IT strategy basic development methods.
\r\n\tIt has been established that energy/nutrient depletion, calcium flux injury, or oxidative stress disrupt endoplasmic reticulum homeostasis and even induce accumulation of misfolded/unfolded proteins leading to endoplasmic reticulum stress. Under endoplasmic reticulum stress conditions, an adaptive mechanism of coordinated signaling pathways, defined unfolded protein response (UPR), is activated to return the endoplasmic reticulum to its healthy functioning state. The aging causes a decrease of the protective adaptive response of the UPR and an increase of the pro-apoptotic pathway together with endoplasmic reticulum ultrastructural injury. Controlling endoplasmic reticulum stress response, maintaining the appropriate endoplasmic reticulum ultrastructure and homeostasis, and retaining mitochondria interplay are crucial aspects for cellular health.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book presents a comprehensive overview of endoplasmic reticulum, including, but not limited to, endoplasmic reticulum ultrastructural anatomy, MAMs, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and their implication in health and diseases. Additionally, identifying perturbations in the endoplasmic reticulum stress response could lead to early detection of age-related disease and may help develop therapeutic approaches.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-228-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-227-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-229-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"5d7d49bd80f53dad3761f78de4a862c6",bookSignature:"Dr. Gaia Favero",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",keywords:"Metabolism, Aging, Neurodegenerative Diseases, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Microscopy, Metabolic Stress, Ultrastructural Anatomy, Cellular Stress, Contactology, Mitochondria, Cellular Stress, Endoplasmic Reticulum Response",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 9th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"18 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Human anatomy researcher involved in crucial topics on morphology, anatomy, and molecular medicine - working on innovative approaches to aging-related pathopsychological processes at the University of Brescia.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"238047",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaia",middleName:null,surname:"Favero",slug:"gaia-favero",fullName:"Gaia Favero",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238047/images/system/238047.jpg",biography:'Dr. Gaia Favero is a prominent scientist in the field of life sciences. 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However these latest trends and changes in technology have brought several challenges to the businesses especially to the SMEs who are overloaded with global competition, economic downturn, and fierce competition in changing customers’ demands that has pushed these SMEs to reengineer their business processes. Such challenges demand effective capabilities and competitive solutions. The business organizations started using information technology as a tool to get strategic and competitive advantages. The organizations started using their resources strategically so as to reduce the cost and gain more profit and become productive in customer relationship. To achieve these strategic options, organizations started deploying various strategic planning processes. While the benefits of adopting strategy as a tool to get the business gains among the big businesses became viable, the SMEs started adopting the similar practices coupled with the Internet technologies, new business approaches like e-business and e-commerce soon became familiar and being widely used across the globe. Information Systems are linked with business strategy, management skills, and decision-making to enhance the competitive advantage to achieve the overall organizational success [1]. Researchers have focused on the process of strategic information systems planning (SISP) since the 1970s [1, 2]. SISP further help business to innovate, create new products, reduce cost, and enhance relationship with customers [3, 4]. Unfortunately, majority of SMEs could not be successful in their business endeavors, mainly due to the reasons that these small businesses are not exploiting their full resources mainly due to lack of strategic planning process. This situation continues to exist in almost all the economies especially in the developing countries. A right choice for SMEs to meet these market-driven forces is to increase using ICT to significantly improve their competitive capabilities [5].
\nIn their study, Bhagwat and Sharma [5] stated that IT has a vital role in an organization’s sustainability and growth. This further supports the study that found impact of IT usage on organizational performance is positively related [6]. Azyabi [7] studied IT/IS strategy development among Australian SMEs and that has provided the basic motivation to conduct the study in Brunei. Secondly, up to our knowledge, no prior research was undertaken in Brunei focusing SMEs from IT strategic development point of view. On these rationales, this pioneering study was conducted to investigate the main strategic issues of Bruneian SMEs with two basic objectives:
To find out the extent to which the SMEs are using or familiar with IT strategy development methods
To investigate the difference in the use of basic strategy development method on the basis of organization size (small or medium) and industry sector (manufacturing and non-manufacturing).
The SMEs are considered as a major backbone for the national economy especially in the developing nations. It is true to the Bruneian business environments as well. The first report on Bruneian SMEs [8] has recommended the enhanced use of information technology to gear up a task of improving SME functionality for the overall economic development. The report has highlighted the slow diffusion of technology and has further recommended the strategic directions in adopting new technology. In their study, they not only considered the adoption of new technologies as a strategic issue but also rated the adoption of new technologies as number 9th critical success factor out of 11 that would be contributing toward the success of SMEs.
\nIn the past, most of the researchers [9, 10, 11] have suggested that SMEs have the following characteristics: small management team, strong owner influence, centralized power and control, lack of specialist staff, multifunctional management, lack of control over business environment, limited market share, short-term strategic planning, low employee turnover, and reluctance to take risks. Some other studies [11, 12, 13] suggested that most SMEs avoid sophisticated software and applications, lack necessary expertise to fully utilize the benefits of technological innovations, and associate their ongoing success with vendor support and vendor expertise.
\nWhile discussing the strategic planning among SMEs, we should consider both the dimensions of strategic planning process: (1) strategic planning process to gauge and monitor the performance of SMEs and (2) strategic information technology planning (SITP) process that includes the planning process for the IT resources. However, in its own context, the term is interrelated as some organizations consider it as one process, whereas other SMEs deploy strategic planning process at the outset and then continue it with SITP. The strategic planning on the performance of SMEs has been discussed extensively in theory and in literature [14, 15, 16]. Strategic planning is concerned with the establishment of long-term organizational objectives and the development and implementation of plans to achieve them to further improve the organizational performance [16]. In other words, SMEs not only make long-term planning but also systematically plan at operational level to evaluate both internal (within organization) and external (competitive environments) factors [17].
\nThe focus of this study is not to examine overall strategic planning practices in SMEs but from the Information Technology Strategic Planning (ITSP) process, in particular. Thus examining and evaluating ITSP not only lead to the firms’ performance but to find an answer as how the capacity building of the firm in the competitive environment is sustained. Literature provides the full support that most importantly SMEs engage in strategic planning process is less likely to fail [16, 18, 19]. In addition to the above discussion, we should consider the changing business dynamics with the advent of the Internet and Web services including the m-services. These emerging trends have imposed new challenges and change the strategic planning process henceforth.
\nThe study focus solely on SMEs located in Brunei Darussalam—small island in South China Sea located at the equator between Singapore and Malaysia with a small population of 0.4 million1. About 57% of the population is aged from 20 to 54 years old. The country is ruled by 29th Sultan of Brunei His Majesty Sultan Hassan-ul Bolkiah—the most visionary leader. The country is economically rich with main industry of petroleum and petrochemical based with total GDP of 11,96 billion USD in 2016 with per capita GDP of $76,700 in 2017. The unemployment rate remained 6.9% in 2017 (http://www.theodora.com/wfbcurrent/brunei/brunei_economy.html). The government has been encouraging economic diversification mainly into business service, financial service, hospitality and tourism, transport and logistics, and manufacturing primary resources. The diversification is aimed to provide business opportunities for SMEs. Brunei is made up of microenterprises, small and medium enterprises at the percentage of 52, 44, and 3%, respectively, of the registered business. Majority of SMEs are in wholesale and trading businesses with the inclusion of service-based SMEs. The primary resources sector, Islamic financial market, and halal market have been identified as key growth area for local SMEs. The government provides various forms of assistance such as financing entrepreneurial development, investment incentive, technology transfer, infrastructure, and various other facilities. The SMEs development plans are in accordance with the national long-term plan at the Principles of Asia-Pacific Economic Council (APEC). APEC identified five major priority accesses for the development of SMEs: human resource development, information access, technology and technology sharing, and financing and market access.
\nIn Brunei, only 8% of total private sector business establishments fall in the category of large businesses including foreign banks, shipping and insurance companies and Brunei Shell Petroleum, and its various subsidiaries. The remaining 92% covers the SMEs that also fulfill the 74% of nation’s employment needs (www.bsmenet.com). The Bruneian SMEs are facing the same problems of not doing their business strategically in order to get the competitive advantage [20].
\nBecause of the relative importance of the SMEs within the context of Bruneian business, it is very important to agree on the definition of SMEs, as contribution of SMEs may be estimated only on the basis of what definition for SMEs is accepted in a country. For simplicity, we stick to the definition of Yap et al. [13] for this study. Accordingly, they defined small organizations having 50 or less employees and medium-sized organizations having employees size from 51 to 250.
\nWhile discussing the strategic planning among SMEs, we should consider both dimensions of strategic planning such as (1) strategic planning on the performance of SMEs and SISP among SMEs. However, both are interrelated; if the SMEs deploy strategic planning process at the outset then, there is a strong possibility that these SMEs will use the SISP. The strategic planning on the performance of SMEs has been extensively discussed in the theory and prior literature [13, 14, 15, 16]. Strategic planning is concerned with the establishment of long-term organizational objectives and the development and implementation of plan to achieve them in order to improve the performance of an organization and to set up the directions by developing policy measures [15]. In other words, SMEs must have long-term plans as well operational plans to evaluate both external and internal factors [18, 19]. Since the focus of this study is to highlight the SISP in SMEs so that we can find an answer by doing this, how capacity building of these firms in the competitive environments can further be achieved?
\nWithin the context of SMEs, we need to discuss the different views for the strategy; it can be acknowledged that it is difficult to come up with one single definition for the strategy concept. There are various definitions such as Seth and Thomas [21] who defined strategy as a plan that aligns the enterprise aims, process, and policies toward achieving better allocation for organizational resources. Andrews [22] provided another definition: “Strategy is a plan for the control and utilization of organizational resources to achieve desired corporate goals (e.g. gain market share, image) and gain advantage over competitors.” Similarly, Gibcus and Kemp [23] defined strategy as a “coordinated plan that gives the outlines for decisions and activities of a firm and is focused on the application of the resources that a company has, and the disposal of these resources thus enabling the firm to achieve its own goals.” For this research, the term strategy is defined as follows: a plan that is intended to provide the organization with better resources’ control and utilization and competitive advantage. Finally, the terms IT and IS are two separate terms but are often used interchangeably. For the purpose of this study, we use the term “IT” to represent both IT and IS and IT strategy as “a plan for controlling, using, and utilizing IT/IS resources to gain competitive advantage over rivals.”
\nIT can help organizations in leveraging competence and increasing the competitive advantage. It assists organizations in achieving their strategic and operational goals [24], and thus IT/IS is considered to be a significant factor for SMEs’ success. However, IT/IS needs to be managed effectively to achieve these benefits. According to Earl [25], IT strategy provides organizations with the most important systems that contribute to competitive advantage. These systems could be internal systems which aim to improve efficiency and effectiveness of business operations or external systems. Earl [25] summarizes the objectives and importance of IT strategy in these benefits: facilitating alignment of IT investments with organization objectives, managing IT resources in an efficient and effective way, and establishing IT architectures and policies in the organization. Blili and Raymond [6] point out that those SMEs have to look for long-term advantage from information systems and they should recognize the significance of the right investment decisions. They link the strategic planning for information systems with an organization’s survival. They also consider the rapid change in technology as a motivator for having effective strategic planning for IT.
\nSome studies [26, 27, 28] found that about 75, 76, and 80% organizations engage in strategic IT planning, but strategic IT plans were not implemented extensively. Lederer and Sethi [29] found that only 24% of the projects in the strategic IT plans had been initiated more than 2 years into the implementation stage. Gottschalk [30] in his study of four Norwegian organizations found that 42% of the projects in the formal IT strategy had been implemented after 5 years. Ward and Griffiths [31] found that despite a belief in its importance in the past decade, many organizations have developed perfectly sound IT strategies that had been left to gather dust. Similarly, Falconer and Hodgett [32] in their Australian survey found that proportion claiming to undertake strategic IT planning ranged from 58% in large organizations to 29% in medium-sized organizations and only 19% in small organizations.
\nBased on the above discussion, it can be shown that SMEs are a significant factor for a country’s economy that can be safely be marked as an engine of growth for the nation’s economic development. However, SMEs are facing many competitive and environmental problems. One of the creative and effective solutions for these problems is using IT in an appropriate way. However, formulating IT strategy, which is driven by business strategy and objectives, could provide a smart and efficient use of IT resources in SMEs. Recognizing this, it appears that formal approaches to developing IT strategy would benefit SMEs. In the next section, we review the previous literature to establish a link with this study.
\nLiterature is full of studies that has not only highlighted the various IT strategies that are applied and used among SMEs [25, 31, 32, 39, 40] but also included studies that highlighted the benefits of having IT strategic methods [7, 25] and studies focusing on the barriers to IT strategy development [7, 51]. At the outset, review of the literature was examined from more general studies focusing on the impact of the strategic IT processes on the organizations to the specific studies that has provided a base for this study.
\nThe past several studies were conducted to find out the strategic role of information systems and the impact it brought to the businesses. Pyburn [33] conducted an exploratory study that involved IS managers and top management. He noted that following factors are very critical in influencing the success or failure of SISP, namely, (1) perceived success of the IS manager, (2) volatility of the business, (3) complexity of the IS environment, (4) IS managers’ and top management personality, and (5) physical proximity of the IS manager to the senior managers. Pyburn’s work was basically focusing on top management as a determining factor for SISP success, but he ignored several important aspects such as techniques, processes, and implementation issues. Sexton and Van Auken [34] found in their longitudinal analysis that survival rates of SMEs which apply formal strategic planning process are higher. Several other researchers emphasized the success of SISP among SMEs is related to the managers [15, 35]. Some others studies [36, 37] focused solely on managers’ characteristics and their impact on strategy development. However, the generalization of these studies is limited to owners/managers’ characteristics. Similarly, King and Teo [38] suggested various factors that need to be understood such as management commitment and impact on firm performance, return of investment, and increased market share. Researchers like Peppard et al. [39] and Maharaj and Brown [40] suggested supporting organizations in determining potential opportunities to deploy Information Systems (IS) with great competitiveness. The organizations such as SMEs should deploy IS in certain phase such as strategic awareness, situation analysis, and strategic conception to strategic formularization to strategy implementation leading toward change management action plan to finally evaluating the strategic plan.
\nThe trend in SISP got its first turn with the first version of the Nolan stages that appeared in 1979 [41] and explained the dynamics of increasingly vital production factor called the information technology. His theory provided a widespread framework of development of IT in organization. Jackson [42] studied several strategy concepts to find out the best practice and how companies are best organized for competitive advantages through IT. In addition to it, several approaches were considered such as suggested Earl’s five approaches [43, 44] and Segars’s [44] rational adoption of the strategic IS planning process with the SISP success. Earl [43] classified SISP experience with five categories if SISP approaches: (1) business led, (2) method driven, (3) administrative, (4) technological, and (5) organizational. His findings suggest that each of the five distinct approaches have a different likelihood of success with the “organizational” approach being the most effective and “method driven” the least effective approach. Segars [44] conducted an empirical study of over 250 top IS executives to investigate the issue of design dimensions of planning systems and the influence of internal (within system) and external (system and context) coalignment on SISP. The findings suggested that SISP is multidimensional concepts and strategic planning systems that exhibits high level of comprehensiveness, high level of formalization, control focus, top-down planning flow, and high level of participation and consistency that are directly associated with SISP success and termed this approach as rational adoption.
\nMiller and Cardinal [45] claim that strategic planning provides better results than non-planning. Ward and Peppard [46] stressed on the reconciliation of the IT and business to improve competitive advantage. Bergeron et al. [47] studied two well-known planning methodologies: Porter’s [48] value chain and Wiseman’s [49] strategic thrust for identifying IT opportunities from a competitive advantage perspective. The result indicated that while there were overall similarities between the two methodologies, however, Wiseman strategic thrust framework is more applicable for organization in unstable environments. Gottschalk [50] stressed on the need for improved implementation of IT, failure to do could lead to lost opportunities, nonfulfillment of the objectives, and problems in future planning. He suggested understanding the link between strategic plan and implementation within the organization. Jantan and Srinivasaraghavan [51] studied the IT deployment process and competitive advantages among 81 Malaysian business organizations and confirmed that strategic deployment of IT does affect the level of competitive advantage among the organization. Factors such as good technology management, innovation culture, and strategic planning and training were found to influence on the organizational competitiveness.
\nGordon and Gordon [52] conducted a pilot study of eight Fortune 500 manufacturing companies to find out the interaction between IT and business units as a key to success. Bergeron et al. [53] studied 110 small enterprises and suggested a contingency model based on the notion of “fit” between the organization’s management of IT, its environment, strategy, and structure that has brought a significant difference. Allen and Helms [54] suggested linking strategic practices and organizational performance to Porter’s [55] generic strategy. He provided a list of critical strategic practices that are significantly associated with the organizational performance for each of Porter’s generic strategies: differentiation, focus differentiation, cost leadership, and focus cost. In addition, a number of other studies like Ghobadian and O′ Regan [35] and Gunther and Menzel [37] focused on specific industry sectors. They concluded that SISP practices are influenced by the industry types. Whereas some studies like Sharma [56] and Adendorff et al. [57] are limited to a single-case study. There is no surprise that several studies in strategic planning were conducted in developed world like UK-based study of Ghobadian and O′ Regan [35] and Pemberton and Stonehouse [58]. Gunther and Menzel [37] studied in Germany and Polatoglu [59] studied in Turkey. However, the results of these studies are not related to the developing countries because of various economics, social, and cultural differences. Majama et al. [60] conducted a study among Botswana’s SMEs and found that strategic planning efforts do exists within SMEs, but most of these firms engage in strategic planning activities to a limited extent. The study focused on barriers of not doing the SISP in form of owners/managers’ limited knowledge of strategic planning. Results show that some of these SMEs do not plan because of the size of the business. Some of these SMEs admitted of not having any final business decision-making process leading toward poor or no planning at all.
\nWe now examine the specific studies that have provided a framework for this study. Earl [25] provided a classification for IT strategy models which he called “framework of frameworks.” It includes three main categories of frameworks: (1) Awareness frameworks which include three subsets of frameworks: refocusing frameworks, impact models, and scoping models (2) Opportunity frameworks which include four subsets of frameworks: systems analysis frameworks, application search methods, technology fit frameworks, and business strategy frameworks (3) Positioning frameworks which include three subsets of frameworks: scaling frameworks, spatial frameworks, and temporal frameworks Earl [25] provided examples for each subset. These examples were investigated by Levy et al. [61] in the UK context to find out their applicability to SMEs. The results of that study are as follows: The awareness frameworks are of value for SMEs because they enable them to understand their environment. This will help SMEs to set their business goals effectively and to decide the changes required to achieve these goals. Examples for this category are the strategic opportunities framework, Porter’s generic strategies, and information intensity matrix. In the opportunity frameworks, the systems analysis frameworks and business strategy frameworks are very useful for SMEs. On the other hand, application search methods and technology fit frameworks are less useful for SMEs because they depend on extracting information from business strategy which may not always exist. The example given of a business strategy framework is Porter’s five competitive forces model; the example of a systems analysis framework is Porter’s value chain; and the example of application search methods is customer resource life cycle. The positioning frameworks are the least applicable frameworks for SMEs, except scaling frameworks which help to identify the role of information systems in SMEs. The examples given for scaling frameworks are the Strategic Information Systems Grid, sector information management grid, and stages of growth models.
\nIn addition to these studies, Blili and Raymond [6] proposed two main approaches for the IT strategic planning: top-down and bottom-up. They stated that the first approach is more suitable for SMEs because it reflects the importance of IT in the view of top management. They developed information systems strategy (ISS) model for IT strategy, and this model consists of various IT basic methods. In their proposed model, they suggested that Critical Success Factors (CSFs) method to be used to analyze the priority and significance of the business activities which lead SMEs to the high performance. They recommended that CSFs should be combined with Porter’s value chain and transaction cost method.
\nSimilarly, Levy and Powell [62] built on the ISS model of Blili and Raymond [6] in SMEs. The new model consists of three stages: business context, business process, and strategic content. Each stage includes objectives to be achieved through some basic methods. The business context analysis helps a business to define three main aspects: the business strategy and objectives, the business environment, and the competitive environment. These three analyses can be performed by some basic methods such as CSFs, PESTEL, balanced scorecard, and information intensity matrix. The business process analysis is concerned with three aspects: determining the processes that add value for the business, reviewing if the organization is using the appropriate IT to perform the core processes, and finally, analyzing the organization’s current IT tools and functions. These analyses are to be accomplished through some basic methods such as value chain method, Strategic Information Systems Grid, and soft systems methodology (SSM). The strategic content analysis aims to provide recognition for the required IT that can satisfy the organization’s objectives. They suggested such techniques as MIT’90 and the 3D model of information systems success for this purpose.
\nSalas et al. [63] within the Australian context provided an approach to IT strategy development that was based on the Blili and Raymond’s [6] work. The model consists of two complementary views: top-down which is done by top management to identify the business objectives and environment and bottom-up which is done by operational managers to analyze the major processes. Both views are targeted to specify the required IT to fulfill the business objectives. They adapted the Strategic Options Development and Analysis (SODA) model to perform the top-down view and business process analysis and modeling to perform the bottom-up tasks. Table 1 list IT strategy basic development methods that have been used to form the models discussed.
\nNo. | \nBasic IT strategy methods | \nLiterature sources | \n
---|---|---|
1 | \nStrategic opportunities framework | \nLevy et al. [61], Benjamin et al. [63] | \n
2 | \nPorter’s generic strategies | \nLevy et al. [61] | \n
3 | \nInformation intensity matrix | \nLevy et al. [61], Levy and Powell [62] | \n
4 | \nPorter’s value chain | \nBlili and Raymond [6], Levy et al. [61], Levy and Powell [62] | \n
5 | \nCustomer resource life cycle | \nLevy et al. [61] | \n
6 | \nPorter’s five competitive forces model | \nLevy et al. [61] | \n
7 | \nSector information management grid | \nLevy et al. [61] | \n
8 | \nStrategic information systems grid | \nLevy et al. [61], Levy and Powell [62] | \n
9 | \nstages of growth models | \nLevy et al. [61] | \n
10 | \nBalanced scorecard | \nLevy and Powell [62] | \n
11 | \nTransaction cost | \nBlili and Raymond [6] | \n
12 | \nPESTEL | \nLevy and Powell [62] | \n
13 | \nStrategic Options Development and Analysis (SODA) | \nSalas et al. [63] | \n
14 | \nSoft systems methodology | \nLevy and Powell [62] | \n
15 | \n3D model of IS success | \nLevy and Powell [62] | \n
16 | \nCritical success factors (2000) | \nBlili and Raymond [6], Levy and Powell [62] | \n
17 | \nMIT’90 | \nLevy and Powell [62] | \n
IT strategy basic development methods.
Azyabi [7] conducted a study of 34 SMEs in the Victorian State of Australia that used IT strategic development methods, perceived benefits, and encountered barriers, as pointed out in the previous section and motivated to conduct this study in Brunei, and found that only three methods are found to have indirect influence on IT strategy development: critical success factors, transaction cost, and balanced scorecard. The major benefits include achievement of organizational efficiency, facilitating alignment between business and IT strategies, and improving organizational performance. The most significant barriers to develop IT strategy are financial and human resources limitation and lack of time and focus on day-to-day operations. The results further reveal that small-sized enterprises are less familiar with critical success factors and transaction cost than the medium-sized enterprises. However, there is no difference among manufacturing and service organizations in facilitating alignment between business and IT and obtaining competitive advantages. Small-sized enterprises experience bottleneck and barriers through lack of relevant IT experience and lack of time and focus on day-to-day operation than medium-sized organizations.
\nAzyabi [7] research has some weaknesses in the form of small sample size and generalizability; however, it is unique in the Asia-Pacific region and has further provided a source of motivation to conduct a similar study within the context of Southeast Asia. In fact from the review of the literature, it was found that researchers have conducted the studies from various dimensions, and no consistent pattern could therefore be applied leading toward a big research gap in the literature. As mentioned, most of these studies were conducted in the Western worlds, and the findings might or might not be applicable to this part of the globe. Up to our knowledge, no such study has focused on the multidimensional aspect of the strategic IT development process, benefits of using, and barriers of not using the strategic development process within Southeast Asian perspective. There is another gap that exists within Southeast Asian perspective, and the present study could fill in the research gap. Although the business environment and business volume among Bruneian SMEs are very different than their Australian counterparts, however by conducting this study, we would be able to find empirical evidence as how one of the Southeast Asian economies and strategic business development approach is different. The findings may further be utilized to generalize among other Southeast Asian context.
\nThe purpose of this study was purely descriptive in nature. Creswell [64] suggested that descriptive research is to collect data about an existing situation or issue. Yin [65] suggested that survey is an appropriate method for descriptive research. In the light of the above cited discussion, a questionnaire adapted after an Australian study [7] was used for this study. The questionnaire consists of two parts, starting with Section A that collects information on the demographical data about the respondents, organizations, and IT functions. Section B collects information about the IT strategy development methods. Section B is further divided into four parts: collecting information about awareness framework, opportunity frameworks, positioning frameworks, and other frameworks. The data is collected on five-point Likert scale starting with 1 as “fully used,” 2 as “partially used,” 3 as “familiar and has indirect influence,” 4 as “familiar but not used,” and finally, 5 as “unfamiliar.” So their final mean values of less than 3.00 mean either fully or partially used, and mean values around 3.00 indicate familiar but indirect effect, and finally, mean values of above 4 indicate either not used or unfamiliar with the strategic development.
\nThere are several types of validity measures such as face validity and construct validity. Campbell and Fiske [66] propose two types of validity: convergent and discriminating validity. Convergent validity is measured by average variance extracted for each construct during the reliability analysis that should be 0.5 (50%) or better. Table 2 shows the reliability values for the various constructs with variance extracted, and all the values are above 50%, thus providing a sufficient evidence of convergent validity. Similarly, Cronbach’s α [67] for the constructs ranging from 0.80 to 0.90 further indicate a sufficient level of reliability. In general results show that both validity and reliability requirements are met.
\nConstructs | \nNo of items | \nMean | \nCronbach alpha (α) | \nVariance extracted | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Awareness frameworks | \n3 | \n3.63 | \n0.88 | \n0.81 | \n
Opportunity frameworks | \n3 | \n3.53 | \n0.80 | \n0.74 | \n
Positioning frameworks | \n3 | \n3.68 | \n0.87 | \n0.80 | \n
Other frameworks | \n8 | \n3.67 | \n0.84 | \n0.60 | \n
Reliability and validity.
A questionnaire was sent to 129 SMEs according to a random sampling plan. The SMEs were selected from a key business directory of Brunei (www.goldpages.com). Out of these 127 organizations, 70 organizations responded, and responses from 67 organizations were retained as they were filled by the top management; three were dropped because of the fact that it was not filled as per instructions. This makes the response rate of 52% sufficient for the survey of SMEs especially in a small market of Brunei Darussalam.
\nData obtained from the survey were analyzed for descriptive, frequency, and student’s t-statistics by using SPSS version 19, a well-known statistical package.
\nThe first question in this section asked for some basic demographic information about the respondent’s job title, gender, and years of experience with the organization. The summary of the responses are given in Table 3. Interestingly, 63% of the respondents with responsibility for IT function were male compared to 37% of the females. Similarly, 43% of the respondents were IT/IS or MIS managers compared to 51% as directors, and only 6% were general managers. As presented, 40% of the respondents have 1–5 years of experience with their organizations, with 37% were having 6–10 years of experience, and roughly around 22% have more than 10 years of experience with their organizations.
\nOrganization characteristics | \nFrequency | \nPercentage | \n
---|---|---|
Job title | \n||
IT/IS manager | \n29 | \n43 | \n
Director | \n34 | \n51 | \n
General manager | \n4 | \n6 | \n
Gender | \n||
Male | \n42 | \n63 | \n
Female | \n25 | \n37 | \n
Years of experience | \n||
1–5 | \n27 | \n40 | \n
6–10 | \n25 | \n37 | \n
More than 10 | \n22 | \n22 | \n
Profile of respondents.
The second question gathered information about the profile of the respondent’s organization such as the years of operation, sector, and the number of employees. This section discusses the survey findings about these aspects and a summary is shown in Table 4. Interestingly, 24% of the participating organizations have between 5 and 10 years of operation. Very few (4%) have less than a year of operation. The participating organizations with more than 10 years of operation represent about 44% of the surveyed SMEs. Unfortunately, the share of participating companies from the manufacturing sector was only 12%. Others are mostly from service industry (31.0%). Few are from construction and retail sectors (3 and 6%, respectively). However, the good response rate of 30% was from information and commutation technology (ICT). About 55% of the respondent organizations have between 10 and 50 employees, and 45% of the organizations have between 51 and 250 employees. The SMEs with approximate sales between B$ 100,000 and B$ 250,000 cover the highest response of 28%, and about 22% of the participating organizations did not disclose their sales’ figure.
\nOrganization characteristics | \nFrequency | \nPercent | \n
---|---|---|
Years of operation | \n||
Less than a year | \n4 | \n6.0 | \n
–5 years | \n18 | \n27.0 | \n
5–10 years | \n16 | \n24.0 | \n
Over 10 years | \n29 | \n43.7 | \n
Industry segment | \n||
Manufacturing | \n8 | \n12.0 | \n
Service | \n21 | \n31.3 | \n
Construction | \n2 | \n3.0 | \n
Retail | \n4 | \n6.0 | \n
ICT | \n20 | \n30.0 | \n
Other | \n12 | \n18.0 | \n
Number of employees | \n||
Less than 10 | \n14 | \n21.0 | \n
11–50 | \n23 | \n34.0 | \n
51–250 | \n30 | \n45.0 | \n
Approximate sales | \n||
< $100,000 | \n9 | \n13.4 | \n
$100 K to < $250 K | \n19 | \n28.3 | \n
$250 K to < $500 K | \n18 | \n12.0 | \n
$500 K to < $ 1 million | \n7 | \n10.4 | \n
More than 1 million | \n9 | \n13.4 | \n
No answer | \n15 | \n22.0 | \n
Profile of organizations.
Question 3 asked the respondents if they have a group of people dedicated to the IT function. The findings, as shown in Table 5, reveals that a large majority (82%) of the respondents have people who are dedicated for the IT function, while 18% do not have such people.
\n\n | Frequency | \nPercentage | \n
---|---|---|
People responsible for IT function | \n||
No | \n12 | \n18.0 | \n
1–5 | \n23 | \n34.0 | \n
6–10 | \n18 | \n27.0 | \n
More than 10 | \n14 | \n21.0 | \n
People responsible for IT decision-making process | \n||
None | \n32 | \n48.0 | \n
1–5 | \n22 | \n33.0 | \n
6–10 | \n7 | \n10.0 | \n
More than 10 | \n6 | \n9.0 | \n
Profile of IT function.
The survey questioned the participants about their level of use and familiarity with IT strategy basic development methods. They were asked to respond to this question by encircling a number on a five-point scale where 1 means fully used, 2 means partly used, 3 means familiar and has indirect influence, 4 means familiar but not used, and 5 means unfamiliar. A summary of how the surveyed SMEs are using and are familiar with the IT strategy basic development methods is shown in Table 6. From the table data, it is evident that none of the IT strategy basic development methods are fully or partially used by the participating SMEs. Only three IT strategy basic development methods have indirect influence on SMEs: critical success factors (mean score: 3.10), transaction cost (mean score: 3.13), and balanced scorecard (mean score: 3.28). SMEs are generally familiar with many IT strategy basic methods (e.g., customer resource life cycle, strategic opportunities framework, stages of growth models, 3D model of IS success, Porter’s value chain, Porter’s five competitive forces, soft systems methodology, Porter’s generic strategies, Strategic Information Systems Grid, information intensity matrix, and sector information management grid); however, these methods have no effect on their IT strategy development, and finally SMEs are not familiar at all with such methods as Strategic Options Development and Analysis (SODA), MIT’90, and PESTEL. The mean of these development methods is above 4.00 but less than 4.50, which further indicate the marginal familiarization of these methods.
\nIT strategy development basic methods | \nMean rating | \nRanking | \nAustralian study*\n | \n
---|---|---|---|
Critical success factors | \n3.10 | \n1 | \n3.00 | \n
Transaction cost | \n3.13 | \n2 | \n3.00 | \n
Balanced scorecard | \n3.28 | \n3 | \n3.39 | \n
Customer resource life cycle | \n3.34 | \n4 | \n3.85 | \n
Strategic opportunities framework | \n3.39 | \n5 | \n3.88 | \n
Stages of growth models | \n3.61 | \n7 | \n3.94 | \n
3D model of IS success | \n3.84 | \n12 | \n4.06 | \n
Porter’s value chain | \n3.68 | \n10 | \n4.09 | \n
Porter’s five competitive forces | \n3.60 | \n6 | \n4.15 | \n
Soft systems methodology | \n3.79 | \n11 | \n4.15 | \n
Porter’s generic strategies | \n3.67 | \n9 | \n4.24 | \n
Strategic information systems grid | \n3.66 | \n8 | \n4.27 | \n
Information intensity matrix | \n3.85 | \n13 | \n4.27 | \n
Sector information management grid | \n3.81 | \n14 | \n4.27 | \n
Strategic Options Development and Analysis (SODA) | \n4.22 | \n15 | \n4.59 | \n
MIT’90 | \n4.33 | \n17 | \n4.69 | \n
PESTEL | \n4.25 | \n16 | \n4.72 | \n
In order to find any difference between basic strategy development methods and organization size, statistical t-test was conducted and the results are presented in Table 7. The results further indicate that none of the IT strategy basic development method is used by the Bruneian SMEs either fully or partially even though the SMEs are familiar with these methods. A comparison was also made with the Australian study and results reveal that two of the basic strategy development methods such as critical success method and transaction cost are significant rather than the balanced scorecard.
\n\n | \n | \n | \n | T-test for equality of means | \n\n | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
IT strategy basic development methods | \nOrganization size | \nMeans | \nF | \nT | \ndf | \nSig. (2 tailed) | \nRemark | \nAustralian study | \n
Transaction cost | \n50 | \n3.11 3.16 | \n1.862 | \n−.169 | \n65 | \n0.867 | \nNon-sig | \nSignificant | \n
Critical success factors | \n50 | \n3.14 3.06 | \n0.993 | \n0.242 | \n65 | \n0.809 | \nNon-sig | \nSignificant | \n
Balanced scorecard | \n50 | \n3.47 3.06 | \n4.65 | \n1.456 | \n65 | \n0.150 | \nNon-sig | \nNon-sig | \n
T-test results of the use of the IT strategy basic methods based on organization size.
Significant at 95% confidence level.
Another comparison was made to explore the differences between industry sectors regarding the same three IT/IS strategy methods. The responding SMEs were divided into two main industry sectors: manufacturing and non-manufacturing. The results (presented in Table 8) reveal that there are no significant differences between these two industry sectors regarding the use of three IT/IS strategy basic methods.
\n\n | \n | \n | \n | T-test for equality of means | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
IT strategy basic development methods | \nIndustry sector | \nMeans | \nF | \nT | \ndf | \nSig. (2 tailed) | \nRemark | \n
Transaction cost | \nManuf Non-manuf | \n3.25 3.23 | \n3.39 | \n−0.197 | \n65 | \n0.845 | \nNon-sig | \n
Critical success factors | \nManuf Non-manuf | \n3.75 3.06 | \n0.603 | \n−1.071 | \n65 | \n0.288 | \nNon-sig | \n
Balanced scorecard | \nManuf Non-manuf | \n3.25 3.75 | \n0.435 | \n−0.833 | \n65 | \n0.408 | \nNon-sig | \n
T-test results of the use of the IT strategy basic methods based on industry sector.
Significant at 95% confidence level.
Manuf: Manufacturing; Non-manuf: Non-manufacturing.
The findings indicate that none of the IT strategy basic development methods are used by the Bruneian SMEs either fully or partially, even though they are familiar with most of these methods. One qualitative question asked respondents to add any further comments about IT strategy development in SMEs. Some of them mentioned that these methods are well recognized in academic field but are not known in the SME context under these terms and names. Furthermore, some respondents reported that these methods could be more applicable for large organizations rather than SMEs. These reasons may help explain to some extent the absence of the use of these methods among the surveyed SMEs. The results support the study of Majama et al. [60] who found that strategic planning efforts among SMEs in Botswana do exist but to a limited extent. The comparison with Australian study was made to find out the difference between the two categories of organization size regarding the three methods which have indirect influence on SMEs’ IT strategy development (i.e., critical success factors, transaction cost, and balanced scorecard). The results of student t-test (in Table 7) indicate that small organizations (with less than 50 employees) are less influenced by and are less familiar with the transaction cost and critical success factors than medium-sized organizations (with more than 50 employees). On the other hand, no such significant difference can be observed between these two groups of SMEs toward balanced scorecard. The results partially support Blili and Raymond [6], Boynton and Zmud [68], and Levy and Powell [62]. As far as the use of the IT/IS strategy basic development methods are concerned, our results are consistent with the Australian study [7] that further indicated that none of the IT/IS strategy basic development methods are fully or partially used by the participating SMEs. However, on the basis of industry sector and organization size (Table 8), our findings are in contrast with the study (ibid) as on these bases IT/IS strategy basic development methods remained insignificant. This might be due to the business dynamics and business practices of the Bruneian business environment which is less competitive, in practice, and/or lack of top management initiative. In addition, Bruneian SMEs are not struggling for their survival solely on IT [69] and are less influenced by the basic strategy development methods compared to Australian counterpart. However, no such difference is significant between Bruneian and Australian SMEs on the basis of industry sector.
\nThis pioneering study conducted among Bruneian SMEs has met both of its objectives. As mentioned in the introduction, the main objectives of this study were to investigate the extent to which Bruneian SMEs use or are familiar with the basic IT strategy basic development methods. Regarding the first objective on the use of the IT strategy development methods, it was found that none of the provided basic IT strategy development methods is used by these surveyed SMEs either fully or partially; only three methods have indirect influence on IT strategy development in these SMEs: critical success factors, transaction cost, and balanced scorecard. Nevertheless, these surveyed SMEs are not familiar with SODA, MIT’90, and PESTEL, and surveyed SMEs are familiar with other strategy development methods, but these methods had no effect on their IT strategic development. Moreover, no statistical difference was found with the familiarization with the basic IT strategy development methods on the basis of organization size and industry sector that conclude our second objective. In the practice side, this research assists SMEs in recognizing the importance of IT strategy for SMEs, and it therefore provides an insight of IT strategy development in SMEs. The study further found some similarities in the use of basic IT strategy development methods with Australian SMEs on the basis of industry sector; however, on the basis of organization size, the results are in contrast, and it is because of the more developed business practices of Australian SMEs.
\nThe study findings further provide insight in building up an empirical foundation for understanding the organizational use of IT strategy basic methods, among Bruneian SMEs within the Southeast Asian context. The basic question that needs an immediate attention is from the policy planners that are to find out the reasons why these SMEs are not utilizing the basic IT strategy development methods especially when they are aware of the benefits of the strategic process. The plausible reason is that Bruneian business environments do not demand the competitive advantage. This was also supported by one of the studies on e-commerce adoption among Bruneian SMEs and had further concluded that Bruneian businesses need to develop a business culture where competitive advantage could be achieved through e-commerce adoption [19]. To deal with the severity of this problem, the CEO of these SMEs along with the policy makers of Bruneian Small and Medium Business Development Authority (SMBDA), with the help of the Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources (MIPR), should address this issue accordingly. We believe that there are some success stories among small businesses, and the planning agencies could further organize a forum where other small businesses can learn from the best practices. We also believe that until or unless the stated barriers were not curtailed or reduced, these SMEs would not be gaining.
\nAs mentioned, one of the biggest constraints faced by theses SMEs with regard to the SISP emerged from lack of owner’s awareness, their reactive behavior, and lack of formal employees’ participation in business decisions. This can further be improved by either educating the owners’ IT skills and abilities or by employing a formal manager-IT support. This can be possibly implemented by the intervening e-government initiative by e-Government National Centre (EGNC). Once the owners are educated and started developing SISP, these SMEs would increase competitiveness, reduce cost, and share knowledge with the members and stakeholders; the overall business processes would finally be improved to get the business, otherwise outside competitive forces will reshape the local business SMEs.
\nLike every research this study is not free from its weaknesses and limitations. Properly addressing these limitations in the forthcoming researches could improve the findings. Firstly, the small sample size has been a major impediment especially generalizing the results across the region. Secondly, the small contribution of the manufacturing sector among these surveyed SMEs because of the absence of very large share of this sector in Bruneian business has made the sample size bias in nature which is apparently beyond the control of the researchers. Thirdly, the study needs to include barriers of not doing the SISP to highlight the various reasons that need to be addressed by the relevant authorities Finally, most of the items in the questionnaire are self-reported and would further induce response bias, and we did not do any precautions to address this issue. So caution should be used is generalizing the results. We therefore recommend that future studies would address this issue accordingly.
\nThe ground breaking discovery of Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) played an astonishing role in neural control theory in 1950’s. In the human cortex GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter [1]. In the initial developmental stage of life, GABA functions as an excitatory element which influences many physiological processes like neuronal proliferation, neurogenesis, migration, differentiation and preliminary circuit building. After maturation of CNS, GABA acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter which is controlled as chloride or cation transporter expression. GABA also plays a vital role in interstitial neurons development of white matter along with oligodendrocyte development. Whereas the basic fundamental cellular mechanisms are not well described though it is proven that a lot of neurological diseases are well involved through GABA dependant pathway which includes white matter abnormalities, including anoxic-ischemic injury, anxiety, insomnia and schizophrenia [2]. GABA receptors are majorly classified into two main types ionotropic GABAA and GABAC receptors and the metabotropic GABAB receptor. GABAA acts by activating the fast-hyperpolarizing negative ion channel (Cl−) and diffuse by the means of concentration gradient to hyperpolarize post synaptic mature neurons [3, 4]. Whereas another kind of ionotropic receptor was discovered GABAC with 3ρ subunits [5]. GABAB receptors consist of two subunits, GABAB1and GABAB2 which are responsible for slower inhibitory transmission. These receptor activations are coupled with K+/Ca+ channels through G-protein mediated secondary pathway [6].
Natural molecules with a wide range of chemical structures have been shown to have GABAA receptor modulating potential due to the structural heterogeneity of and more than one number of binding sites. It has different pharmacological effects depending on the mechanism of action, the binding site and the affinity of the compounds. These effects have been investigated using different
The versatile binding nature of benzodiazepine binding site of GABA receptor allows multiple molecules to bind and modulate the functions of GABA in a very specific manner. So, this class of compounds are used for the treatment of anxiety, convulsion, insomnia by non-specifically modulating all five α subunits. This non selective nature of these compounds generates unwanted side effects like tolerance and dependence. Therefore, there is an immediate need for finding safe drugs, with increased anxiolytic and decreased sedative potential. In recent decades, various reports have been made on natural products with GABAergic activity and, different various methods have been used to describe the effects. Hence, this review aimed to collect the existing data and make the obtained results as comparable as possible, thus facilitating the discussion of structure–activity relationships [10].
GABA is mainly produced from α-decarboxylation of glutamate by the enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) and metabolized by the actions of GABA-transaminase (GABA-T) and succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (SSADH) into succinate respectively. Through the use of the pyridoxal-5′-phosphate-dependent interconversion steady state concentration of GABA is achieved in-vivo (apo-GAD). At least 50 percent of the total GAD present in the brain is apo-GAD [10]. Inorganic phosphate promotes the activation of GAD and blocked by aspartate, GABA and ATP. The ATP facilitates and stabilizes apo-GAD formation which further stimulates the development of GABA. At 37°c temperature apo-GAD has a half-life of few minutes without ATP. GAD mainly consists of two isoforms of distinct molecular weights (65 and 67 kD) which are the products of chromosomes 2 and 10 in humans.
After synthesis, GABA vesicular release has specific mechanisms. GABA is assembled using Mg2+ activated ATPase into vesicles. This method is energy-dependent and requires adenosine triphosphate and magnesium. Calcium-dependent GABA vesicular release appears to result in a temporary increase in the synaptic cleft’s GABA concentration and the binding of the receptor to evoke action. Through the sodium and chloride reuptake mechanism of the GABA transporter (GAT) to the presynaptic neuron and surrounding glia, quick synapse removal takes place. GABA is then reused into metabolites that are eventually used for GABA resynthesis by breakdown. GABA-oxoglutarate transaminase, succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase and glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) are three enzymes required for GABA metabolism and resynthesis. The deterioration of GABA to succine semi-aldehyde is catalyzed by the enzyme GABA oxoglutarate transaminase. The latter is then oxidized by means of succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase into succinic acid. Ligands associated with these GABA procedures will regulate the action of GABA [11].
In 1981, GABAA & GABAB subtypes of GABA were discovered by Hill and Bowery. GABAA was reported as chlorine sensitive ion channel which is allosterically modulated by barbiturates, benzodiazepines, neurosteroids and ethanol. Along with this GABAB receptors couple with Ca+ and K+ channels via G protein second messenger system. This receptor activation specifically happens through baclofen which is resistant through GABAA modulators [12].
As GABAB receptors are dimeric metabotropic in nature and the structure of pentameric GABAA receptors ideal for allosteric regulation. So research on these receptors is likely to develop novel therapy for the treatment of neurological and psychological disorders [13, 14] (Figure 1).
A. The subunits of GABAA receptor and chlorine channel. B. Represents the barbiturate and benzodiazepine binding sites on GABA receptor subunits.
Among the three types of GABA receptors, the GABAA receptor is the best characterized one. For several selective ligands, this channel has numerous binding sites. One class of therapeutic drugs linked to this target are receptor modulators: benzodiazepines, non-benzodiazepines and barbiturates, most of which improve the effect of GABA by increasing the chloride channel opening [13].
The GABAA agonist, muscimol, antagonist bicuculline and picrotoxin and inverse agonist FG 7142 are additional ligands which bind to the GABAA receptor. Some of these agents do not seem to have therapeutic benefits, but when used as pharmacological tools for the GABAA receptor they are the most significant ligands. Neuro-active steroids and partial benzodiazepine agonists (PBAs) are some newly discovered agents which are coming into recent considerations [14]. PBAs (e.g., bretazenil, imidazenil) are GABAA receptor activators, similar to benzodiazepines. Although they tend to have lower effectiveness compared to full benzodiazepine agonists, they give a more favorable side effect profile. Compared to other configurations found in more selective areas, this subtype is common throughout the brain [15].
GABAB receptors have seven membrane-spanning amino acid domains which are connected by a G-protein to its signaling pathway (K+, Ca++ ion channels or adenylate cyclase). Presynaptic GABAB receptors are majorly coupled to calcium channels and their stimulation by the receptor results in decrease of calcium conductance and decline of GABA release. Thus, the receptors auto-regulates the discharge of GABAA and gives the GABAA system with negative feedback. On the other hand, Post-synaptic GABAB receptors are primarily linked to potassium channels and their stimulation led to increased conductance of K+, hyperpolarization and decreased excitability of the neurons. The opening of T-type calcium channel is mainly associated with the actuation of GABAB receptor, resulting in calcium spiking activity that can contribute to absence seizure and is also included in signaling through the pathway of adenylate cyclase. It is therefore assumed that mediation of the GABAB receptor occurs through at least two distinct subtypes receptor [16, 17, 18].
The GABAC receptor, a subtype of GABAA receptor characterization started when the analogue of GABA cis-4-aminocrotonic acid (CACA) in cat spinal interneurons developed a depressant action, which was not inhibited by the GABAA antagonist bicuculline and varied from the depressant actions of the GABAB agonist baclofen. The GABAC receptor is distinguished from both GABAA and GABAB by their pharmacological actions. GABAC is structurally different from GABAA because GABAC is hetero oligomeric and homo oligomeric which means it composed of many subunits of the same subtype, it can be either r1 or r2 [19].
The main components of brain inhibitory circuits are networks of (GABAergic) interneurons in the amygdala [20]. This neurotransmitter is essential to maintain a balance between neuronal excitation and inhibition. Both glutamatergic neurons and the GABAergic interneurons compose of the basolateral nucleus (BLA). A relatively small group of GABAergic inhibitory neurons is closely regulated by Glutamatergic neurons. Devastation of GABAergic BLA inhibition, such as anxiety and depression, emotional dysregulation, and seizure actions, can cause hyper-excitability of the The central amygdala (CeA) consisting only of GABAergic neurons acts by converging inputs from the BLA as the primary output nucleus of the amygdala. In addition, the BLA, the central amygdala and all their associations play a key role in the regulation of the GABAergic system. As a result, these GABAergic amygdala neurons are properly trained to perform a central role in the stress management. Nonetheless, even less is known about the association between the GABAergic amygdala inhibitory system and stress [21].
The sedative and hypnotic effects are mediated by α1 subunit of GABAA receptors, whereas the anxiolytic effect is exhibited by the positive regulation of α2 and (or) α3 subunit of GABAA receptors. Furthermore, in learning and memory, the α5 subunits play an important role. The cause of side effects, such as muscle relaxation or anterograde amnesia, is because of benzodiazepines, which are widely used in the treatment of anxiety, insomnia and seizures, functioning on various subunits (α1, α2, α3 and α5). Such drawbacks include the growth of resistance and dependence. The development of new and safer drugs with, for example, an efficient anxiolytic yet low sedative potential is therefore urgently warranted. Various studies have recently been performed on natural products with GABAergic involvement, and various types of approaches have been used to clarify the findings. Consequently, the purpose of this analysis is to gather current evidence and generate the findings obtained, thereby promoting the discussion of structure activity relationships [9].
In knock-out mice special kind of GABAB receptors are being introduced in mice that lack subunits of the GABAB receptor. In addition to psychiatric conditions, the phenotype of these mice shows evidence of GABAB receptor activation in epilepsy, sensorimotor gating, nociception and temperature control [22]. With almost the same behavioral phenotype as GABAB1 Knockout mice whereas mice that lack the GABAB2 subunit are currently developed. Some data suggest that these phenotypes underlie the lack of heteromeric GABAB1 and GABAB2 receptors. In order to evaluate the anxiolytic ability of other positive GABAB receptor modulators, further studies are required, but current evidence suggests that they may be a new category of anxiolytics with a higher side effect profile than benzodiazepines. The mechanisms involved in the anxiety activity impact of GABAB receptors are not well known. Future research should also focus on behavioral and electrophysiological approaches to the activation of GABAB receptors in major anxiety-related brain regions [23].
In late adolescence or early adulthood, schizophrenia is a mental health condition that commonly occurs. Its impact on speech, thinking, emotions and other areas of life can affect the social interactions and daily activities of people. In the presynaptic neuron, the carrier protein is available in GAT-1 and is mainly responsible for GABA reuptake in synapse. It plays a significant role in both phasic and tonic inhibition which is regulated by GABA. The synaptic potential of GABA is terminated by GAT-1 and it is managed by the duration and adequacy of GABAergic neurotransmission therefore, decreased GAT-1 levels demonstrate enhanced accessibility of GABA. In schizophrenia, numerous studies show decreased levels of mRNA encoding for the GAT-1 protein along with the decreased expression of GAD 67 mRNA. GAT-1 mRNA delivery is decreased and generally unchanged in most GABAergic neurons. GAT-1 mRNA concentration fluctuations are recognized in chandelier neurons. In schizophrenia, the thickness of immunoreactive GAT-1 cartridges is reduced, although axon terminal marker in other populations remains unaltered. Relatively low GAT-1 immunoreactive cartridge thickness indicates a significantly reduced GAT-1 protein correlated with a reduced level of GAT-1 mRNA. Therefore, in individuals with schizophrenia, the amount of GAT-1 protein-enclosing chandelier neurons decreased whereas the number of neurons comprising parvalbumin remained consistent. This outcome infers that the decreased degrees of GAT-1 mRNA are restricted to chandelier neurons.
The decline of GAD67 mRNA coding in the prefrontal dorsolateral cortex is the most predictable post-mortem finding in schizophrenia, which led to decrease in GAD67 levels of protein, despite the fact that this has been less widely considered. The schizophrenia-influenced subset tends to incorporate GABAergic neurons comprising parvalbumin. Expression of parvalbumin mRNA in schizophrenia is diminished in layer 3 and 4 of the prefrontal cortex (PFC). In the prefrontal cortex (PFC), the recent discovery indicates that the decreased articulation of GAD67 mRNA is unique for the GABA neuron subgroup [24].
Adequate histopathological data also suggests that, the association of GABAergic neurotransmission impairment with pathologies and cognitive dysfunctions of schizophrenia. The primary motor cortex (PMC), primary visual cortex (VC), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is distinguished by the similar GABAergic gene expression deficits as shown in the Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, which includes selective parvalbumin-containing GABA neuron involvement. The greatest decreases in mRNA encoding levels for parvalbumin have been reported. In serious case reduction in the α1 and δ subunits of GABA receptors, GAD67 mRNA, GAD65 mRNA and GAT-1 mRNA is displayed in the brain regions [10, 25].
Both in animals and humans, depression and anxiety are most frequent causes of persistent stress. Two mechanisms are defined by anxiety models: fear processes are believed to be developed to allow us to change our emphasis on the first hint of risk and behavioral modification in order to prevent or eliminate an imminent or predicted overt danger [26].
The long-term potential activity strongly depends on the augmentation of GABA signaling which process through the GABAA receptors namely α1 and α2. The long-term potential response triggers are not only restricted to GABAA but also to the GABAB receptor. The GABAB receptor antagonists causing the long-term potential response on cortical along with thalamic centripetal synapses whereas the thalamic feed needs postsynaptic response from NMDA-receptor. The cortical actions controlled by pre-synaptic response on increased glutamate response by NMDA receptor independent activity, so activating GABA synapse thereby inducing GABAB receptor might help to arrest non associated long-term potential there by reducing agitation response [27].
By protruding to the central amygdala (CEA), CEA output neurons control the GABAergetic tone and form a spontaneous active neuron in lateral subdivisions. Aversive stimulus can reduce this inhibitory tone. CEA consists primarily of localized GABA neurons and the inhibition of GABA occurs through GABAA α2 receptor. Therefore, for benzodiazepine-induced anxiolysis and anti-panic activity, CEA considered to be a significant target [28].
Epilepsy can be the consequence of disturbances in the homeostasis involving other neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, for example, glutamate, adenosine, norepinephrine, and acetylcholine. GABA receptor or transporter function alteration can allow the occurrence of seizure in the presence of normal GABA levels. Some data indicates that low occipital lobe GABA concentration (remote from the seizure focus) is a risk factor for seizure recurrence. Low GABA levels predispose but may not be sufficient for seizures to become clinically effective [28, 29].
In case of adults, status epilepticus induces a complete re-organization of the networks, with cell death, axonal growth leading to an increased glutamatergic drive. This, in turn, will decrease the threshold of seizure generation and thus contribute to seizure generation. Somatostatin innervates the dendrites of the principal cells in the hippocampus and triggers a chemical imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters which leads to a reduction of the inhibitory strength that is necessary but not sufficient to generate ongoing seizures. An additional important factor is the persistent increase of the intracellular chloride concentration that leads to a long-lasting shift in the depolarizing direction of the actions of GABA that will also contribute to seizure generation [30, 31].
Due to the different binding sites present on GABA (A) receptor, various receptor modulating compounds have been identified and depending on the mode of action, the affected binding site, and the compounds’ affinity. Radioligand binding assays have been confirmed the capacity of the ligand for the displacement of a molecule from its binding site. Various studies helped us understand the link between modulation of the receptor and associated effects, such as anxiolytic, sedative, and anticonvulsive properties (Figure 2; Table 1).
Action of natural products on the specific site of GABA receptor.
Class of Compound | Source | Mechanism | Active Componud | In-Vivo/ In-Vitro | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
GABA competitive antagonist | Colchicine Cornigerine | Electrophysiological studies, Radio ligand binding assay | [32, 33] | ||
GABA modulator | Leonurine | Radio ligand binding assay | [34] | ||
GABA (A) receptor agonist | Piperine piperanine | Electrophysiological studies | [35] | ||
GABA modulator | Annomontine | Elevated plus maze test | [36] | ||
non-competitive GABA(A) receptor antagonist | Songorine | Electrophysiological studies, Radio ligand binding assay | [37] | ||
GABA agonist | Ceramide | Elevated plus maze test & Light dark test | [38] | ||
GABA (A) receptor antagonist | Oenanthotoxine, Dihydroenanthotoxine | Electrophysiological study | [39] | ||
GABA (A) allosteric modulator | Falcarindiol | Electrophysiological study | [40] | ||
GABA (A) allosteric modulator | MS-1 MS-2 MS-4 | Electrophysiological studies | [41] | ||
Allosterically blocks GABA-mediated receptor | Oroxylin A | Electrophysiological study, Radio ligand binding assay | [42] | ||
Acts at benzodiazepine site of GABAA receptor | Wogonin | Radio ligand binding assay, Elevated plus maze test and hole board test | [43] | ||
Partial agonist of central benzodiazepine receptor | Chrysin | Elevated plus maze and hole board test | [44] | ||
Acts at benzodiazepine site of GABA receptor | (S)-naringenin | Radio ligand binding assay | [45] | ||
Acts at benzodiazepine site of GABA receptor | Glabrol | Radio ligand binding assay | [46] | ||
GABA (A) receptor agonist | 2′,4′,7-trihydroxy-8-(3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl) isoflavone | Electrophysiology study | [47] | ||
GABA (A) receptor agonist | Isoliquiritigenin | Electrophysiology study, Radio ligand binding assay | [48] | ||
GABA (A) receptor agonist | (+)borneol, (−)-borneol, (−)-bornyl acetate, Isoborneol, camphor | Electrophysiology study | [49] | ||
GABA (A) receptor antagonist | α- thujone, β- thujone | Electrophysiology study; Radio ligand binding assays | [50] | ||
GABA (A) receptor agonist | Thymol | Electrophysiology study | [51] | ||
GABA (A) receptor agonist | α caryophyllene, β caryophyllene | Electrophysiology study | [52] | ||
GABA (A) receptor agonist | Curdione, Curcumol | Electrophysiology study | [53] | ||
GABA (A) receptor agonist | Atractylenolide I Atractylenolide II Atractylenolide III | Electrophysiology study | [47, 54] | ||
non-competitive antagonist of GABAA receptor | Anisatin | Electrophysiology study | [55] | ||
GABA (A) receptor agonist | Dehydroabietic acid | Electrophysiology study | [47] | ||
GABA (A) receptor agonist | Zerumin A Coronarin D | Electrophysiology study | [56] | ||
GABA (A) receptor antagonist | Ginkgolides A Ginkgolides B Ginkgolides C | Electrophysiology study | [57, 58] | ||
GABA (A) receptor agonist | Cimigenol-3-O-β-D-xylopyranoside 25-O- acetylcimigenol-3-O-α-L-arabinopyranoside | Electrophysiology study | [59] | ||
GABA (A) receptor agonist | 23-O-acetylshengmanol-3-O-β-D-xylopyranoside | Electrophysiology study, Elevated Plus maze test and open field test | [59, 60] |
Natural compounds altering GABAergic transmission.
Radioligand binding assays are simple but influential tool for reviewing receptors. They mainly analyze the interactions of hormones, neurotransmitters, growth factors, and related drugs with the receptors, studies of receptor interactions with second messenger systems, along with the characterization of regulatory changes in receptor number, subcellular distribution, and physiological function. So these assays are widely used in a numerous disciplines, including pharmacology, physiology, biochemistry, immunology, and cell biology. The fundamentals of the radioligand binding assay are fairly simple. The receptor of interest is incubated with an appropriate radioligand for a suitable period of time and then the radioactivity bound to the receptor is determined. There are three major types of experiments: saturation, kinetic, and inhibition. A saturation curve can be made by considering amount of receptor as constant and concentration of radioligand as variable. From this type of experiment the receptor density and the affinity of the receptor for the radioligand can be estimated. If the amount of receptor and radioligand is constant and the time is the variable, then kinetic data which are obtained from forward and reverse rate constants can be assessed. If the amount of a competing nonradioactive drug included in the incubation is the only variable, then the affinity (Ki) of that drug for the receptor identified by the radioligand can be estimated [61].
In Xenopus oocytes assay, xenopus oocytes are the immature egg cells of the South African clawed frog
Radioligand binding assay using [35S] TBPS and [3H] flunitrazepam analyzed the weak partial agonistic activity of Colchicine and (−) cornigerine along with six other colchicinoids from
Piperine and piperanine belonging to the class of piperidine-alkaloids were investigated in the immature egg cell of
A β-carboline named annomontine also shows GABA dependant activity which was separated from the plant
Three colchicinoids displayed unspecific binding with weak action on both benzodiazepine and TBPS/bicuculline binding sites. Colchicine is the antagonist, but androbiphenyline and cornigerine are partial agonists. Protoalkaloid Leonurine shows binding to various sites, with decreased affinities to, GABA/muscimol and the benzodiazepine binding site. Protoberberine type 2 alkaloids were able to modulate GABA(A) receptors, but unsaturated type 1 alkaloids displayed no effects.
The odor substance, 1-octen-3-ol is part of the GABAA sensory receptor modification research and has a stimulation rate of 295 ± 50 percent at a particular concentration of 300 μM and 1 μM GABA [52]. Ceramide (N-[(2S,3R,4E,6E)-1,3-dihydroxyhenicose-4,6-dien-2-yl] tridecanamide) separated from the Red Sea soft coral
Two polyacetylenes extracted from
At a very low concentration the component falcarindiol obtained from
The three polyacetylenes MS-1, MS-2, and MS-4 were obtained from
However, the potency and/or affinity were demonstrated in the small micro molar range, but that varies significantly in terms of toxicity. Two structural characteristics (groups of allyl and terminal hydroxyl) that are present in five (most) poisonous natural products produced toxicity. It suggests that the terminal hydroxyl class is vital for the toxicity. Further, both the oenanthotoxins and dihydrooenanthotoxins require the allyl hydroxyl group but are highly toxic. On the other hand falcarinol and falcarindiol, which have an allylic class but not the final hydroxy group, showed decreased toxicity. None of the two “toxic characteristics” are present in the last three polyacetylenes group and are also not documented to display inhibitory behavior consistent with this theory. It would be necessary to investigate whether hydrolyzation has led to GABA (A) receptor antagonism because MS-4 has a terminal acetyloxy-group [38, 52].
The substance Oroxylin A, allosterically to block GABA-mediated receptor by its action on chloride currents, and thus it describes the results of a previous in vivo study in which the substance exhibited antagonistic diazepam-induced effects [42, 43].
Wogonin was considered for the induction of GABA-induced chloride currents by using electrophysiological methods where it shown a stimulation of 57% at a concentration of 30 μM in the presence of 1 μM GABA where at 3 μM half maximal stimulation was noticed. It was also tested pharmacologically at a dose of 7.5, 15 and 30 mg/kg by using Elevated plus maze and hole board test. The wogonin showed anxiolytic effects. These data recommend that wogonin yielded anxiolytic by positive allosteric modulation of the GABAA receptor complex through benzodiazepine site interaction [43].
The chrysin is from
Flavone compounds like wogoninnn and chrysin shows diazepam like anxiolytic effect whereas Oroxylin A antagonizing the effects provoked by diazepam.
(S) naringenin was isolated from the ethanol extract of
Glabrol, is the prenylated flavanone its three Diels-Alder type derivatives, sanggenon C, D, and G and were obtained from the root extract of
In particular, two 8-lavandulyl-flavanones produced GABA-induced chloride impulses to potentiate by about 600 percent compared to the third 8-lavandulyl-flavanonol which is substantially less active.
The compounds like (S) naringenin, glabrol and 8-lavandulyl-flavanones acts at benzodiazepine site of GABA receptor which was analyzed using radio ligand binding assay.
Isoliquiritigenin increased GABA-induced currents by of 151% at a dose of 10 M with a patch-clamp method on dorsal raphe neurons [48].
The
The findings for isoflavonoids and chalcones are consistent with the results of the last two sections: isoflavone genistein blocks chloride currents in the same way as its flavone equivalents apigenin. The binding of [3H] flunitrazepam inhibits chalcone isoliquiritigenin, furthermore the prenylated types show a marked ability of more than 500 percent (95.97) to around 900 percent.
In these compounds the substitution of one hydroxy and one methoxy group in both aromatic rings shows better potency. Overall, all of these compounds shown GABA (A) receptor agonist type action.
(+) borneol, (−) borneol, (−) bornyl acetate, is borneol, and camphor acting on GABA(A) receptors which were stated in
In a radioligand binding assay measured on α and β thujone against [3H] EBOB, where the substances displayed IC50 values of 13 and 37 μM. The β-thujone was identified as a non-competitive antagonist with an IC50 value of 21 μM in additional electrophysiological studies. Studies have confirmed these molecules acts by allosteric decrease of GABA-induced chloride currents. α-thujone has been reported in a survey on GABAergic miniature inhibitory currents to decrease their frequency and amplitude and to moderately influence their kinetics. The study concluded that alpha-thujone had gating receptor activity as this substance decreased the amplitude of current reactions to exogenous GABA and influenced their initiation, desensitization, and neutralization [50]. Epoxy-carvone was studied using MES, PTZ, and picrotoxin-induced seizure models for its anticonvulsant properties [66].
In
In an anxiolytic-like behavioral study, the (+)-limonene epoxide at various doses of 25, 50, and 75 mg/kg showed an improvement in open arms inputs and time spent in open arms in the EPM test and decrease in the number of crossing, grooming, and rearing is found in the open field test, further implying the sedative effects of the drug [55]. The anxiolytic effect was reported by a follow-up study in which the compound demonstrated a decrease in the number of buried marbles in the buried marble test at a dose of 25, 50, and 75 mg/kg [68]. In several studies, Carvacryl acetate was also tested for anxiolytic and sedative effects. The EPM test shows that the compound increased the number of open arm entries at a dose of 100 mg/kg and the time spent in the open arm at doses from 25 to 100 mg/kg. In case of the light/dark test it increased the number and time spent in the light area at doses from 25 to 100 mg/kg. In the buried marbles test reduction of buried marbles number was observed at doses from 25 to 100 mg/kg, but no co-ordination impairment in the Rotarod test and no decrease in locomotor activity is observed in the open field test were measured at the same doses [69].
A few monoterpenes have been studied for their GABA receptor modulation action and the highest potential of chloride channel opening was observed for bicyclic alocohols, like (+) and (−)-borneol whereas isoborneol showed distinct potentiation. Oxidation of the hydroxy-group or the presence of an exocyclic methylene group causes decrease in the activity. The only monocyclic monoterpenes positive receptor modulation was observed by thymol.
Two monoterpenoid moieties namely α caryophyllene and β caryophyllene belonging to
Curdione and curcumol were extracted from the oil of
The highest induction of GABA-mediated chloride channel of around 400% was found in (+) cuparenol and (+)-dihydrocuparenic acid.
At 300 μM, when Atractylenoids I, II and III from
Anisatin is oxygenated sesquiterpene lactone separated from
As a result of the structural differences of the sesquiterpenes only restricted conclusions on their structure–activity relationship can be drawn. Reduction of the acidic function to an alcoholic function does not change the activity whereas the change of the isopropenyl-function of compound to a plane isopropanyl-moiety leads to a significant loss of activity.
In this Section 14 diterpenes which are having the actions on GABA are discussed. Miltirone, a Salvia miltiorrhiza tanshinone, was assessed against [3H] flunitrazepam with an IC50 value of 0.3 M in a radioligand-binding analysis [73].
Dehydroabietic acid has been segregated and examined in
Two diterpenes of phyllocladane namely 17-dihydroxyphyllocladane-3-one and 16,17,18-trihydroxyphyllocladane-3-one types were obtained from
Two diterpenes of type labdane, cerumin A and coronarin D, were obtained from Curcuma kwangsiensis [57]. In the Xenopus oocyte assay, substances at a 300 M concentration stimulated GABA-induced chloride currents by 309.4 and 211.0 percent, with EC50 values of 24.9 and 35.7 M. Ginkgolides A B and C which are diterpene trilactones of
Some results suggest that compounds like 7-methoxyrosmanol and galdosol increases 10-fold receptor affinity by an oxo-group at 7nth position instead of methoxy group. On the other hand, for compounds isopimaric acid and sandaropimaric acid, the change from the 7th to the 8th position of the double bond and thus to the C-ring of the substance doubles the maximum stimulatory effects and significantly decreases the EC50 value There are no clear variations in the inhibitory action of bilobalide and ginkgolide A-C in their IC50 values or in their ability to inhibit chloride current induced by GABA. Therefore, all these diterpenes works as GABA receptor agonists which help in chloride current flow.
Asiatic acid was separated from
Ginsenoside C, is a glycoside isolated from
Four cycloartane glycosides actein, cimigenol-3-O-β-D-xylopyranoside 25-O-acetylcimigenol-3-O-α-L-arabinopyranoside, 23-O-acetylshengmanol-3-O-β D-xylopyranoside were extracted from
The discussion of the structure–activity of triterpenes is not influenced by the lack of comparable structures (scaffolds) compared to the last two subsections, but by the variety of test systems used for their analysis. However, it is possible to compare at least some of the known triterpenes from ginseng and black cohosh. Electrophysiological data showed lower EC50 levels for the three ginseng triterpenes ginsenoside C. Unfortunately, the maximum chloride current stimulation values were only observed for the two aglycones and were recorded to be 54.1 and 23.3 percent, respectively (at a concentration of 100 M). It can be concluded that the receptor modulation of the glycoside would be of significant concern after examining substance 23-O-acetylshengmanol-3-O-D-xylopyranosides, where the xylose moiety cleavage changed the potentiation of GABA-induced chloride currents from 1692 percent to 64 percent (100 M) and thus into the range of ginseng aglycon. Both compounds 23-O-acetylshengmanol-3-O-D-xylopyranosides and ginsenoside C disclose a four-ring structure with a side chain linked to ring D when contrasting their scaffolds. The prenylate and oxyprenylate side chains have enhanced activity, which is reminiscent of the structure-action-relationship of coumarins. The ginsenoside side-chain will stand for the prenyl moiety in the case of the triterpenes under consideration and that of substance23-O-acetylshengmanol-3-O-D-xylopyranosides for the more active epoxylated form. However, this molecule has additional characteristics that may contribute to its pronounced effect, such as keto-function at position 16 or acetyloxy-group at C-23, which both differentiate the compound from the other slightly less active cycloartanoids [59].
The neurosteroid binding site would be most obvious and consistent with the fact that neurosteroids are the most effective natural GABAA receptor modulators and, in the absence of GABA, are also capable of evoking chloride currents [78]. However, the hydroxy group at position 3 and the keto group at position 17 or 20 are considered to be important for neurosteroid binding activity. As far as the structure of compound is concerned, the keto group may well lead to the binding of the receptor in position 16 instead of position 17, but the fact that the role of the compound almost vanishes with the xylose moiety does not support this theory unless the binding of the neurosteroid site can be improved by the residue of sugar instead of the hydroxy group in position 3. Barbiturates, on the other hand, are also known to activate GABA(A) receptors directly at higher concentrations and the site of barbiturate binding is thought to be similar to that of neurosteroids [79].
Natural products with GABA receptors activity were identified in the literatures and discussed in this chapter. Depending on the number of related compounds and test systems used, it was possible to draw in the vicinity of conclusions regarding their structure–activity relationships. As most of the studies examined flavones, and these studies mainly applied radio ligand binding assays, substitution patterns responsible for increased receptor affinity could be associated with one flavone even with diazepam-like Ki values. As far as receptor regulation is concerned, flavones are either non-competitive antagonists or partial agonists. However, certain compounds also exhibited anxiolytic or anticonvulsant effects. Other phenolic compounds addressed in this study were, for example, coumarins, where prenylated compounds demonstrated higher stimulation of the receptor. The association of phenyl residues and pronounced receptor modulation has also been observed for flavanes, isoflavonoids, and chalcones and may be of interest to the production of GABA(A) receptor modulators. Besides, the structural features required for the positive or negative regulation of the polyacetylene and monoterpene receptors as well as the effect of deglycosylation on certain triterpenes have been highlighted. Very few studies have been found on the subtype-specificity of natural products. One example is the enhanced modulation of isopimar and sandaropimaric acid receptors after the exchange of α1-subunit for α2 or α3-subunits. Neolignane honokiol must also be stated in this sense, although the effect was more dependent on the GABA(A) receptor subunits. Data obtained from recorded in vivo studies may be helpful in this regard, as many compounds have been known to exhibit anxiolytic effects without exhibiting sedative or muscle relaxant properties.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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\\n\\nPlease complete the publishing proposal form. The completed form should serve as an overview of your future Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book. Once submitted, your publishing proposal will be sent for evaluation, and a notice of acceptance or rejection will be sent within 10 to 30 working days from the date of submission.
\\n\\n2. SUBMIT YOUR MANUSCRIPT
\\n\\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
\\n\\n3. PEER REVIEW RESULTS
\\n\\nExternal reviewers will evaluate your manuscript and provide you with their feedback. You may be asked to revise your draft, or parts of your draft, provide additional information and make any other necessary changes according to their comments and suggestions.
\\n\\n4. ACCEPTANCE AND PRICE QUOTE
\\n\\nIf the manuscript is formally accepted after peer review you will receive a formal Notice of Acceptance, and a price quote.
\\n\\nThe Open Access Publishing Fee of your IntechOpen Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book depends on the volume of the publication and includes: project management, editorial and peer review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design and book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\\n\\nWe will send you your price quote and after it has been accepted (by both the author and the publisher), both parties will sign a Statement of Work binding them to adhere to the agreed upon terms.
\\n\\nAt this step you will also be asked to accept the Copyright Agreement.
\\n\\n5. LANGUAGE COPYEDITING, TECHNICAL EDITING AND TYPESET PROOF
\\n\\nYour manuscript will be sent to Straive, a leader in content solution services, for language copyediting. You will then receive a typeset proof formatted in XML and available online in HTML and PDF to proofread and check for completeness. The first typeset proof of your manuscript is usually available 10 days after its original submission.
\\n\\nAfter we receive your proof corrections and a final typeset of the manuscript is approved, your manuscript is sent to our in house DTP department for technical formatting and online publication preparation.
\\n\\nAdditionally, you will be asked to provide a profile picture (face or chest-up portrait photograph) and a short summary of the book which is required for the book cover design.
\\n\\n6. INVOICE PAYMENT
\\n\\nThe invoice is generally paid by the author, the author’s institution or funder. The payment can be made by credit card from your Author Panel (one will be assigned to you at the beginning of the project), or via bank transfer as indicated on the invoice. We currently accept the following payment options:
\\n\\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\\n\\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
\\n\\nIntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
\\n\\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
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\n\nPlease complete the publishing proposal form. The completed form should serve as an overview of your future Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book. Once submitted, your publishing proposal will be sent for evaluation, and a notice of acceptance or rejection will be sent within 10 to 30 working days from the date of submission.
\n\n2. SUBMIT YOUR MANUSCRIPT
\n\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
\n\n3. PEER REVIEW RESULTS
\n\nExternal reviewers will evaluate your manuscript and provide you with their feedback. You may be asked to revise your draft, or parts of your draft, provide additional information and make any other necessary changes according to their comments and suggestions.
\n\n4. ACCEPTANCE AND PRICE QUOTE
\n\nIf the manuscript is formally accepted after peer review you will receive a formal Notice of Acceptance, and a price quote.
\n\nThe Open Access Publishing Fee of your IntechOpen Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book depends on the volume of the publication and includes: project management, editorial and peer review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design and book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\n\nWe will send you your price quote and after it has been accepted (by both the author and the publisher), both parties will sign a Statement of Work binding them to adhere to the agreed upon terms.
\n\nAt this step you will also be asked to accept the Copyright Agreement.
\n\n5. LANGUAGE COPYEDITING, TECHNICAL EDITING AND TYPESET PROOF
\n\nYour manuscript will be sent to Straive, a leader in content solution services, for language copyediting. You will then receive a typeset proof formatted in XML and available online in HTML and PDF to proofread and check for completeness. The first typeset proof of your manuscript is usually available 10 days after its original submission.
\n\nAfter we receive your proof corrections and a final typeset of the manuscript is approved, your manuscript is sent to our in house DTP department for technical formatting and online publication preparation.
\n\nAdditionally, you will be asked to provide a profile picture (face or chest-up portrait photograph) and a short summary of the book which is required for the book cover design.
\n\n6. INVOICE PAYMENT
\n\nThe invoice is generally paid by the author, the author’s institution or funder. The payment can be made by credit card from your Author Panel (one will be assigned to you at the beginning of the project), or via bank transfer as indicated on the invoice. We currently accept the following payment options:
\n\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\n\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
\n\nIntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
\n\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
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Absence of cytogenetic abnormality in 50–70% of cases with MDS, some overlapping morphological and/or pathophysiological features make it challenging to differentiate between MDS and other diseases/disorders like aplastic anemia, refractory ITP, copper deficiency. Transient genetic abnormalities including monosomy 7 in megaloblastic anemia; increased immature myeloid cells in bone marrow of cases with copper, vitamin B12, or folic acid deficiency in the setting of cytopenia and dysmorphism may also lead to the misdiagnosis of MDS. On the other hand, there are also cases of transient MDS. In this chapter, a literature is be presented to draw attention of the readers on the disorders that mimic MDS. Additionally, our personal experiences are also be shared. Awareness of disorders mimicking MDS may prevent over- or underdiagnosis of MDS.",book:{id:"5276",slug:"myelodysplastic-syndromes",title:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes",fullTitle:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes"},signatures:"Lale Olcay and Sevgi Yetgin",authors:[{id:"184156",title:"Prof.",name:"Lale",middleName:null,surname:"Olcay",slug:"lale-olcay",fullName:"Lale Olcay"}]},{id:"50888",doi:"10.5772/63483",title:"Different Mechanisms of Drug Resistance in Myelodysplastic Syndromes and Acute Myeloid Leukemia",slug:"different-mechanisms-of-drug-resistance-in-myelodysplastic-syndromes-and-acute-myeloid-leukemia",totalDownloads:1635,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDSs) represent clonal hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) disorders in which genetic and/or epigenetic alteration are involved in the normal function of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells. This results in the development of blood cytopenias and bone marrow dysplasia. In recent years, therapy with hypomethylating agents (HMAs) in combination with supportive therapies is recommended as frontline treatment for patients with high-risk MDSs according to International Prognostic Scoring System (IPSS HR-MDS). Therapy with HMAs is essential namely for IPSS HR-MDS patients who do not proceed to immediate allogeneic stem cell transplantation (alloSCT). For IPSS LR-MDS (International Prognostic Scoring System, low-risk MDSs) patients, however, supportive therapies and growth factors are the mainstay of treatment. Some patients in this group are treated with immunomodulatory agents derived from thalidomide (lenalidomide) or using immunosuppressive therapy (IST). The therapeutic decisions can change during the course of the disease based on changes in risk-category and the functional status of patients, in response to prior therapies, changes in patient preferences, and other factors.",book:{id:"5276",slug:"myelodysplastic-syndromes",title:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes",fullTitle:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes"},signatures:"Lucia Messingerova, Denisa Imrichova, Martina Coculova, Marian\nZelina, Lucia Pavlikova, Helena Kavcova, Mario Seres, Viera\nBohacova, Boris Lakatos, Zdena Sulova and Albert Breier",authors:[{id:"182354",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Breier",slug:"albert-breier",fullName:"Albert Breier"}]},{id:"51640",doi:"10.5772/64549",title:"Myelodysplastic Disorders, Monosomy 7",slug:"myelodysplastic-disorders-monosomy-7",totalDownloads:1749,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDSs) are heterogeneous hematopoietic disorders associated with various degrees of myelosuppression and transformation into acute leukemia. Chromosome 7 abnormalities occur at any age, have several disease associations, and are generally associated with poor outcome. Treatment of the associated disease conditions may have a positive impact on the outcome of certain types of MDSs. For patients eligible for hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), allografts are the standard of care, while supportive measures and the use of hypomethylating agents, such as 5-azacytidine and decitabine, constitute the mainstay of management in individuals who are not fit for allogeneic HSCT. However, the use of hypomethylating agents in conjunction with allogeneic HSCT using nonmyeloablative conditioning therapies may be an appealing therapeutic option for older patients with comorbid medical conditions.",book:{id:"5276",slug:"myelodysplastic-syndromes",title:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes",fullTitle:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes"},signatures:"Khalid Ahmed Al-Anazi",authors:[{id:"37255",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Al-Anazi",slug:"khalid-al-anazi",fullName:"Khalid Al-Anazi"}]},{id:"51791",doi:"10.5772/64618",title:"Immune Dysregulation in Myelodysplastic Syndromes: Pathogenetic-Pathophysiologic Aspects and Clinical Consequences",slug:"immune-dysregulation-in-myelodysplastic-syndromes-pathogenetic-pathophysiologic-aspects-and-clinical",totalDownloads:1216,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Myelodysplastic syndromes are clonal hematopoietic stem cell disorders, in which the immune system plays a substantial pathogenetic role. Patients manifest frequent infections, mainly attributed to neutropenia, but sometimes opportunistic pathogens are isolated in non-neutropenic patients. They also exhibit autoimmune diseases or syndromes with a background of immune activation and various “abnormalities” of T-lymphocytes, B-lymphocytes, and NK cells. The most typical profile includes reduced total T lymphocytes (mainly CD4+ helper T-cells, resulting in decrease or inversion of the CD4/CD8 cell ratio) and impaired NK cell function. Many TH1 direction cytokines, and particularly sIL-2R, IL-6, and TNF-α are usually found increased in the serum and bone marrow, which have been strongly associated with advanced disease, anemia, and other disease-related features. Clonal origin of lymphocytes has been confirmed only in few cases. Mixed lymphocyte cultures and genomic assays have shown severely impaired immunoregulatory abnormalities, probably induced by the hematopoietic cells. In a minority of patients, immune activation is capable to prevent or delay clonal expansion, but these patients have more profound hematopoietic impairment. Immunosuppressive treatment may not only relieve the autoimmune manifestations but also improve hematopoiesis. However, this kind of treatment is not well tolerated, is associated with severe infections, and in some cases may enhance AML evolution.",book:{id:"5276",slug:"myelodysplastic-syndromes",title:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes",fullTitle:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes"},signatures:"Argiris Symeonidis and Alexandra Kouraklis-Symeonidis",authors:[{id:"101531",title:"Prof.",name:"Argiris",middleName:"S",surname:"Symeonidis",slug:"argiris-symeonidis",fullName:"Argiris Symeonidis"},{id:"183244",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Kouraklis-Symeonidis",slug:"alexandra-kouraklis-symeonidis",fullName:"Alexandra Kouraklis-Symeonidis"}]},{id:"51610",doi:"10.5772/64202",title:"Myelodysplastic Disorders, 5q-Syndrome",slug:"myelodysplastic-disorders-5q-syndrome",totalDownloads:1756,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The myelodysplastic syndromes (MDSs) are characterized by ineffective erythropoiesis and progressive cytopenia and ultimately affected patients develop acute myeloid leukemia (AML) or die from advanced bone marrow (BM) failure.",book:{id:"5276",slug:"myelodysplastic-syndromes",title:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes",fullTitle:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes"},signatures:"Khalid Ahmed Al-Anazi",authors:[{id:"37255",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Al-Anazi",slug:"khalid-al-anazi",fullName:"Khalid Al-Anazi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"51831",title:"Disorders Mimicking Myelodysplastic Syndrome and Difficulties in its Diagnosis",slug:"disorders-mimicking-myelodysplastic-syndrome-and-difficulties-in-its-diagnosis",totalDownloads:4475,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Myelodysplastic morphology of blood cells can be encountered not only in myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) but also in nonclonal disorders like viral, bacterial, parasitic infections, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, polyarteritis nodosa, immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP), iron deficiency anemia, megaloblastic anemia, dysgranulopoietic neutropenia, congenital neutropenia, cases with microdeletion 22q11.2, malignant lymphoma, after administration of granulocyte colony stimulating factor, chemotherapy, steroids, smoking, alcohol, posttransplantation, copper deficiency also, together with or without cytopenia. Absence of cytogenetic abnormality in 50–70% of cases with MDS, some overlapping morphological and/or pathophysiological features make it challenging to differentiate between MDS and other diseases/disorders like aplastic anemia, refractory ITP, copper deficiency. Transient genetic abnormalities including monosomy 7 in megaloblastic anemia; increased immature myeloid cells in bone marrow of cases with copper, vitamin B12, or folic acid deficiency in the setting of cytopenia and dysmorphism may also lead to the misdiagnosis of MDS. On the other hand, there are also cases of transient MDS. In this chapter, a literature is be presented to draw attention of the readers on the disorders that mimic MDS. Additionally, our personal experiences are also be shared. Awareness of disorders mimicking MDS may prevent over- or underdiagnosis of MDS.",book:{id:"5276",slug:"myelodysplastic-syndromes",title:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes",fullTitle:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes"},signatures:"Lale Olcay and Sevgi Yetgin",authors:[{id:"184156",title:"Prof.",name:"Lale",middleName:null,surname:"Olcay",slug:"lale-olcay",fullName:"Lale Olcay"}]},{id:"51640",title:"Myelodysplastic Disorders, Monosomy 7",slug:"myelodysplastic-disorders-monosomy-7",totalDownloads:1747,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDSs) are heterogeneous hematopoietic disorders associated with various degrees of myelosuppression and transformation into acute leukemia. Chromosome 7 abnormalities occur at any age, have several disease associations, and are generally associated with poor outcome. Treatment of the associated disease conditions may have a positive impact on the outcome of certain types of MDSs. For patients eligible for hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), allografts are the standard of care, while supportive measures and the use of hypomethylating agents, such as 5-azacytidine and decitabine, constitute the mainstay of management in individuals who are not fit for allogeneic HSCT. However, the use of hypomethylating agents in conjunction with allogeneic HSCT using nonmyeloablative conditioning therapies may be an appealing therapeutic option for older patients with comorbid medical conditions.",book:{id:"5276",slug:"myelodysplastic-syndromes",title:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes",fullTitle:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes"},signatures:"Khalid Ahmed Al-Anazi",authors:[{id:"37255",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Al-Anazi",slug:"khalid-al-anazi",fullName:"Khalid Al-Anazi"}]},{id:"50888",title:"Different Mechanisms of Drug Resistance in Myelodysplastic Syndromes and Acute Myeloid Leukemia",slug:"different-mechanisms-of-drug-resistance-in-myelodysplastic-syndromes-and-acute-myeloid-leukemia",totalDownloads:1634,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDSs) represent clonal hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) disorders in which genetic and/or epigenetic alteration are involved in the normal function of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells. This results in the development of blood cytopenias and bone marrow dysplasia. In recent years, therapy with hypomethylating agents (HMAs) in combination with supportive therapies is recommended as frontline treatment for patients with high-risk MDSs according to International Prognostic Scoring System (IPSS HR-MDS). Therapy with HMAs is essential namely for IPSS HR-MDS patients who do not proceed to immediate allogeneic stem cell transplantation (alloSCT). For IPSS LR-MDS (International Prognostic Scoring System, low-risk MDSs) patients, however, supportive therapies and growth factors are the mainstay of treatment. Some patients in this group are treated with immunomodulatory agents derived from thalidomide (lenalidomide) or using immunosuppressive therapy (IST). The therapeutic decisions can change during the course of the disease based on changes in risk-category and the functional status of patients, in response to prior therapies, changes in patient preferences, and other factors.",book:{id:"5276",slug:"myelodysplastic-syndromes",title:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes",fullTitle:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes"},signatures:"Lucia Messingerova, Denisa Imrichova, Martina Coculova, Marian\nZelina, Lucia Pavlikova, Helena Kavcova, Mario Seres, Viera\nBohacova, Boris Lakatos, Zdena Sulova and Albert Breier",authors:[{id:"182354",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Breier",slug:"albert-breier",fullName:"Albert Breier"}]},{id:"51719",title:"Introductory Chapter: Myelodysplastic Syndromes",slug:"introductory-chapter-myelodysplastic-syndromes",totalDownloads:1380,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"5276",slug:"myelodysplastic-syndromes",title:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes",fullTitle:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes"},signatures:"Ota Fuchs",authors:[{id:"36468",title:"Dr.",name:"Ota",middleName:null,surname:"Fuchs",slug:"ota-fuchs",fullName:"Ota Fuchs"}]},{id:"50646",title:"Chronic Myelomonocytic Leukaemia",slug:"chronic-myelomonocytic-leukaemia",totalDownloads:1716,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The classification, pathobiology and clinical management of chronic myelomonocytic leukaemia (CMML) are reviewed. Three important issues are identified: (1) CMML should be recognised as a unique clinical entity and as distinct from myelodysplastic syndromes (MDSs). Somatic mutations of a restricted set of genes are frequent in CMML. (2) Risk stratification for CMML patients should utilise new CMML‐specific prognostic scoring systems. (3) Until randomised clinical trials have defined the role of new drugs (especially of the hypomethylating agents), treatment must focus on the main symptoms and aim at quality‐of‐life improvement.",book:{id:"5276",slug:"myelodysplastic-syndromes",title:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes",fullTitle:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes"},signatures:"Andreas Himmelmann",authors:[{id:"182671",title:"M.D.",name:"Andreas",middleName:null,surname:"Himmelmann",slug:"andreas-himmelmann",fullName:"Andreas Himmelmann"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1031",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. 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Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/356532",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"356532"},fullPath:"/profiles/356532",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()