Details of demographic variable.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6061",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Ascites - Physiopathology, Treatment, Complications and Prognosis",title:"Ascites",subtitle:"Physiopathology, Treatment, Complications and Prognosis",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The term "ascites" is from the Greek word askites meaning "baglike." 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From this starting point, several chemical changes, ranked by probabilities of occurrences, are triggered to give a product. In this process, molecular photophysical and photochemical processes occur simultaneously, competing to each other for the excess energy. On the other hand, these competing processes are also collaborating to each other, since they occur through electronic excited state reactants that originate electronic excited state intermediates. Based on the structures and characteristics of these excited electronic states intermediates, new mechanisms can be proposed, yet involving dissociations, isomerization, bond cleavages, nevertheless, taking into account that these excited species present peculiar electronic distribution and, therefore, involve photophysical activation and deactivation mechanisms, that arise from their interaction with light, all governed by new and challenging kinetic laws. In this sense, the peculiar characteristic of the kinetic laws involved in molecular photophysical processes is that electronic excited species that can be reached by light absorption are considered unstable, and to achieve a more stable electronic configuration, excess energy is liberated by radiative and/or non-radiative unimolecular decays.
The photophysical processes that occur immediately following the light absorption aim to ensure the mechanisms to achieve the best energetic configuration to: (1) lead to the reactive excited intermediate, from which the photochemistry can occur or (2) achieve the faster way to release the excess energy and to retrieve the initial reactant. They can all be defined in a Jablonski diagram [1] (Figure 1) and their corresponding rate expressions can be obtained from there.
Jablonski diagram presenting the major radiative and non-radiative processes and their rates.
The initial photophysical process that gives rise to excited states from where every photophysical and subsequent photochemical processes occur in the radiative absorption of photons to promote an electron to a higher electronic energy state. The accessed excited state is determined by selection rules that involve symmetry and spin conservation, existence of a dipole moment and must occur to an ideal vibrational mode wavefunction in the excited state overlapped in some extent with the low energy vibrational mode of the ground electronic state, enabling some probability of transition, as predicted by the Franck-Condon principle. The magnitude of this overlap influences the moment transition in absorption and every other photophysical processes [2]. The expression that describes the transition is:
Where the second integral is the overlap integral. From this expression, it is evident that there must be a probability of a wavefunction from a lower electronic state to absorb enough energy to be converted in another wavefunction that describes a higher electronic state and that if there is no overlap between the vibrational states expected to be involved in the transition, then the electronic transition is forbidden. It evidences the vibronic nature of the electronic state, in which electronic states are coupled to vibrational states. Figure 2 presents the Franck-Condon absorption from the ground electronic state to a vibronic state of higher energy.
Franck-Condon vibronic absorption from the electronic ground state to an excited state: From the lowest vibrational state (v0) in the ground state to A) the lowest vibrational state (v0) in the excited electronic state and B) to a higher vibrational state (V4) in the excited electronic state.
The absorption process populates electronic excited states from where all deactivation processes will occur. The most significant photophysical deactivation processes are:
The photophysical process in which the electronic excited state is radiatively deactivated, involving singlet excited and ground states, is the fluorescence. It spontaneously occurs from the singlet excited state of lower energy, as predicted by Lewis and Kasha [3], through the emission of a photon and the energy involved in this process is similar to the absorbed energy, if no other competing process of deactivation occurs. It occurs very rapidly in a timescale that depends on the system identity but between 10−6 and 10−10 seconds for several organic compounds. If longer timescales are observed, it may evidence the occurrence of another process that results in a similar spectrum, but occurs after some other photophysical deactivation processes that populate the singlet electronic state of lower energy. This is the delayed fluorescence and it only can be distinguished from the fluorescence by time-resolved measurements.
Phosphorescence is a radiative deactivation process characterized by a red-shift of the emission spectrum. It is a process that occur from an electronic excited state with less energy than that from where fluorescence occurs. In fact, it occurs from a triplet electronic state with less energy than the singlet electronic excited state of lower energy. Since spin changes are forbidden in electronic transitions, this is a process that occurs only if relaxation in the spin selection rule occurs, provided by spin-orbit coupling derived from the coupling of the electron spin motion with its orbital motion. Due to that prohibition, this is a very slow process, taking from 10−6 seconds to minutes or even hours to occur [2].
The process of releasing the energy given by the absorption of a photon as kinetic energy is the vibrational relaxation. It involves the conversion of a vibrational mode within an electronic state to another vibrational mode within the same electronic state. This process is very fast, taking around 10−14–10−11 seconds. It usually takes place immediately following absorbance and, since it occurs between vibrational levels, generally it does not result in electronic level changes [1, 2].
A non-radiative process that promotes the conversion of a singlet electronic excited state of higher energy into another singlet electronic state of lower energy is the internal conversion. It can involve any two singlet states and, when occurring between the singlet electronic excited state of lower energy and the singlet ground state, it competes with fluorescence, being one reason for a decrease in fluorescence quantum yield. It occurs rapidly with release of kinetic energy [1, 2].
The non-radiative process of conversion of an electronic excited singlet state into a triplet one through an isoenergetic process is the intersystem crossing. This is a very slow process, because it is forbidden by spin multiplicity selection rules and it only takes places if an effective spin-orbit coupling occurs [1, 2].
These radiative and non-radiative processes are unimolecular, involving only the electronic states of a single molecule. Nevertheless, there are several other bimolecular processes, characterizing energy transfer processes or even chemical reactions.
Energy transfer can occur between similar molecules or distinct compounds and the way they interact will define the more appropriate transfer mechanism for each case. Depending on the mechanism and the energetic characteristics of the energy transferred, the transfer can be classified as [1]:
Hole transfer: When a positively charged molecule interacts with another molecule to achieve its energetic equilibrium and resulting in the second molecule to present the positive charge.
Electron transfer: Similarly, if a negatively charged molecule interacts in some way with another neutral molecule to result in the second molecule now as negatively charged.
Energy transfer: When the interaction between molecules, one of them in the electronic excited state and the other occupying the electronic ground state results in the second molecule occupying the excited state and the initially excited molecule in the electronic ground state.
The energy transfer mechanisms involve an entity which presents the excess energy, defined as donor (D) and an entity that can receive this excess energy, defined as acceptor (A). They are classified as radiative or a non-radiative process, depending on the occurrence of the luminescent emission from the donor.
The donor in the electronic excited state relaxes to radiatively release its excess energy. Thus, fluorescence (or phosphorescence) needs to occur to promote the energy transfer through the absorption of the fluorescence of the donor by the acceptor [4]. It is known as the trivial energy transfer mechanism and it is enabled by the overlap between the absorption spectrum of the acceptor with the luminescence spectrum of the donor. It does not require that donor and acceptor be in the same environment and it is independent of the luminescence lifetime of the donor and depends on the concentration of the acceptor ([A]), the quantum yield of the donor (φeD) and the molar extinction coefficient of the acceptor (εA).
Scheme in Figure 3 presents the trivial mechanism of energy transfer.
Scheme of the trivial mechanism of energy transfer.
Inversely to the trivial mechanism, non-radiative energy transfer mechanisms are strictly dependent on the luminescence lifetime of the donor, since it only occurs while the donor is in its electronic excited state. It needs the formation of a collision complex between the donor and the acceptor and the energy transfer occurs with the right molecular distance:
Its rate is given by the magnitude of the transition moment between the electronic wavefunction that describes the collision complex before and after the transfer from the donor to the acceptor:
Where
Depending on the nature of the energy transfer, the intermolecular distance and the similarity of excited state energies, they can occur by a resonant mechanism called Forster resonance energy transfer (FRET) or based on the electron exchange called Dexter energy transfer.
Energy transfer that occur in a rate similar to the donor fluorescence lifetime initially involves a Coulombic interaction between the electronic excited state of the donor and the electronic ground state of the acceptor that evolves to interaction of the acceptor electronic excited state with the donor ground state. These Coulombic interactions are only possible due to the energy proximity of the emission of the donor and the absorption of the acceptor, enabling a virtual energy transfer, in which absorption and emission of the energy occur simultaneously. Because the Coulombic interactions between the electronic states of both donor and acceptor occur during the donor fluorescence lifetime and they are predominant and represent the influence of the dipole-dipole interaction, they are dependent on the inter-species distance by a factor of r−3. The probability of occurrence of the energy transfer, then, is proportional to the square of the distance, hence r−6. The rate of the energy transfer is given by the Forster expression [4]:
Where k2 is the relative orientation of the dipole of the donor and the acceptor, FD is the intensity of fluorescence of the donor, εA is the acceptor coefficient of extinction, τDA is the donor fluorescence lifetime in the presence of the acceptor and r is the distance between donor and acceptor.
When the probability of occurrence of non-radiative energy transfer is 50%, a critical distance, called Forster radius, is reached and it is defined as the distance in which the transfer rate, kDA, is equivalent to the donor fluorescence lifetime, when in the absence of the acceptor, τD−1:
The critical distance is much longer than the bond distances and the energy transfer is said to be a long-distance energy transfer.
The mechanism of electronic energy transfer that involves the electron transfer between the electronic excited state of the donor to the unoccupied excited state of the acceptor, simultaneously to the transfer of an electron of the electronic ground state of the acceptor to the poorly occupied electronic ground state of the donor, characterizing an electron exchange mechanism is the Dexter energy transfer. Since it is an exchange interaction, it needs an overlap between the wavefunctions of the donor and the acceptor to occur.
The rate of the electron exchange is proportional to the ratio between the donor-acceptor distance and the sum of their Van der Waals radii.
The donor-acceptor distance, in this case, is short, corresponding to distances of a complex formation. These mechanisms are illustrated in Figure 4.
Diagrams illustrating the (A) Forster resonant energy transfer and (B) Dexter energy transfer mechanisms.
Non-radiative energy transfer mechanisms involve the formation of energy transfer complexes. In most cases, these complexes are formed by collision; thus, their kinetics of formation is governed by diffusion rates and is dependent on the molecule-environment interactions. Its mandatory exigence is to have one of the molecules involved in the complex formation in the electronic excited state. The success of collisions will give the number of intermediates in the excited states that present the ideal characteristics for energy transfer. These excited state complexes are classified depending on the identity of their components [2–4]:
Excimers are the excited state complexes that are formed by two similar compounds. They present the same absorption electronic spectra as the isolated molecules, but emission spectra broader and red-shifted than the emission expected for the isolated molecule. The emission spectrum is the result of the emission of a new compound, the complex, formed during the excited state of the molecule that absorbed the electromagnetic radiation and is formed by collision. Excimers present several distinct orientations, from the totally overlapped orientation, called sandwich excimer, to some partially overlapped and the t-shaped excimer. Figure 5 presents these configurations.
Exciplexes are the complexes formed by distinct compounds, with one of them being at the electronic excited state. They are also governed by diffusion rates, but in a very specific manner, since it depends on efficient simultaneous collisions. Their absorption spectra are similar to that observed for the isolated absorber, but the emissions are very difficult to predict, since several competing pathways of deactivation, with kinetics influenced by the environment and the interaction forces acting to keep the exciplex together, during the excited state of the complex. This is the case of exciplexes involved in supramolecular photochemical reactions, as exemplifies in Figure 6.
Excimer configurations.
Supramolecular diphenylalanine hexagonal crown forming an energy transfer complex upon absorption of the phenyl groups of a single peptide.
All these photophysical processes modulate the energy and the characteristics of the intermediates prior to the occurrence of photochemical modifications. They occur in typical amounts of time; thus, light absorption is the determining step and it takes femtoseconds (10−15 seconds) to occur. The radiative deactivation of the lowest excited state to reach the ground state is the fluorescence, which occurs in nanoseconds (10−9 seconds) timescale; its occurrence informs about the electronic excited state lifetime and, therefore, about its stability. If it is long enough, several processes can occur and the radiative deactivation is not observed or its yield is diminished. From there, reactive intermediates can be formed in the excited state and, if funnels or interconversion situations are avoided by, for instance, guaranteeing that the energy barrier is too high to be superposed, then the final product, result of all photophysical and photochemical processes that occur during the lifetime of the electronic excited state, is the excited product. The ground state product is obtained when the excess energy is released as radiative emission [3].
Nevertheless, if the energy barrier is superposed and funnels are formed, the reactive excited state intermediate cannot be formed and the chemical reaction occurs in the ground state. These events can be summarized in Figure 7.
Potential curves of ground and electronic excited states of a photochemical reaction. (R) is the ground state reactant, (*R) is the excited reactant, (I) is the ground state intermediate of a reaction, (*I) is the excited state intermediate, (*P) is the excited state product and (P) is the final product of the overall process.
The rate constants and the probabilities of these processes determine which path can lead to the product formation. To describe the excited states and the changes that occur to yield the product is the key to perform any kind of reaction control and to choose all the experimental conditions that satisfy the reaction requirements. The rate constants, the intermediate formation and structures, the reasons for interconversions, energy migrations and excited states deactivation are crucial to exert any sort of reaction control. For that, the kinetic laws of excited state intermediate formation, the characteristics of funnels and the difference between thermal and photo-activated chemical reactions and the kinetics involved in energy transfer processes must be scrutinized. As showed by Soboleva et al. [5], to describe the electronic excited states lifetimes is very important to even propose mechanisms for charge transfer in supramolecular systems. In their work, they showed that electron transfer kinetics can be monitored by time-resolved luminescence quenching measurements of a chromophore in the presence of a quencher to describe the electron-transfer reactivity in sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) micellar systems. They observed that the mobility of the quencher is faster than the electron-transfer rate, which resulted in the conclusion that, in the cases where electron transfer between donor and acceptor is slower than the diffusion rate, the transfer is then controlled by reaction kinetics instead of by diffusion.
All these phenomena occur in a system of competition vs. cooperation, through intermediates and governed by probabilities of occurrence and rate constants, as they direct the mechanisms that are employed in a great number of applications. Examples are probing in imaging diagnosis, energy conversion and storage, data storage, photodynamic therapy, among several others.
Nowadays, photophysical and photochemical processes are perceptively and actively being applied in several areas of science and technology to promote a rapid and sustainable way to better everyone’s life worldwide. Examples are the several uses of photochemistry kinetics in distinct processes and its application to new materials development, in special those for energy conversion and energy harvesting [6–11].
Recently, research into optoelectronic organic materials is being developed to describe new options with potential for applications in emissive devices, sensors and solar cells [7]. Although these materials have been successfully tested as part of these devices, they are numerous and a serious difficulty has been to determine which characteristics are determinant for a material to present a specific property and how to replicate that in others. The answer invariably has been found in determining the kinetics of deactivation of the electronic excited states and, therefore, of the photophysical properties and photochemical processes. The efficiency of a device containing organic electroluminescent compounds is strictly related to the efficiency of the exciton formation and, thus, it depends on the conjugation lengths [7], which determine the mechanisms of energy transfer among the material [12]. For instance, in their work, Arkan and Izadyar studied the mechanism of charge transfer and the rate of exciton formation and dissociation in dye-sensitized solar cells based on TiO2/Si/porphyrins. They observed the rate of exciton formation/dissociation in metal-porphyrins, revealing the occurrence of an efficient charge transport in these systems.
Indeed, it is expected that efficient solar cells present great ability of exciton formation, efficient exciton transport and charge transport from the donor to the acceptor [13] to minimize the influence of the competitive processes such as exciton recombination that reduces the energy conversion efficiency [14].
Exciton formation is a driving force of the solar cell efficiency, which causes the exciton recombination to be an event that needs to be controlled. In several devices, recombination must be understood to be avoided to guarantee the highest efficiency. Many solar cells have been based on perovskite due to their ability of delivering efficiencies as high as 22% [15]. In their work, Dar et al. characterized the charge carrier recombination process that occurs in a bromide-based perovskite by measuring the transient absorption kinetics are several excitation intensities (5–100 μJ cm−2). For that, they assumed that the carrier dynamics is mainly governed by bimolecular recombination, being expressed and decay kinetics:
Where, in disordered systems, the time-dependent recombination is approximately to [16]:
That gives the carrier concentration kinetics: 1/n = −1/n0 = γ0 t1−α/(1−α), independent of the initial carrier density and, thus, independent of the excitation intensity.
Through this treatment, they identified the time-dependent recombination as a function of the morphology of the perovskite. They found that the polycrystalline perovskite structure presents grain boundaries that are physical obstacles for the carrier motion, which results in a decrease of the recombination rate. They were able to determine that the recombination rate constant is a consequence of the perovskite morphological inhomogeneity.
Recombination is an important mechanism of depopulation of the excited state, from which energy is generated. Controlling the exciton recombination has been a strategy for enhancing the solar cell efficiency, but it needs an accurate characterization of the kinetics of all competing processes of deactivation and, sometimes, it can lead to a poorly effective control of the recombination. Other strategies have been developed, focusing on enhancing the exciton formation, other than avoiding recombination. Many studies have demonstrated that processes such as multiple exciton generation in quantum dots and singlet exciton fission in molecular chromophores have greatly contributed to enhance the power conversion efficiency of devices such as solar cells and fuels cells. To carefully characterize, both processes had proven to consist of an embracing strategy to promote higher efficiencies. Beard et al. [17] studied the characteristics of the mechanisms multiple exciton generation [18] and singlet exciton fission [19, 20], searching for their similarities, in order to give enough information on how to improve the exciton formation in such devices, independently of the device configuration. They found that the two mechanisms are different, because in multiple exciton generation, two excitons are created in a single quantum dot whereas in singlet exciton fission, two species are electronically coupled to give rise to an overall singlet excited state that allows a transition from the singlet excited state to two coupled triplet excited states. In the former, there is spin conservation, in the latter, two triplets are created, each one presenting half the energy of the prime singlet excited state. Also different are their dynamics. Exciton multiplication, in both mechanisms, occurs very fast, nevertheless, the difference lies on lifetimes of the newly generated excitons. In exciton singlet fission mechanism, the new excited triplet states present lifetimes of microseconds, originated from singlet states with lifetimes of nanoseconds [19], whereas in multiple exciton generation, the excitons present lifetimes of picoseconds [21]. Despite these differences, they concluded that in solar cells, the enhancement in the efficiencies calculated considering both mechanisms are similar. They informed that there is still much work to be done regarding the solar cell structures to minimize non-radiative recombination and provide more efficiency to them, but solar cells with power conversion efficiency of over 30% can be easily obtained by multi-exciton generation. Also, Thompson et al. [22] showed that it is possible to achieve more efficient solar cells exploiting the singlet exciton fission mechanism, and Semonin et al. [23] achieved an increase in the external photocurrent efficiency of quantum dot solar cells exploiting the multiple exciton generation mechanism.
The photophysical processes that are responsible for the population of electronic excited states after the fast absorption of light by the absorber can be exploited for several imaginable applications. An example is the work of Wu et al. [24], where photolysis kinetics, quantum yield and bioavailability of a ketone (acetylacetone) during UV irradiation were investigated. They found that, after the absorption of UV light by the ketone, a series of photophysical processes overcame the photochemical reactions of decomposition. Interestingly, they observed that the energy transfer mechanisms that occur after the absorption of sunlight guarantee the high efficiency of the photochemical changes. Since the degradation products of the ketone after the photochemical reactions were similar to the metabolic products in biofermentation, they argue that the acetylacetone may be used in water treatment at the pre-treatment stage and may give some important information on the photochemical characteristics of several other β-diketones in water.
The energy transfer in organic systems can also be used to monitor distinct environments by enabling several mechanisms of tracking the changes in the electronic excited states involved in the photophysical or photochemical processes. Sensing and imaging are, therefore, ways to collect information on distinct environments.
In our research group [25], we have focused on the proposal of new materials that are able to efficiently form energy transfer complexes and give rise to new photophysical characteristics that are very sensitive to specific environmental changes. An example is a new material based on supramolecular structures of a dipeptide, diphenylalanine, composing an exciplex with a chromophore, coumarin. In distinct proportions, this system was able to modulate the coumarin sensibility to O2(g) dissolved in water, presenting distinct fluorescence spectra from that expected for coumarin, which was a result of the energy transfer complex formation and the new electronic excited states that resulted from the interactions between the components. Wang et al. [8], on the other hand, developed a method for monitoring photochemical reaction kinetics, presenting spatial resolution, the laser-excited muon pump-probe spin spectroscopy (photo-μSR). With this, they expected to monitor the dynamic of excitations and to explore the mechanism of photophysical and photochemical processes. Using pentacene as subject, they temporally and spatially mapped these processes at the single-carbon level and observed that the photochemical reactivity of a specific carbon atom is modified in the presence of a specific excited state.
Energy conversion can also be based on hole transfers or proton transfers and can involve photophysical processes, photochemical reactions or both processes in a collaborative way. Elbin and Bazan [7] proposed a new electron-deficient compound based on three-coordinate boryl substituents adjacent to highly conjugated distyrylbenzene derivative (DSB) or poly(aryleneethynylene)s (PAE). In these materials, boron atom provides a vacant pz-orbital that confers them a strong electron acceptor character, enabling a significant delocalization. They showed that due to the distinct photophysical characteristics of the constituents, the excited state migration by FRET is modulated and, depending on the substituent, light of distinct colors are emitted from these systems. Based on that, they believed that these materials can find application in displays.
Also based on hole transfer to promote energy conversion is the electrochemical energy conversion in a system called fuel cell. It consists of an additional way for chemical energy conversion, without photocatalytic effect. It is an electrochemical system which converts chemical energy into electricity through the oxidation of a fuel [26, 27], which takes place in the anode of the cell, and the reduction of the oxygen from atmosphere in the cathode. Some of these fuel cells are classified by temperature operation [28], especially, Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) work at low temperatures (from room to 100°C) [29] with a Nafion® membrane electrolyte. Low temperatures requires a very active catalyst in the electrodes, usually being platinum (Pt) [30]. A direct ethanol fuel cell (DEFC) is a very attractive electrochemical energy converter [31], and its unitary fuel cell scheme is shown in Figure 8. The fuel is supplied into the anode side and the air (or pure O2(g)) is supplied into the cathode. The electrolyte carries protons from the anode to the cathode and the electrons are availed at an external electrical circuit to produce work.
Scheme of direct ethanol fuel cell.
Ethanol is inserted into the fuel cell, adsorbs at electrode surface and is oxidized as shown in Figure 8.
While oxygen from air is reduced:
Which gives the overall reaction of the direct ethanol fuel cell (admitting complete ethanol oxidation reaction):
With the energy being mostly electrical work and heat. The electric work is dependent on the potential difference between cathode and anode: the larger the difference, the bigger the electrical work. Redox kinetics, thus, influences this amount of energy conversions, by inducing the number of electrons that are injected into the electrical circuit, resulting in electrical current.
At the anode, the ethanol adsorbs on electrode and the oxidation is characterized by the dehydrogenation. Some studies with Fourier transformed infra-red (FTIR) in situ [32], differential electrochemical mass spectroscopy (DEMS) [33, 34] show that the main products from electrochemical ethanol oxidation reaction, on Pt-based catalysts, are acetic acid and formaldehyde [35]. The electric work produced by direct ethanol fuel cell depends on the number of electrons that circulate at electrical circuit and the number of electrons generated by the redox reaction. Thus, the kinetic of ethanol oxidation reaction limits fuel cell performance.
Rightmire et al. [36] studied the ethanol oxidation reaction on Pt in acidic media and showed the determining step of the reaction is formaldehyde formation. Moreover, Hitmi et al. [37] showed that the rate of formation of acetaldehyde is larger than acetic acid formation from ethanol oxidation reaction. The formation of acetic acid from acetaldehyde depends on the adsorption of acetaldehyde on electrode surface, as proposed by Podlovchenko et al. [38].
The main problem of the catalysts is the poisoning effect by carbonaceous products from ethanol oxidation reaction strongly adsorbed on Pt. Nowadays, research is focused on the development of new catalytics presenting higher chemical stability and electrochemical kinetic rates. There are several works reporting Sn-modified Pt electrocatalyst as a more active material for ethanol oxidation reaction [39]. There are many other interesting materials, such as PtRh [40], PtMo [41] and PtPd [42], but better performances of DEFC were observed employing PtSn at the anode, which effects the kinetic of ethanol oxidation [43, 44].
Figure 9 shows the linear sweep voltammetry obtained for the ethanol oxidation on Pt electrocatalysts. FTIR were collected in situ with electrode polarization in ethanol solution. Pt was polarized at 0.05 V vs. Reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE) and potential scan was set to 1.0 V at 1 mV s−1, and the current in μA at top axis. The FTIR were collected at distinct electrode polarizations on steps of 0.1 V. The negative bands correspond to the formation of chemical species and positive bands correspond to consumption of adsorbed chemical species. The band at 2345 cm−1 refers to CO2 formation [45] and it is observed only above 0.6 V vs. Reversible Hydrogen Electrode (RHE). The peak at 1860 cm−1 corresponds to COOH deflection [45] observed at 0.2 V, which suggests the fast formation of acetic acid on Pt, in acid solution and a difficulty to generate CO2, which indicates complete ethanol oxidation. Peaks at 2981 and 2900 cm−1 correspond to CH2 and CH3 stretching, resulting from ethanol consumption. The peaks at 1715, 1353 and 1290 cm−1 correspond to the formation of aldehydes and carboxylic acids, such as acetaldehyde and acetic acid [32, 37].
Linear sweep voltammetry and FTIR registered on Pt catalysts in 0.5 mol L−1 H2SO4 and 0.5 mol L−1 CH3CH2OH, at room temperature, v(lsv) = 1 mV−1 and FTIR measurements carried out in a mixture of 0.1 HClO4 (mol L−1) and CH3CH2OH (0.1 mol L−1).
Thus, the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy depends on the potential and the kinetics of the reactions; the development of new materials for a better exploitation of fuel is, then, limited by the characteristics of the electrochemical reactions kinetics.
To understand the kinetic rates and laws of the dynamic processes of the energy transfers that involve the interaction between compounds, through the electronic excited states and the characteristics of the excited states is crucial to determine the applications, specially in energy conversion. Also, photochemical processes can be greatly exploited to cause the modifications in the materials that enable their ability of energy transfer. Regarding to this, the rate constants of the photochemical reactions determine the paths that yield products and they are strictly related to the electronic excited states involved in the photochemical processes. If rate constants, intermediate structures and their mechanisms of formation and the energetic balance involved in each change, it is possible to achieve the desired reaction control through experimental conditions control. New materials, capable of distinct electronic processes that can influence photophysical and photochemical processes, are of great interest, nowadays. They become more and more specific and selective, aiming higher efficiencies of energy conversion, as well as faster and sustainable ways to promote degradation of pollutants. Also, as energy conversion in fuel cells, depends on the kinetic rates of electron generation, the development of material for complete oxidation reaction of ethanol would disseminate its usage. This means that there are no limits to develop new materials with properties suitable for the needs of the modern society and those that promote changes using the abundant initiator of sunlight to trigger the changes are the most prominent candidates.
The authors thank to CNPq (grant 407619/2013-5) and FAPEG (grant 2012210267000923) for financial support.
Women consist of half of the world population and it is an open secret that an independent and educated woman leads an educated and self-reliant family, which is further translated into a liberal, independent and an educated society. As per census of 2011, in India, the female population was 586.4 million (48% of the total population). Out of these total female population, 405.1 million (69% of the total female population) were living in rural areas [1]. Without women contribution or support, it is not possible to develop the country as a whole because half of the nation’s human resources is women. Therefore, women are playing a very important role in the socioeconomic development of the country.
The constitution of India honours both men and women with equal rights. But women are not treated as equals as men [2]. Certain barriers still exist between men and women. The literacy level of the rural women population is less than that of urban women population. During 2009–10, 46.7 % of rural women population was illiterate as reported by the National Sample Survey Office [3].
Generally, the rural women face problems with regard to medical facilities, health care, malnutrition, environment, etc. Besides, finance is an essential part of their life. Hence, different financial inclusion programmes were launched by the Government for the rural population at different periods. Financial literacy is an integral part of the financial inclusion programme. It was introduced to rural women for the purpose of understanding the financial concept thoroughly and guiding them to take a decision on financial aspects [4]. This programme cultivates saving habits among the rural women. Also, it helps them to understand the financial affairs and motivate them to invest the savings in a profitable avenue.
Now-a-days, the financial institutions are offering a variety of schemes/products to the public. A careful selection of the product is important; otherwise, it leads to loss of their hard earned money. A large number of literature reports [5] that in India, financial literacy is not well developed particularly in rural areas and they are still waiting for revolutionary push. The purpose of the study is to investigate whether the learned knowledge on financial literacy by the Indian rural women population helps to invest their hard earned saving money in the profitable ventures or not?
A study on financial awareness among the salaried class people was carried out by Bhushan [6]; Umamaheswari and Kumar [7]. The studies reveal that certain demographic factors like general education level, gender, income level, employment etc. affect financial literacy. The financial literacy level between the salaried class persons is also varied. Vasagadekar [8] has informed that a working woman who has less knowledge in finance, finds difficulty in managing a portfolio. Hence, they should evaluate the available avenues before making investment [9].
Subha and Priya [10]; Agarwalla et al. [11] have reported that there are certain factors which affect financial literacy level viz. general literacy, income level, age, employment and place of work. Hence the government should take some sort of remedial measures to enhance financial attentiveness.
A variety of investment and saving products are available in the financial market, but people are still least aware. Therefore, a proper awareness about the products, among the public either through TV or radio is required as reported by Trivedi and Trivedi [12]; Goel [13]; Jappelli and Padula [14]; Kudva [15]. Awareness about the various investment avenues brings positive change in the lifestyle and investment pattern of people [16]. Only a few investors are aware about the industrial securities and most of the investors believe that such securities are insecure one [17].
A systematic analysis of the behaviour of rural and urban investors in terms of education, health care services, financial activities and priorities was carried out by Kumar and Mukhopadhyay [18]. The analysis reveals that both groups made an investment according to their requirements and rural investors’ especially rural women need certain help for making the financial decision.
The awareness level of investors in a metro city is found to be higher than the investors in rural area [19]. The reason is that the metro investors are more concerned with financial gateways; news channels and finance or market related programs. In Pakistan, a study on impact of financial literacy on investment decisions was conducted. This study reveals that financial literacy has a positive trend on agreeableness, extraversion, openness and negative trend on neuroticism [20].
The difference between the saver and investor was clearly mentioned by Thilakam [21]. The investment decision made by the investors is fully based upon risk bearing, yield amount and their future plan [22, 23]. If they are aware of the basic concepts of finance under present condition, it helps them to identify the best investment opportunities [24].
Bhattacharya [25] has stressed that the financial literacy is an important requirement for resource planning. The investment behaviour of investors in India varies from time to time. Thulasipriya [26] has informed that in earlier stages, the investors invested in physical asset than financial assets. Later stage, their preference changed from physical assets to financial assets. Sharma and Pandey [27], Palanivelu and Chandrakumar [28] have expressed that Corporate bonds; post-office schemes; debentures; and bank deposits are the most promising investment avenues for the investors and more number of investors prefer these avenues. The rural people in India prefer to invest their savings in bank, insurance and post office only not in Public Provident Fund, Mutual Funds and Industrial Securities for the purpose of safety and security [29].
Financial literacy is an energetic universal concern. Availability of large number of financial resources, different financial schemes and low level of financial awareness has led to financial literacy. Earlier studies have mainly concentrated on investment behaviour of women. Most of the studies concluded that investors are interested in investing their savings in banking, insurance and post office schemes. No in depth study has been carried out on impact of financial literacy on investment behaviour of rural women. Scope of this study is to develop a model for assessing the level of financial literacy and to apply the same among the rural women of Jalandhar district in the state of Punjab.
The main objective of the present study is to assess the relationship between the financial literacy programme and the investment behaviour of rural women. The sub objectives of the present study are:
Identify the level of financial knowledge obtained by rural women through the financial literacy programme.
Analyse the awareness of rural women towards the available investment avenues.
Ascertain the push and pull factors for rural women with regard to savings and investment behaviour.
Develop financial literacy score.
Jalandhar district of Punjab has been selected as a sample district for this study. This district has five tehsils namely Jalandhar 1, Jalandhar 2, Nakodar, Phillour, and Sahakot. The present study attempts to evaluate the impact of financial literacy programme on investment behaviour of rural women. Hence, 2.5% of the potential rural women savers have been selected from each tehsil randomly. The total sample size is 335 rural women respondents.
In respect of a wide diversity in socio-economic factors, the sample was drawn out of five tehsils in terms of rural women population across Jalandhar district. Data was collected through questionnaire. Age, occupation, education level, number of dependents, monthly income of family and the type of family were demographic traits on which data was collected. In addition to demographic attributes, the target group was required to respond on questions related to financial behaviour, financial planning and financial literacy. Details about the demographic variables of the respondents are shown in Table 1.
Variable | Detail | Frequency | Percentage |
---|---|---|---|
Age (in years) | 20 and less | 0 | 0 |
21–30 | 43 | 12.8 | |
31–40 | 126 | 37.6 | |
41 and over | 166 | 49.6 | |
Education level | No formal education | 43 | 12.8 |
Primary school | 109 | 32.5 | |
Matriculation | 78 | 23.3 | |
Diploma | 52 | 15.5 | |
Graduate/post-graduate | 53 | 15.8 | |
Marital status | Unmarried | 28 | 8.4 |
Married | 230 | 68.7 | |
Widowed | 77 | 23 | |
No. of dependents | Two | 3 | 0.9 |
Three | 17 | 5.1 | |
Four | 49 | 14.6 | |
Five and more | 266 | 79.4 | |
Monthly income | 1001–3000 | 28 | 8.4 |
3001–5000 | 56 | 16.7 | |
5001–10,000 | 232 | 69.3 | |
More than 10,000 | 19 | 5.7 | |
Family type | Nuclear family | 188 | 56.1 |
Joint family | 147 | 43.9 |
Details of demographic variable.
Source: Primary data.
The largest numbers of investment avenues are available in financial markets to serve the desires of investors. Thousands of investment schemes are available in the market. The art of rational investment decision is maximum returns with minimum of risk. Investment pattern differs from one another in terms of invested amount, risk bearing capacity and expected returns. In recent times, awareness about financial products has become an issue of discussion in financial markets. Past studies have revealed that people prefer to invest in traditional safe investment avenues. Bank, insurance and post office investment schemes were the most preferred investment avenues. There is an information gap between financial markets and a financier and due to this a majority of investor does not use modern investment products. Data collected under this section confirms that there is imbalance in- between traditional and modern investment avenues. As we can figure out easily that awareness level of respondents is fairly high in banking avenues, post office schemes, insurance schemes and other traditional avenues like gold/silver and real estate opportunities. On the other hand as evidenced in Table 2, there is lack of awareness in Chit Fund Schemes, Bonds, Debentures, Public Provident Fund, National Savings Certificate, Government Securities and Forex Market and Commodity Market. It is also stated by Mohd and Verma [29].
Financial product | Familiar | Non-familiar | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Frequency | In percentage | Frequency | In percentage | |
I. Safe investment avenues | ||||
Savings account | 334 | 99.7 | 1 | 0.3 |
Bank fixed deposit | 333 | 99.4 | 2 | 0.6 |
Public Provident Fund (PPF) | 212 | 63.3 | 123 | 36.7 |
National Saving Certificate (NSC) | 210 | 62.7 | 125 | 37.3 |
Kisan Vikas Patra (KVP) | 259 | 77.3 | 76 | 22.7 |
Post office savings | 330 | 98.5 | 5 | 1.5 |
Government securities | 206 | 61.5 | 129 | 38.5 |
II. Moderate risk investment avenues | ||||
Mutual funds | 260 | 77.6 | 75 | 22.4 |
Life insurance | 329 | 98.2 | 6 | 1.8 |
Debentures | 195 | 58.2 | 140 | 41.8 |
Bonds | 194 | 57.9 | 141 | 42.1 |
III. High risk investment avenues | ||||
Equity share market | 248 | 74 | 87 | 26 |
Commodity market | 96 | 28.7 | 239 | 71.3 |
Forex market | 135 | 40.3 | 200 | 59.7 |
IV. Traditional investment avenues | ||||
Real estate | 315 | 94 | 20 | 6 |
Gold/ Silver | 308 | 91.9 | 27 | 8.1 |
Chit fund | 208 | 62.1 | 127 | 37.9 |
Awareness about investment products.
Source: Primary data.
In terms of familiarity with financial products, data collected from the respondents revealed that rural female are most familiar with savings account (99.7%), followed by fixed deposit (99.4%), post office schemes (98.5%), life insurance (98.2%), real estate (94%) and gold/silver (91.9%) trading options. Furthermore, it is reported that rural females are most familiar with bank, post office, insurance and other traditional avenues of investment. Although, data do notreveal high familiarity of rural females with Debentures (58.2%), Bonds (57.9%), Forex Market (40.3%) and Commodity Market (28.7%) in moderate risk avenues. But marginal divergence is found among respondents about few investment avenues like Mutual Funds (77.6%), Equity Share Market (74%), Public Provident Fund (63.3%), National Savings Certificate (62.7%), Chit Fund (62.1%) and Government Securities (61.5%).
Investment pattern refers to the outline of savings into various financial products with the objective of risk diversification or high expected profits. The very first step for voyage investment is savings. Investor can take the benefit of large chunk of financial products only if he/she is aware about the relevance of portfolio or diversified pattern of savings. The current investment pattern of selected rural women respondents are represented in Figure 1.
Attitude of rural women towards various avenues. Source: Primary data.
From Figure 1, it is revealed that most of the female respondents are investing in Savings Account (96.7%), followed by Bank Fixed Deposit (84.2%) and Life Insurance (81.5%). These three are found to be the most prominent investment avenues in pattern of rural females. Post Office Savings (56.4%), Mutual Funds (57.3%) and Gold/Silver (53.1%) are found less popular in the investment pattern of rural females. On the other hand, KisanVikasPatra (2.7%), Government Securities (10.1%), Debentures (6.3%), Bonds (4.2%), Commodity Market (2.1%), National Saving Certificates (0.9%), Chit Fund (0.6%) are preferred by very few persons to diversify their portfolio.
The reason for the selection of the financial instrument by the rural women is presented in Figure 2.
Reason behind financial selection. Source: Primary data.
From Figure 2, it can be concluded that familiarity with any financial institution influences most of the times investment decisions of investors. 34% of total females have selected a financial institution because of familiarity, followed by the reason of assured returns. 23% of respondents has selected only those financial products which assure return on their investment quantum. 22% of respondents have preferred to select a number of financial products. Here, portfolio diversification is the main aim of investment. Interestingly, safe and low risk factors have the lowest preferred reason for financial selection. Only 21% of people has invested in safe and low risk investment avenues.
Financial and investment behaviour of a person is a vital component in a given financial environment. Investment pattern is affected by the awareness about the financial markets and the ability to make rational decisions. Hence, the variable behaviour prior to the selection of investment policy was investigated for this research. Data related to behaviour and rationality prior to financial selection is presented in Figure 3.
Behaviour of rural women with reference to product choice. Source: Primary data.
Figure 3, illustrates the behaviour-wise allocation of responses. Among 335 households’ surveyed 36.40% of respondents have preferred different financial or investment policies from one company only. It is clear that most of the respondents trust in the investment policies of only one company. 34.30% of responses belongs to those households who never compare different investment policies of one or more companies. They prefer to invest in pre-selected avenues. Consequently, 20.60% households compare various products from more than one company and 8.70% of sample population are found to be unaware of the availability of different financial avenues in the market.
Financial literacy is the ability of a layman to understand the nature of finance and earning potential of his savings. In true sense, financial literacy allows a person to take a rational financial decision in specific areas like property or real estate matters, tax planning, banking and insurance and capital markets, etc. To achieve financial goals, basic knowledge about financial matters becomes the essential part of today’s world; not only for the investors of stock market; but also for the persons having saving habits. It can be defined as the tricks used by the finance player to manage their earnings in terms of savings, budgeting, investing and insuring etc. Definition of financial literacy also declares that financially knowledgeable people are well aware about money management concepts and know in which manner financial institutions work. The financial literacy score is a platform to identify trends of financial awareness among individuals. To depict awareness trends in basic financial matters, financial literacy index of rural women was calculated. The financial literacy index is prepared on the basis of following basic financial literacy indicators:
Simple interest rate
Compound interest rate
Affordability
Financial security
Portfolio diversification
Loan ideology
Financial awareness to life circumstances
Product choice
Credit card ideology
Basic taxation ideology
In order to determine the financial literacy level, a set of question was asked and based upon the response, a rank was assigned. The rank “0” is assigned to the respondent who does not have knowledge about financial literacy. The ranks “1” and “2” are assigned for those having average and thorough knowledge on financial activities, respectively.
After assigning rank for the all the parameters, the total financial literacy score for the individual respondent is calculated as follows:
where ‘actual value’ is the sum of ranks the individual respondent scored, ‘maximum value’ is the theoretical maximum, here it is = 20, (that is 10 × 2) and ‘minimum value’ is the theoretical minimum, here ‘0’ (i.e., 10 × 0).
In order to get the net score, Total of the literacy score all the respondents is divided by the total number of the respondents.
If the value is 0, it indicates that the financial literacy level is zero. Between 0.1 and 0.33 it specifies that level of financial literacy is at a minimum. Between 0.34 and 0.66 the level of financial literacy is of medium level. Between 0.67 and 0.99 the level of financial literacy is high and if the value is 1, it indicates that complete financial literacy level is achieved.
The calculated value of financial literacy is 0.69552. This revealed that the overall level of financial literacy is encouraging in rural parts of Jalandhar district. This indicates that efforts of government and non-government organisations are leading to a positive change. The results of financial literacy index are given in Table 3 and Figure 4.
Respondent | Value for the respondent’s response for different parameters | Actual score for individual respondent’s (maximum value 20) | Financial Literacy score for individual respondent’s | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Simple interest rate | Compound interest rate | Affordability | Financial security | Portfolio diversification | Loan ideology | Financial awareness to life circumstances | Product choice | Credit card ideology | Basic taxation ideology | |||
(A) | (B) | (C) | (D) | (E) | (F) | (G) | (H) | (I) | (J) | (H) | ||
Sum of (A to J) | ||||||||||||
1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 9 | 0.45 |
2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 12 | 0.6 |
3 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 14 | 0.7 |
4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 11 | 0.55 |
5 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 15 | 0.75 |
335 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 13 | 0.65 |
Total Financial Literacy Score for all the respondents | 233.00 | |||||||||||
Total respondents | 335 | |||||||||||
Average financial literacy Score for individual respondent | 0.69552 |
Financial literacy index. Source: Primary data.
From the data collected from rural women of Jalandhar district, on the basis of combination of ten questions, it is revealed that the majority of respondents are falling in high level of financial literacy group followed by 38% of our total respondents who are coming under medium level of financial literacy.
Some differences concerned with investment pattern and financial selection include risk and portfolio choices. Choice of the portfolio, the level of risk bearing capacity is more concerned with the financial awareness of households. It is indicated that most of the rural females are aware of the ideology and framework of taxation (91%), Affordability and Financial security (73%). 72% of respondents confidently answer the calculation of simple interest rate. While portfolio diversification (64%), product choice (63%) and loan ideology (48%) are found lacking in this context. While in some typical financial matters financial knowledge of rural women is found lacking. Those financial concepts are Compound interest rate (24%), financial knowledge to life circumstances (22%) and Credit card ideology (10%). Table 4 is dictates the financial literacy score for selected financial concepts.
Financial concepts | Correct | Incorrect | Don’t know |
---|---|---|---|
Simple interest rate | 240 (72%) | 69 (20%) | 26 (8%) |
Compound interest rate | 79 (24%) | 94 (28%) | 162 (48%) |
Affordability | 252 (75%) | 83 (25%) | NIL (0%) |
Financial security | 244 (73%) | 47 (14%) | 44 (13%) |
Portfolio diversification | 213 (64%) | 61 (18%) | 61 (18%) |
Loan ideology | 160 (48%) | 128 (38%) | 47 (14%) |
Financial knowledge to life circumstances | 166 (22%) | 122 (16%) | 47 (62%) |
Product choice | 211 (63%) | 124 (37%) | NIL (0%) |
Credit card ideology | 60 (10%) | 62 (11%) | 213 (79%) |
Taxation ideology | 304 (91%) | 18 (5%) | 13 (4%) |
Financial literacy score.
Source: Primary data.
A financier, who is not financially literate, will not be able to select a suitable investment pattern. This behaviour is strongly evident in the rural society of India. Financial literacy is important not only for rural or uneducated one but even an urban educated can get him into financial suffering if he is not aware of financial concepts. The results highlight how important financial literacy is to make sound financial decisions. Financial control, Financial planning, Understanding of financial concepts and Selection of financial product are basic concepts to measure financial awareness of a person.
For the purpose of finding out the relationship between financial literacy and pattern of investment, a correlation test is applied. Results obtained by correlation are given in Table 5.
Financial literacy | Investment pattern | ||
---|---|---|---|
Financial Literacy | Pearson correlation | 1 | 0.129* |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.018 | ||
N | 335 | 335 | |
Investment pattern | Pearson correlation | .129* | 1 |
Sig. (2-tailed) | .018 | ||
N | 335 | 335 |
Relationship analysis through correlation.
Source: Primary data.
From Table 5, it is observed that the value of correlation is 0.129. So it is evidenced that there is weak degree of positive correlation between financial literacy and investment pattern among rural females. The significance value revealed by correlation is 0.018 which is less than 0.05% level of significance. So it is strongly evidenced that correlation is statistically significant also.
Financial Literacy is a vital element to predict households’ financial attitudes in developing nations. Indeed, in Indian heterogeneous household, levels of financial awareness vary greatly. From the empirical study it is revealed that most of the investors select financial institutions because of familiarity and their portfolio selection is largely based on comparison of number of financial products issued by the same familiar financial institution. So, guaranteed return, safety and diverse portfolio selection are contributing at large to describe the investment attitude of women.
The study reveals that there is a relationship between financial literacy and investment behaviour of the rural female. Through financial literacy programme, majority of the respondents (62% of total) have acquired more knowledge on financial concepts such as taxation, financial security, calculation of interest rate etc.
The awareness level of rural females in Investment Avenue is fairly high in banking avenues, post office schemes, insurance schemes and other traditional avenues like gold/silver and real estate opportunities. Their awareness level in investment avenue is very low in chit fund schemes, bonds, debentures, Public provident fund, National savings certificate, Government securities and Commodity market.
A website as a financial literacy guide was released by the Reserve Bank of India on 31st January 2013. This website was developed as a complete financial awareness guide and banks are advised to use this website as a fundamental curriculum to communicate basic financial knowledge. This financial literacy guide provides operational guidelines to organize financial awareness camps, as an initiative towards financial literacy.
Besides, various measures adopted by government and non-government institutions towards financial literacy, the results of the study reveal that still the investment pattern of rural women is followed by traditional avenues of investment. This, it is suggested to financial literacy program organizers to focusing on preferences and investment attitude of micro level segment investors. Hamza and Arif [20] have also suggested that policymakers and managers need to focus on profiling investors based on their status. It is strongly suggested to the program organizers to pass information on issue of budgeting, portfolio diversification, effective credit card management and loan ideology.
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