × magnification
Infect the experimental (donors) as required by the protocol
Precaution:
\nUse of protective devices while handling cryopreserved samples is mandatory. This is necessary because the samples being handled contain live parasites, some of which are pathogenic to humans. Also, nitrogen at –196°C burns. Industrial gloves are recommended while handling liquid nitrogen. Use of facial masks will protect the user from harmful effect in case of contact with the eyes. All safety precautions should be strictly observed when capillary tubes are withdrawn from the liquid nitrogen; they sometimes burst before they are transferred into the screw capped ampoules to thaw, possibly due to differences in temperature.
It is recommended that retrieval of the sample should be rapid to avoid the thawing of the remaining samples.
Cloning of trypanosomes is necessary for the production of a homogeneous population of trypanosomes. It is carried out as previously described by Otieno and Darji [23]. Briefly, a sample containing trypanosomes is diluted in PSG pH 8.0, to 1 trypanosome per microscopic field at 400× magnification. This is followed by addition of 0.5 ml guinea pig serum. Using a needle, a drop of the trypanosome suspension is placed on a cover slip that is overturned onto a cavity slide moistened with PSG to prevent evaporation of the drop. In the laboratory, the drop is examined under a microscope (400× magnification) by at least three experienced technicians to confirm the presence of a single and viable trypanosome, which is aspirated and inoculated into an immunosuppressed Swiss white mouse. Inoculated mice are monitored for parasitemia development and sacrificed at the first peak of parasitemia. Blood is harvested by cardiac puncture for cryopreservation of the clone of trypanosomes.
\nCryopreserved trypanosomes are permanently stored in liquid nitrogen. The samples must always be fully immersed in liquid nitrogen and the levels maintained by frequently refilling the storage Dewars. The refilling period is determined by the frequency at which the Dewars are opened during issue of materials for research. The more frequent they are opened, the more liquid nitrogen vapor is lost, hence the need to refill. Under normal circumstances, refilling is done fortnightly.
\nIt is important to ascertain that the cryopreserved samples remain viable by randomly testing the infectivity of the parasites in laboratory rodents to ensure that this has been maintained and not lost over long periods of storage. The viability testing is performed by removing a single capillary of each of the cryopreserved trypanosome isolate, thawing at room temperature, cutting the sealed end of the capillary tube using a diamond pencil, decanting the capillary contents on a microscope slide, covering the content with a glass coverslips, and examining for the motility of the trypanosomes under the microscope at 400× magnification.
\nSpecies | \nMorphology | \nFree flagellum | \nUndulating membrane | \nKinetoplast | \nOther characteristics | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Monomorphic | \nPresent | \nSlightly developed | \nLarge rounded terminal | \nVery motile, posterior end rounded | \n|
Monomorphic | \nPresent | \nSlightly developed | \nLarge rounded terminal | \nVery motile, posterior end rounded | \n|
Pleomorphic | \nAbsent | \nSlightly developed | \nMarginal or central subterminal | \nPosterior end rounded or flat | \n|
Pleomorphic | \nAbsent | \nModerately developed | \nMarginal or central subterminal | \nMore long forms than short forms | \n|
Pleomorphic | \nPresent in long and intermediate forms, absent in short forms | \nWell developed | \nSmall subterminal | \nPosterior end: Long forms—pointed Short forms—rounded Intermediate forms—blunt | \n|
Basically monomorphic | \nPresent | \nWell developed | \nSmall subterminal | \nPosterior end rounded or truncated | \n|
Monomorphic | \nPresent | \nWell developed | \nSmall, subterminal, marginal | \nOnly infects suids | \n|
Monomorphic | \nPresent | \nWell developed | \nLarge, rounded, marginal | \nPosterior end tapering | \n
Morphological characteristics of trypanosomes.
Morphological features assist in the preliminary identification of trypanosomes in the field after isolation in order to ascertain the species of trypanosomes isolated. This is done through microscopic examination. Different trypanosome species fall into the following groups, depending on the morphological features: Trypanozoon, Duttonella, or Nannomonas (Table 1).
\n\nSize and shape of the body
Position of the nucleus and kinetoplast
Presence or absence of free flagellum
The shape of the posterior end which is pointed either sharply, oval, or blunt
The morphological features of the Trypanozoon, Duttonella, and Nannomonas species of trypanosomes are as shown in Figures 5–7.
\nMorphological distinguishing features associated with Trypanozoon.
Morphological distinguishing features associated with Duttonella.
Morphological distinguishing features associated with Nannomonas.
Morphological distinguishing features associated with Trypanozoon include:\n
Position of kinetoplast—subterminal
Size of kinetoplast—small
Posterior end—blunt
Free flagellum—present
Distinguishing features include: rounded posterior end, free flagellum, and a large almost terminal kinetoplast. This group of parasites lack undulating membrane.
\nDistinguishing features include: shape of posterior end—rounded; position of kinetoplast —marginal; size of kinetoplast—medium; no undulating membrane and free flagellum—present.
\nTsetse transmission studies
Tissue culture
Molecular biology studies:\n
DNA and RNA extraction and analysis
Genetics and functional genomic studies
Over the years of existence of the KETRI Cryo‐bank, the cryopreserved materials were documented manually on specially designed record sheets known as Kalamazoo and later electronically. Whichever method is used, the information in the records should include, but not limited to the following, for the ease of retrieval:\n
The host of isolation, age and sex
Date of isolation
Isolating scientist
Suspected species of trypanosome (based on host of isolation and trypanosome
morphology)
Locality of isolation
Method of cryopreservation whether direct or after propagation in laboratory animals
If by propagation in laboratory rodents, the species of rodent used
The prepatent period, i.e., period between inoculation of the whole blood and first appearance of trypanosomes in the mouse
Duration of infection before cryopreservation, i.e., the period between inoculation and the sacrifice of the animal to harvest trypanosomes for cryopreservation
In the event where several passages have been made, the passage numbers must be indicated as well as the species of rodents used at every passage. In addition, the pre-patent period and duration of infection must be stated at each passage.
Physical location of the stabilate in the cryo‐bank
Work carried out and publications resulting from the use of stabilates
The database was developed using Microsoft Access 2000 (Microsoft, USA) relational database. Hosts of isolation and countries are coded following the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) protocol [26] (Lumsden, 1978). Primary isolates are, for example, designated MHOM/KE/85/KETRI 128, where M represents mammal; HOM represents human; KE indicates the country of isolation, in this case Kenya; 85 is the year of isolation (1985) while KETRI 128 shows code or reference number of the stabilate. With regard to trypanosome derived from the previous stabilate usually referred to as derivatives, the number of the derivative is shown in brackets. For example, MHOM/KE/85/KETRI 128 [KETRI 300] is a derivative of MHOM/KE/85/KETRI 128 as described by Lumsden [25].
\nThe number of trypanosomes isolated and cryopreserved at the KETRI Trypanosome Bank are shown in Figure 8. Tables 2 and 3 show the trypanosome species, year, and country of isolation.
\nNumber of primary trypanosome stabilates collected, preserved, and stored at Kenya [
\n | \n | Species of trypanosomes: number and period of isolation | \n|||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Country | \nIsolate/Year | \nUC | \nMixed | \n||||||||||
Kenya | \nNo | \n101 | \n194 | \n274 | \n– | \n107 | \n166 | \n89 | \n3 | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n29 | \n
\n | Year | \n1961–2001 | \n1961–2006 | \n1958–2009 | \n– | \n1961–2008 | \n1969–2009 | \n1968–2003 | \n1970 | \n– | \n– | \n18 | \n1970–2006 | \n
Uganda | \nNo | \n1 | \n238 | \n123 | \n22 | \n82 | \n64 | \n– | \n– | \n2 | \n8 | \n14 | \n5 | \n
\n | Year | \n1968 | \n1960–1983 | \n1959–2004 | \n1959–2002 | \n1955–1983 | \n1961–1972 | \n– | \n– | \n1972–1973 | \n1966 | \n14 | \n1955–1971 | \n
Tanzania | \nNo | \n– | \n57 | \n7 | \n– | \n35 | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n9 | \n
\n | Year | \n– | \n1966–1974 | \n1934, 1959–1974 | \n– | \n1966–1974 | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n1966–1974 | \n
Botswana | \nNo | \n– | \n– | \n2 | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n
\n | Year | \n– | \n– | \n1960 | \n\n | – | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n\n | – | \n
Sudan | \nNo | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n26 | \n– | \n– | \n2 | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n
\n | Year | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n1982–2003 | \n– | \n– | \n1973 | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n
Mozambique | \nNo | \n– | \n– | \n2 | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n
\n | Year | \n– | \n– | \n1980, 1983 | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n
Nigeria | \nNo | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n4 | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n
\n | Year | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n1970–1973 | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n
Zambia | \nNo | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n2 | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n
\n | Year | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n1981 | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n
NDA | \nNo | \n2 | \n21 | \n8 | \n– | \n17 | \n5 | \n1 | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n3 | \n2 | \n
\n | Year | \n1961 | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n1962–1985 | \n1961 | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n2 | \n
Total | \n\n | 104 | \n510 | \n416 | \n48 | \n243 | \n240 | \n92 | \n3 | \n2 | \n8 | \n35 | \n45 | \n
Primary trypanosome isolates collected from various countries and stored at the Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute Cryo‐bank
Adapted from Murilla et al. [1].
\n | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cattle | \n85 | \n247 | \n0 | \n119 | \n137 | \n0 | \n2 | \n\n | 0 | \n10 | \n21 | \n621 | \n
Goat | \n0 | \n6 | \n0 | \n6 | \n6 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n19 | \n
Sheep | \n1 | \n8 | \n1 | \n24 | \n3 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n7 | \n44 | \n
Pig | \n1 | \n5 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n6 | \n
Camel | \n0 | \n3 | \n0 | \n1 | \n2 | \n92 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n98 | \n
Donkey | \n0 | \n1 | \n0 | \n1 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n3 | \n0 | \n5 | \n
Cat | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n2 | \n2 | \n
Dog | \n3 | \n6 | \n0 | \n1 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n0 | \n11 | \n
Wildlife | \n2 | \n40 | \n3 | \n12 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n5 | \n62 | \n
Lizard | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n3 | \n0 | \n3 | \n
Rat | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n8 | \n0 | \n0 | \n8 | \n
HNI | \n1 | \n7 | \n4 | \n2 | \n2 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n2 | \n0 | \n18 | \n
Total | \n93 | \n323 | \n8 | \n166 | \n150 | \n92 | \n2 | \n0 | \n8 | \n19 | \n36 | \n897 | \n
Animal hosts from which various trypanosomes were isolated and stored at Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute Cryo‐bank
Adapted from Murilla et al. [1].
Trypanosomes are stored and maintained permanently in liquid nitrogen for use by scientists in the following areas:\n
The pathogenicity/virulence studies
Molecular characterization
Drug sensitivity studies
Tsetse fly transmission/vector competence studies, etc.
Genetic and genomic studies
Research and development of new diagnostic tests, drugs, and vaccines
Stabilates are issued to National and International Research Organizations and Institutions of higher learning following the laid down institutional guidelines. The following documents are necessary for issue of materials to be effected:
\n\n
Research permit from National Council for Science, Technology and Innovation (NACOSTI, Kenya)
Stabilate requisition form plus a permit from Director of Veterinary Services (DVS) for stabilates to be used in other National and International institutions
Materials transfer agreement duly signed
Stabilate requisition form with relevant approvals for stabilates to be used only within the institute.
It is important that the receiving scientist be committed to avail the scientific information resulting from the use of these stabilates. This is necessary for updating the trypanosome bank database and for future reference.
\nTerminologies commonly used with cryopreservation technique
\n\n
Trypanosome species
Assemblages of organisms that can be distinguished from other species by one or more stable discontinuous morphological characters, e.g.,
Trypanosome subspecies
Assemblages of organisms within a species that cannot be separated from each other by morphological characters but only by other stable characters, e.g.,
Clone
This is a population that has been developed from a single trypanosome.
Line
A laboratory derivative of a stock maintained in different physical conditions, e.g., a species of
Population
The group of trypanosomes present at a given time in a given host or it may consist of a mixture of several species and subspecies.
Primary isolate
This is a stabilate made from a naturally infected host or viable organisms present in a culture or experimental animals following the introduction of the sample from a naturally infected host.
Sample
That part of trypanosome population collected on a unique occasion.
Stabilate
A cryopreserved sample of viable trypanosomes.
Stock
A population derived by serial passage
Metacyclics
These are the mammalian infective forms of trypanosomes injected by the tsetse fly. Metacyclic forms are found at the end of transmission cycle.
Procyclics
These are the midgut forms of trypanosomes which are found in cultures.
Communicable and noncommunicable diseases, including the neglected tropical diseases, cause chronic life‐long disability, hinder economic development, and impair childhood development in resource poor settings in Africa where the diseases are endemic [27, 28]. Control of these diseases could be an efficient way to fight poverty since some of these diseases can be managed very cost‐effectively using evidence‐based control strategies [26, 29, 30]. HAT is classified as one of the most neglected tropical diseases that exclusively affects poor communities in low‐ and middle‐income countries (LMIC), except those areas where tourists have been reported to have contracted the disease on tour of the affected areas. Because NTDs affect mostly the socially vulnerable populations, there are several ethical implications to consider when planning collection and use of these materials. Detection and treatment of these diseases poses many challenges since most of them present similar clinical symptoms concomitant with variation in response in the affected individual to treatment, and lack of accurate diagnostic tests. Medical research to improve health care faces a major problem in the relatively limited availability of adequately annotated and collected bio‐specimens, primarily due to absence of bio‐banking facilities and associated infrastructure to interrogate the specimen to tease out relevant information. This limitation has adversely impacted the pace of scientific advances and successful exploitation of bio‐specimens. Established functional bio‐banks would surmount this limitation by providing framework for transfer of bio‐specimens (tissues, blood, and body fluids) and related health data for research. The KETRI Cryo‐bank holds significant quantities of samples dating from 1930s to date, which include blood, serum, CSF, tissues, semen from trypanotolerant animals, and both parasite and vector DNA collections. This is in addition to the pan African trypanosome isolates of specific biomedical interest (e.g., drug resistance and virulence) from human and nonhuman primates, and livestock. There is therefore great need to collect and store biological materials for research in order to monitor our ecosystems including new and emerging diseases, generate evidence to inform policy, and in the development of mitigation strategies. In the area of human and veterinary medicine, these new and reemerging diseases and conditions have complicated the search for new remedies for their management in the absence of well collected and cryopreserved biological specimens.
\nThe countries that are heavy burdened by disease also experience high levels of poverty. This situation is compounded by new and reemerging diseases and conditions. Climate change has not only resulted in loss of biodiversity but enabled vectors to infest new areas and change transmission dynamics. Some parasites have changed host seeking behavior with time, becoming either more virulent or chronic in nature. Development of drug resistance and appearance of virulent phenotypes is of great public health concern. Whereas the need exists to collect and preserve these materials for R&D in order to find solutions to these challenges, the cost of sample collection from the field is prohibitive. Sites are usually remote with unpassable roads especially in rainy season when disease transmission is high. Once the materials have been collected and transported to the laboratory, there are high costs related to processing, cryopreservation, and maintenance of the cryo‐bank. These are not the usual areas for investment by our governments due to different priorities. There are also challenges related to communities from which samples are collected, they are usually not involved in the plans to collect the materials thereby excluding them in finding solutions to their problems.
\nThe above challenges have created great opportunities for collection and storage of parasites and their vectors for use in the development of vaccines, diagnostic tests, and new medicines applying recent technological advances. In the recent past, improvements have been made on the conventional nitrogen freezers through development and adoption of validated methods including a wide range of stem cells. Many cryopreservation protocols exist for freezing and storing various biological materials. These need to be reviewed and tailored toward delivering quality biological materials to our research institutions and products to our clinics. Modalities for sharing of materials by different institutions need to be developed and made operational in order not to disadvantage communities from which the materials are collected and the institutions that have collected, preserved, and maintained these materials in resource‐constrained settings. The contractual arrangements surrounding areas of the material transfer agreements should be carefully negotiated. National and international institutions (local and foreign), should invest in adequate bio‐specimen management, legal and administrative skills, just as they do for developing scientific skills to facilitate sharing of samples and information associated with the bio‐specimens.
\nCollection and cryopreservation of biological materials is critical to research and development but expensive to collect, process, store, and maintain. Institutional top management leadership supported by the existing national, regional and international guidelines, rules and regulations are necessary in providing policy direction and resources [31]. In Kenya, tsetse flies, vectors of human and animal trypanosomiasis, infest mainly conservation areas and wildlife are carriers of pathogens, hence there is a need to work closely with the Kenya Wildlife Service. Through effective collaborations and multidisciplinary approach, it is possible to leverage on all activities undertaken by collaborating institutions to make collections. From the resource‐constrained perspective, one does not need state‐of‐the‐art bio‐repository to initiate collections. Strategic leadership is the key in spearheading:\n
the development of the appropriate institutional policies
to define roles and responsibilities for collaborative arrangements among institutions, strictly observing existing rules and regulations
to ensure that communities from which the materials are collected are not taken advantage of
to facilitate the establishment of relevant multidisciplinary teams that cut across several sectors, e.g., human health, livestock, and wildlife
to ensure proper collection, storage, and maintenance of the materials according to the legal mandates of participating institutions
to ensure equity in sharing of the resources,
capacity assessment and development to include human, infrastructure, and financial across the sectors, and
training of field teams in best practices regarding sample collection and processing at field level [32–34].
Effective coordination of field teams is critical as many of the areas from where the collections are made are remote with no electricity. Due to the rough terrain and impassable roads, especially during the wet season and when the disease transmission is high, a lot of liquid nitrogen may be lost. In view of this, it is important to ensure adequate liquid nitrogen is available to last the period of the field trip. This is critical and assures viability of the parasites from the remote field sites to the laboratories for preparation and permanent storage.
\nIn conclusion, it is possible for institutions to collect, process, store, and maintain biological resources according to their legal mandates in resource‐constrained settings. This is only possible through strategic leadership that recognizes the importance of these biological materials to the respective countries and communities from which they are collected. And for organizations requesting for these materials to recognize the efforts and cost of the collection, storage, and maintenance and follow the national and internationally recognized guidelines, rules and regulations regarding the sharing of the same.
\nThe Director‐General KALRO for financial support and members of staff of the Biotechnology Research Institute‐Biochemistry Division and in particular John Ndichu for ensuring regular refilling of stabilate storage dewars with liquid nitrogen.
Phytoplankton live near the water surface to capture sufficient light for photosynthesis and act as the primary producer of the plankton community. They form the bottom levels of the marine and aquatic food webs, and their existence not only makes life in the water possible but also makes the ocean an important food source for mankind. Phytoplankton play a crucial role in the biogeochemical cycles of many important chemical elements, not only carbon but also of other elements, such as silica and nitrogen [1, 2, 3, 4]. The release and uptake of CO2 and CH4, and the excretion of dimethylsulphide by phytoplankton influence the atmosphere and climate [5]. As a result of the changes in their living condition, their composition and concentration vary over space and time, which in turn can influence the whole ecosystem, such as through the changes in the size structure, formation of harmful algal blooms and development of hypoxic regions. Blooms and hypoxia can disrupt food-webs and threaten human health.
Phytoplankton pigments capture sunlight. The resulting photosynthesis and its products, especially the oxygen and organic compounds, all rely on the light energy captured by the different phytoplankton pigments [6, 7, 8]. Chlorophyll
Light absorbed by phytoplankton pigments provides the initial energy for carbon cycles, and is also one of the major factors influencing the appearance of water color [13, 14, 15, 16]. To study this important water column phenomenon, ocean color remote sensing was first proposed in late 1970s. Satellite-based ocean color remote sensing provides unique observational capability to scientists for phytoplankton studies by providing synoptic views of the ocean with high spatial and temporal resolution. Since the Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) mission, chlorophyll
What follows, based on the most recent research findings from the ocean color community, is a brief review of how phytoplankton pigments are estimated from water samples, how pigment maps are derived from satellite measurements and what are the existing challenges and opportunities for the estimates and application of remote sensed pigments. This chapter is not meant to present a comprehensive list of all possible topics related to satellite-based pigment observations, but rather its focus is on the history of pigment retrievals with several examples showing major findings. For interested readers, a full breadth and depth knowledge in this field can be obtained by reading the refereed literature and technical reports compiled on the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ocean color website (https://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov) and by International Ocean Color Coordinating Group (http://www.ioccg.org).
Optical properties of phytoplankton, especially the absorption coefficients of the pigments inside them (Figure 1), play a key role in determining not only the use of this radiant energy for photosynthesis, but also the penetration of the radiant energy within water. These pigment absorption coefficients are important for identifying and quantifying phytoplankton groups [12] and size class distributions (IOCCG report 15 and references therein), understanding of photosynthetic rate [11, 21], and in particular for ocean color interpretation.
Weight-specific (or pigment-specific) in vitro absorption spectra of various pigments derived from measuring the absorption spectra of individual pigments in solvent and shifting the maxima of the spectra according to Bidigare et al. [
Light absorption properties of phytoplankton cells from laboratory cultures as experimental materials have received a great deal of attention in fundamental photosynthesis research [22, 23]. However, the phytoplankton pigment absorption properties from natural water is the information needed in ocean color remote sensing. The collection of phytoplankton pigment information has been obtained from measurement of the spectral absorption of phytoplankton, usually through filtration onto a filter pad because of the low
Using data on pigment concentrations and their absorption properties, Kirkpatrick
Hoepffner and Sathyendranath [29] proposed Gaussian decomposition of phytoplankton absorption spectra. For the first time, this method decomposed the absorption spectra into Gaussian curve components and linked them to the light absorption coefficients of multiple pigments inside phytoplankton cells. Several studies followed this proxy to estimate multiple phytoplankton pigments for different water bodies [31, 32, 33] but were limited to using only
A portion of the light absorbed by phytoplankton pigments can be emitted at a longer wavelength in a physical process called fluorescence [36]. The energy dissipated in fluorescence is secondary to the amount absorbed and used for photosynthesis, but it is still significant enough to be observed in ocean color remote sensing data. Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll
Several factors influence phytoplankton fluorescence: nutrient conditions, stage of growth, physiological state of phytoplankton, pigment content and ratios, taxonomic position of algae, and photoadaptation [39, 40, 41].
Historically, chlorophyll
The introduction of pigment analyses by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) [48, 49] facilitated easy and accurate separation, identification, and quantification of phytoplankton pigments. Pigment detection based on HPLC methods enables quantification of over 50 phytoplankton pigments [11, 50]. Some of the pigments can be used as diagnostic pigments for phytoplankton groups (e.g., fucoxanthin for diatoms, peridinin for dinoflagellates, alloxanthin for cryptophytes, chlorophyll
Ocean color or aquatic remote sensing refers to the use of optical measurements made from aircraft or satellites to obtain information about the constituents of the waters.
Remote sensing can be classified as active or passive based on the energy source. Active remote sensing shots signal from the sensor platform (satellite or aircraft) to the water body and detects the return signal from it. Passive remote sensing observes the light that is reflected or emitted by the water body. The most commonly used light source for passive remote sensing is sunlight. Sensors detect the reflected or backscattered light coming from the water body. The launch of the first ocean color sensor Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) in 1978, started the era for passive satellite ocean color remote sensing.
Passive ocean-color remote sensing is conceptually simple (Figure 3). The signals captured by remote sensors provide information on the types and concentrations of the various constituents of the water body. The concentrations of optically-active substances present in the water can be estimated by inverting bio-optical algorithms with remote sensing data. Although this process can be fraught with difficulties, our understanding of the oceans has been completely revolutionized by ocean color remote sensing from daily to decadal temporal scales and local to global spatial scales
Conceptual figure of passive satellite ocean color remote sensing with Western Lake Erie as an example:
For a better understanding of phytoplankton in the global ocean from large spatial and temporal scales, ocean color remote sensing is the most efficient tool, with the advantages of cost-free satellite imagery access from NASA and others, thus providing a data source for hypothesis testing and more efficient utilization of limited
Phytoplankton pigments have a major effect on ocean color and are one of the primary reasons for studying it. Following the launch of CZCS, unprecedented data for studying the biology of the oceans have been obtained [55]. For the first time, chlorophyll
In the past decades, the identification of phytoplankton pigments from satellite remote sensing has been mainly focused on chlorophyll
In the process of obtaining phytoplankton pigment, especially chlorophyll
These methods account for regional variabilities in water properties and
For remote sensing of accessory pigments, Pan
Eq. (1) shows the polynomial algorithm for pigments, in which the blue-green band ratio was empirically related to pigment concentrations (Cpigs):
Where λ1 and λ2 represent the spectral band around blue (440–520) and green (555) region respectively, and
The semi-analytical algorithms obtain pigments from
Semi-analytical algorithms are relatively more complex. Based on the radiative transfer equation, remote sensing reflectance was defined as the ratio of upwelling radiance to downwelling irradiance, and its relationship with inherent optical properties of water constituents can be expressed as:
Where G is a parameter related to the environment and solar and sensor viewing geometry. The absorption coefficients of water (
Pigment concentrations can be estimated from phytoplankton absorption coefficients from Gaussian decomposition (Eqs. 3 and 4) or by using pigment specific absorption coefficients (Eq. 5). Figure 4 shows an example of Chl-a global distribution map obtained from MERIS ocean color data using a semi-analytical algorithm.
Chlorophyll
where σ
With
The measuring of ocean color from space and the increasing accuracy of
Empirical algorithms used to calculate chlorophyll
In recent years, the use of pigment data to map phytoplankton population and composition in the water column has become an established and convenient way of studying field phytoplankton [100]. Phytoplankton biomass and the structure of phytoplankton community have been widely quantified and assessed using photosynthetic pigment biomarkers [52, 100]. Photosynthetic pigments also function as indicators of the physiological condition of a phytoplankton community, which may be affected by environmental and trophic conditions [101]. Photosynthetic carotenoids (PSC) are dominant in high productivity waters, whereas photoprotective carotenoids (PPC) are more dominant in low productivity waters [102, 103]. In addition, intensive light increases the PPC:PSC ratio [104, 105]. Thus, the PPC:PSC ratio can be used as a good indicator of changes in environmental factors. Figure 5 shows the global maps of PPC and PSC from Wang et al. [74].
Global maps of photoprotective (PPC) and photosynthetic carotenoids (PSC) from Wang et al. [
The sustained time series of these phytoplankton properties from ocean color remote sensing has provided major advances in our understanding of carbon dynamics, plankton annual cycles and their responses to climate variations. Simply, the satellite ocean color remote sensing of pigment will further improve the research revolution in oceanography.
Although ocean color remote sensing observations enabled advances in our understanding of phytoplankton in the ocean, there are several fundamental limitations in the passive radiometric technique. The major uncertainties of remote sensing pigment estimates are from atmospheric correction errors, as a result of the high signal contribution of components other than the targeted water to radiances measured by ocean color instruments, such as reflection from the ocean surface, surface foam, subsurface bubbles, and atmospheric constituents, including clouds, aerosols, and air molecules. A small error from the correction of these atmospheric contribution results in large errors in the obtained remote sensing reflectance and the associated pigment information ([106] and references therein).
Another challenge with ocean color remote sensing comes from the interferences of the optical properties of retrieved water components, including absorption by phytoplankton pigments, colored dissolved matter, and nonalgal particles, and backscattering by suspended particles. This makes the uncertainties from these properties and the derived geophysical parameters from them hard to reduce. The upcoming PACE mission is designed with expanded spectral range and resolution to address this problem [107].
Finally, clouds and strongly scattering aerosol layers have been significant limitation factors of the availability of satellite ocean color data. On average, about 70% of the Earth’s ocean area were covered by clouds on the daily scene obtained from a sensor. For broken cloud or aerosol interfered scenes, the accuracy of ocean color retrievals can be compromised compared to clear sky pixels. In high altitude regions, specifically the polar regions, cloud conditions and low sun angles limited ocean color sampling from late fall through early spring of next year. The lack of sampling for this long period of time makes it impossible for a complete understanding of the biogeochemistry and plankton annual cycles of some of the most productive waters [108].
Other issues are from the limitation of spectral, spatial, and temporal resolutions of the existing satellite sensors: some harmful algal blooms occurring in small lakes and ponds are not able to be detected by satellite sensors with low spatial resolution (~1 km); while the high spatial resolution sensors (e.g., Landsat 8) cannot provide timely coverage of bloom events due to their low temporal resolution.
The satellite ocean color remote sensing has been tasked to acquire remote sensing imagery, validate and monitor its accuracy, process the radiometric data into geophysical information using different algorithms, and apply the final products into scientific research. One of the principles of
Compared to passive ocean color remote sensing, lidar shows many advantages, such as operating at night and high latitudes, and can generally penetrate to the subsurface chlorophyll maximum [112, 113]. Airborne lidar is particularly useful for mapping the depth distribution of phytoplankton. The characteristic depth profiles of phytoplankton provide useful information for differentiation of phytoplankton species as described in Moore et al. [114] two different species of harmful Cyanobacteria in Lake Erie, USA can be identified by the differences in their characteristic depth profiles.
Combining the observations from lidar and ocean color sensors, especially the advanced upcoming PACE mission, would enable the achievement of greater synergies. The pairing of an ocean-optimized satellite profiling lidar with a passive ocean color sensor would provide maximized global data coverage, and enable three-dimensional reconstruction of ocean ecosystems, which would further favor the algorithm development, and expand the retrieval of geophysical properties.
We thank the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for providing the MERIS imagery, and the support from the NASA Advanced Information Systems Technology (AIST) program.
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The goal of this article is to discuss the complexity of the entangled sectors of cultural and historic preservation, economic development, tourism, and global transnational heritage within the framework of sustainability.",book:{id:"6950",slug:"education-human-rights-and-peace-in-sustainable-development",title:"Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development",fullTitle:"Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development"},signatures:"Claudia Chang",authors:[{id:"296402",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",slug:"claudia-chang",fullName:"Claudia Chang"}]},{id:"71206",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91053",title:"Uprising and Human Rights Abuses in Southern Cameroon-Ambazonia",slug:"uprising-and-human-rights-abuses-in-southern-cameroon-ambazonia",totalDownloads:875,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"In 2016, lawyers, teachers and students in the two Anglophone regions initially led demonstrations and strikes, which eventually involved a wider section of the population. This mobilization was against their marginalization by the Francophone-dominated government in which they were chronically under-represented in all aspects of national life: political appointments and professional training and had been treated as second-class citizens since their reunification. They argued that their vibrant economic and political institutions had been completely erased, and their education and judicial systems had been undermined and degraded. Activists spread videos that show security forces abusing human rights (by suppressing peaceful gatherings, beating, harassing, arresting and killing protesters, burning their houses, schools and hospitals) in order to produce a counter-narrative to the ‘official story’ that main-stream media had been producing. We collected and analyzed 30 videos to better appreciate the human rights abuses. The videos provide information that cannot be provided by other types of data. They are used as ‘proofs of facts’ and they contain much more visual information on bodily movement and acoustic data. The videos show appalling images not just of how French-speaking soldiers tortured Anglophones but also their inability to communicate with them adequately although they share the same country.",book:{id:"6950",slug:"education-human-rights-and-peace-in-sustainable-development",title:"Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development",fullTitle:"Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development"},signatures:"Nanche Billa Robert",authors:[{id:"285893",title:"Dr.",name:"Nanche Billa",middleName:null,surname:"Robert",slug:"nanche-billa-robert",fullName:"Nanche Billa Robert"}]},{id:"72435",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92705",title:"Police Education in the United Kingdom: Challenges and Future Directions",slug:"police-education-in-the-united-kingdom-challenges-and-future-directions",totalDownloads:1078,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter outlines the historical development of police education in the United Kingdom, more precisely in England and Wales, and highlights new strategies and planning for the professional development of the police. 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While featuring the challenges and prospects of the new police education programmes, this chapter also outlines different aspects of partnership for delivering these professional qualification programmes.",book:{id:"6950",slug:"education-human-rights-and-peace-in-sustainable-development",title:"Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development",fullTitle:"Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development"},signatures:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel, Gias Uddin, Julian Parker-McLeod and Daniel Silverstone",authors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. 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Sustained rapid expansion in North America, followed by local expansion in Europe and Asia, has made cruising a global industry, with 365 ships and estimated sales of $37.8 US billion (CIN, 2017). This global development has been fueled by innovation and introduction of market changing resident ships appealing to the mass traveler which were quickly matched by competitors, establishment of industry and port marketing organizations, awareness of cruising as a vacation option, and availability of suitable port and berthing facilities. When these four conditions coexisted the industry experienced rapid growth. Since 1966, the cruise industry has developed from a Miami-centered industry to a global industry centered in North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia/New Zealand. Given the high cost of state-of-the-art ships, their deployment is a good indication of industry’s confidence in market growth. This chapter chronicles the development of the Asian cruise industry from 1994 through 2017. Data from Cruise Industry News Annual Reports (CIN) and Berlitz Complete Guide to Cruising and Cruise Ships (Ward) are examined and conclusions are drawn.",book:{id:"6950",slug:"education-human-rights-and-peace-in-sustainable-development",title:"Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development",fullTitle:"Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development"},signatures:"Andrew O. Coggins",authors:[{id:"229658",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Coggins Jr",slug:"andrew-coggins-jr",fullName:"Andrew Coggins Jr"}]},{id:"72435",title:"Police Education in the United Kingdom: Challenges and Future Directions",slug:"police-education-in-the-united-kingdom-challenges-and-future-directions",totalDownloads:1078,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter outlines the historical development of police education in the United Kingdom, more precisely in England and Wales, and highlights new strategies and planning for the professional development of the police. There is a plethora of research carried out regarding professionalism in policing to meet the needs and challenges of the twenty-first century. Considering the recent developments in police education and training, this chapter mainly discusses three newly introduced routes for recruitment and education of police constables under the Policing Education Qualifications Framework (PEQF), namely Police Constable Degree Apprenticeship (PCDA), Degree Holder Entry Programme (DHEP), and Pre-Join Degree (PJD). Higher education institutions (HEIs), in partnership with the police forces, are providing professional qualifications for policing as a graduate level profession. Though they have made remarkable progress in developing police education programmes, they are facing various challenges in implementing the qualification framework. This chapter also explores pedagogical aspects of police education including the effectiveness and contrast between different forms of teaching and learning. While featuring the challenges and prospects of the new police education programmes, this chapter also outlines different aspects of partnership for delivering these professional qualification programmes.",book:{id:"6950",slug:"education-human-rights-and-peace-in-sustainable-development",title:"Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development",fullTitle:"Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development"},signatures:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel, Gias Uddin, Julian Parker-McLeod and Daniel Silverstone",authors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. 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This trend exists due to a number of reasons, such as the desire of states to create a positive image of their country, the expansion of international cooperation, changes in the global and domestic political situation, the protection of national interests, the prevention of conflicts between states, etc. Cultural diplomacy, beyond historical precedents, consists of a relatively new practice of a country’s foreign policy, which has traditionally focused on trade and security and defense issues. It is true that in European countries there are institutions of cultural foreign relations since the beginning of the century, but in the last decade the issues, related to the projection of the international image of countries, have become more important.",book:{id:"6950",slug:"education-human-rights-and-peace-in-sustainable-development",title:"Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development",fullTitle:"Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development"},signatures:"Alexander Rozanov, Maria Ivanchenko, Alexandra Baranova, Elena N. Antonova, Mikhail Smirnov, Olga Belyaeva, Maria Ilicheva, Ludmila Ilicheva, Maria Krotovskaya, Tatiana Grabovich, Zaru Utekova, Dmitry Medvedev, Natalya Ogneva, Furat Al-Mutairi, Elvira Shishlo, Amina Surpkelova, Irina Kopachevskaya, Irina Sokurova, Yulia Borisova, Fernando Joao, Artyom Pakulskikh, Polina Chernova, Alexandra Khramova, Oksana Gryuk, Jesus Yaniz Gonzalez, Valentina Komleva, Alina Papsheva and Arkadi Bessonov",authors:[{id:"233092",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Rozanov",slug:"alexander-rozanov",fullName:"Alexander Rozanov"},{id:"312194",title:"Prof.",name:"Valentina",middleName:"Vycheslavovna",surname:"Komleva",slug:"valentina-komleva",fullName:"Valentina Komleva"},{id:"312195",title:"Ms.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Baranova",slug:"alexandra-baranova",fullName:"Alexandra Baranova"},{id:"312196",title:"Dr.",name:"Furat",middleName:null,surname:"Al Mutairi",slug:"furat-al-mutairi",fullName:"Furat Al Mutairi"},{id:"312197",title:"Ms.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanchenko",slug:"maria-ivanchenko",fullName:"Maria Ivanchenko"},{id:"312198",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Arkadi",middleName:null,surname:"Bessonov",slug:"arkadi-bessonov",fullName:"Arkadi Bessonov"},{id:"312199",title:"Ms.",name:"Alina",middleName:null,surname:"Papsheva",slug:"alina-papsheva",fullName:"Alina Papsheva"},{id:"312200",title:"Prof.",name:"Ludmila",middleName:null,surname:"Ilicheva",slug:"ludmila-ilicheva",fullName:"Ludmila Ilicheva"},{id:"312201",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Aleksandra",middleName:null,surname:"Khramova",slug:"aleksandra-khramova",fullName:"Aleksandra Khramova"},{id:"316768",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ilicheva",slug:"maria-ilicheva",fullName:"Maria Ilicheva"},{id:"317753",title:"Dr.",name:"Oksana",middleName:null,surname:"Gryuk",slug:"oksana-gryuk",fullName:"Oksana Gryuk"}]},{id:"71206",title:"Uprising and Human Rights Abuses in Southern Cameroon-Ambazonia",slug:"uprising-and-human-rights-abuses-in-southern-cameroon-ambazonia",totalDownloads:875,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"In 2016, lawyers, teachers and students in the two Anglophone regions initially led demonstrations and strikes, which eventually involved a wider section of the population. This mobilization was against their marginalization by the Francophone-dominated government in which they were chronically under-represented in all aspects of national life: political appointments and professional training and had been treated as second-class citizens since their reunification. They argued that their vibrant economic and political institutions had been completely erased, and their education and judicial systems had been undermined and degraded. Activists spread videos that show security forces abusing human rights (by suppressing peaceful gatherings, beating, harassing, arresting and killing protesters, burning their houses, schools and hospitals) in order to produce a counter-narrative to the ‘official story’ that main-stream media had been producing. We collected and analyzed 30 videos to better appreciate the human rights abuses. The videos provide information that cannot be provided by other types of data. They are used as ‘proofs of facts’ and they contain much more visual information on bodily movement and acoustic data. The videos show appalling images not just of how French-speaking soldiers tortured Anglophones but also their inability to communicate with them adequately although they share the same country.",book:{id:"6950",slug:"education-human-rights-and-peace-in-sustainable-development",title:"Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development",fullTitle:"Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development"},signatures:"Nanche Billa Robert",authors:[{id:"285893",title:"Dr.",name:"Nanche Billa",middleName:null,surname:"Robert",slug:"nanche-billa-robert",fullName:"Nanche Billa Robert"}]},{id:"72097",title:"Towards Global Peace and Sustainability: Role of Education in Peace-Building in the Great Lakes Region of Sub-Saharan Africa",slug:"towards-global-peace-and-sustainability-role-of-education-in-peace-building-in-the-great-lakes-regio",totalDownloads:671,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The Great Lakes Region of sub-Saharan Africa is well known for being volatile and turbulent in terms of peace and stability. For over 60 years, almost all countries in the region have experienced some kind of political and social turmoil such as civil war, coup de tat, and genocides. In 1960, the first democratically elected Congolese prime minister was assassinated. There were unprecedented social and political havoc in a nearby “other Congo” characterized by power struggle between various political and ethnic factions in the post-independence Congo Brazzaville. In Burundi and Rwanda, ethnic tensions between the Tutsi and Hutu engulfed the developmental dreams of nationalist freedom fighters until 2015. Though arguably stable, Tanzania has experienced its own share of socio-political messy including the 1998 Mwembechai and 2001 Pemba massacres. Efforts to build a sense of sustainable peace and development based on mutual understanding and socio-political harmony has brought limited success. In all these countries, the missing link in building sustainable peace and security has been a lack of education. The chapter intends to fill this gap by critically analyzing the potential role of basic education, especially pre-primary and early grades education, in sustainable peace-building in the sub-Saharan context.",book:{id:"6950",slug:"education-human-rights-and-peace-in-sustainable-development",title:"Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development",fullTitle:"Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development"},signatures:"Laurent Gabriel Ndijuye and Pambas Basil Tandika",authors:[{id:"301740",title:"Dr.",name:"Laurent Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Ndijuye",slug:"laurent-gabriel-ndijuye",fullName:"Laurent Gabriel Ndijuye"},{id:"319403",title:"Dr.",name:"Pambas Basilius",middleName:null,surname:"Tandika",slug:"pambas-basilius-tandika",fullName:"Pambas Basilius Tandika"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"476",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"19",title:"Animal Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. Portugal",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"81793",title:"Canine parvovirus-2: An Emerging Threat to Young Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104846",signatures:"Mithilesh Singh, Rajendran Manikandan, Ujjwal Kumar De, Vishal Chander, Babul Rudra Paul, Saravanan Ramakrishnan and Darshini Maramreddy",slug:"canine-parvovirus-2-an-emerging-threat-to-young-pets",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81271",title:"The Diversity of Parvovirus Telomeres",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102684",signatures:"Marianne Laugel, Emilie Lecomte, Eduard Ayuso, Oumeya Adjali, Mathieu Mével and Magalie Penaud-Budloo",slug:"the-diversity-of-parvovirus-telomeres",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"79909",title:"Cryopreservation Methods and Frontiers in the Art of Freezing Life in Animal Models",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101750",signatures:"Feda S. Aljaser",slug:"cryopreservation-methods-and-frontiers-in-the-art-of-freezing-life-in-animal-models",totalDownloads:172,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",subseries:{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology"}}},{id:"79782",title:"Avian Reproduction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101185",signatures:"Kingsley Omogiade Idahor",slug:"avian-reproduction",totalDownloads:152,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Kingsley O.",surname:"Idahor"}],book:{title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",subseries:{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7233",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7233.jpg",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",publishedDate:"December 5th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rita Payan-Carreira",hash:"74f4147e3fb214dd050e5edd3aaf53bc",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology",editors:[{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7144",title:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7144.jpg",slug:"veterinary-anatomy-and-physiology",publishedDate:"March 13th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Catrin Sian Rutland and Valentina Kubale",hash:"75cdacb570e0e6d15a5f6e69640d87c9",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"8524",title:"Lactation in Farm Animals",subtitle:"Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8524.jpg",slug:"lactation-in-farm-animals-biology-physiological-basis-nutritional-requirements-and-modelization",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Naceur M'Hamdi",hash:"2aa2a9a0ec13040bbf0455e34625504e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",editors:[{id:"73376",title:"Dr.",name:"Naceur",middleName:null,surname:"M'Hamdi",slug:"naceur-m'hamdi",fullName:"Naceur M'Hamdi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73376/images/system/73376.jpg",biography:"Naceur M’HAMDI is Associate Professor at the National Agronomic Institute of Tunisia, University of Carthage. He is also Member of the Laboratory of genetic, animal and feed resource and member of Animal science Department of INAT. He graduated from Higher School of Agriculture of Mateur, University of Carthage, in 2002 and completed his masters in 2006. Dr. M’HAMDI completed his PhD thesis in Genetic welfare indicators of dairy cattle at Higher Institute of Agronomy of Chott-Meriem, University of Sousse, in 2011. 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