Simplified list of diagnostic miRNA markers for colorectal cancer (modified from Refs. [58, 59]).
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6442",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Into Space - A Journey of How Humans Adapt and Live in Microgravity",title:"Into Space",subtitle:"A Journey of How Humans Adapt and Live in Microgravity",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Our anatomy and physiology have been completely shaped by Earth's gravity. All body systems function in synergy with this unseen force. Yet, as we journey further and longer into space, our bodies must conform to a new reality, wherein gravity is absent or reduced, cosmic radiation threatens and our social and familial connections become distant. Into Space: A Journey of How Humans Adapt and Live in Microgravity gives an overview of some of the physiological, anatomical and cellular changes that occur in space and their effects on different body systems, such as the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal, and touches on cultural and psychosocial aspects of leaving behind family and the safety of Earth. It further addresses the complexity of manned space flights, showing how interdisciplinary this subject is and discussing the challenges that space physiologists, physicians and scientists must face as humans seek to conquer the final frontier.",isbn:"978-1-78923-221-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-220-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-473-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70684",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"into-space-a-journey-of-how-humans-adapt-and-live-in-microgravity",numberOfPages:296,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e7414f85fdf56e54bfd694d91fa492ac",bookSignature:"Thais Russomano and Lucas Rehnberg",publishedDate:"May 30th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6442.jpg",numberOfDownloads:17483,numberOfWosCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitations:21,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:36,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:71,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 28th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 1st 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 15th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 28th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 28th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"220541",title:"Dr.",name:"Thais",middleName:null,surname:"Russomano",slug:"thais-russomano",fullName:"Thais Russomano",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220541/images/system/220541.png",biography:"Thais Russomano, MD PhD - graduated in medicine from the Federal University of Pelotas, Brazil (1985), has a Master’s Degree in Aerospace Medicine - Wright State University, USA (1991), and PhD in Space Physiology - King\\\\\\'s College London (1998). She founded and coordinated for 18 years the Microgravity Centre, PUCRS, a unique Latin American reference centre in the study of human space physiology and space biomedical engineering; is senior lecturer at King’s College London; Director of InnovaSpace Consultancy; Director/CMO of International Space Medicine Consortium; and International Relations Director of HuSCO. More than 25 years of experience in the fields of Aerospace Medicine, Aerospace Biomedicine, Aerospace Biomedical Engineering and Telemedicine, including participation in 200+ scientific events with 300+ scientific papers presented. She further holds 7 patents related to Space Life Sciences and Aerospace Biomedical Engineering.",institutionString:"King's College London",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"220542",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucas",middleName:null,surname:"Rehnberg",slug:"lucas-rehnberg",fullName:"Lucas Rehnberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220542/images/7599_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Lucas Rehnberg, MBBS, BSc, MSc – graduated from Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry in 2015. Currently a Junior Clinical Fellow in Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Southampton, UK. Has an undergraduate degree in Biomedical Sciences and a Masters in Human and Applied Physiology from Kings College London (2009). He has been a Visiting Research Associate at the Centre of Human and Aerospace Physiological Sciences since 2011 and a Consultant in Space Medicine from 2012 at the Microgravity Centre, PUCRS. He has many years of experience in space life sciences, from conducting research, publishing several papers in the area of space medicine, as well as international presentations and teaching.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"683",title:"Aeronautics",slug:"aeronautics"}],chapters:[{id:"59621",title:"Reimagining Icarus: Ethics, Law and Policy Considerations for Commercial Human Spaceflight",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74716",slug:"reimagining-icarus-ethics-law-and-policy-considerations-for-commercial-human-spaceflight",totalDownloads:1005,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Commercial human spaceflight presents an area for engaging novel human activity and objectives, to include space exploration, entertainment, transportation and extraterrestrial resource acquisition. The inherent dangers and lack of scientific and medical certainty involved however raise interrelated questions of ethics, bioethics, law and public policy. This is particularly the case with spaceflight participant (SFP) screening, selection, and commercial human spaceflight activities where regulations are currently silent or lacking. In the absence of established law, ethics can play an important role by informing industry standards, policies and best practices. Understanding the fundamental ethical values at stake in the application of new technologies and societal opportunities therefore is a significant step in establishing a practical, moral and sustainable framework for human expansion into space. As the frequency and reliability of private human spaceflight activities advances, spaceflight is likely to take on the legal and ethical vestiges of common carriers, with distinct passenger rights and higher standards of care attributed to the launch operator as a common carrier. This chapter raises some of the complex issues and challenges that face the private spaceflight industry and that merit collaborative discussion across disciplines and the global space transportation community going forward.",signatures:"Sara M. Langston",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59621",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59621",authors:[{id:"221246",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Langston",slug:"sara-langston",fullName:"Sara Langston"}],corrections:null},{id:"60371",title:"Basic Methodology for Space Ethics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75689",slug:"basic-methodology-for-space-ethics",totalDownloads:1127,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The introduction sets out a standard concern that space ethics may be unduly constraining upon state and private sector activities in space. As a counter-picture, Section 2 sets up a distinction between ‘standard space ethics’ and ‘special space ethics’ which will allow us to explore ways in which space ethics enables as well as constrains. A case is then made in Section 3 for pragmatic constraints upon space ethics itself. Space ethics should be either ‘policy apt’ (able to directly shape space policy within a liberal democratic social context) or ‘precursor apt’ (able to contribute productively to broader, precursor discussions which may feed into policy apt deliberations). What makes any ethic satisfy either of these conditions will depend upon a range of factors. The ethic should have stability (dealt with in Section 3.1). It should not merely track transitory voting trends or the ebbs and flows of electoral politics. Secondly, it should have a high degree of political realizability (dealt with in Section 3.2). Finally, the ethic should be psychologically available. Section 4 then shows the usefulness of these basic constraints upon space ethics through a contrast between the emerging US and European agendas in astrobiology.",signatures:"Tony Milligan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60371",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60371",authors:[{id:"220964",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",surname:"Milligan",slug:"anthony-milligan",fullName:"Anthony Milligan"}],corrections:null},{id:"58161",title:"From the Individual to the Cultural Space Group",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72357",slug:"from-the-individual-to-the-cultural-space-group",totalDownloads:1084,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"From a behavioral point of view, human crews into Space will have to both live and work in physical environment (microgravity, 1/3 g, 1/6 g), confined environment (spatial restriction, social constraints, and sensorial privation), and isolated environment (familiar privation, cultural background, and remote communication) that involve a multisystem adaptive model on a long-duration process. Physiological, medical, psychological, sociological, anthropological, and ethological impacts have been emphasized in a wide panel of investigations. The current results are presented with a focus on relevant methods in ethology based on the observation, description, and quantification of (i) the individual behavior from short-term orbital missions; (ii) the social behavior during inter-planetary missions simulated in terrestrial environments; and (iii) the cultural behavior in considering manned missions on Moon, on Mars, and beyond. Global analysis highlights that the crewmembers going into Space will be definitively interactive men and women with personal experiences, social rules, and new cultural habits. They will have their individual identities and they will be a group entity for extended periods of time.",signatures:"Carole Tafforin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58161",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58161",authors:[{id:"221427",title:"Dr.",name:"Carole",surname:"Tafforin",slug:"carole-tafforin",fullName:"Carole Tafforin"}],corrections:null},{id:"59500",title:"Acute and Chronic Effects of Hypobaric Exposure upon the Brain",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74231",slug:"acute-and-chronic-effects-of-hypobaric-exposure-upon-the-brain",totalDownloads:1255,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Exposure to the hypobaric environment presents numerous physiological challenges to both aviators/pilots, mountain climbers and astronauts. Decompression sickness (DCS) is one of the most commonly experienced maladies and may present variably in protean fashion from mild symptoms such as the bends to severe neurological or pulmonary (i.e. chokes) symptomatology. Furthermore, exposure to extreme non-hypoxic hypobaric environments such as those experienced by our U-2 pilots, irrespective of clinical history of decompression sickness, incites development of white matter hyperintensity lesions that are diffuse in nature. Additionally, non-hypoxic hypobaric exposure also impacts white matter integrity independent of presence of white matter hyperintensities as measured by fractional anisotropy. Functionally, this translated into subtle but significantly lower neurocognitive test performance in U-2 pilots exposed to extreme non-hypoxic hypobaric conditions when compared to pilots without repeated exposure and correlated with degree of white matter lesion burden. In this chapter, we discuss results of our U-2 pilot studies along with published research on high-altitude climbers. We also review ongoing and future directional research and discuss operational implications due to our findings of non-hypoxic hypobaric exposure. Lastly, we examine the incidence of DCS in our astronaut population as well as the risks of performing extravehicular activity (EVA).",signatures:"Paul Sherman and John Sladky",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59500",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59500",authors:[{id:"222286",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Sladky",slug:"john-sladky",fullName:"John Sladky"},{id:"222312",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul",surname:"Sherman",slug:"paul-sherman",fullName:"Paul Sherman"}],corrections:null},{id:"59772",title:"Spaceflight Induced Changes in the Central Nervous System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74232",slug:"spaceflight-induced-changes-in-the-central-nervous-system",totalDownloads:991,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Although once a widely speculated about and largely theoretical topic, spaceflightinduced intracranial hypertension is more accepted as a distinct clinical phenomenon; yet, the underlying physiological mechanisms are still poorly understood. In the past, many terms were used to describe the symptoms of malaise, nausea, vomiting, and vertigo though longer duration spaceflights have increased the prevalence of overlapping symptoms of headache and visual disturbance. Spaceflight-induced visual pathology is thought to be a manifestation of increased intracranial pressure (ICP) because of its similar presentation to cases of known intracranial hypertension on Earth as well as the documentation of increased ICP by lumbar puncture in symptomatic astronauts upon return to gravity. The most likely mechanisms of spaceflight-induced increased ICP include a cephalad shift of body fluids, venous outflow obstruction, blood-brain barrier breakdown, and disruption to CSF flow. The relative contribution of increased ICP to the symptoms experienced during spaceflight is currently unknown though as other factors recently posited to contribute include local effects on ocular structures, individual differences in metabolism, and the vasodilator effects of carbon dioxide. Spaceflight-induced intracranial hypertension must be distinguished from other pathologies with similar symptomatology. The following chapter discusses the proposed physiologic causes and the pathological manifestations of increased ICP in the spaceflight environment and provides considerations for future long-term space travel.",signatures:"Alex P. Michael",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59772",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59772",authors:[{id:"220742",title:"Dr.",name:"Alex",surname:"Michael",slug:"alex-michael",fullName:"Alex Michael"}],corrections:null},{id:"59699",title:"The Effect of Gravity on the Nervous System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74715",slug:"the-effect-of-gravity-on-the-nervous-system",totalDownloads:1599,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Gravity affects the nervous system of living organisms. This book chapter reviews historical and recent findings on how changes in gravity affect cellular and subcellular parameters of human and animal cells as well as the timing and shaping of complex sensorimotor responses. With an emphasize on weightlessness, partial, and hypergravity conditions, the gravity dependencies of living organisms have been manifested on different levels of organization, ranging from changes in biophysical properties of single cells to the intact nervous system. An effort has been made to integrate the various findings into a consistent model for a better understanding of how the components of the nervous system interact as a response to acute and long-term gravitational variation. Especially with planned long-term manned missions to Mars and beyond, knowledge about the impact of increased and decreased gravity on the nervous system is essential for the physical and cognitive preparation to assure the success of space missions and human survival in space.",signatures:"Florian P.M. Kohn, Claudia Koch and Ramona Ritzmann",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59699",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59699",authors:[{id:"148496",title:"Dr.",name:"Florian",surname:"Kohn",slug:"florian-kohn",fullName:"Florian Kohn"},{id:"238072",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Koch",slug:"claudia-koch",fullName:"Claudia Koch"},{id:"238073",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramona",surname:"Ritzmann",slug:"ramona-ritzmann",fullName:"Ramona Ritzmann"}],corrections:null},{id:"59767",title:"Spaceflight: Immune Effects and Nutritional Countermeasure",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74709",slug:"spaceflight-immune-effects-and-nutritional-countermeasure",totalDownloads:1299,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microgravity is predicted to be a significant challenge to immune system during space travel. Consequences of weakened immune responses range from increased disease susceptibility to neoplastic growth. Degree of immune dysfunction is considered proportional to duration of stay in spaceflights. As a result of these risks, there is major concern over potential health risk for space travels that ultimately result in serious and considerable loss of mission objectives. Therefore, here is a need to explore the immune effects of spaceflight and its countermeasures. Several attempts have been made to develop effective measure to alleviate or prevent immune dysfunction due to microgravity. Among them, immunonutritional model has been shown to effectively modulate and upregulate immune system. This is further supported by our experiments demonstrating that supplementation of nutritional substrates like nucleotide and mushroom extracts active hexose-correlated compound (AHCC) effective in maintaining or restoring immunity in microgravity analog models.",signatures:"Anil D Kulkarni, Marie-Francoise Doursout, Asmita Kulkarni,\nAlamelu Sundaresan, Takehito Miura, Koji Wakame and Hajime\nFujii",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59767",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59767",authors:[{id:"222175",title:"Prof.",name:"Anil",surname:"Kulkarni",slug:"anil-kulkarni",fullName:"Anil Kulkarni"}],corrections:null},{id:"58565",title:"Countermeasure Development for Lumbopelvic Deconditioning in Space",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72881",slug:"countermeasure-development-for-lumbopelvic-deconditioning-in-space",totalDownloads:1269,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Physical inactivity and lumbopelvic deconditioning have been linked to increased incidence of non-specific low back pain (LBP) and spinal injury in those who are exposed to microgravity (e.g. astronauts and individuals on long-duration bed rest) and in the general population. Astronauts have an increased risk of experiencing moderate to severe LBP during microgravity exposure and herniated intervertebral discs within 1 year following spaceflight. Atrophy and reduced motor control of the lumbar multifidus (LM) and transversus abdominis (TrA) muscles resulting from periods of deconditioning are linked to non-specific LBP and spinal injury risk in both post-flight astronauts and general populations. However, voluntary recruitment of these two key muscles is difficult and presents a rehabilitation challenge. This chapter reviews the concept of spinal stability as it relates to microgravity, discusses how existing exercise countermeasures used in space do not successfully maintain lumbopelvic muscle size, and introduces the functional readaptive exercise device (FRED) that shows potential to activate the LM and TrA muscles automatically and in a tonic fashion, which has relevance to rehabilitation of both astronaut and terrestrial populations.",signatures:"Andrew Winnard, Dorothee Debuse and Nick Caplan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58565",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58565",authors:[{id:"222099",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",surname:"Caplan",slug:"nick-caplan",fullName:"Nick Caplan"},{id:"222101",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",surname:"Winnard",slug:"andrew-winnard",fullName:"Andrew Winnard"},{id:"234054",title:"Prof.",name:"Dorothee",surname:"Debuse",slug:"dorothee-debuse",fullName:"Dorothee Debuse"}],corrections:null},{id:"61131",title:"Tumor Cells in Microgravity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77214",slug:"tumor-cells-in-microgravity",totalDownloads:1232,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The excessive proliferation and metastasis of tumor cells are due to frequent genetic alterations and subsequent stimulation of abnormal signal transduction pathways. Inventing and improving novel therapeutic strategies are critically needed. However, it remains unknown which of these pathways is essential to tumor initiation and progression. A weightless environment on Earth is a rare phenomenon, achieved using various simulations, but brings about changes of internal cellular structure and interactions among cells not normally seen under normal terrestrial gravitational conditions. For this reason, spaceflight experiments are of great value for cell biology research in general and for cancer research in particular. Many experiments indicate that microgravity, more so actual spaceflight as opposed to simulations, induces changes in the expression and secretion of genes as well as proteins involved in cancer cell proliferation, metastasis, and survival, shifting the cells toward a less aggressive phenotype. Therefore, studies on the biological features and gene expression of tumors cells under microgravity conditions may underline new clues to the tumor initiation, process, diagnosis, and therapy.",signatures:"Jun Chen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61131",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61131",authors:[{id:"220992",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun",surname:"Chen",slug:"jun-chen",fullName:"Jun Chen"}],corrections:null},{id:"59615",title:"Plants in Space",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74230",slug:"plants-in-space",totalDownloads:1526,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plants will play a critical role in the survival of human beings on long-duration space missions, probably beginning pretty soon with a mission to Mars. Plants can adapt to extreme environments on Earth, and model plants have been shown to grow and develop through a full life cycle in microgravity. In space, long-term human space exploration missions require a life support system in which higher plants play a vital role. Growing crops in space is as much about developing the humans’ technological capacity to provide plants with adequate growth conditions in the unique microgravity environment, as is about the symbiotic relationship between plants and space travelers. After several decades of research, we have learned a lot about the impediments to growing plants in microgravity, in outer space, and on other planets. As human space exploration advances, we should feel confident about our ability to grow plants on board spacecraft during long-term space missions, on the Moon, and on other planets. Plants will require specialized environments for growth and development in microgravity, but – at least on a small scale – we already know how to produce such growth chambers and greenhouses.",signatures:"Bratislav Stankovic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59615",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59615",authors:[{id:"220778",title:"Dr.",name:"Bratislav",surname:"Stankovic",slug:"bratislav-stankovic",fullName:"Bratislav Stankovic"}],corrections:null},{id:"59735",title:"Approaches to Assess the Suitability of Zooplankton for Bioregenerative Life Support Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74261",slug:"approaches-to-assess-the-suitability-of-zooplankton-for-bioregenerative-life-support-systems",totalDownloads:1444,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Future manned space exploration will send humans farther away from Earth than ever before (e.g., to Mars), leading to extended mission durations and thus to a higher demand for essentials such as food, water and oxygen. As resupplying these items from Earth is nearly impossible, aquatic bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS) appear to be a promising solution. Due to its central role in aquatic ecosystems, zooplankton could act as a key player in aquatic BLSS, linking oxygen liberating, autotrophic producers and higher trophic levels. However, prior to the utilization of BLSS in space, organisms proposed to inhabit these systems have to be studied thoroughly to evaluate any space-borne adverse traits, which may impede a proper function of the system. To investigate the impact of microgravity (μg), in particular, several platforms are available, providing μg periods ranging from seconds (Bremen drop tower and parabolic flights), to minutes (sounding rockets), up to even days and months (space flights and the International Space Station (ISS)). Furthermore, ground-based facilities, such as clinostats, enable the of candidate organisms to variable periods of simulated/functional μg. In this book chapter, research on zooplankton utilizing these methods is summarized.",signatures:"Miriam Knie, Bernard Wolfschoon Ribeiro, Jessica Fischer, Burkhard\nSchmitz, Kay Van Damme, Ruth Hemmersbach, Donat-P. Häder and\nChristian Laforsch",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59735",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59735",authors:[{id:"223193",title:"Prof.",name:"Christian",surname:"Laforsch",slug:"christian-laforsch",fullName:"Christian Laforsch"},{id:"239673",title:"Dr.",name:"Miriam",surname:"Knie",slug:"miriam-knie",fullName:"Miriam Knie"},{id:"239674",title:"MSc.",name:"Bernard",surname:"Wolfschoon Ribeiro",slug:"bernard-wolfschoon-ribeiro",fullName:"Bernard Wolfschoon Ribeiro"},{id:"239675",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Jessica",surname:"Fischer",slug:"jessica-fischer",fullName:"Jessica Fischer"},{id:"239676",title:"Mr.",name:"Burkhard",surname:"Schmitz",slug:"burkhard-schmitz",fullName:"Burkhard Schmitz"},{id:"239677",title:"Dr.",name:"Kay",surname:"Van Damme",slug:"kay-van-damme",fullName:"Kay Van Damme"},{id:"239678",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruth",surname:"Hemmersbach",slug:"ruth-hemmersbach",fullName:"Ruth Hemmersbach"},{id:"239679",title:"Prof.",name:"Donat-P.",surname:"Häder",slug:"donat-p.-hader",fullName:"Donat-P. Häder"}],corrections:null},{id:"60129",title:"Are We Alone? The Search for Life on Mars and Other Planetary Bodies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75437",slug:"are-we-alone-the-search-for-life-on-mars-and-other-planetary-bodies",totalDownloads:1021,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Extensive research has shown the potential for microorganisms to survive in some of the most extreme environments on Earth. Our current understanding of diverse life on Earth implies that, even though the surface of Mars is very inhospitable to life, it is possible that there may be indigenous microorganisms on Mars, especially in the protective subsurface. Ultimately, a better understanding of microbial diversity on Earth is needed to determine the limits of life to help determine the potential for life on Mars and other exoplanets.",signatures:"Stephanie A. Smith, Andrzej Paszczynski and Susan E. Childers",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60129",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60129",authors:[{id:"21182",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrzej J.",surname:"Paszczynski",slug:"andrzej-j.-paszczynski",fullName:"Andrzej J. Paszczynski"},{id:"221688",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephanie",surname:"Smith",slug:"stephanie-smith",fullName:"Stephanie Smith"},{id:"221692",title:"Dr.",name:"Susan",surname:"Childers",slug:"susan-childers",fullName:"Susan Childers"}],corrections:null},{id:"59151",title:"Exploring the Stratosphere: What We Missed by Shooting for the Moon",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73602",slug:"exploring-the-stratosphere-what-we-missed-by-shooting-for-the-moon",totalDownloads:1182,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Similar to outer space, the stratosphere experiences freezing temperatures, with atmospheric pressures and oxygen levels far below the level required for human survival. Exposure to this environment causes unique injuries to the human body that can be deadly if the correct management is not promptly initiated. The preceding decades are filled with stories of deadly failures from such exposures and marked achievement as we began to explore this section of our outer atmosphere. Through advances in technology, we have developed pressure suits and vehicles used for high altitude and outer space that provide protection and allow us to not only survive, but also explore these dangerous environments. The recent high altitude missions are examples of the remarkable capability of human innovation and ingenuity. These missions have fostered an explosion of interest and wonder, creating new demand for a commercial space industry that was virtually nonexistent in the previous century. Though recent tragedies have temporarily delayed the travel of eager citizens into space, the boom of the commercial space industry is pushing forward with new promises of space exploration available to the next paying customer, anticipated in the next few years.",signatures:"Laura Galdamez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59151",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59151",authors:[{id:"221942",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",surname:"Galdamez",slug:"laura-galdamez",fullName:"Laura Galdamez"}],corrections:null},{id:"59553",title:"The Mortality of Space Explorers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73603",slug:"the-mortality-of-space-explorers",totalDownloads:1449,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Outer space exploration poses unique risks to human survival. Here, we review the current literature on United States astronauts and Soviet and Russian cosmonauts and provide updated and original research findings. As in previous research, both astronauts and cosmonauts are shown to have reduced risk of death by natural causes, particularly from chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease and cancer, compared with appropriately matched general populations. Simultaneously, space explorers are at increased risk of death by external forces, particularly accidents such as plane crashes and spacecraft accidents. In total, both astronauts and cosmonauts are at reduced risk of all-cause mortality in comparison to the general populations of the United States and Russia. However, in comparison to astronauts, cosmonauts have been at equal risk of accidental death, but increased risk of death by chronic disease. We conjecture that the lack of risk from chronic disease may be due to the excellent health and medical monitoring of space explorers coupled with the deliberate attempts to limit their radiation exposure levels below those that would be detrimental. The differences in the astronaut and cosmonaut mortality experiences are likely due to lifestyle factors and the background rates of mortality in the two nations.",signatures:"Robert J. Reynolds and Steven M. Day",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59553",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59553",authors:[{id:"220737",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",surname:"J. Reynolds",slug:"robert-j.-reynolds",fullName:"Robert J. Reynolds"},{id:"220748",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",surname:"M. Day",slug:"steven-m.-day",fullName:"Steven M. Day"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1992",title:"Recent Advances in Aircraft Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"67fa903d68a094013f66d01b38882107",slug:"recent-advances-in-aircraft-technology",bookSignature:"Ramesh K. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"64322",title:"MicroRNAs (miRNAs) in Colorectal Cancer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80828",slug:"micrornas-mirnas-in-colorectal-cancer",body:'MicroRNAs are a subgroup of small noncoding RNAs containing 18–25 nucleotides, and they do not carry any genetic information for protein expression. They regulate the posttranslational gene expression by binding 3′ untranslated region (UTR) of the target messenger RNA (mRNA). Approximately 30% of protein coding genes are regulated by miRNAs, and they have important roles in cellular functions including proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, signaling, metabolism, and tumorigenesis. Due to their effect on crucial processes, miRNAs are significant modifiers of transcription and translation of both oncogenes and tumor suppressor proteins. Hence, some of them are classified as oncomiR and tumor suppressor miRNA in the cellular processes of tumor [1].
First miRNA, lin-4, was discovered in
The biogenesis of miRNA is a complicated process, starting in the nucleus, following with posttranslational modifications, and finalized in the cytoplasm. Similar to gene encoding, biogenesis of primary miRNAs (pri-miRNAs) is starting with the transcription by RNA polymerase II or RNA polymerase III enzyme. In the nucleus, pri-miRNA is recognized and cleaved by Drosha enzyme to form precursor miRNA (pre-miRNA). The pre-miRNA is exported to cytoplasm by exportin-5. In the cytoplasm, pre-miRNA is bound to cytoplasmic RNase Dicer and RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), which is composed of argonaute 2 (AGO2) and transactivation response (TAR) RNA-binding protein (TRBP). Firstly, AGO2 cleaves the pre-miRNA from its 3′ end, and the cleaved pre-miRNA is further cleaved by Dicer into mature miRNA duplex. Mature miRNA duplex is then unwounded; while one strand of the miRNA remains on AGO2 protein, and the other strand (passenger strand) is degraded. Mostly, miRNAs are recognizing the complementary sequence of 3′ UTR of mRNAs, hence directing RISC to cleave mRNAs and translational repression of mRNAs [5, 6] (Figure 1).
miRNA biogenesis. The pathway starts miRNA transcription by RNA polymerase II or III to generate the primary transcripts (pri-miRNAs). Pri-miRNA is processed by the Drosha-DiGeorge syndrome critical region gene 8 (DGCR8, Pasha Pasha in
microRNA studies were began in
In tumorigenesis, miRNAs either act as tumor suppressor or as an oncogene; interestingly, their expression is repressed or induced by transcription factors such as p53 or MYC via their promoter regions. miR-145 is one of the initial examples of tumor suppressor miRNAs. miR-145 was found to be downregulated in a variety of tumors including colon, breast carcinomas [18, 19]. It is interesting that tumor suppressor protein p53 induces miR-145 expression via p53 response element in its promoter. Later, miR-145 targets c-Myc or insulin receptor substrate I (IGF-R1) protooncogenes and silences their expressions, hence preventing tumor cell proliferation [18, 20] . Furthermore miR-145 inhibits invasion and metastasis by targeting Fli-1 or Mucin-1 [20, 21]. miR-145 also targets estrogen receptor-α (ER-α) via its two complementary sites and downregulates ER-α expression [22]. miR-34 family is another target of p53 tumor suppressor protein [23]. Another important tumor suppressor miRNA is miR-34 family. miR-34 family comprises three members: miR-34a, miR-34b, and miR-34c. While miR-34a is ubiquitously expressed in every tissue, expression of miR-34b and miR-34c is restricted to fallopian tubes, lungs, and brain [24, 25]. miR-34a is a very potential tumor suppressor since it is targeting many mRNAs related with proliferation [such as cyclin-dependent kinase-4 (CDK4) and cyclin-dependent kinase-6 (CDK6)], cellular growth [such as Notch2, platelet-derived growth factor receptor A (PDGFRA)], antiapoptosis [Bcl-2, sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), survivin], invasion, and migration [MET, SNAIL, cluster of differentiation (CD44)] [26, 27, 28]. Downregulation of miR-34 is observed among many malignancies and associated with poor prognosis [29, 30]. As a result of its role as a tumor suppressor, miR-34 has been applied either alone or in combination with conventional therapies on several tumor cell lines and mouse tumor models and showed promising results [31, 32, 33, 34]. miR-34 was first miRNA tested in human Phase I trial (NCT01829971). MRX34, liposomal miR-34 mimic, was tested among patients with solid advanced tumors. While MRX34 treatment showed evidence of antitumor activity in a subset of patients, it exerts some toxicities in patients. Hence, there is need for further studies for improving tolerability among the patients [35, 36].
In addition to tumor suppressor miRNAs, miRNAs behave like oncogenes, called as “oncomiRs.” mir-21 is the first miRNA identified as oncogenic; it is significantly upregulated in many tumors including colon cancer, breast cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, and glioblastoma [37]. miR-21 overexpression contributes to cell proliferation and antiapoptotic responses by targeting important downstream proteins such as phosphotensin homolog (PTEN), programmed cell death protein 4 (PDC4), and tropomyosin I [38, 39, 40]. Besides this, miR-21 was shown to be bona fide oncogene by causing pre-B-cell lymphoma in mouse models by overexpression. When mir-21 expression was inactivated, tumors regressed completely in few days [41].
As the importance of miRNAs became evident, miRNA expression profiles for each tumor type have been studied with several methodologies including microarray, QRT-PCR, and next-generation sequencing [15, 42]. miRNA expression profiles can reflect embryonic or development origin of the tissue and able to classify the origin of tissue with high accuracy (>90%), even separate cell subtypes (stem cells vs. progenitor cells) in the same tissue [43, 44, 45]. These miRNA profiling studies open the way for biomarker studies. In the biomarker studies, it is aimed to find diagnostic, prognostic, and predictive markers for better characterization of the disease and therapy response as an outcome [46].
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second most common cancer among the women and third most common cancer among men. In 2016, more than 1.4 million men and women in the USA have been diagnosed with CRC [47]. Despite the availability of successful treatment options such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, the prognosis of CRC is not promising. Relapse or metastatic spread occurs after surgery in many CRC patients. Colorectal cancer is divided into two phenotypes according to mutational status. In chromosomal instability phenotype (CIN), high rate of inactivating mutations in adenomatous polyposis coli (
Early diagnosis is essential for CRC patients since they have more favorable prognosis. Fecal blood test and colonoscopy techniques are being currently used for early screening. However, fecal blood tests are not very efficient for detecting early carcinoma formation. Colonoscopy is a gold standard technique, it reduces cancer risk about 30–75%, yet it is invasive and expensive technique and highly uncomfortable for a patient [56]. Therefore, noninvasive and inexpensive screening and diagnostic methods or biomarkers are needed. miRNAs are promising candidates for noninvasive biomarker diagnosis. Diagnostic miRNAs can be isolated from blood or stool samples as well as tumor tissues [57] (Table 1).
miRNAs | Expression | Target genes |
---|---|---|
miR-15a | Upregulate | |
miR-17-3p | Upregulate | |
miR-18a | Upregulate | |
miR-19a/miR-19b | Upregulate | |
miR-20a | Upregulate | |
miR-21 | Upregulate | |
miR-24 | Downregulate | |
miR-29a | Upregulate | |
miR-31 | Downregulate | |
miR-34a | Downregulate | |
miR-92a | Upregulate | |
Let-7g | Upregulate | |
miR-106b | Upregulate | |
miR-133a | Downregulate | |
miR-143 | Downregulate | |
miR-145 | Downregulate | |
miR-181b | Downregulate | |
miR-203 | Downregulate | |
miR-223 | Upregulate | |
miR-302 | Upregulate | |
miR-320a | Downregulate | |
miR-335 | Upregulate | |
miR-375 | Downregulate | |
miR-422a | Downregulate | |
miR-423-5p | Downregulate | |
miR-601 | Downregulate | |
miR-760 | Downregulate |
There are different miRNA profiling studies comparing CRC samples with normal healthy tissue samples; however, each study emphasized on different set of miRNAs in CRC diagnosis and progression. According to miRNA profile study, miR-18a, -20a, -21, -29a, -92a, -106b, -133a, -143, and -145 expression levels were found to be significantly changed in CRC patients when compared with normal patients, and these markers can be used for CRC diagnosis [59]. In a systematic review, miR-106a, -30a-3p, -139, -145, -125a, and -133a were proposed as diagnostic biomarkers [60]. In another study, miR-143, -145, -21, -320, -126, -484-5p, -143, -145, -16, -125b, -21, and -106 were found to be candidate for diagnostic biomarkers [57]. While studies share some common miRNAs (such as miR143, miR145, miR106, miR21), they are differing in their list of miRNAs. In fact, the type of miRNAs can be differed due to the type of sample (blood or stool), experimental procedures, and used microRNA platforms. Another handicap of these studies is that they have been conducted with a small number of samples. Larger sample studies and additional meta-analyses are need for better determination of CRC-related diagnostic markers. Still, it can be said that miRNAs are very promising noninvasive markers for tumor diagnosis.
Taking part in CRC diagnosis, miRNAs are also affecting prognosis and therapeutic response. As mentioned before, the expression and deregulation of miRNAs in CRC patients are affected by chromosomal abnormalities and microsatellite instability [61, 62]. In CRC, miRNA expression dysregulation is shown especially in microsatellite instability (MSI-high) tumors. MSI-high groups are distinct population among CRC patients, which accounts for 15% of all cases, observed in hereditary cases such as Lynch syndrome or in sporadic cases mostly as a result of hypermethylation or inactivation of mismatch repair (MMR) genes [63]. These MSI tumors characterized by distinct behavior are associated with proximal tumor localization and high infiltration of lymphocytes. These phenotypes showed less distant organ metastasis than MSI stable tumors and have better prognosis [64]. Several miRNAs have been shown in participating in inactivation of several DNA mismatch repair genes, such as miR-155 downregulates mutL protein homolog 1 (MLH1), mutS homolog 2 (MSH2), and mutS homolog 6 (MSH6) mRNAs expression, whereas miR-21 targets MSH2 and MSH6 mRNA and inactivates them [65, 66]. Overall 94 miRNAs are differently expressed in microsatellite stable and in microsatellite instable tumors [67]. Upregulation (miR-17, miR-20, miR-25, miR-31, miR92, miR-93, miR-133b, miR-135a, miR-183, miR-203, and miR-223) and downregulation (miR-16, miR-26b, miR-143, miR-145, miR-191, miR-192, miR-215, and let-7a) are generally observed in MSI-high tumors [68]. miRNA expression is also differed among
Furthermore, exosome-containing miRNAs (miR-17/92 cluster and miR-19a cluster) are evaluated as biomarkers for early diagnosis and high recurrence in patients with CRC [82]. miR-21-5p, miR-29-3p, and miR-148-3p levels were studied in CRC samples and show that dysregulation in these miRNAs is associated with high mortality risk [83].
A variety of therapeutic advances are existed for CRC treatment such as conventional chemotherapy (5-fluorouracil, capecitabine, irinotecan, oxaliplatin), immunotherapy, radiotherapy, and chemoradiotherapy. miRNAs play an important role in the regulation of effectiveness and resistance to these therapies and prediction of personalized therapy response [84, 85]. Resistance to therapy is still the biggest challenge for defeating cancer. It may be caused by a variety of reasons such as reduction in transportation and intracellular accumulation of drugs by modulating the activity of drug transporters such ATP-binding cassette subfamily B (ABCB)/multidrug resistance (MDR) transporters (which is reviewed in reference [86]), dysregulation in DNA damage repair mechanisms, insufficient or oncogenic immune response, blockage of apoptosis, emergence of inflammation, and altered expression of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes related with therapy response. miRNAs are actively participating in all of these resistance mechanisms [87, 88].
Although there are advances in cytotoxic and targeted therapy in CRC, drug resistance is one of the most important obstacles in front of successful chemotherapy [89]. Fluoropyrimidine-based chemotherapy (5-FU or capecitabine), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)/vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR)-targeted, and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-targeted therapies are the main therapeutic methods for CRC [87]. miRNAs have role in chemotherapy resistance in terms of deregulation of drug metabolism-related enzymes, increased efflux of chemotherapeutics, impairment of chemotherapeutic-induced apoptosis, modulation of DNA damage repair, and autophagy [87].
miR-92b-3p, miR-3156-5p, miR-10a-5p, and miR-125a-5 were found to be related with progression-free survival in meta;static CRC patients treated with 5-FU/oxaliplatin/bevacizumab regime [90]. A negative relationship was found between miR-27b, miR-148a, and miR-326 expression levels and progression-free survival in metastatic colorectal cancer patients receiving first-line oxaliplatin-based treatment [91]. The expression of miR-326 was related with decreased overall survival. These results proposed that plasma miRNAs can be used as noninvasive biomarkers for evaluating drug response in metastatic CRC patients who are treated with 5-FU and oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy [91] (Table 2).
miRNAs | Therapy | Expression | Target genes |
---|---|---|---|
miR-7 | EGFR-targeted | Downregulate | |
miR-10b | 5-FU | Upregulate | |
miR-20a | Oxaliplatin | Upregulate | |
miR-21 | 5-FU | Upregulate | |
miR-22 | 5-FU | Downregulate | |
miR-23a | 5-FU | Upregulate | |
miR-27a, miR-27b | 5-FU | Downregulate | |
miR-133b | EGFR-targeted | Downregulate | |
miR-139-5p | 5-FU | Downregulate | |
miR-143 | Oxaliplatin | Downregulate | |
miR-153 | Oxaliplatin | Upregulate | |
miR-199-5p, miR-375 | EGFR | Upregulate | |
miR-203 | 5-FU | Downregulate | |
miR-203 | Oxaliplatin | Upregulate | |
miR-204 | 5-FU | Downregulate | |
miR-218 | 5-FU | Downregulate | |
miR-302, miR-369, miR-200c | 5-FU | Upregulate | |
miR-409-3p | Oxaliplatin | Downregulate | |
miR-425-5p | 5-FU | Upregulate | |
miR-494 | 5-FU | Downregulate | |
miR-519c | 5-FU | Downregulate | |
miR-520g | Oxaliplatin | Upregulate |
The expression profile of miRNAs that have role on chemotherapy response in colorectal cancer (modified from Ref. [85]).
Since chemo/radio therapies and surgery have limitations, immunotherapy is a good alternative to treat CRC patients. Immunotherapy aimed to evoke immune system to eliminate tumors either using immune stimulatory cytokines (vaccines, etc.) or checkpoint inhibitors [such as cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4), programmed death 1 (PD-1) receptor, and its ligands (PD-L1/2)] [92]. Interestingly, immune cell filtrates more in MSI-high CRC, and these subtypes are responding better to immunotherapies [93].
miRNAs are essential in regulation of the immune response as well. The role of miR-34 has been mentioned earlier. Upregulation of miR-34a elicits the activation of tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cells by targeting PD-L1 [94]. miRNAs are also involved in innate immunity by macrophages and NK cells, and adaptive immunity by B cells, T cells, and dendritic cells. miR-124 modulates signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) pathway and enhances the T cell-mediated immune clearance [95]. miR-491 regulates the proliferation and apoptosis of CD8+ T cells [96]. miR-491 inhibits the activation of CD8+ T cells and promotes its apoptosis via targeting B-cell lymphoma-extra-large (Bcl-xL), cyclin-dependent kinase-4 (CDK4), and T cell factor 1 (TCF1), hence aiding tumor cells escaping from immune system. Tumor-derived TGF-β also induces the miR-491 expression. Thus, miR-491 can be evaluated as a new immunotarget for CRC treatment [96].
miR-196b, miR-378a, and miR-486-5p are evaluated as predictive biomarkers for the efficacy of the vaccine treatment in CRC [97]. miRNAs were enrolled in Phase II studies. In 16 patients, high expression of miR-196b-5p and low expression of miR-378a-3p and miR-486-5p are associated with better prognosis after vaccine treatment. Hence, these miRNAs can be determined as novel biomarkers for prediction of outcome responses of patients [97].
miRNAs are also involving in radiotherapy responses. The expression of miRNA-processing enzymes Drosha and Dicer was found to be upregulated in radioresistant cell lines when compared with radiosensitive cell lines [98]. The role of miRNAs in radiotherapy response was evaluated further in the study cited as reference [87]. In the study, biomarkers for the prediction of chemoradiotherapy response in CRC were identified by using integrative and systematic bioinformatics analysis. The unique target genes of miR-198 and miR-765 were altered significantly upon transfection of specific miRNA mimics in the radiosensitive cell line. Thus, it could be said that miR-198, miR-202, miR-371-5p, miR-513a-5p, miR-575, miR-630, and miR-765 could be used for predicting the response of CRC to preoperative chemoradiotherapy [87]. Still, further studies are needed to understand the miRNA role in radiotherapy/radiochemotherapy prediction.
By the discovery of miRNAs, a significant number of studies have been conducted to indicate the utility of miRNAs. According to the highlighted studies, miRNAs in body fluids have potential to be predictive, diagnostic or prognostic biomarkers; and also they can be therapeutic targets due to their inducer ability on tumorigenesis. Basically, miRNAs offer promising practice for screening, diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of cancer. Therefore, these noncoding RNA fragments may be used alone or combined with other protocols to screen, diagnose, prognose, and treat cancer. However, their clinical importance is still not conclusive, and validation studies are needed for routine-based clinical application.
Evidences showed that inhibition of oncomiRs or replacement of tumor suppressive miRNAs could be used to develop innovative treatment approaches. Further studies are needed to reveal the molecular mechanisms on the regulation of miRNA biogenesis. Determination of miRNA target genes, molecular interactions between target mRNA and miRNAs, and signaling pathways will help to interpret molecular mechanisms of cancer. Besides investigations on miRNA expression patterns and their molecular mechanisms, studies on technological developments for reliable and cost-effective miRNA applications are also extremely important to enhance minimally invasive routine miRNA applications. Methodological variability among different clinical centers is the biggest limitation for the successful combination of miRNAs in cancer management. Standardization and normalization of essential steps of miRNA applications, such as miRNA extraction, processing, biobanking, and quantitation, eliminate the clinical facility-based variations. Using internal controls and enrollment of the laboratory accreditation/validation programs may present benefits for standardization. miRNAs have potential to be therapeutic targets and treatment options. But determination of mRNAs and miRNAs interactions and obtaining the large population-based multicenter cohorts are essential to use miRNAs in therapy. Especially before the implementation of miRNAs in clinics, evaluation of miRNA panels on large patient cohorts must be achieved.
The Ebola virus (EBOV) genus and Marburg viruses are classified in the
Some therapeutic and vaccination strategies have been introduced against the EBOV so far. The remdesivir, monoclonal antibodies [5], and rVSV-ZEBOV (vesicular stomatitis virus-based vaccine which is expressing the glycoprotein of a Zaire Ebola virus) [6] are considered ongoing advances in this area for EBOV treatment and transmission control.
Innate immunity and interferons (IFN) production are one of the most important immune responses to viral infections. Interaction between the Ebola virus and innate immunity with a well-regulated inflammation response can be life-saving in patients with the Ebola virus disease (EBD) [7]. The interaction of the EBOV with the innate immune system is a multifactorial condition, and it is largely associated with cytokines, chemokines, inflammation mediators, the NK cell receptors, and pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), such as killer immunoglobulin-like receptor (KIR) and Toll-like receptors (TLRs) [8, 9]. The signaling pathways in the innate immune system are triggered after PAMPs detected by pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) [10]. Based on protein domain homology, the PRRs are classified into six groups TLRs, a retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I)-like receptors (RLRs), nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptors (NLRs), C-type lectin receptors (CLRs), absent in melanoma-2 (AIM2)-like receptors (ALRs), and cyclic GMP-AMP synthase and stimulator of interferon genes (cGAS-STING pathway) [11, 12]. PRRs are also able to recognize molecules released by damaged cells (The damage-associated molecular pattern-DAMPs) and activate natural immunity [13, 14]. The detection of PAMPs or DAMPs by PRRs increases the transcription of genes encoding cytokine and chemokine, IFN type 1, and antimicrobial proteins (AMPs) [15]. Furthermore, most of the TLRs recognize double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) whereas TLR7 and TLR8 bind single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) in endosomes [16]. After recognition, TLRs recruit several adaptor proteins, including Myeloid Differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88), TIR-domain-containing adaptor protein (TIRAP), TIR-domain-containing adapter-inducing interferon-β (TRIF), and TRIF-related adapter molecule (TRAM) [17]. This initiates downstream signaling cascades that lead to the activation of transcription factors, such as transcription factors NF-κB, interferon regulatory factor 3/7 (IRF3/7), and activator protein-1 (AP-1). These factors stimulate the transcription of genes in the cell nucleus and increase the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines and IFN [15, 18]. RIG-1 and melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 (MDA5), recognize viral ss/dsRNA molecule leads to the translocation of NF-kB, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), as well as interferon regulatory factors IRF3, IRF7 [19]. RIG-1 signaling pathway plays a crucial role in the antiviral innate immune response. Activated RIG-1 can interact with signaling adaptor protein mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein (MAVS), also known as IFN-β promoter stimulator 1 (IPS-1), to induction of NF-κB signaling or interferon pathways. It was revealed that upon viral infection, MAVs form high-molecular-weight aggregates downstream of RIG-1 and MDA5 signaling [20]. Activated MAVS–RIG-I signaling ultimately results in the activation of the antiviral IFN-I pathway [21]. The binding of type I and III IFNs to their receptors activates the Jak–STAT pathway, which is responsible for enhancing IFN-stimulated gene expression, which includes antiviral genes, such as Viperin, MxA, MxB, IFITMs, OAS, and PKR [22, 23]. One of the most important complexes, which participate in host defense by sensing viral infection and promoting innate immune system response, is the inflammasome, first described by Martinon in 2002 [24]. The best-studied inflammasome sensor is NOD-like receptor pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3), which consists of a sensor molecule (NLRP3), the adaptor protein ASC, also called PYCARD, and an effector pro-caspase-1 [25]. Activated caspase is required for the cleavage of the inactivated interleukin-1 family (IL-1), such as pro-IL-18 and pro-IL-1β to the mature forms to initiate inflammasome [26].
Dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages are one of the main axes for filoviruses infections due to the activation of the adaptive immune [27, 28]. In addition, the macrophage’s infection and attachment by EBOV result in downstream signaling for alteration of the expression profile in these cells. This alteration leads to the pro-inflammatory cytokine release and virus spreading, which both are important elements in the disease progression and outcome [29, 30]. In this regard, in the current chapter, we tried to provide a perspective on the pathophysiology and molecular mechanisms of the innate immune system and its interaction with EBOV infection.
Over the past 40 years, there are 34 episodes of the EBOV outbreak in more than 10 different Sub-Saharan African countries leading to numerous cases and deaths [31]. Different species of the EBOV have been reported thus far. Three important species are known as Sudan, Bundibugyo, and Reston [32]. The responsible species for the 2014 outbreak of EBOV was identified as the Zaire ebolavirus [32]. The EBOV disease is a zoonotic disease in nature and the major route for transmission is contact with the infected animal especially chimpanzees, fruit bats, and antelope [2, 33]. The virus genome could be detectable for 10 weeks postmortem [34]. Any contact with bodily fluids is a major route for transmission of EBOV [35]. Even after the survival from the disease the viral genome can be detected in semen for 179 days and leads to sexual transmission in some cases [36]. Fever, fatigue, diarrhea, and tachycardia are the most common symptoms and based on the infected strain and the patient’s age, 43% of mortality is reported over the 8 days following the infection [37]. In convalesce or a long time after the remission, some rare complications and long-term sequels, such as uveitis or blurred vision, sleeping problems, and meningoencephalitis are reported [38, 39, 40].
The Ebola virus (EBOV) genus in
Viral gene name | Important functions |
---|---|
VP24 | formation of nucleocapsids (NC) and nucleocapsid-like structures, inhibit IFN signaling |
L | RNA-dependent RNA polymerase |
glycoprotein (GP) | viral entry induces lymphocyte apoptosis and reduces neutralizing antibodies by soluble GPs |
NP | Nucleoprotein formation |
VP40 | Virus assembly |
VP35 | inhibits the induction of IFN type I |
VP30 | transcription activation factor |
The VP35 is a key viral protein in the EBOV virulence. This unique protein inhibits the induction of IFN type I in the infected cell. The IFN type I has long been declared a key element in the host’s innate antiviral response [45]. In this regard, the VP35 is considered the most important for virus immune evasion [46]. The IFN blocking strategy in EBOV is not limited to VP35. Other EBOV protein VP24 can actively bind to the karyopherin alpha (KPNA) and interfere with the IFN STAT1 downstream signaling [47]. Furthermore, VP24 seems to be essential for the EBOV replication in macrophages of the guinea pig as an animal model [48].
The EBOV represents an affinity to a wide range of the cellular receptors for virus attachment to the cells. Following the systemic virus infection, viral cytopathology and immune-mediated cell damage are two essential steps of the EBOV pathogenesis and tissue damage [49]. One of the suggested pathogenic mechanisms of the EBOV is the antibody-dependent augmentation of the infection through the attachment of the antibodies to the virus and the C1q-C1q receptor of the complement in the cell surfaces [50].
One of the most important therapeutic agents for EBOV is the remdesivir. The remdesivir acts as an inhibitor of the virus RNA polymerase and leads to chain termination [51]. Efforts for the treatment of the EBOV also lead to some monoclonal antibodies against this virus; for instance, old and newer versions of these monoclonal antibodies are ZMapp, MAb114, and REGN-EB3 [5].
Interaction between the Ebola virus and innate immunity suggested that a fast and well-regulated inflammation response could be life-saving in patients with the Ebola virus disease (EBD). While a massive monocyte/macrophage activation could be lethal [7]. The mononuclear phagocytes are import element in the EBD pathology [52].
Biomarkers are suggestive elements for disease prognosis and pathogenesis. Some markers such as apoptosis antigen-Fas, IFN-β, IL-29, IL-5, TNFR-II, and FAS ligand levels are associated with the moderate disease while the D-dimer, Granzyme B, IL-10, IL-6, IL-8, TNFR-I, vWF (von Willebrand factor), monocyte chemoattractant proteins and thrombomodulin are associate with severe disease [53]. Furthermore, up-regulation of the IL-1β and IL-6 can suggest a non-fatal infection while the increase in TNF-α, IFN-ɤ, IL-10, IL-1 receptor antagonist, neopterin, IL-8, IL-15, and IL-16 is associated with the lethal outcome [7, 54, 55, 56]. By considering all these markers, it has been suggested that in a general view an increase in cytokines and cytokine storm, which it is, represents a hyperactive of the innate immune responses and in the other way, suppression of the adaptive immune responses and lymphocyte apoptosis is the main pathogenesis feature of the EBD and lethal infections [55].
The lymphocyte apoptosis leads to lymphocyte depletion. This apoptotic feature is not due to the replication and infection of the lymphocytes but it mediates through viral and immune system stimulations [57]. sGP, a viral protein produced during EBOV infection and accumulates at high concentrations in the serum, serves as a decoy to prevent the immune system from fighting the infection by binding EBOV-neutralizing antibodies [58]. It is assumed that glycosylation of transmembrane GP may affect neutralizing antibody binding [59]. Virally infected cells, release inflammation mediators that induce Fas and TNF-associated apoptosis-inducing ligands (TRAIL) pathways that can result in lymphocyte apoptosis and lack of an effective adaptive immune response [60, 61, 62]. In EBOV infection, lymphocytes are not directly infected, but apoptosis of lymphocytes is a pathological feature of infection. It is hypothesized that the factors (such as TRAIL, TNF-a, and Fas ligand) secreted by macrophages and dendritic cells infected in EBOV, cause lymphocyte apoptosis [52, 60].
Investigation of the EBOV infection in asymptomatic people suggested strong activation of the innate immune system and inflammation, which leads to adaptive immune activation and cytotoxic T cell responses. The strong activation of the innate immune system, inflammation and adaptive immune activation are considered as the optimum immune response to EBOV [63]. The main concept of the current section is summarized in Figure 1. The figure represents the EBOV infection in lethal and non-lethal scenarios and the role of the innate immune and inflammation in this process. In addition, some important interactions of the EBOV proteins are noted, for instance, the role of the VP35 and VP24 in type I interferon blocking or the role of the soluble glycoproteins in lymphocyte apoptosis.
A summary of the EBOV infection in lethal and non-lethal scenarios and the role of the innate immune and inflammation. After the EBOV, infection such as any other viral infection innate immunity induces inflammation and IFN. The VP35 and VP24 of the EBOV block the IFN production. A well-controlled and sufficient innate immune response, while it leads to the adaptive immune response, is assumed main cause of asymptomatic or non-lethal infections.
The interaction of the EBOV and the innate immune system is not only limited to the cytokines, chemokines, or inflammation mediators. In this regard, the NK cell and T cell receptors, which are known as killer immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR), are critical. The role of the NK cells in response to the EBOV viral-like particles highlighted the importance of these cells in the innate immune response to the EBOV [64]. The KIRs are important elements in the host response to infectious diseases. KIR2DS1 and KIR2DS3 of repertoire genotypes of the KIR represent more susceptibility to fatal EBOV [8].
In the EBOV infection, the interaction of the innate and adaptive immune responses is critical for the disease outcome. The Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is a vital element in response to the EBOV glycoprotein and activation of the antigen-presenting cells and T cells. By considering this, TLR4 responses represent a vital role in the regulation of innate and adaptive immunity [9]. The interaction of the TLR4 and monocytes (as antigen-presenting cells) highlighted the importance of the monocytes in the regulation of the immune response. The evidence supports the alteration of the transcriptional patterns in monocytes in EBD [65]. Furthermore, one of the major elements in inflammation and IFN stimulation is NLRP3 [66]. The EBOV infection could increase the IL-1β and IL-18 by the NLRP3 inflammasome activation [67]. This factor highlights the importance of the NLRP3 in pro-inflammatory cytokine production and innate immune system responses.
The DCs and macrophages infection with the EBOV is critical for adaptive immune activation. The EBOV infection leads to macrophage activation (by increasing the CD163 marker) and decreases T cell activation (by reducing in CD25 marker) in severe cases [68]. The macrophage’s infection leads to reductions in the co-stimulatory molecules in these cells, which are known as the main adaptive immune activation and the axis of the antigen presentation [27, 28]. The macrophage infection also leads to alteration in pro-inflammatory cytokine releases, such as IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6, which could dysregulate the inflammation [69]. Furthermore, monocytes infection with EBOV is a toll on the virus spreading all around the body [69]. The EBOV uses a mimicking of the apoptosis process for attachment and entry macrophages due to the TAM receptor tyrosine kinases and integrin αV [70]. However, it seems that other cell surface receptors such as DC-SIGN and DC-SIGNR or macrophage galactose-type calcium-type lectin (MGL) are critical for the EBOV infection in DC and macrophages [71, 72]. The attachment of the virus to macrophages regardless of the virus entry or macrophage infection affects the macrophage’s expression profile. This alteration is led macrophages to produce high levels of pro-inflammatory and pro-apoptotic signals [30].
Macrophages and dendritic cells are important cell targets of EBOV and the main innate immune cells that secrete cytokines, and chemokines following infection [29, 69]. Although macrophages and DCs are still able to initiate coagulation and inflammation, they are not able to stop the spreading of the Ebola virus systemically due to their impaired ability [28, 73]. These dysfunctions have a major impact on the innate and adaptive immune systems [74]. Macrophages and DCs are the essential cells of innate immunity and provide a bridge between innate and adaptive immunity [75]. It will highlight the importance of these cells in the disease outcome (Figure 1). Furthermore, VP24 and VP35 block latent lymphocyte stimulation through the IFN response [73]. All these clues are critical to combine and work as chains for limiting the infection through sufficient and well-controlled innate immune response activation, which leads to adaptive immune responses.
In this chapter, we tried to provide a perspective on the EBOV infection and innate immune responses. In a glimpse, it is worth mentioning that innate immune responses are critical in the EBOV infection. Sufficient and well-controlled innate immune responses may lead to optimum cytokine release and adaptive immune activation. In contrast, an overreacted innate immunity could affect and hyper-inflammation response.
The macrophages and DCs are also key elements in EBOV infection due to pro-inflammatory response and virus spreading. The EBOV uses different strategies to dysregulate and evade innate immune responses.
VP35 and VP24 of the virus inhibit the IFN type I stimulation in infected cells. Furthermore, the soluble GPs of the EBOV can induce apoptosis in T cells. The interaction of the EBOV with innate immunity is the most fundamental feature of the infection and determines the disease outcome.
We sincerely acknowledge the IntechOpen publication editorial office and Jelena Vrdoljak the Author Service Manager in IntechOpen for her incredible efforts.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. 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Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/356223",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"356223"},fullPath:"/profiles/356223",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()