Comparison of Time to Detection of MMO-MUG (Colilert®) with and without phycoccolloids. CFU (colony forming units), NTO (non-target organisms), Neg (negative)
\r\n\tThe WHO classification in 2007; was based on the histogenesis and cell origin of the tumor. In the latest classification made in 2016; to better characterize the tumor and obtain better data on its prognosis; The combination of molecular and genetic biomarkers and histopathological features of the tumor was used. Despite all current treatment approaches, the median survival time is around 12 months in most GBM patients. Compared with the situation of some types of successfully treated cancers; the survival time of GBM patients is not at an acceptable level today. In the treatment of CNS tumors; surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation treatments (x-rays, gamma rays, electron and proton beams) are used. The therapeutic potential of chemotherapy; New strategies are needed to increase drug concentration at the diseased site, as this largely depends on the ability of the chemotherapeutic agent to achieve effective concentrations at tumor localization. Based on our better understanding of the genetic and molecular characteristics of CNS tumors; Targeted therapies, including vaccines, and treatment protocols such as immunotherapy are promising developments.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book supposes to be written by many authors who have an internationally honored place in their field to share their ideas about the treatment of CNS tumors. Surgery, Radiotherapy, Chemotherapy and Antiangiogenic Therapy Protocols, Immunotherapy, Molecular Therapy, Specific target-agents therapy with Nanoparticles and Gene Therapy for CNS tumors among the book chapters.
\r\n\tIn these sections; there are many practical pieces of information that can help the students who graduated from the Medicine Faculty and specialist doctors who are interested in Neurosurgery.
In 1992, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) approved the first dual total coliform and
One barrier to the utilization of new methods has been the need for an 18 to 24 hour incubation time. One form of the MMO-MUG, Colilert-18®, has a shorter incubation time than the original but requires an inconvenient and time consuming pre-heating step. Employing a new strategy that fosters the development of biofilm by incorporation of inert natural particles in the sample was reported to significantly reduce the incubation time of the MMO-MUG drinking water tests and other microbiological analyses.
The natural particles (see Figure 1) are made as a dried hydrophilic colloid extract obtained from
The particles are a heterogeneous natural mixture:
High resolution photomicrograph of the phycocolloid particles (Colloidands®, Pilots Point LLC, Sarasota, FL)
A study was conducted with the original MMO-MUG (Colilert®) to determine if from cold water < 8°C the incorporation of the particles could significantly reduce detection time of total coliforms and
In order to establish that the particles were acting as a physical catalyst, the Colisure® variation of the MMO-MUG test was used. This test uses a yellow/gold beta-galactosidase substrate that becomes red/magenta when positive. Accordingly, the exact physical location of the beginning of the development of color could be directly determined photographically.
Colloidands® particles (Pilots Point LLC, Sarasota, FL) were added to the Colisure® test at 10 grams per liter. Both the standard Idexx
Figure 2 and Figure 3 describe the complete protocol by which the MMO-MUG (Colilert®) was examined for its ability to detect 1 total coliform and 1
Test Protocol Part I for the detection of 1 total coliform
Test Protocol Part II for the detection of 1 total coliform
Analysis was made both by visual observation and also by an instrument. Visual observation: Yellow color development (for total coliforms and
Instrumented Analysis: Figure 4 presents the Pilots Point Monitor (Pilots Point LLC, Sarasota, FL) that was used. This instrument utilizes white light sent through a sample and determines the change in three parameters: Luminosity, or white to black (a measure of turbidity), called the “L” value; a change from red to green (called the “a” value), and a change from blue to yellow (called the “b” value). See Figure 5. Measurements are made every 15 minutes. The instrument can measure light changes from 365 nm through the visible spectrum therefore it can detect both the color change produced by total coliforms and the fluorescence produced by
Pilots Point Monitor® (PPM60®)
Principle of Pilots Point Instrument
Lake source water from the supply to the Regional Water Authority (New Haven, CT) was obtained. While protected from human intrusion, there are abundant animal life, particular deer, rabbit, and small animals. This is the same water source that was used in the original certification of the MMO-MUG test [4].
The same protocol as for the quality control bacteria described in the protocol (see Figure 2 and Figure 3) was used. To avoid possible enhancement of enzyme stimulation by the substrates present in the MMO-MUG formula, the source water samples were processed by the classical membrane filtration method as described in Standard Methods [5]. Bacteria consistent with total coliforms and
Figure 6 presents the results of the Colloidands® particle analysis. The top tube is inoculated with Idexx
Growth of total coliform
Table 1 and Graph 1 present the visual observation of the Colilert® test with and without phycocolloid particles at low numbers of
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Comparison of Time to Detection of MMO-MUG (Colilert®) with and without phycoccolloids. CFU (colony forming units), NTO (non-target organisms), Neg (negative)
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Comparison of Time to Detection of MMO-MUG (Colilert®) with and without phycoccolloids with
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Comparison of Time to Detection of MMO-MUG (Colilert®) with and without phycoccolloids with
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Comparison of Time to Detection of MMO-MUG (Colilert®) with and without phycoccolloids with
Figure 7 presents the actual pictures of the replicates of the analysis of the Colilert® test to detect 1 bacterium per 100 mL. As can be seen, each of the 100 mL samples was clearly positive. As shown in Figure 6, the particle layer at the bottom of the water collection vessel is densely colored. The liquid is also clearly positive.
Figure 8 and Figure 9 present the results of the testing shown in Figure 7 as follows: from the 100 mL samples in Figure 7, 1 mL of supernatant was added to a 13 x 100 mm polystyrene test tube and placed in the PPM instrument. Readings in the PPM instrument were taken and a definite change in the “L”, “a”, and “b” values can be seen which indicate positive results for both quality control Idexx
In all configurations – 1 mL in a test tube and 100 mL in a water collection vessel – the phycocolloids significantly decreases the time to detect the quality control Idexx total coliform
Replicate Testing with Idexx Quality Control
PPM Readings of 10 Quality Control
PPM Readings of 10 Quality Control
Figure 10 and Figure 11 present 1 mL duplicate data from the PPM instrument on detection of 10 bacteria per mL of Idexx
Actual PPM Data for detection of Idexx
Actual PPM Data for detection of Idexx
Since the introduction of the MMO-MUG (Colilert®) test in 1989 for the simultaneous detection of total coliforms and
The two types of bacteria that generally exist are describes as either sessile (a unit that attaches to a surface or exist in a biofilm) or planktonic (existing freely in bulk solution). Antonie van Leuwenhoek described biofilms in 1674 as “animalcules” through observation of material scraped from human tooth surfaces with his microscope, but with advances in technology, biofilms can more accurately be described [6]. Biofilms can be described as microbial communities that are sessile and grow on surfaces surrounded by a matrix of extracellular polymeric substances; microcolonies are distinct communities of bacterial cells of one or many different species that are surrounded by a matrix. The advantages of biofilm formation by bacteria is that it provides protection against antibiotics, disinfectants, and environments that are constantly changing [7]. The key to the catalyst activity of the phycocolloids is their ability to interact with the bacteria and the attendant production of microcolonies. The bacteria multiply much faster when attached to the particles as microcolony biofilm.
The micro particles increase the surface area in the liquid broth and allow microbes that multiply in vitro to establish a biofilm. In effect, the micro particles act in an analogous way as a catalyst does in a chemical reaction. In the microbiology area, the micro particles provide multiple attachment surfaces for the microbes to "establish residence". Microbes prefer surfaces on which to grow and multiply rather than being free in a liquid environment. For example, the microbes may experience quorum sensing, which accelerates the generation of a biofilm. The biofilm is produced when the microbes multiply, and it yields colonies of microbes that are held together by external capsules, pili, and glycocalyxes of the microbes which, in the broad context, are surface components, such as polysaccharides, proteins and/or mixtures thereof. The micro particles are static, in that they are not consumed but serve as a physical structure that provides shelter and attachment and promotes the multiplication and expression of the target microbe. There may be attached nutritive elements on the micro particles that serve to stimulate the development of the bacterial nidus. The micro particles may be colloidal, in suspension, or a combination. Any materials or structures that encourage the growth of microbes on a biofilm are highly preferred for use in this invention. Supporting the catalytic activity of the phycocolloids is the observation that growth starts first at the bottom of the test tubes, where particles have gravitationally settled and microbial biofilms have developed, attached to the particles. Additional particles are distributed with the remainder of the admixture, but have not yet been associated with metabolizable substrate creating a color change. The image of the test tubes illustrates well how the particles expedite the detection of the bacteria (i.e.,
This report demonstrates that phycocolloids introduced into the classical Colilert® formula significantly decreases the time to a positive. By visual observation with both standard quality control
The 16 hour benchmark is particularly important for laboratory work flow. It provides the ability to perform a 4 to 8 test – in by 4 pm, finished by 8 am, the optimum for the work flow. Further enhancing the time to detection is the use of the PPM instrument. With it, detection of 1 total coliform and 1
The benefit of dietary patterns has appeared as a complementary and alternative approach to the study of the relation of diet and the risk of diseases. In contrast to a single substance or nutrient approach, an evaluation of whole dietary patterns may provide a more complete picture of a combination of foods and nutrients, such as synergistic and antagonist properties of the foods [1]. People do not eat isolated nutrients and rather consume foods that contain a variety of foods with complex interactive combinations of nutrients. Thus, a single active substance approach might be insufficient for considering complex interactions between food bioactive components in the human study such as vitamin C improves Fe absorption [2]. Often, the high degree of intercorrelation between nutrients (e.g. magnesium and potassium) can be difficult for the evaluation of their separate effects in particular conditions [3]. Additionally, the cumulative effects of several nutrients are more likely detectable compared to the influence of a single substance. In the clinical trial setting, the dietary patterns approach has shown a positive health outcome in degenerative diseases [4]. Nutritional approach as dietary pattern intervention (e.g. Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension and Mediterranean Diet) as an integral part of disease management have been studied extensively on metabolic chronic diseases (cardiovascular diseases and diabetes) with beneficial clinical results [5, 6].
To what extend dietary patterns beneficial as an integral part of management and prevention strategy for communicable disease? The dietary pattern approach is more likely not only effective for non-communicable diseases but also infectious diseases [7]. Perhaps, this is a possible explanation that partial nutritional intervention exhibits lower than expected results in infectious diseases study settings. Partial nutritional interventions (macronutrients or micronutrients supplementation) as adjunctive treatment of standard antituberculosis agents among active tuberculosis patients is one of the examples. These nutritional interventions have shown no beneficial effects for main treatment outcomes. Even though the supplementation improves weight gain of the TB patients in some settings [8]. World Health Organization (WHO) has declared officially coronavirus diseases (COVID 19) as a global pandemic on 11 March 2020. Currently, there have been several attempts to recommend nutritional approaches for mitigation strategy the disease [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. The dietary pattern plays important role in this communicable disease due to its severity is affected by a previous underlying disease. Comorbidities such as respiratory system diseases, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD), diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular/cerebrovascular disease have shown significant evidence of associations with the severity and prognosis of COVID-19 [15].
Intestinal dysbiosis (gut microbiota imbalance) recently has been proposed as a significant factor that is associated with several immune-related human diseases including infectious, inflammatory, neoplastic, metabolic, autoimmune diseases [7, 16, 17]. Within the gut lumen itself, the human gut microbiome will provide antigens and signals with the potential to interact with resident and systemic immune cells. The composition of the gut microbiome changes over the life course, in response to dietary components, infection, antibiotic exposure [18]. All of these may result in dysbiosis. During this condition, nutritional changes have been suggested as a suitable approach to restoring a healthy gut microbiota and host homeostasis [19]. Also, it has been proposed dietary patterns such as Mediterranean diet and low-fat diet possess the ability to restore partially microbiota dysbiosis [20]. Despite commonly studied single nutrient supplementation, this narrative review aimed to provide current perspectives on the association between the major dietary patterns and infectious disease susceptibility through immune response and systemic inflammation. Relevant articles (original articles, literature reviews, systematic reviews and meta-analyses articles) that identified major dietary patterns and related keywords (e.g., “infection”, “disease”, “immune system”, “inflammation”, and “gut microbiota”) were searched in Google Scholar, PubMed, MEDLINE, and Cochrane databases from the year 2010 to the year 2020 with exception for one article.
Dietary patterns and quantity of food intake have been described to influence the microbiome in the gut [21].
It has been suggested that vegan or vegetarian diets may stimulate intestinal microbiota that promotes anti-inflammatory response and lead to be more varied and steadier microbiota systems [29]. Contrary to this, particular food items such as red meat, gluten in wheat, and alcohol can induce dysbiosis which might cause a heightened pro-inflammatory response triggered by viral infections such as COVID-19 from underlying diet-derived chronic inflammation [21]. This intestinal mucosal chronic inflammation is characterized by the presence of cytokines (TNF-α and IFN-γ) which are produced by macrophages, T-cells and natural killer. Besides cytokines, various proteases are also released into the mucosa that has been reported to cause leaky gut due to degradation of tight junctions [30]. Thus, leaky gut allows translocation of microbial products such as lipopolysaccharides (LPS) from the gut into the blood circulation. This condition may transform the existing state of gut inflammation into chronic systemic inflammation during infections such as HIV [31]. This chronic inflammation may remain undetected as a predisposing risk factor and can develop any time into serious morbidity including infectious diseases [23].
Several studies have shown the association between the change of intestinal microbiomes with infectious diseases. It has been reported that intestinal bacterial diversity significantly decreases inversely associated with the severity in patients of chronic viral hepatitis C compared to healthy individuals. The gut microbiome could be a biological indicator and a novel potentially therapeutical approach to reduce the complications of chronic liver disease [32]. Another study has identified
In contrast to short-term supplement intake, long-term dietary patterns and habitual diet are key factors that influence the composition of the gut microbiota. It reflects the potential for therapeutic dietary approaches to modulate microbiome variety, formation, and stability. Besides diet, the intestinal bacteria are formed by a composition of extrinsic (e.g., lifestyle and medication) and intrinsic (e.g., host genetics, immune and metabolic regulations) factors [35]. Changes in dietary patterns following the western diet, along with modifications in dietary components, result in significant changes in the intestinal microbial configuration and function. As an example, changing from a low-fat, high-fiber diet to a high-fat, high-protein, low-fiber diet leads to reduced α-diversity (intra-individual gut microbiota richness), increased β-diversity (inter-individual gut microbiota diversity) and deteriorated richness or even the extermination of
From a current perspective, the western diet is defined as a modern diet that is primarily characterized by high consumption of red and processed meat, sugar-sweetened beverages, with a lower intake of cheese, wine, beer, cream, tea, vegetables and high-fiber foods [37]. This dietary pattern combined with a sedentary lifestyle can induce chronic systemic metabolic inflammation, termed as metainflammation. Systemic inflammation generates common prevalent modern non-communicable disease [38]. Western diet-induced obesity can result in gut dysbiosis then change lean adipocytes to obese adipocytes. Figure 1 describes deleterious impact of the alteration to macrophages and adipocytes that lead to metabolic syndrome and diabetes. The western diet is closely associated to several degenerative or metabolic conditions such as obesity [40], metabolic syndrome [41], diabetes [42], cancer [43], hypertension [44], cardiovascular diseases [45], chronic kidney disease [46], and Alzheimer’s disease [47].
Unhealthy dietary pattern (western-style diet) along with sedentary life style and genetic predisposition may lead to dysbiosis and contribute toward obesity. Obesity may induce changes to adipocytes and macrophages lead to abnormal inflammation response, decrease insulin sensitivity, and low antioxidant capacity that may finally induce systemic inflammation, oxidative stress, and insulin resistance [
Western diet pattern may also increase the risk of communicable diseases. It has been shown that women with the western diet might have a higher risk of Human Papilloma Virus infection compared to the Mediterranean-like diet [48]. People with obesity due to the western diet pattern may have a higher level of inflammatory cytokines, immunologic tolerance to inflammatory cytokines, reduced leukocyte number and function, and less control of infection [49]. Subsequently, obesity becomes a risk factor for increased morbidity and mortality of COVID-19 [50, 51, 52, 53]. Body mass index (BMI) has been proposed as a prognostic score since higher BMI (BMI ≥30 kg/m2) more likely results in poor outcome in COVID-19 patients [50, 53]. Body mass index ≥30 kg/m2 is more likely associated with lower oxygen saturation of blood by weakened ventilation at the base of the lungs. Furthermore, systemic low-grade inflammation due to obesity may occur, such as higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines may result in compromised immunity [54]. Therefore, obese COVID-19 patients should receive special attention for their treatment.
Similarly, other non-communicable diseases strongly associated with western diet patterns are also comorbidities for COVID-19. Some comorbidities have been extensively investigated such as diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, chronic respiratory system diseases, chronic kidney disease [54, 55, 56, 57]. Since SARS CoV-2 invades the host cell via ACE-2 receptor on the surface of the cell, certain comorbidities have a strong association with ACE-2 receptor upregulation and impaired immune response that may give rise to susceptibility for viral invasion into the host cells [54]. The infection of SARS-CoV-2 among individuals with these comorbidities can be harmful and might end up with acute respiratory distress syndrome, multiple organ failure, shock, arrhythmias, heart failure, renal failure, and, eventually, mortality [58].
Mediterranean diet is a dietary pattern traditionally applied by people who live near Mediterranean Sea, particularly in the region where olive trees are cultivated. It describes the frequent consumption of vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, and olive oil as a primary fat source. Additionally, this eating habit is characterized by moderate consumption of fish, poultry, dairy products, wine, and limited intake of red meat [59]. The dietary pattern is one of the most frequently studied for the protective effect of non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular disease and coronary heart disease [60, 61, 62], diabetes [63, 64, 65], cognitive disorders [66, 67, 68], and malignancies [69, 70, 71]. It might be due to the effect of reduced inflammation through changes of C-reactive protein level [72], myeloperoxidase and 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine [73], white blood cell count and fibrinogen [74], methylation in inflammation-related genes [75]. Additionally, the diet habit also demonstrates modulation of the gut microbiome that results in a reduction of metabolic endotoxemia and subsequently lower systemic inflammation [73, 76, 77].
More likely these positive effects of Mediterranean may produce also protection for infectious diseases. Among communicable diseases, this dietary approach has been proposed for COVID-19 to reduce the mortality rate through the suppression of cytokines [78]. The Mediterranean diet might describe a possible dietary approach to mitigate both short - and long - term complications related to COVID-19 infection. It may decrease the severity and improve mortality and improve the overall well-being of affected populations [79]. Table 1 shows several studies related to beneficial effects of Mediterranean diet among individuals with diseases caused by virus. A viral infection disease such as chronic hepatitis C and B viruses has shown an inverse correlation to the Mediterranean diet adherence [81]. Cervical cancer that caused by human papillomavirus also has described the same tendency in relation to this dietary pattern and opposite results can be caused by unhealthy diet habit [83]. Mediterranean diet has been found to be beneficial on metabolic indices in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) patients with the highly active antiretroviral therapy [80]. Perhaps, parasitic infections could be also mitigated by the Mediterranean diet via the positive effects of omega-3 and omega-9 from olive oil and fish intake. These fatty acids modulate intracellular pathways and transcription factor activation, as well as metabolic and immune regulatory effects [84].
Author and year | Dietary pattern | Study design (n) and assessment | Population | Outcomes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Tsiodras, S., et al. 2009 [80] | Mediterranean dietary pattern | Cross-sectional study (n = 227). Food frequency questionnaire (FFQ), and Mediterranean Diet Score (MedDietScore). | Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) positive adult patients with the highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in Israel. | Adherence to a Mediterranean dietary pattern was favorably related to cardiovascular risk factors such as insulin resistance, high density lipoprotein level, and circulating triglyceride level. |
Turati, F., et al. 2014, [81] | Traditional Mediterranean diet. | Case–control study (n = 518 MedDietScore. | Adult hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients, chronic infection with hepatitis B and/or C viruses in Italy and Greece | Adherence to the Mediterranean diet demonstrates protective effect against HCC. Potential benefits from adhering to the dietary pattern for individuals with chronic infection of hepatitis viruses. |
Policarpo, S., et al. 2017 [82] | Mediterranean diet | Cross-sectional (n = 571). MedDietScore | Adult HIV positive adults in Portugal | A higher adherence was associated to individuals with a BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2, to subjects with metabolic syndrome and to patients with moderate to high cardiovascular risk. |
Barchitta, M., et al., 2018 [83] | Mediterranean diet, prudent dietary pattern, western style diet | Cross-sectional study (n = 539). FFQ and MedDietScore. | Adult women with high-risk human papillomavirus (hrHPV) infection and the risk of high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN2+) in Italy | Inverse association of Mediterranean-like dietary patterns with hrHPV infection and cervical cancer. The outcomes discourage unhealthy eating habits. |
General characteristics of studies examining the role of Mediterranean diet on mitigation of communicable diseases caused by virus.
Polyphenols, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, or fiber are more likely bioactive ingredients of the Mediterranean diet [85]. Olive oil is one of the main components of the Mediterranean Diet which has a high profile of fatty acids and phenolics. Oleic acid, a predominant monosaturated fatty acid component in olive oil that can prevent inflammation and insulin resistance induced by palmitic acid in skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, pancreas, and liver. This preventing effect might be due to a reduction in palmitic acid-mediated adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase activity which is similar to Metformin [86]. Several minor constituents of Olive oil demonstrate possible synergic effects to counter inflammation. Oleocanthal is known as a minor ingredient of olive oil with significant anti-inflammatory properties that may have therapeutic potential [87]. It has been shown that Oleocanthal has a natural anti-inflammatory property by inhibition of cyclooxygenase enzymes [88]. Hydroxytyrosol is another salient minor phenolic compound of Olive oil that exhibits potential nutraceutical through immunomodulatory and nutrigenomic mechanisms [89].
The immune system is closely correlated with inflammatory processes and oxidative stress [90]. The precise mechanism of oxidative stress during infection is not fully understood, but free radicals have played an important role to defend against microorganism’s invasion [34]. Persistent oxidative stress may happen during chronic viral infections and has been associated with a weakened immune system due to long-lasting inflammation activation [90]. The anti-inflammatory effect of the Mediterranean diet may stop a vicious circle in which chronic oxidative stress and inflammation feed each other. Therefore, the Mediterranean diet might prevent further consequences such as impaired immune response. Additionally, The Mediterranean diet which rich in unsaturated fats and fiber may reduce the circulating level of endotoxin from gastrointestinal bacteria that has been proposed as a cause of inflammation [76]. In other words, The Mediterranean dietary patterns possess the ability to restore the gut to normal microbiota homeostasis through its anti-inflammatory effect [91]. Since gut microbial communities are involved in the modulation of the host innate and adaptive immune response so that this approach will play an important role in future therapeutic development for major global infectious diseases [92].
The Dietary Approach to Stop Hypertension (DASH) was designed as a non-pharmacological treatment for lowering blood pressure among adults. The dietary pattern consists of a higher intake of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, fish, poultry but less consumption of saturated fats, meat, and sugar. As result, DASH diet is high in calcium, potassium, magnesium, fiber, and protein. It is not a restricted sodium diet but its effect can be improved by less sodium consumption [93]. Adoption of this dietary pattern is effective not only in reducing blood pressure but also results in lower body weight so that it might be suitable for bodyweight management in overweight or obese individuals [94, 95]. Besides, the diet has shown an association with a lower incidence of cardiovascular diseases, coronary heart disease, stroke, and diabetes. The evidence of cardiometabolic beneficial effects is not only among diabetes patients but also people without diabetes [96]. It has been demonstrated that DASH can control glucose level, infant birth weight and decrease gestational preeclampsia risk among pregnant women [97, 98]. DASH approach is also associated with lower mortality from different cancer types [99, 100]. It means this dietary pattern is suggested as an effective treatment approach for various non-communicable diseases with long-lasting effect [101].
Since hypertension, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases are well-known comorbidities for viral infection COVID-19 [15, 102, 103], so that DASH might be helpful to mitigate the severity and fatality of the disease. The foods in the dietary pattern are rich in bioactive compounds that exhibit potent modulation of pro-inflammatory pathways and may support the immune response to reduce the morbidity and mortality of an infectious disease [104]. Furthermore, the improvement of the antioxidant defense of the body and decrease oxidative stress can be achieved by adherence to DASH diet. These effects might be due to lower malondialdehyde and glutathione levels mechanism [105]. It is suggested that oxidative stress plays a dual role during infections. Reactive species (e.g., nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase, myeloperoxidase, and nitric oxide synthase) can induce cell apoptosis or destroy invading microorganisms as a defense mechanism. However, they can also cause tissue injury and resulting inflammation [106]. It has been proposed that the immune system plays important role in the etiology of hypertension. The DASH may promote the expansion of protective microbes that release gut metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids which are protective for the immune system and blood pressure [107]. Eventually, a healthy eating habit supports the immune system that protects against the invasion of microorganisms or viruses and produces antibodies to eradicate pathogens.
The plant-based diet generally consists of two dietary patterns: vegetarian diets and vegan diets. Vegetarian diets are characterized by reduced or eliminated animal products intake but may include dairy products and/or eggs, while vegan diets contain only plant foods. Both vegetarian and vegan are dietary patterns that emphasize the consumption of vegetables, fruits, grains, legumes, and nuts [108]. Several potential beneficial effects of a plant-based diet are ameliorating insulin resistance, including preservation of healthy body weight, higher intake in fiber and phytonutrients, promoting food-microbiome interactions. The adoption of a plant diet decreases levels of advanced glycation end products, saturated fat, heme iron, and nitrosamines [109]. Several studies have shown plant-based diet efficacy for the prevention and treatment of diabetes [109, 110, 111, 112]. The plant-based diet has also demonstrated a significant positive impact on cardiovascular diseases, coronary heart diseases, hypertension, and hypercholesterolemia [113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118].
In contrast to the western diet which consists of red meat, wheat and alcohol consumption, the plant-based diet has suggested having the ability to maintain symbiosis and prevent dysbiosis of the microbiome and results in lower morbidity and mortality during an infection such as COVID 19 [23]. The implementation of plant-based diets could improve the diversity of nutrients for the host by the gut microbiome. The undigested plant cell walls components are not absorbed by gastro intestinal tract and lead to microbiota-derived nutrients such as peptides and lipids. These subtances can promote the development and function of the host immune system [119]. There might be situations in which immune cells of the gut-associated lymphoid tissue come into direct contact with nutrients or gut microbiome, such as in the circumstance of increased epithelial permeability (leaky gut) ocurred in both acute and chronic gut inflammation [120]. Numerous plant-based biologically active compounds exhibit antibacterial [121], antifungal [122], and antiviral activity [123]. Moreover, China and India predominantly rely on plant-based medications under different domain names like Chinese Traditional Medicines and Ayurveda but the plant-based therapeutical approach remains largely unexplored [123]. Therefore, a more likely plant-based dietary pattern has protective effects against infection due to its anti-inflammatory and immune response modulation properties that come from plant bioactive molecules. Plant-based food has been recommended also as a nutritional approach treatment for COVID-19. The dietary pattern improves the gut beneficial bacteria and rich in plant bioactive compounds, vitamins C, D, E, magnesium, and zinc [124].
Ketogenic diet (KD) is a dietary pattern that promotes a low carbohydrate intake (usually to <50 g/day), adequate proportions of protein and higher percentages of fat [125]. Since the diet provides lower carbohydrates intake, glucose reserves become insufficient both for Krebs cycle and for the central nervous system (CNS). Thus, after several days of carbohydrate restriction, the CNS is forced to find an alternative source of energy. This alternative source of energy is ketones and there are two types of ketone bodies produced in the liver: acetoacetate and β-hydroxybutyrate [125]. Ketosis is a physiological mechanism and it reflects the breakdown of fats in order to compensate for a low level of glucose. The ketogenic diet originally was introduced for epilepsy treatment and the current evidence suggests that KD could help children with drug-resistant epilepsy [126]. Despite its therapeutic application for a neurological disorder such as Alzheimer, malignant glioma and adult epilepsy have shown potential benefits [127], but this may lead to further lowering of consumed essential nutrients by elderly persons with neurodegenerative diseases [128]. Recent findings suggest that even though not all types of cancers give a positive response but KD as a adjuvant treatment, it may give beneficial effect for body composition and quality of life among cancer patients [129]. However, controversies remain on the implementation of the KD especially for diabetes and obesity since the risks, benefits, and applicability of the diet to avoid unnecessary harm and costs to patients [130]. Additionally, the improvements in some cardiovascular risk factors (obesity, type 2 diabetes and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol level) are usually not long-lasting and the development of insulin resistance might occur [131]. The international ketogenic diet study group has suggested that constant nutritional monitoring is needed for ketogenic diet therapy to ensure its effectiveness and to reduce potential adverse effects [132]. Perhaps, the sequential method in a biphasic combination of two dietary patterns such as ketogenic diet and Mediterranean diet may provide an effective strategy against obesity-related inflammation with higher compliance of consumers [133].
On the other hand, the short-term ketogenic diet therapy has been applied for COVID-19 patients in order to perform a rapid reduction of comorbidities. These comorbidities (obesity, type 2 diabetes and hypertension) are well known as modifiable risk factors for COVID-19 patients [134]. The rationale behind this approach is the induction of ketosis may reduce hyperglycemia and eucaloric ketogenic diet could affect macrophage phenotype M1 limiting cytokine storm syndrome. Furthermore, SARS-CoV-2 replication could be inhibited by the antiglycolytic action of eucaloric ketogenic diet [135]. It has been suggested that therapies that increase levels of (R)-beta-hydroxybutyrate, such as the ketogenic diet or consuming exogenous ketones, should restore altered energy metabolism and redox state in patients with COVID-19. This approach is marked at the molecular level by reduced energy metabolism, modulate redox state, decreased oxidative stress, and cell death lead to blunt cytokine storms caused by Human SARS-CoV-2 infection [136].
Social distancing, quarantine, and isolation for prevention of COVID-19 spread may lead to a sedentary lifestyle, one of the factors for overfat that can affect negatively immune function [137]. The pandemic may aggravate depression due to social distancing and isolation, and thus unhealthy eating habits are used to compensate [138]. These Societal interventions against the COVID-19 pandemic might induce a sequence of psychobiological mechanisms that stimulate obesity incidence and raise the risk of comorbidities [139]. Perhaps, an alternative combination of dietary patterns between the ketogenic diet and a low-calorie diet may provide a safe, rapid and long-lasting approach for body weight as well as fat mass reduction. Very-low-calorie ketogenic (VLCK) diets are a dietary pattern that imitates fasting by limiting carbohydrates and fat intake with a relative increase in protein consumption [140]. Very-low-calorie ketogenic diet is able to reduce body weight especially in a relatively short time at the expense of fat mass and visceral mass; muscle mass and strength were preserved [141]. This effect can be long-lasting up to one year among patients that lose more than 10% of their initial weight without any impact on the muscle mass [142]. It has been shown that the VLCK diet also induced more weight reduction compared to the low-calorie diet until 24 months follow-up and decreased the individual burden of disease among obese patients [143]. The modified ketogenic dietary patterns may exhibit a more suitable and safer solution for a longer effect to mitigate obesity-linked comorbidities.
Several factors can be differentially contributed to the implication of major dietary patterns such as meal-specific patterns which are identified as one of these factors [144] besides dietary composition [145]. An unhealthy meal pattern may have an association with dietary quality and diversity and it has been shown that lower dietary diversity scores increase the probability of metabolic syndrome [146]. A low dietary diversity score might be predisposed to nutrients deficiency such as iron deficiency anemia among adolescent girls [147]. Nutrients deficiency is considered a significant factor for infection susceptibility due to immune response impairment if left untreated in some settings [148, 149]. Furthermore, age category might affect the dietary pattern preference for example adults, their common dietary pattern is a western diet-like style and it may increase the risk of metabolic syndrome, obesity, hypertension and cardiovascular disease [150, 151]. Older people are more likely to consume fruits and vegetables and less likely to consume red meat, whole milk, and other fatty foods compared to younger people. However, older individuals tend to consume less calorie intake and a reduction in the quantity of food due to a decrease in physical activity as well as muscle mass [152]. Diet alone may not be sufficient to prevent micronutrient deficiency during aging and this situation can compromise immune function and increase infection risk [153]. Food insecurity is also an essential factor that associated with the unhealthy dietary pattern and it may refer to the limited ability to acquire nutritious food in socially acceptable ways [154]. Therefore, food insecurity may affect negatively infectious diseases susceptibility such as viral suppression of HIV/AIDS [155], COVID 19 spread [156, 157] TB treatment failure and mortality [158], and Malaria [159].
Healthy dietary patterns might be protective against inflammation triggered by oxidative stress which is an important determinant of chronic diseases. The proposed mechanisms include preservation of gut microbiome homeostasis and integrity of the epithelial lining of the gastrointestinal tract. These conditions could alleviate lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory response and endotoxemia due to leaky gut. Additionally, short-chain fatty acids from fermented dietary fiber as common component of the dietary patterns exhibit anti-inflammatory properties. Therefore, healthy dietary patterns may improve metabolic indices, certain medical conditions and pre-existing comorbidities in infectious disease. In a nutshell, the healthy dietary pattern might be suggested as an alternative for prevention or an integral part of infectious disease management that can be adjusted to local settings.
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
We gratefully thank Brahmaputra Marijadi, MD., MPH., Ph.D. for his suggestion as a valuable contribution to this work.
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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain. She is a Full Professor at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery at the same University. She developed her research activity in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry and Immunology of horses. She is a scientific reviewer of several international journals : American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Comparative Clinical Pathology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology. Since 2014, she has been the Head of the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the Hospital Clínico Veterinario from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University.",institutionString:"CEU-Cardenal Herrera University",institution:{name:"CEU Cardinal Herrera University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. 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Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization"},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. 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We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Artificial Intelligence",id:"14"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. 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Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. 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