Micronutrient deficiencies and their effects on people.
\r\n\tThe objective of this book is to provide a state-of-the-art review of the use of timber in building construction from various perspectives, including manufacturing, fabrication, modeling, design, and construction of residential and other types of buildings. Of special interest will be contributions related to new developments in timber technologies, design, construction, testing, sustainability, LCA, building envelope, and the performance of timber buildings in natural and man-made hazard conditions.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-263-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-262-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-264-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"356565153fc7e43f1bf0cb7ba5e7b28a",bookSignature:"Prof. Ali M. Memari",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12057.jpg",keywords:"Wood, Lumber, Timber Industry, Home Building, Glue-Laminated Wood, Cross-Laminated Timber, Plywood, Fire Resistance, Sustainability, Fabrication, Panelized/Modular, Material Properties",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 31st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 28th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 27th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 15th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 14th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Memari is a Professor and Bernard and Henrietta Hankin Chair in Residential Building Construction in the Departments of Architectural Engineering and Civil and Environmental Engineering. During his 30 years of teaching in structural engineering, his research focused on the behavior of structural, architectural, and enclosure components of residential and commercial buildings under natural hazard loading and environmental conditions. He has published over 300 publications.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"252670",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"M. Memari",slug:"ali-m.-memari",fullName:"Ali M. Memari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252670/images/system/252670.jpg",biography:"Dr. Memari is a Professor and Bernard and Henrietta Hankin Chair in Residential Building Construction in the Departments of Architectural Engineering and Civil and Environmental Engineering at Penn State, and Director of The Pennsylvania Housing Research Center. During his 30 years of teaching and research experience, he has taught various courses related to structural\r\nengineering. He has focused his research on full-scale laboratory testing characterization and evaluation of residential and commercial buildings with respect to structural, architectural, and envelope components under gravity and lateral loads that simulate natural hazards (earthquakes/wind-storms), as well as environmental effects involving building science aspects (heat transfer, air leakage and moisture transport) through building enclosure. 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Furthermore, climate change provides more energy that causes to change liquid to gaseous form as well as occurs more evaporation (E) to which reduces the share of transpiration. Evaporation is the unproductive loss of water and is mainly responsible for the lower land as well as water productivity [2], while transpiration (T) is the desired component as greater the transpiration (T) greater will be nutrient inflow along with the water, resulted in higher grain yields. For occurring E, three things are required, viz. sufficient soil moisture, vapor pressure gradient and energy, to cause the phase change and lack of anyone, E will not be happened [3]. Among different soil water balance components, evapotranspiration (ET) is an important one which further decides the water use efficiency. Furthermore, ET shares in total remain the almost similar [4].
Therefore, without appropriate technologies, farmers will find it extremely difficulties to operate climate-smart agricultural to meet the food demand of increasing population. In the meantime, scientists across the world to regions working on it and tried to invent improved technologies which could partition greater share of the total ET water to T by diverting share of E. The surface water in the region continue to be delivered through old traditional canal and on-farm conveyance networks those have earthen bunds and are unlined resulting in very low water use efficiency (30–50%). Generally, irrigators usually cut off the supply when the advance is complete without considering the additional irrigation water infiltrates at the entrance especially when the soil is opened up with pre-seeding tillage. Thus large non-uniformities in water application in addition to over-irrigation. In our situation, generally plot size of 250 m2 in coarse texture and 500 m2 in medium to fine texture is recommended for wheat [5] for improving the water use efficiency. For cotton furrow irrigation could save 100–150 mm of irrigation water [6] as it cuts down the share of E. Even the broad beds spaced at 1.35 m and planting cotton in furrows in paired rows improved its yield by 44% and saved 40% irrigation water as compared with row spacing of 0.75 m in flatbed system [7]. Micro-irrigation especially drip, mini-sprinklers and sub-irrigation systems designed to apply small and frequent irrigations, are now emerging as ideal technologies which cut off E share and partition greater share of the ET to the T component. As the water is being applied to the root zone rather than entire field and both unproductive losses, viz. evaporation (E) and deep drainage (D) is considerably reduced, irrigation efficiencies as high as 95 and 80% are achieved with drip and sprinklers systems, respectively. The overall water savings with drip systems ranged between 50 and 65% in vegetables [8] along with higher fertilizer use efficiency and better quality of the product. The government has introduced subsidies to the extent of 75%, still, the drip system does not seem to be adopted at the desired levels.
For upland crops, viz. wheat, maize, potato, etc., effects of E demand and rainfall concept for timing irrigation to crops was put forward in 1970s [9, 10]. It is a deficit-irrigation approach that induces deeper rooting for promoting utilization of profile stored water especially the sub-soil water. Heavy pre-sowing irrigation followed by irrigations at IW/PAN-E ratio of 0.75 [11] and last irrigation during mid-March by charging soil profile to 80–100% of water depletion [9, 10] further improves water productivity.
Thus, efforts have also been made to compute crop sensitivity to water stress by relating yield with ET or T. Water deficits mainly damage the crops during meiosis of pollen mother cells or around anthesis. Therefore, sensitive stages in different crops need to be identified to mitigate the adverse effects of limited irrigation. Generally, at present scientists advocate different technologies, viz. mulching, crop diversification, correct T time of rice, bed planting, zero tillage, short duration crop cultivars to partition greater share of the ET water share to the T by depressing E in one or other way. These technologies have a substantial scope in improving irrigation efficiency and reducing energy for groundwater withdrawal. In the present chapter, we tried to understand the concept and consequences of evapotranspiration for sustainable crop production in the era of climate change. A detailed description of evaporation, transpiration and evapotranspiration and their importance for sustainable agriculture are highlighted by the following sub-heading.
Evaporation is the physical process through which liquid water is converted to water vapor. The rate of E depends on the saturated vapor pressure of the liquid and increases with increase in temperature until the atmospheric pressure at the boiling point [12].
Transpiration is the process by which moisture is carried through plants from roots to small pores on the underside of leaves, where it changes to vapor and is released to the atmosphere. Transpiration is principally E of water to the atmosphere from plants roots to small pores on the underside of leaves. Another type of water loss from the uninjured leaf or stem of the plant, mainly by stomata is called guttation [13]. Nearly 10% of the moisture available in the atmosphere is from the T process [14]. The remaining 90% is mainly from the E process from different water bodies [15, 16]. reported that the T is attained by the movement of water, at the vapor phase through the conductor system from the roots to the leaves of the plant, as a function of a water potential gradient from the soil (ψsoil) to the air (ψair) as shown in Figure 1.
Schematic representation of the water motion in the soil-plant-atmosphere system under optimal development conditions (adapted from [
In general, ET is the sum of E and T. It is the simultaneous process of water transfer to the atmosphere both by soil water E and plants T. The study found that during a growing season, a leaf will transpire many times more water than its own weight. An acre of corn gives off about 11,400–15,100 l of water each day, and a large oak tree can transpire about 1,51,000 l per year [13] (USGS, 2016).
Depending on the vegetation conditions, size of the vegetated area, and soil water supply, different conceptions are to be defined, such as potential, actual, oasis, and crop ET [16]. Such particular terms are described as follows.
Potential ET represents the combined loss of water through the plant’s process of T and E of water from the Earth’s surface. Both the processes are influenced by temperature, humidity, sunlight, and wind as well as Earth vegetation. ETp values indicate the amount of water that has been lost, and thus needs to be replaced, through irrigation and/or rainfall [16, 17].
Actual ET is the amount of water actually utilized by an extensive surface vegetated with grass, at an active growth stage, covering completely the soil surface. ETa is the quantity of water that is actually removed from a surface due to the processes of E and T [17]. There is a relation between potential ET and actual ET. Crop water need can be estimated by the following equation: Crop water needs = potential evapotranspiration − actual evapotranspiration.
Oasis ET is the amount of water consumed by a small irrigated vegetation which is encircled by a widespread dry-area, at which dynamism of water to vapor is come from high temperature in combination with drought [16, 18]. Figure 2 shows the border area necessary for minimizing the lateral transport of energy from the dry to the wet area (irrigated). At such an area, the ET that will take place is the oasis ET.
Schematic representation of the ETo and ETp (adapted from [
Evapotranspiration is the process by which an amount of water is used by any growth stage of a crop from sowing to harvest, at whatever time there is no water constraint in the soil [13, 16]. ETc is a function of leaf area (transpiring surface), because the bigger the leaf area (LAI), the higher ETc will be for the same atmospheric demand [17].
Weather parameters, crop characteristics, management and environmental aspects are factors affecting E, T, and ET. Details of these factors are as follows:
Radiation is the main source of energy for the ET process. It depends on the global solar radiation flux density and vegetation albedo. A darker vegetation absorbs more incident solar radiation and evapotranspires more [13, 16]. A thorough understanding of the factors controlling the energy balance of a cropped soil enables making accurate estimates or predictions of ET and irrigation water requirements. It also facilitates more effective irrigation water management [19, 20].
Over the course of a day, an increase of the air temperature causes an increase on the saturation deficit triggering a higher evaporative demand in the air, and leading to high ET rates [13, 16].
Crop factors such as crop species, radiation reflection coefficient, leaf area index (LAI) in different growth stages of the plant, plant height and root depth (depth of the radicular system) are influenced on the crop ET, which are described details as follows:
This factor is related to the foliar architecture (spatial distribution of the leaves), internal resistance of the plant to water transport, and other morphological aspects (number, size, and distribution of stomata, etc.), which exert a direct influence on ET [13, 16].
Radiation reflection influences directly net radiation availability for the ET process. The darker the vegetation, the lower the reflection coefficient and the higher net radiation [13, 16].
LAI in different growth stages of a plant is directly related to the size of the transpiring foliar surface, for the larger leaf area the larger the transpiring surface, and the higher the potential for water use [13, 16].
Plant height also influences the ET. Taller and rougher plants interact more efficiently with the atmosphere in motion, extracting more energy from the air and, therefore, increasing ET [13, 16].
Rooting depth of plant is directly related to the volume of soil explored by the roots, aiming at meeting the atmospheric hydric demand. A superficial radicular system, for exploring a smaller soil volume, keeps the crop more susceptible to drying periods [13, 16].
The following crop management and growing environmental conditions are influenced the crop ET:
Usually, intraspecific competition is found between plants/crops of the same species/types for their essential growth elements. A limited spacing between the plant to plant or row to row of the same species or different species of plants/crops, consequences in an intense competition for water, light, nutrient, etc., causing as a consequence an increase on ET [13, 16].
Crops oriented perpendicularly to predominant winds tend to extract more energy from the air than those oriented in parallel. For regions with constant winds, a solution to prevent the stomata-closing would be the use of windbreaks. A windbreak reduces wind velocities and decreases the ET rate of the field directly beyond the barrier [13, 16].
Soil texture and soil structure are both unique properties of the soil that will have a profound effect on the behavior of soils. Both the properties influence the crop ET through influencing the water holding capacity of the soils. Clay soils have higher water holding capacity than sandy soils and are proficient of preserving a more persistent crop ET rate for longer [13, 16].
Inhibitions system limit the growth of the radicular system of a plant, affecting the root system of plants to explore a wider volume of soil both in dry and rainy seasons. In the rainy season, soil with any physical obstructions gets soaking wet suffocating the roots. While in the dry season, the volume of available water is reduced from the roots of a plant; as a results root system of a plant is deepening into the soil for searching available water [13, 16].
The soil is a dynamic reservoir for available water for growth and development of plants. It is controlling the rate of water use by the plants and continuously in coincidence with the atmospheric demand. Since the atmospheric demand for water is directing by solar radiation, air humidity, and wind speed (Figure 3). Under situation C, in which ECA (by the evaporation from a Class A pan (ECA)) > 7.5 mm day−1 (high demand); the plants do not manage to extract water at a rate compatible to its needs even under the available soil water, as a result, to avoid drying of the leaves plants temporary close the stomata. Such a condition usually takes place at the hottest hours of the day [13, 16].
Relationship between corn relative evapotranspiration (ETa/ETc) and soil available water and atmospheric demand expressed by ECA (adapted from [
“Intervening period” is perhaps the most ignored period in the any crop rotation as scientists are trying to analyze the effects of applied treatments on the land and water productivity, which could be exploited for cultivating the intervening crops, viz. moong and other fodder crops [22, 23, 24, 25]. Several investigations were carried out during intervening periods of wheat 2012–2013 and rice 2013; rice 2013 and wheat 2013–2014; wheat 2013–2014 and rice 2014 and rice 2014 and wheat 2014–2015 using time domain reflectometer, electronic tensiometer, soil thermometers (up to 0–10 cm) and mini-lysimeters to delineate soil moisture dynamics as affected by different establishment methods of rice and wheat sequence. Zero tilled wheat plots (ZTW) evaporates 7.6 and 12.8% more, retained 10.3 and 9.4% lower volumetric moisture content at 7.5 cm soil depths and reported to had 28, 18 and 18% and 21, 16 and 17% higher soil tension values at 10, 20 and 30 cm soil depths because of reported 2.2 and 2.1% higher soil temperature than the conventionally tilled (CT) wheat plots during intervening periods after wheat 2012–2013 and wheat 2013–2014. However, after rice 2013, ZT plots reported to conserve 4.0% higher moisture content because of reported 2.3% lesser soil temperature which evaporates 27.6% lesser after rice 2013. On an average, conventional tilled both wheat and direct seeded rice (CTW-DSRCT) plots had 14, 29 and 45% lower SWT values than the zero till wheat and zero till direct seeded rice (ZTW-DSRZT) plots after rice 2013. They also found that after rice in 2014, CTW-DSRZT plots conserved more soil moisture than ZTW-DSRZT, although an exception was found in CTW-DSRCT plots, but were nearly equally and effective for conserving the soil moisture CTW-DSRZT cropping system.
Water moved from the Earth’s surface into the atmosphere by evaporation and T the two distinct mechanisms. Evaporation occurs directly from the water bodies where liquid water is transformed into a gaseous state. Recondition for evaporation to occur is when atmospheric humidity is less than the evaporating surface (at 100% relative humidity there is no more evaporation). The evaporation process requires large amounts of energy, viz. 600 calories of heat energy for 1 g of water. Transpiration is the process of water loss from plants through stomata—a small opening found on the underside of leaves that are connected to vascular plant tissues. In most plants, T is a passive process largely controlled by the humidity of the atmosphere and the moisture content of the soil. Around 1% of total transpired water being used in the growth process as it transports nutrients from the soil into the roots and carries them to the various cells of the plant and is used to keep tissues from becoming overheated. Certain plants of dried environment do have the ability to open and close their stomata which is to limit the loss of water from plant tissues; otherwise, they will not survive.
Generally, differentiate between evaporation and T is difficult. Hence a composite term “ET” is used whose rate at any instant from the Earth’s surface is controlled by four factors: (1) Vapor pressure gradient. (2) Energy availability as about 600 calories of heat energy to change 1 g of liquid water into a water vapor. (3) The wind speed directly above the surface which moves the vapor from the place of evaporation and in clam days when above ground layer got saturated, ET almost stops. (4) Water availability which is a must parameter as at the global scale, most of the ET of water on the Earth’s surface occurs in the subtropical oceans where high quantities of solar radiation convert liquid water into a gas. Further, it is reported that average ET for the northern hemisphere is around 944 mm year−1. Together with the southern hemisphere, with an average ET of 1064 mm year−1, this results in a global ET of 1004 mm year−1. In the Western Pacific and the Indian Ocean values up to 2 m year−1 have been observed. Thus it varied a lot depending on the special variations.
Evapotranspiration (ET) is an important soil water balance component and is playing a major role in determining the potential yields in the agricultural sector. Being affected by a number of factors, viz. soil temperature, soil moisture and vapor pressure gradients, ET remains almost remains similar for a particular soil textural class and agro-climatic conditions. Regarding estimation of ET, in field conditions, evaporation is generally judged by installing the lysimeters in the field which actually represent the true conditions of the field. Mini-lysimeters were quite effective in understanding the fluctuating behavior of evaporation under different treatments [26, 27]. Mini-lysimeters prepared by using PVC pipes of 8-inch length and with 2.5 inches diameter. Mini-lysimeters were filled from a particular treatment with the help of chain pulley arrangement, an end cap fixed on one side and then finally filled and capped mini-lysimeter was placed inside the outer pipe of the bigger diameter which was already fixed in the sampled plot (Figure 4). Daily mini-lysimeters were weighted at field using the digital balance to have an idea of evaporation [29]. After calculating the evaporation T is calculated from the soil water equation where the right-hand side has irrigation and rainfall while left-hand side constituted by seepage, drainage, profile soil moisture and ET.
Demonstrating filling of lysimeters (a); pulling out filled lysimeters with specially designed chain-pulley arrangement (b); and weighting of filled and capped lysimeter (c) [
With this technology, E reduction trends could be very easily monitored because of practiced different resource conservation technologies and thereby for a region the most effective one could also be identified which further be advocated the farmers for improving their livelihoods [30]. Some earlier studies had shown the promising results of some of the technologies, viz. straw mulching caused 70–300 mm of irrigation savings in different crops and benefits of mulching depend upon seasonal rainfall, irrigation regimes and soil texture [31]. These irrigation savings are due to a reduction in soil water evaporation component of ET. However, among the various technologies, zero tillage is emerging as the viable option for planting wheat while retaining surface residues. Earlier there were problems with the direct drilling of wheat seed into combine harvested paddy fields as loose straw accumulates in seed drill furrow openers, seed metering and its placement were non-uniform which is now solved with the Lucky drill directly drilled wheat seeds into anchored and loose rice residues. Major advantages of this technology include about 5–10% increase in yield, 60–70% less weed growth, 30% water saving particularly pre-sowing irrigation and 45 mm reduction in evaporation losses. In spite of these advantages, it solved the problem of straw burning and the leftover paddy straw on the long run improved the soil health and its fertility levels. In the agricultural sector, irrigation efficiency generally is tried to improve by depressing the evaporation share and enhancing the T which further directly linked with the land as well as water productivity.
From the above discussion of the chapter, it may be concluded that climate change will adversely affect the sustainable crop production in future that ultimately lead to decrease the food production of increasing population. Different international organizations already projected that water availability in arid and semi-arid regions across the world will decrease, due to lack of rainfall and increase the temperature which leads to increase in the dry areas. Since climate change will impact on soil water balance that leads to change in evaporation and plant transpiration. While, with the increasing temperature, lack of precipitation and soils water unavailability, crop production will likely to decrease through shortening the crop growth cycle. Therefore, it is important to understand evaporation, transpiration as well as evapotranspiration to mitigate their adverse effect under future changing climate. Researchers already revealed that soils with high water holding capacity and crop cultivars which are tolerant to adverse effect as well as the application of improved management strategies will be better to face the impact of drought. Where, if we could increase the irrigated areas, the total crop production could be increased to the food security of increasing population.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
We hereby declare that the book chapter does not have any material which has been accepted to publish any journal, for the award of any degree or diploma in any university/institute, and also to the best of our knowledge, the book chapter contains no copy of any material previously published or written by another person except where due permission and reference is made in the text.
Hunger is a complicated issue, and several names are used to characterize its varied manifestations.
Generally, the term “hunger” refers to the distress caused by a deficiency of caloric. According to the United Nations’ Hunger Report, hunger states “define periods when populations are facing significant food insecurity” in which people do not have enough food to survive. Hunger, according to the FAO, is defined as a circumstance in which a person has an unusual and uncomfortable feeling as a result of a deficiency of food components in their diet that is required for a healthy life.
Undernutrition is defined as a deficiency in calories or one or more important nutrients. Undernutrition can arise individuals are unable to get or prepare food, have a disorder that makes it difficult to eat or absorb food or require an excessive amount of calories. Undernutrition is frequently visible: people are underweight, their bones frequently fall out, their skin is dry and stretchy, and their hair is dry and starts falling out. Clinicians can usually diagnose malnutrition based on a person’s appearance, height and weight, and overall health (including information about diet and weight loss). Food is provided to people through the mouth, if possible, in progressively increasing volumes, but it is also supplied via a tube carried from the throat to the stomach or put into a vein (intravenously). Undernutrition is commonly assumed to be caused by a lack of calories (i.e., overall food consumption) or protein. Vitamin and mineral deficiencies are so often thought to be different illnesses. However, when there is a calorie deficiency, vitamins and minerals are often more likely to be present. These, in turn, are the result of several factors, including household food insecurity, poor maternal health or childcare practices, and a lack of access to health services, safe drinking water, and sanitation.
Malnutrition refers to both under- and over-nutrition. Micronutrient deficiency occurs when vitamin and mineral intake or absorption is insufficient to sustain healthy growth and development in children and proper physical and mental function in adults. Poor nutrition, disease, or unmet micronutrient needs during pregnancy and lactation could all be contributing factors [1]. Over 2 billion individuals worldwide suffer from hidden hunger, more than double the 805 million people who do not get enough calories to consume [2]. The subcontinent of South Asia and much of Sub-Saharan Africa are hotspots for hidden hunger. In Latin America and the Caribbean, where diets are less reliant on single staples and where intensive micronutrient interventions, nutrition education, and basic health care are more prevalent, the rates are lower [3]. While the poorest countries bear a disproportionate amount of the expense of hidden hunger, micronutrient deficiencies, especially iron and iodine deficiency, are also widespread in the developed world. The worldwide malnutrition problem is becoming more complicated. Developing countries are shifting away from traditional diets based on minimally processed foods and toward highly processed, energy-dense, micronutrient-deficient foods, and beverages, which contribute to obesity and chronic diseases linked to diet. As a result of this nutritional change, many developing countries are experiencing the “triple burden” of malnutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, and obesity [4]. As a result, people’s food does not provide the vitamins and minerals they require for proper growth and development. It has an impact on two billion individuals all over the world [5]. Micronutrient deficiencies are thought to be responsible for 1.1 million of the 3.1 million children who die each year due to malnutrition [6, 7]. By impairing the immune system, vitamin A and zinc deficiency have a negative impact on children’s health and survival. Zinc deficiency inhibits growth in children and can cause stunting. Iodine and iron deficiencies hampered children’s physical and intellectual development [8].
Women and children have higher dietary needs than men [9]. Throughout pregnancy and conception, the nutritional state of women has a long-term impact on the fetus’s growth and development. Iodine deficiency causes nearly 18 million infants to be born with brain damage each year. Severe anemia is responsible for the deaths of 50,000 women each year after giving birth. In addition, 40 percent of women in impoverished countries suffer from an iron deficiency, which saps their energy. Women, infants, and young children are the primary targets of most initiatives to eliminate hidden hunger and improve nutrition outcomes. Treatments that focus on these people can have a high rate of return on investment by improving later-life health, nutrition, and cognition. Iodine, iron, zinc, and other micronutrient deficits are the most commonly identified micronutrient deficiencies in people of all ages (Table 1). Vitamin A deficiency affects an estimated 190 million preschool children and 19 million pregnant women [10], making it a less common but significant public health issue. Other important micronutrients, such as calcium, vitamin D, and B vitamins like folate, are typically insufficient [11]. Although concealed hunger is most commonly associated with pregnant women, toddlers, and teenagers, it affects people at all stages of their lives. The major objective of this chapter is to present information regarding government programs and food-based techniques in industrialized countries like India to combat hidden hunger.
Micronutrients deficiency | Effects |
---|---|
Vitamin A | Visual impairment, night blindness, increased risk of severe illness and death from common infections; (in pregnant women) night blindness, increased risk of death |
Vitamin D | Mood changes, bone loss, muscle cramps, bone and joint pain, fatigue |
Vitamin B12 | Fatigue, breathlessness, numbness, poor balance and memory trouble. |
Folic Acid | Megaloblastic anemia |
Iron | Anemia, impaired motor and cognitive development, increased risk of maternal mortality, premature births, low birth weight, low energy |
Iodine | Brain damage in newborns, reduced mental capacity, goiter |
Zinc | Weakened immune system, more frequent infections, stunting |
Micronutrient deficiencies and their effects on people.
PubMed, Google, and other databases are searched for relevant material. We conducted a search of all review papers using the keywords “hidden hunger, malnutrition, India.” Additionally, the global scenario, efforts, control programmes, critical evaluations, government reports, agency reports, and publicly available data were analyzed. The necessary data was gathered, compiled, and analyzed.
India’s greatest national treasure is its children; nonetheless, hunger continues to be a significant threat to children’s survival, growth, and development. It has assumed the proportions of a secret emergency in India. India is ranked 94th out of 107 analyzed countries on the 2020 Global Hunger Index (GHI), with a score of 27.2 for a “serious” level of hunger. Additionally, it states that wasting is “very prevalent” among children under the age of five in India. According to the Global Health Initiative, India has the greatest proportion of wasted children (children who are underweight for their height) of any country in the world (17.3 percent). Furthermore, India has 14% of malnourished children under the age of five and 34.7 percent of stunted children under the age of five. Whereas India ranks 101st out of 116 countries on the 2021 Global Hunger Index, with a score of 27.5, India has a severe level of hunger. Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh, India’s neighbors, have achieved a higher ranking. Nepal ranks 77th, Bangladesh ranks 76th, and Pakistan ranks 92nd [12, 13].
The National Family Health Surveys NFHS-4 (2015–2016) and NFHS-5 (2019–2021) data show falling patterns in some of India’s important health characteristics as a result of these nutritional initiatives [14, 15].
During the 2019–2020 academic year, the NFHS-5 collected data from around 6.1 lakh households. Many of the indicators in NFHS-5 are comparable to those in NFHS-4, which was conducted in 2015–2016 to allow for temporal comparisons. It serves as a tracking indicator for the country’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which it wants to accomplish by 2030. Preschool education, disability, access to a toilet facility, death registration, bathing practices during menstruation, and techniques and reasons for abortion are all included in NFHS-5. New target areas in NFHS-5 will offer the necessary feedback for enhancing existing programs and developing new policy intervention techniques. Expanded domains of child immunization components of micronutrients for children are among the topics. Expanded age ranges for evaluating hypertension and diabetes among all people aged 15 and up are among the noncommunicable disease (NCD) components. The NFHS-5 asked for information on the percentage of women and men who had ever accessed the Internet for the first time in 2019.
5% of children under the age of five are stunted (low height for their age).
About 3% of children are wasted (low weight for height).
32% are underweight (low weight for their age).
More crucially, according to the most recent national survey, 7.7% of children suffer from severe acute malnutrition.
State-by-state, child nutrition indices indicate a heterogeneous pattern. While many states and UTs have seen improvements, some have seen a slight downturn.
Malnutrition has gotten worse. Stunting has been raised in 11 out of 18 states. Wasting is going up in 14 states.
Stunting: The percentage of stunted children has increased in 13 of the 22 states and UTs surveyed.
Wasted: In comparison to NFHS-4, the percentage of children under the age of five wasted has increased in 12 of the 22 states and UTs surveyed.
Obesity: The percentage of overweight children under the age of five has increased in 20 states and territories.
Children who had diarrhea in the 2 weeks prior to the study increased from 6.6 to 7.2 percent.
Children under 6 months who were exclusively breastfed also showed a sharp improvement, going from 54.9 to 63.7%.
The proportion of children (12–23 months) who were fully vaccinated improved from 62–76%.
The proportion of anemic children (5–59 months) increased from 58–67%.
Women aged 15–49 who were anemic increased from 53–57% and men of the same age increased from 29–31% between both editions of the NFHS.
In most states and UTs, the sex ratio at birth (SRB) has remained constant or increased.
The majority of the states are at a normal sex ratio of 952 or above.
SRB is below 900 in Telangana, Himachal Pradesh, Goa, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, and Daman & Diu.
States such as Tripura, Manipur, Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and Nagaland have also shown an increase in teenage pregnancies.
Children in the age group (6–23 months) receiving an adequate diet also showed a sharp improvement, from 9.6 to 11.3%.
Between 2019 and 2021, the U5MR dropped dramatically from 49.7 to 41.9%.
In India, the U5MR is 41.9 per 1000 live births, whereas the IMR is 35.2/1000 live births, and the NMR is 24.9 per 1000 live births.
Infant and child mortality rates have decreased in most Indian states. The best performers were Sikkim, Jammu & Kashmir, Goa, and Assam, which saw significant reductions in neonatal mortality rate (NMR), infant mortality rate (IMR), and under-five mortality rate (U5MR).
All three categories of child mortality increased in Tripura, Andaman & Nicobar Island, Meghalaya, and Manipur.
Among the 22 states and union territories surveyed, Bihar had the highest prevalence of NMR (34), IMR (47), and U5MR (56), whereas Kerala had the lowest death rates.
In the last 5 years, Maharashtra’s child mortality rate has remained unchanged.
Improved Sanitation and Cooking Facilities: Over the last 4 years, the percentage of households with improved sanitation and clean cooking fuel has increased in almost all of the 22 states and UTs (from 2015 to 2016 to 2019–2020).
Anemia among women and children continues to be a cause of concern. In 13 of the 22 states and UTs, more than half of the children and women are anemic. In addition, despite a significant increase in the consumption of IFA tablets by pregnant women for 180 days or more, anemia among pregnant women has increased in half of the States/UTs compared to NFHS-4.
The state of hidden hunger in India is alarming. A lot of work has been done, and while progress has been made, the pace of improvement is too slow.
Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) is an Indian government programme that provides Supplementary nutrition, nutrition and health education, vaccinations, health screenings, referral services to children and their mothers under the age of six, non-formal pre-school education, and contraceptive counseling for teenagers. The scheme was initiated in 1975, suspended in 1978 under Morarji Desai’s government, and then reintroduced under the Tenth Five Year Plan. The tenth five-year plan also established a link between ICDS and Anganwadi centers, which are primarily located in rural regions and manned by frontline workers. Along with boosting child nutrition and immunization, the initiative aims to eliminate gender inequality by ensuring equitable access to resources for girls and boys [16].
The Midday Meal Scheme is a school meal program in India that aims to improve the nutritional status of school-aged children across the country. On working days, the program provides free lunch to children in primary and upper primary classes who attend government, government-aided, local body, Education Guarantee Scheme, and alternative innovative education centers, Madarsa and Maqtabs, supported by the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, and Ministry of Labour-run National Child Labour Project schools. With 120 million children served in 1.27 million schools and Education Guarantee Scheme centers, the Midday Meal Scheme is the world’s largest of its kind. In September 2021, the MoE (Ministry of Education), which serves as the scheme’s nodal ministry, changed the scheme’s name to PM-POSHAN (Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman) Scheme. According to the Central Government, by 2022, the scheme would cover an extra 24 lakh children getting pre-primary education at government and government-aided institutions. The program has undergone various adjustments since its introduction in 1995. The Midday Meal Scheme is established by the National Food Security Act of 2013. The National School Lunch Act in the United States is the legal basis for the Indian school lunch program.
The National Health Mission (NHM), which combines the National Rural Health Mission with the National Urban Health Mission, was announced by the Indian government in 2013. It was renewed in March 2018 for another year, till March 2020. It is headed by a Mission Director and controlled by National Level Monitors chosen by the Government of India. The National Health Mission (NHM) is responsible for several key initiatives, including Rogi Kalyan Samiti, Hospital Management Society, Untied Grants to Sub-Centres, Health Care Contractors, Accredited Social Health Activists National Mobile Medical Units (NMMUs), Janani Suraksha Yojana, National Ambulance Services Some of the initiatives include Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram (JSSK), Rashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakram (RBSK), maternal and child health wings (MCH Wings), free medications and diagnostic services, district hospital and knowledge center (DHKC), National Iron+ Initiative, and tribal tuberculosis eradication.
SABLA is another name for this program. The initiative was unveiled by the Indian government on November 19, 2010, in the Plenary Hall of the Vigyan Bhavan in New Delhi. According to the Plan, adolescent girls between the ages of 11 and 18 will be included in all ICDS programs. The scheme’s goals are to help adolescent girls achieve self-development and empowerment, improve their nutrition and health, raise awareness about health, hygiene, nutrition, adolescent reproductive and sexual health (ARSH), and family and child care, improve their home-based skills, life skills, and vocational skills, mainstream out-of-school adolescent girls into formal or non-formal education, and inform and guide adolescent girls.
Under IGMSY a centrally sponsored scheme sanctioned by the Government of India in October 2010 under which grant-in-aid is distributed to states and UTs. promoting (ideal) infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices, particularly early and exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months; and contributing to a more supportive environment by providing economic incentives to pregnant and nursing mothers for improved health and nutrition.
The National Horticulture Mission (NHM) is one of the sub-schemes of the Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH), and it is implemented through State Horticulture Missions (SHM) in selected districts across 18 states and six union territories. Farmers or beneficiaries should contact the district’s Horticulture Officer to receive benefits and assistance under the scheme.
The government of India introduced this centrally funded initiative, termed the “National Food Security Mission,” in October 2007 in response to stagnated foodgrain output and an increasing consumption requirement of India’s growing population. The mission was a spectacular success, with increased output of rice, wheat, and pulses. During the 12th Five Year Plan, the mission was expanded with new targets of an additional 25 million tonnes of food grain output by the end of the Plan, including 10 million tonnes of rice, 8 million tonnes of wheat, 4 million tonnes of pulses, and 3 million tonnes of coarse cereals. Based on previous experience and the performance of the 12th Plan, the program has been extended to 2019–2020, corresponding with the Fourteenth Finance Commission (FFC) period. Rice will account for 5 million tonnes, wheat will account for 3 million tonnes, pulses will account for 3 million tonnes, and coarse cereals will account for 2 million tonnes, to increase foodgrain production by 13 million tonnes.
The Mahatma Gandhi Employment Guarantee Act 2005 (or, NREGA, later renamed as the “Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act” or MGNREGA), is an Indian labour law and social security measure that aims to ensure the “right to work”. This act was enacted on August 23, 2005 by Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh’s UPA government. It aims to improve rural residents’ livelihood security by offering at least 100 days of paid employment per year to each household whose adult members volunteer to perform unskilled manual labour. The MGNREGA was established with the goal of “improving livelihood stability in rural regions by providing at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment every fiscal year to every household with adult members who volunteer to perform unskilled manual work.”
The Swatchh Bharat Mission (SBM), also known as the Swatchh Bharat Abhiyan or the Clean India Mission, is an Indian government-led campaign to eliminate open defecation and improve solid waste management in 2014. It is a revamped version of the Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan, launched in 2009 but failed to achieve its goals. On October 2, 2014, Prime Minister Narendra Modi launched the campaign in Rajghat in New Delhi. With 3 million government workers and students from around the country participating in 4043 cities, towns, and rural villages, India’s largest cleaning campaign to date.
On August 7, 2018, India’s Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) issued its findings on the “National Rural Drinking Water Programme.” In 2009, the National Rural Drinking Water Program (NRDWP) was created. It strives to provide rural residents with safe and sufficient water for drinking, cooking, and other home requirements on a sustainable basis.
On July 10th, 2018, FSSAI launched “The Eat Right Movement” to boost public health in India and counteract unfavorable nutritional trends associated with lifestyle disorders. On a unified platform, the food industry, public health specialists, civil society and consumer organizations, influencers and celebrities promised to make real efforts to magnify “The Eat Right Movement” in the country.
On behalf of the Ministry of Women and Child Development, Prime Minister Narendra Modi launched the POSHAN Abhiyaan in Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan, in March 2018. Its goal is to reduce undernutrition and other related issues by organizing various nutrition-related programs. Stunting, malnutrition, anemia (especially among young children, women, and adolescent girls), and low birth rates are also addressed. It will oversee and evaluate the implementation of all such plans, using existing organizational structures within line ministries where possible. By 2022, it plans to expand interventions supported by the ongoing World Bank-funded ICDS Systems Strengthening and Nutrition Improvement Project (ISSNIP) to all districts in the country.
The Ministry of Women and Child Development administers the Maternity Benefit Scheme, a federally funded program. It is a maternity benefit program that began on January 1, 2017, in all districts of the country.
The National Food Security Act of 2013 (also known as the “Right to Food Act”) is an Indian law that aims to provide subsidized food grains to about two-thirds of the country’s 1.2 billion people. It was signed into law on September 12, 2013, with a retroactive date of July 5, 2013. The existing government of India’s food security programs is converted into legal entitlements under the National Food Security Act, 2013 (NFSA 2013). The Midday Meal Program, Integrated Child Development Services Program, and Public Distribution System are all part of it. Furthermore, the NFSA 2013 recognizes maternity benefits. The Integrated Child Development Services Scheme and the Midday Meal Scheme are universal. In contrast, the PDS will serve roughly two-thirds of the population (75 percent in rural areas and 50 percent in urban areas).
The government of India’s health mission is known as Indradhanush. Union Health Minister J. P. Nadda introduced it on December 25, 2014. The effort’s goal is to achieve and maintain 90 percent vaccination coverage in India by 2020. Vaccination is available nationwide against eight vaccine-preventable diseases, including Diphtheria, Whooping Cough, Tetanus, Polio, Measles, a severe form of childhood tuberculosis, Hepatitis B, and meningitis and pneumonia caused by Haemophilus influenza type B, as well as Rotavirus diarrhea and Japanese Encephalitis in selected states and districts.
Increasing food grain production to ensure food security.
By supporting the production and availability of nutritionally dense food items, we may endeavor to improve the population’s dietary pattern.
Increasing the poor’s purchasing power and lowering their susceptibility in order for them to purchase a balanced, nutrition-dense diet.
Expansion and improvement of the public distribution system
Increasing student awareness of nutrition through school curricula, etc.
Food adulteration should be monitored and prevented.
Initiate more community involvement in nutrition surveillance.
The term “hidden hunger” refers to a more subtle sort of shortage produced by consuming inexpensive, satisfying foods that are low in important vitamins and minerals. While the implications of subclinical micronutrient deficiencies are becoming more understood and monitored, they frequently go unreported in the population. This is why vitamin deficits have been dubbed “hidden hunger.” Micronutrient deficits can occur even in places with an adequate food supply to support the population’s energy needs. When people cannot afford to diversify their diets sufficiently with fruits, vegetables, or animal-source foods containing micronutrients, shortages are unavoidable. Micronutrients are vitamins and minerals that humans require in order to boost cellular growth and metabolism. Iron, iodine, and vitamin A deficiency are the most prevalent forms of micronutrient malnutrition with serious public health effects. Other micronutrients have been demonstrated to contribute to illness prevention (e.g., folic acid and calcium) or growth promotion (e.g., zinc) [17].
FAO views food-based initiatives as a sustainable way to address the nutritional needs of population groupings. These are as follows:
Supplementation
Fortification
Bio-fortification
Dietary diversification
Community-based interventions for micronutrient status improvement
Supplementation is a technical term that refers to the process of delivering nutrients directly to the target population via syrup or pill. It has the advantage of providing an appropriate amount of a specific nutrient or nutrients in an easily absorbed form and is frequently the quickest option to address deficiency in people or demographic groups diagnosed as insufficient. Supplementation programmes are typically used as a temporary treatment and then phased out in favor of long-term, sustainable food-based interventions like fortification and dietary change, which typically involve increasing food diversity.
By 2024, all rice available at ration shops, rice available in mid-day meals, and rice available through all schemes will be fortified, Prime Minister Narendra Modi declared during his 75th Independence Day address from the Red Fort in New Delhi. The Prime Minister’s declaration is crucial for the nation and represents a forward-thinking strategy, as the government distributes approximately 300,000 tonnes of rice annually through various programmes authorized by the National Food Security Act, 2013. (NFSA). The Centre has allocated 328 lakh tonnes of rice under the NFSA for TPDS (Targeted Public Distribution System), MDM (Mid-day Meal), and ICDS (Integrated Child Development Services). Rice fortification will assist in addressing micronutrient deficiencies or “hidden hunger,” both of which contribute to undernutrition, a type of malnutrition. But before we discuss the benefits of the aforementioned declaration, if done properly, let us first define fortification and why it is necessary to combat malnutrition in India [18]. Food fortification is a cost-effective, scalable, and sustainable worldwide solution that tackles micronutrient deficiency. In October 2016, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) operationalized the Food Safety and Standards (Fortification of Foods) Regulations, 2016 to fortify staple foods such as wheat flour and rice (with iron, vitamin B12, and folic acid), milk and edible oil (with vitamins A and D), and double fortified salt (with iodine and iron) in order to address India’s high burden of micronutrient malnutrition. The “+F” symbol has been designated for the purpose of identifying fortified foods. Each package of fortified food shall bear the words “fortified with (fortificant name)” and the +F logo. Additionally, it may have the tagline “Sampoorna Poshan Swasth Jeevan” beneath the emblem, which is optional and not required (Figure 1) [19].
Food fortification logo used on fortified foods in India in Hindi and English language. [Source:
Fortification is the process of supplementing staple foods such as rice, wheat, oil, milk, and salt with essential vitamins and minerals such as iron, iodine, zinc, and vitamins A and D to increase their nutritional content. These nutrients may have been present in the food at the time of manufacture or may have been lost during processing.
Micronutrient deficiency or malnutrition, commonly referred to as “hidden hunger,” is a severe health concern. Access to safe and nutritious food is critical, and occasionally, owing to a lack of a balanced diet, a lack of variety in the diet, or food insecurity, individuals do not receive essential micronutrients. Often, significant minerals are lost during food processing as well. One strategy for addressing this issue is the fortification of food. This strategy complements other strategies for improving nutrition, such as diet variety and food supplementation. India suffers from a high rate of micronutrient deficiencies caused by Vitamin A, Iodine, Iron, and Folic Acid, which result in night blindness, goiter, anemia, and a variety of birth abnormalities. According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4), anemia affects 58.4% of children aged 6 to 59 months, 53.1 percent of women of reproductive age, and 35.7 percent of children under the age of five. Fortification is an internationally proven technique that addresses the population’s widespread vitamin deficiencies.
The benefit-to-cost ratio of food fortification is extremely favorable. According to the Copenhagen Consensus, every rupee spent on fortification results in an economic value of nine rupees. Although the equipment and vitamin and mineral premix require an initial investment, the ultimate cost of fortification is quite inexpensive. Even if all programme costs are passed on to customers, the price rise will be between 1 and 2 percent, which is less than the regular price variance. The following are some of the numerous advantages of food fortification:
Because staple foods are extensively consumed, nutrients are added to them. Thus, this is an ideal way to simultaneously improve the health of a wide segment of the population.
It is a safe approach to enhancing people’s nutrition. The addition of micronutrients to food poses no risk to human health. The amount supplied is minimal and considerably below the Recommended Daily Allowances (RDA), and is strictly monitored to ensure safe use.
It is a cost-effective strategy that does not require individuals to alter their dietary habits or eating patterns. It is a socially and culturally acceptable method of nutrient delivery.
It has no effect on the food’s properties such as taste, aroma, or texture [20].
In this circumstance, fortification is the most practical option in terms of population access. This is referred to as the fortification of staple foods. The government of India has recognized this truth. This is why standards for five fortified essentials have been released, along with a logo (+F) to distinguish fortified foods: wheat flour, rice, edible oil, milk, and Double Fortified Salt. Recently, regulations for processed meals such as breakfast cereals, buns, rusks, pasta, and noodles were also released. Additionally, in collaboration with Tata Trusts, the Food Fortification Resource Centre (FFRC) has been located at FSSAI under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. The Food Fortification Resource Centre (FFRC) is a non-profit organization dedicated to the advancement of food fortification. The FFRC was established as a resource hub to serve as a shared platform for bringing together all major actors in food, nutrition, and health to collaborate on eradicating hidden hunger (Figure 2) [21].
Diagrammatic representation of food fortified with minerals and vitamins in India. [Source:
Salt is an excellent medium for iodine fortification and has been effectively used to combat iodine deficiency around the world. The properties of iodine salts used in fortification Salts of iodates and iodides in sodium and potassium are the two chemical forms employed in salt iodization. Fortification levels range between 30 and 200 parts per million. The WHO recommends that, under typical situations where salt is lost at a rate of 20% from manufacturing to household, an additional 20% be lost during cooking prior to consumption. The average person consumes 10 g of salt each day. This method was developed by the National Institute of Nutrition in Hyderabad to address the dual problems of iron and iodine deficiency. Given the widespread consumption of staple cereals, fortification makes sense. Wheat flour is enriched with iron and other minerals in various countries. There have been concerns concerning the bioavailability of iron from wheat atta due to its high phytate (absorption inhibitor) concentration. Certain chemicals, such as Na-Fe-EDTA and perhaps the enzyme phytase, may overcome phytate’s inhibitory effect. The higher expense of this salt may be offset by the fact that it has a higher bioavailability and therefore requires less fortification. Rice is the staple food for more than half of India’s population. Fortification of rice has been attempted by combining fortified extruded grains from rice flour with unfortified rice (Ultra rice). Wheat flour fortification with thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and iron has been used successfully for a long period of time.
Vitamin A added to wheat flour showed excellent stability in studies conducted in the United States. In the Philippines and Sri Lanka, efficacy trials on wheat flour fortified with vitamin A and wheat flour fortified with iron are presently underway. Since late 1997, the United States and Canada have required wheat to be fortified with folic acid. In South America, in Chile and Costa Rica, fortification of wheat flour with folic acid has proved helpful in minimizing neural tube abnormalities. Zinc sulphate fortification of wheat flour was observed to decrease iron absorption; however, zinc oxide had no such inhibitory impact. Around 2.2 million tonnes of wheat flour are fortified in India. Since 2000, a few states, including Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat, and a few districts in West Bengal have fortified wheat flour. Numerous countries have enriched cereal products with folic acid to help minimize the prevalence of neural tube abnormalities. Fortification with folic acid, maybe in conjunction with vitamin B12, may also help reduce serum homocysteine levels. Because vitamin A is fat soluble, fats and oils may be useful carriers for it. In India and Pakistan, vegetable ghee (hydrogenated vegetable oil) is fortified. Margarine is vitamin A-fortified in approximately 24 countries, including Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Indonesia. Brazil is conducting trials on vitamin A-fortified soybean oil. Edible oils enriched with vitamin A and D are sold through market channels in India’s Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan regions. In Venezuela, vitamin A, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and iron are added to precooked corn flour. In countries such as Mexico, where corn is the predominant food, fortification of maize with micronutrients is being studied. Maize flour is fortified with iron, zinc, and a vitamin B complex. Maize flour was enriched with soy protein and examined for its ability to aid in the development of the brain in rats. Additionally, research is being conducted to strengthen corn tortillas on a home and industrial scale [22].
Biofortification is a method that increases the nutrient density of food crops through conventional plant breeding, enhanced agronomic practises, and/or current biotechnology without sacrificing any consumer or farmer-preferred trait [23]. It is acknowledged as a nutrition-sensitive agriculture strategy that has the potential to significantly minimize vitamin and mineral deficiencies [24, 25, 26]. Zinc biofortification of beans, cowpeas, and pearl millet, as well as provitamin A carotenoid biofortification of cassava, maize, rice, and sweet potato, are all ongoing and at various stages of development. The biological process by which biofortified crops improve nutritional status is straightforward: biofortified crops are more nutrient-dense than conventional crops. Individuals will consume [27] and absorb [28] more micronutrients by eating biofortified crops than by eating the same amount of non-biofortified crops, assuming comparable micronutrient bioavailability [29] and retention [30] following heating or processing and storage. Consumption of biofortified staple crops can increase micronutrient intake in communities with a diet deficient in these nutrients.
Increasing dietary diversity is one of the most effective strategies for preventing hidden hunger on a long-term basis [31]. Even when socioeconomic factors are controlled for, dietary diversity is related to improved child nutritional outcomes [32]. In the long run, dietary diversification promotes a balanced and appropriate intake of macronutrients (carbohydrates, lipids, and protein); necessary micronutrients; and additional food-derived compounds such as dietary fiber. The majority of people may receive adequate nutrition from a mix of cereals, legumes, fruits, vegetables, and animal-source foods. Certain populations, such as pregnant women, may require supplements [33]. Effective solutions for promoting dietary diversity include food-based tactics such as home gardening and educating people about proper infant and young child feeding practises, food preparation, and nutrient-saving storage and preservation methods. Several low-cost, food-based approaches for improving micronutrient status can be advocated at the community level. Culturally relevant dietary adjustments should be established to assist individuals in identifying concrete measures that can increase both food supply and micronutrient absorption. This information must be distributed to the public using conventional methods of communication.
Promoting exclusive breastfeeding for newborns up to 6 months of age and continuing breastfeeding for older infants
Identifying and promoting the use of culturally suitable micronutrient-dense weaning foods.
Identifying and promoting the use of traditional green-leafed vegetables and fruits to increase dietary diversity.
Micronutrient preservation in fruits and vegetables by solar drying or canning processes.
Promoting kitchen gardening and small animal husbandry.
Increasing year-round access to micronutrient-dense foods.
Numerous issues confront developing nations, including health care, education, sanitation, water supply, and housing. As a result, focusing exclusively on a specific vitamin shortfall or technique will not be the most effective way to reduce micronutrient deficiencies. Complementary public health measures that can help minimize micronutrient deficiency include deworming, malaria prevention, increased access to safe drinking water and sanitation, and childhood immunization. Successful plans address all of these issues holistically and cooperatively, with full political commitment.
India ranks 102 out of 116 countries in the Global Hunger Index 2021. While eliminating malnutrition in India would be tough, it is not impossible. Achieving a sustainable end to hunger needs prompt action. Over 2 billion people, or one-third of the world’s population, are malnourished. Malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies have a significant impact on child and mother mortality, mental impairment, and workforce productivity. The current paradigm of seeing food security only through the lens of energy security must change. Simply pumping grains to satisfy hunger will not provide nutrition and health. The objective should be to ensure that the diet is balanced in terms of macro-and micronutrients. To maintain MN security, laboratory, clinical, and community-based (operations) studies are required. A balanced approach of food fortification, dietary diversity, biofortification, and supplementation aided in the early detection and treatment of clinical deficiencies. A fortification program’s performance can be judged in terms of its public health effects and sustainability. The mechanism for extension must be robust. Support from the media is critical for raising awareness and promoting compliance. Large-scale initiatives including food fortification, dietary diversity, biofortification, and micronutrient supplementation are making significant headway in lowering the morbidity and mortality associated with micronutrient deficiencies. Current programs must be enhanced and work on their effective implementation must be done to ensure that they reach the poor. While targeted legislation must be enacted to rein in the proliferation of schemes, the judiciary must be an active player in the debate on nutritional justice for the people.
We pay our profound sense of gratitude to Dr. Satish Kumar Yadav for his assistance, encouragement, and insightful advice throughout in constructing this book chapter. We also apologize for not citing the research papers of all the authors that helped me in better understanding this topic.
Authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Masnick and Corinne Zimmerman",authors:[{id:"154336",title:"Prof.",name:"Bradley",middleName:null,surname:"Morris",slug:"bradley-morris",fullName:"Bradley Morris"},{id:"154337",title:"Prof.",name:"Steve",middleName:null,surname:"Croker",slug:"steve-croker",fullName:"Steve Croker"},{id:"154338",title:"Prof.",name:"Amy",middleName:null,surname:"Masnick",slug:"amy-masnick",fullName:"Amy Masnick"},{id:"154339",title:"Prof.",name:"Corinne",middleName:null,surname:"Zimmerman",slug:"corinne-zimmerman",fullName:"Corinne Zimmerman"}]},{id:"35715",doi:"10.5772/38693",title:"The Role and Importance of Cultural Tourism in Modern Tourism Industry",slug:"the-role-and-importance-of-cultural-tourism-in-modern-tourism-industry",totalDownloads:41060,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:60,abstract:null,book:{id:"2298",slug:"strategies-for-tourism-industry-micro-and-macro-perspectives",title:"Strategies for Tourism Industry",fullTitle:"Strategies for Tourism Industry - Micro and Macro Perspectives"},signatures:"Janos Csapo",authors:[{id:"118766",title:"Dr.",name:"János",middleName:null,surname:"Csapó",slug:"janos-csapo",fullName:"János Csapó"}]},{id:"37707",doi:"10.5772/51110",title:"Principle of Meat Aroma Flavors and Future Prospect",slug:"principle-of-meat-aroma-flavors-and-future-prospect",totalDownloads:7452,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:52,abstract:null,book:{id:"3276",slug:"latest-research-into-quality-control",title:"Latest Research into Quality Control",fullTitle:"Latest Research into Quality Control"},signatures:"Hoa Van Ba, Inho Hwang, Dawoon Jeong and Amna Touseef",authors:[{id:"153361",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Van Ba",slug:"hoa-van-ba",fullName:"Hoa Van Ba"},{id:"163181",title:"Prof.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Amna",slug:"touseef-amna",fullName:"Touseef Amna"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58890",title:"Philosophy and Paradigm of Scientific Research",slug:"philosophy-and-paradigm-of-scientific-research",totalDownloads:13759,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Before carrying out the empirical analysis of the role of management culture in corporate social responsibility, identification of the philosophical approach and the paradigm on which the research carried out is based is necessary. Therefore, this chapter deals with the philosophical systems and paradigms of scientific research, the epistemology, evaluating understanding and application of various theories and practices used in the scientific research. The key components of the scientific research paradigm are highlighted. Theories on the basis of which this research was focused on identification of the level of development of the management culture in order to implement corporate social responsibility are identified, and the stages of its implementation are described.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]},{id:"74550",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2204,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:null,title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:null},{id:"58969",title:"Corruption, Causes and Consequences",slug:"corruption-causes-and-consequences",totalDownloads:27589,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Corruption is a constant in the society and occurs in all civilizations; however, it has only been in the past 20 years that this phenomenon has begun being seriously explored. It has many different shapes as well as many various effects, both on the economy and the society at large. Among the most common causes of corruption are the political and economic environment, professional ethics and morality and, of course, habits, customs, tradition and demography. Its effects on the economy (and also on the wider society) are well researched, yet still not completely. Corruption thus inhibits economic growth and affects business operations, employment and investments. It also reduces tax revenue and the effectiveness of various financial assistance programs. The wider society is influenced by a high degree of corruption in terms of lowering of trust in the law and the rule of law, education and consequently the quality of life (access to infrastructure, health care). There also does not exist an unambiguous answer as to how to deal with corruption. Something that works in one country or in one region will not necessarily be successful in another. This chapter tries to answer at least a few questions about corruption and the causes for it, its consequences and how to deal with it successfully.",book:{id:"6487",slug:"trade-and-global-market",title:"Trade and Global Market",fullTitle:"Trade and Global Market"},signatures:"Štefan Šumah",authors:[{id:"228073",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Sumah",slug:"stefan-sumah",fullName:"Stefan Sumah"}]},{id:"55499",title:"Human Resources Management in Nonprofit Organizations: A Case Study of Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts",slug:"human-resources-management-in-nonprofit-organizations-a-case-study-of-istanbul-foundation-for-cultur",totalDownloads:2294,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The aim of this study is to investigate the efficiency and importance of human resources management in nonprofit organizations. The understanding was included to the literature as personnel management at the beginning of the twentieth century and it turned into an approach as human resources management in the 1980s. It could be observed that many organizations, which deem the human as the most critical stakeholder, adopt a traditional way of personnel management in operating human resources. The employees play a key role in the success of an organization. For this reason, subjects such as recruitment, training, development, career management, performance appraisal, occupational health, and safety are the fundamental functions of human resources management. The study examines to what extent these roles are evaluated through a case study. The subject matter of the study is the most powerful culture and art foundation in Turkey. Compared to many other nonprofit organizations, the foundation actively performs a variety of services within a year worldwide. The fact that the total number of employees might rise up to 800, including the field personnel, indicates the need of a good functioning human resources management. The human resources practices of the foundation are examined and evaluated within that scope.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Beste Gökçe Parsehyan",authors:[{id:"189113",title:"Dr.",name:"Beste",middleName:null,surname:"Gokce Parsehyan",slug:"beste-gokce-parsehyan",fullName:"Beste Gokce Parsehyan"}]},{id:"59152",title:"Marketing Strategies for the Social Good",slug:"marketing-strategies-for-the-social-good",totalDownloads:1594,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Social network sites (SNS) have proven to be a good environment to promote and sell goods and services, but marketing is more than creating commercial strategies. Social marketing strategies can also be used to promote behavioral change and help individuals transform their lives, achieve well-being, and adopt prosocial behaviors. In this chapter, we seek to analyze with a netnographic study, how SNS are being employed by nonprofits and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) to enable citizens and consumers to participate in different programs and activities that promote social transformation and well-being. A particular interest is to identify how organizations are using behavioral economic tactics to nudge individuals and motivate them to engage in prosocial actions. By providing an understanding on how SNS can provide an adequate environment for the design of social marketing strategies, we believe our work has practical implications both for academicians and marketers who want to contribute in the transformation of consumer behavior and the achievement of well-being and social change.",book:{id:"6583",slug:"marketing",title:"Marketing",fullTitle:"Marketing"},signatures:"Alicia De La Pena",authors:[{id:"196878",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"De La Pena",slug:"alicia-de-la-pena",fullName:"Alicia De La Pena"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"4",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82382",title:"A Cultural Approach in the Synchronous Class in English Teaching and Learning",slug:"a-cultural-approach-in-the-synchronous-class-in-english-teaching-and-learning",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105553",abstract:"If culture is defined as a way of training to obtain knowledge through educational channels, the concept is associated with educability. Therefore, teaching cognitive, attitudinal, and procedural knowledge directly indicates teaching and learning culture to acquire norms and patterns of sociocultural behavior. The purpose of this study was: to debate about the way interaction among students and teachers in synchronous classes based on life’s materials, topics, and methods, and critical or reflective thinking can be adapted by the teacher to the students’ closest environment to communicate in English as an international language. If a language is taught, spoken, and learned in the country, culture surrounding the context is taught. If this language is not spoken in the place, the knowledge system also transmits norms and values, different from those of the language. So, the students get, culturally and socially, modes of action, principles, and knowledge through international language learning. Thus, teaching and learning English as an international language means the way possible interaction has opportunities for every student’s growth and the way their personality formation gets integral results. English taught and learned as an international language denotes reaching the students’ world and needs to communicate in English as a meaningful international language.",book:{id:"10662",title:"Pedagogy - Challenges, Recent Advances, New Perspectives, and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10662.jpg"},signatures:"Ned Vito Quevedo Arnaiz, Nemis García Arias and Fredy Pablo Cañizares Galarza"},{id:"82470",title:"The Effect of COVID-19 on the Quality of Life of Care Workers: Challenges for Social Services Leaders",slug:"the-effect-of-covid-19-on-the-quality-of-life-of-care-workers-challenges-for-social-services-leaders",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105603",abstract:"Stressful situations are likely to impact health and social care workers’ quality of life negatively. Indeed, mental, physical, and emotional health problems have been reported in relation to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the quality of life of health care workers. Instead of health care workers’ reality, and despite the care sector’s relevance, studies of the effects of COVID-19 on the quality of life of care workers have not been sufficiently explored. Recognizing the effect of COVID on the quality of life of care workers will collaborate with leaders of organizations, social work practitioners, and academics in the design of policies that promote better working conditions. Therefore, during 2021, a study was carried out in Chile where 150 social services and care workers were surveyed in Chile using a version of COV19-QoL in Spanish. The impact of COVID on quality of life is described, and the challenges that this reality implies to social service leaders are presented.",book:{id:"11095",title:"Social Work - Perspectives on Leadership and Organisation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11095.jpg"},signatures:"Magdalena Calderón-Orellana, Alejandra Inostroza and Paula Miranda Sánchez"},{id:"82448",title:"Virus World Vulnerability: A Critical Reading of Gender and Performance in Bo Burnham’s “Inside” (2021)",slug:"virus-world-vulnerability-a-critical-reading-of-gender-and-performance-in-bo-burnham-s-inside-2021",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105182",abstract:"Through an engagement with the seminal work of Raewyn Connell on masculinities and hegemonic masculinity, this chapter argues for the hegemonic norm as producing behaviour among men that can be traced in multiple male subjectivities. The argument is that men respond to the prevailing masculine norm by enacting self-protective disavowal—a complex psychological process that involves the reordering of reality in the interests of the maintenance of power, and one that is seen in cases of both legitimate and imagined threats to the self and the body. Self-protective disavowal is at the core of the Same Shit phenomenon—the idea that while the experience of masculinity varies across culture and position in the gender order, self-protective disavowal is a constant that leads to predicable patterns among men. The discussion then explores deliberate vulnerability as a kind of anti-protective disavowal in Bo Burnham’s INSIDE, a complex, undefinable ‘special’ released on Netflix in 2021. The chapter considers Burnham’s work as a departure from self-protective disavowal and Same Shit masculinity through deliberate vulnerability and critically evaluates the value of this alternative, especially given the nihilism that reigns over the work and calls into question the validity of uncritically romanticization of alternatives.",book:{id:"10540",title:"Masculinity Studies - An Interdisciplinary Approach",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10540.jpg"},signatures:"Chris McWade"},{id:"82454",title:"Prospects and Pitfalls Experienced by Social Workers Working in a Confounding Environment in a South African Setting",slug:"prospects-and-pitfalls-experienced-by-social-workers-working-in-a-confounding-environment-in-a-south",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105604",abstract:"While social workers are professionally and aptly placed to facilitate a turn-around environment rife with a conglomeration of challenges such as poverty, ignorance, and diseases, the chapter discusses the developmental prospects and pitfalls that confound their practice in South Africa. Opportunely, social work interventions continue to gain developmental mileage through increased training of social workers, their increased deployment in various versatile domains of social and economic development and increased widening of the scope of social work research, especially current research in fields such as HIV/AIDS and coronavirus. On the other side of the coin, the chapter discusses social work pitfalls attributed to professional curricular gaps as social work continue to follow a western-centric curriculum; the presence of various metaphysical beliefs and myths that weaken or derail social work interventions and a weaker research environment to offer a plausible and timely solution to the prevalent problems. The chapter concludes by calling for a paradigm shift in the social work curriculum as well as its indigenization to productively respond to the South African socio-cultural and geographical milieu.",book:{id:"11095",title:"Social Work - Perspectives on Leadership and Organisation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11095.jpg"},signatures:"Simon Murote Kang’ethe"},{id:"82425",title:"Financial Reporting and Analysis of Tesla Green Technology in the United States Market",slug:"financial-reporting-and-analysis-of-tesla-green-technology-in-the-united-states-market",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105065",abstract:"This study aims to discuss and analyze the financial position and performance of the US Tesla green technology company in the United States. This study uses a case study approach, financial data, and website methodologies to collect and analyze the research data. The case study is Tesla, Inc., which is a US electric vehicle and clean energy company based in Austin, Texas. Tesla is a green technology company that produces and designs electric cars, battery energy storage from home to grid-scale, solar roof tiles and solar panels, and related products and services. Tesla is growing fastly by introducing new green products, and it is now one of the world’s most valuable enterprises. It has a high market capitalization of almost US$1 trillion to become the world’s most valuable automaker. This study concludes that Tesla has changed their strategy to become the most worldwide sales of purely battery electric vehicles, capturing 23% of the market and 16% of the plug-in electric battery in the market for 2020. It has also developed a significant installer of photovoltaic systems through its subsidiary Tesla Energy in the United States. One of the largest global battery energy-storage systems suppliers is Tesla Energy, with 3.99 gigawatt-hours installed in 2021.",book:{id:"11251",title:"Banking and Accounting",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11251.jpg"},signatures:"Nizar Mohammad Alsharari"},{id:"82427",title:"Our Globalization Era among Success, Obstacles and Doubts",slug:"our-globalization-era-among-success-obstacles-and-doubts",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105545",abstract:"In the last decades, the never-ending and unlimited expanding of both international economies and operations became globalization. Among its main features, one could recall the enormous increase of world macro-economic quantities (Gross World Product, Inter-continental Trade, FDI), as well as financial values (public debts and currency printing). The chapter tries to quantify them, by a statistical analysis of historical data (Section 1). Section 2 is dedicated to the strategic problems of firms, in particular the threats and opportunities for (inter) national firms willing to become global, and obstacles are included in Section 3. This given, it deals with the behavior of countries from the political and juridical points of view, and those ones passed form initial perplexities, distaste, or even hostility to a favorable behavior. Conclusions (Section 4) recall both the problematic alternative for globalized companies between “the world as our next door” and their social responsibilities and the similar problem for host countries, between socioeconomic advantages and protection of local workers, resources, and environment.",book:{id:"11476",title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg"},signatures:"Arnaldo Canziani, Annalisa Baldissera and Ahmad Kahwaji"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:282},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. 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