Twenty-seven GCM models used in this study.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8416",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Non-Equilibrium Particle Dynamics",title:"Non-Equilibrium Particle Dynamics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"All engineering processes are processes of non-equilibrium because one or all of heat, mass, and momentum transfer occur in an open system. The pure equilibrium state can be established in an isolated system, in which neither mass nor heat is transferred between the system and the environment. Most engineering transport analyses are based on the semi-, quasi-, or local equilibrium assumptions, which assume that any infinitesimal volume can be treated as a box of equilibrium. This book includes various aspects of non-equilibrium or irreversible statistical mechanics and their relationships with engineering applications. I hope that this book contributes to expanding the predictability of holistic engineering consisting of thermo-, fluid, and particle dynamics.",isbn:"978-1-83968-078-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-077-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-079-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78729",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"non-equilibrium-particle-dynamics",numberOfPages:196,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2c3add7639dcd1cb442cb4313ea64e3a",bookSignature:"Albert S. Kim",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8416.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5546,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:9,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 18th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 28th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 27th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 15th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 16th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/21045/images/system/21045.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Albert S. Kim earned his physics degree of BS from Kyung Hee University and MS from Yonsei University, South Korea. He received his MS (1997) and Ph.D. (2000) in Civil and Environmental Engineering from the University of California at Los Angeles, USA. He joined the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Hawaii at Manoa in 2001. \r\nDr. Kim’s scientific accomplishments include the US National Science Foundation Faculty Early Career (CAREER) Award (2005), the University of Hawaii Regents’ Medal for Excellence in Research (2006) and the Medal for Excellence in Teaching (2017). Professor Kim has published almost 60 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters. He researches on computational environmental physics for engineering purposes.",institutionString:"University of Hawaii at Manoa",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Hawaii at Manoa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"954",title:"Thermodynamics",slug:"thermodynamics"}],chapters:[{id:"66815",title:"Nonequilibrium Statistical Operator",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84707",slug:"nonequilibrium-statistical-operator",totalDownloads:723,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nonequilibrium statistical physics is concerned with a fundamental problem in physics, the phenomenon of irreversibility, which is not rigorously solved yet. Different approaches to the statistical mechanics of nonequilibrium processes are based on empirical assumptions, but a rigorous, first principle theory is missing. An important contribution to describe irreversible behavior starting from reversible Hamiltonian dynamics was given by Zubarev, who invented the method of the nonequilibrium statistical operator (NSO). We discuss, in particular, the extended von Neumann equation and the entropy concept in this approach. The method of NSO proved to be a general and universal approach to different nonequilibrium phenomena. Typical applications are the quantum master equation, kinetic theory, and linear response theory which are outlined and illustrated solving standard examples for reaction and transport processes. Some open questions are emphasized.",signatures:"Gerd Röpke",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66815",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66815",authors:[{id:"260373",title:"Prof.",name:"Gerd",surname:"Roepke",slug:"gerd-roepke",fullName:"Gerd Roepke"}],corrections:null},{id:"67626",title:"The Boundary Element Method for Fluctuating Active Colloids",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86738",slug:"the-boundary-element-method-for-fluctuating-active-colloids",totalDownloads:920,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The boundary element method (BEM) is a computational method particularly suited to solution of linear partial differential equations (PDEs), including the Laplace and Stokes equations, in complex geometries. The PDEs are formulated as boundary integral equations over bounding surfaces, which can be discretized for numerical solution. This manuscript reviews application of the BEM for simulation of the dynamics of “active” colloids that can self-propel through liquid solution. We introduce basic concepts and model equations for both catalytically active colloids and the “squirmer” model of a ciliated biological microswimmer. We review the foundations of the BEM for both the Laplace and Stokes equations, including the application to confined geometries, and the extension of the method to include thermal fluctuations of the colloid. Finally, we discuss recent and potential applications to research problems concerning active colloids. The aim of this review is to facilitate development and adoption of boundary element models that capture the interplay of deterministic and stochastic effects in the dynamics of active colloids.",signatures:"William E. Uspal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67626",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67626",authors:[{id:"279308",title:"Prof.",name:"William",surname:"Uspal",slug:"william-uspal",fullName:"William Uspal"}],corrections:null},{id:"67796",title:"Fundamentals of Irreversible Thermodynamics for Coupled Transport",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86607",slug:"fundamentals-of-irreversible-thermodynamics-for-coupled-transport",totalDownloads:1078,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Engineering phenomena occur in open systems undergoing irreversible, non-equilibrium processes for coupled mass, energy, and momentum transport. The momentum transport often becomes a primary or background process, on which driving forces of physical gradients govern mass and heat transfer rates. Although in the steady state no physical variables have explicit variation with time, entropy increases with time as long as the systems are open. The degree of irreversibility can be measured by the entropy-increasing rate, first proposed by L. Onsager. This book conceptually reorganizes the entropy and its rate in broader aspects. Diffusion is fully described as an irreversible, i.e., entropy increasing, phenomenon using four different physical pictures. Finally, an irreversible thermodynamic formalism using effective driving forces is established as an extension to the Onsager’s reciprocal theorem, which was applied to core engineering phenomena of fundamental importance: solute diffusion and thermal flux. In addition, the osmotic and thermal fluxes are explained in the unified theoretical framework.",signatures:"Albert S. Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67796",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67796",authors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim"}],corrections:null},{id:"67414",title:"Using the Principles of Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics for the Analysis of Phase Transformations in Iron-Carbon Alloys",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83657",slug:"using-the-principles-of-nonequilibrium-thermodynamics-for-the-analysis-of-phase-transformations-in-i",totalDownloads:653,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Using the principles of nonequilibrium thermodynamics, a technique has been developed for calculating diffusion flows during phase transformations in iron-carbon alloys. Expressions for the calculation of cross coefficients, driving forces, and flows in Onsager equations for the model thermodynamic system are given; examples of the use of the developed technique are given for the processes of graphitization and the formation of carbides in chromium steel during tempering. The nonequilibrium thermodynamics analysis of the eutectoid transformation is executed into carbon steel. Onsager’s equations of motion are built for the model thermodynamics system describing eutectoid transformation. The basic kinetic parameters of process are growth rate of perlite and between inter-plates distance for the stationary process of eutectoid transformation. We founded dependencies of basic kinetic parameters of process from the size of supercooling. A nonequilibrium thermodynamic model of the austenite nondiffusion transformation in iron and alloys based on it is developed, taking into account internal stresses in the system. Onsager motion equations are found for a model thermodynamic system describing a nondiffusion transformation and kinetic equations for changing deformations and growth rates of the α-phase. A scheme of austenitic nondiffusion transformations is constructed, including normal and martensitic transformations, as limiting cases.",signatures:"Bobyr Sergiy Volodimyrovych",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67414",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67414",authors:[{id:"259290",title:"Dr.",name:"Serhiy",surname:"Bobyr",slug:"serhiy-bobyr",fullName:"Serhiy Bobyr"}],corrections:null},{id:"63569",title:"Variational Principle for Nonequilibrium Steady States Tested by Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Model Liquid Crystal Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80977",slug:"variational-principle-for-nonequilibrium-steady-states-tested-by-molecular-dynamics-simulation-of-mo",totalDownloads:734,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of the work presented in this chapter is to test a recently proven variational principle according to which the irreversible energy dissipation rate is minimal in the linear regime of a nonequilibrium steady state. This test is carried out by performing molecular dynamics simulations of liquid crystals subject to velocity gradients and temperature gradients. Since the energy dissipation rate varies with the orientation of the director of the liquid crystal relative to these gradients and is minimal at certain orientations, this is a stringent test of the variational principle. More particularly, a nematic liquid crystal model based on the Gay-Berne potential, which can be regarded as a Lennard-Jones fluid generalized to elliptical molecular cores, is studied under planar Couette flow, planar elongational flow, and under a temperature gradient. It is found that the director of a nematic liquid crystal consisting of rod-like molecules lies in the vorticity plane at an angle of about 20° to the stream lines in the planar Couette flow. In the elongational flow, it is parallel to the elongation direction, and it is perpendicular to the temperature gradient in a heat flow. These orientations are the ones where the irreversible energy dissipation rate is minimal, so that the variational principle is fulfilled in these three cases.",signatures:"Sten Sarman, Yonglei Wang and Aatto Laaksonen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63569",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63569",authors:[{id:"261664",title:"Dr.",name:"Sten",surname:"Sarman",slug:"sten-sarman",fullName:"Sten Sarman"},{id:"261894",title:"Prof.",name:"Aatto",surname:"Laaksonen",slug:"aatto-laaksonen",fullName:"Aatto Laaksonen"},{id:"270093",title:"Dr.",name:"Yonglei",surname:"Wang",slug:"yonglei-wang",fullName:"Yonglei Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"64948",title:"Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Hydrodynamic Modes of a Nematic Liquid Crystal",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82609",slug:"equilibrium-and-nonequilibrium-hydrodynamic-modes-of-a-nematic-liquid-crystal",totalDownloads:793,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We use a fluctuating hydrodynamics (FH) approach to study the fluctuations of the hydrodynamic variables of a thermotropic nematic liquid crystal (\n\nNLC\n\n) in a nonequilibrium steady state (\n\nNESS\n\n). This NESS is produced by an externally imposed temperature gradient and a uniform gravity field. We calculate analytically the equilibrium and nonequilibrium seven modes of the \n\nNLC\n\n in this \n\nNESS\n\n. These modes consist of a pair of sound modes, one orientation mode of the director and two visco-heat modes formed by the coupling of the shear and thermal modes. We find that the nonequilibrium effects produced by the external gradients only affect the longitudinal modes. The analytic expressions for the visco-heat modes show explicitly how the heat and shear modes of the \n\nNLC\n\n are coupled. We show that they may become propagative, a feature that also occurs in the simple fluid and suggests the realization of new experiments. We show that in equilibrium and in the isotropic limit of the \n\nNLC\n\n, our modes reduce to well-known results in the literature. For the \n\nNESS\n\n considered, we point out the differences between our modes and those reported by other authors. We close the chapter by proposing the calculation of other physical quantities that lend themselves to a more direct comparison with possible experiments for this system.",signatures:"Jorge Fernando Camacho and Rosalío Fernando Rodríguez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64948",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64948",authors:[{id:"54980",title:"Mr.",name:"Rosalio",surname:"Rodriguez",slug:"rosalio-rodriguez",fullName:"Rosalio Rodriguez"},{id:"264974",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge Fernando",surname:"Camacho",slug:"jorge-fernando-camacho",fullName:"Jorge Fernando Camacho"}],corrections:null},{id:"64599",title:"Non-Newtonian Dynamics with Heat Transport in Complex Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82291",slug:"non-newtonian-dynamics-with-heat-transport-in-complex-systems",totalDownloads:645,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Transport properties of complex system under various conditions are of practical interest in the field of science and technology. Homogenous nonequilibrium molecular dynamics (HNEMD) simulations have been employed to calculate the thermal conductivity (λ) of three-dimensional (3D) strongly coupled complex nonideal plasmas (SCCNPs) over a suitable range of plasma parameters (Γ, κ). New investigations show that the λ depending on plasma parameters and minimum value of λ exists at nearly same plasma states. In the present case, the non-Newtonian behavior is checked with different system sizes and it is found that the λ behavior is well matched with earlier numerical work. It is demonstrated that the present outcomes are more consistent than those obtained earlier known simulations. It is revealed that our outcomes can be acceptable for a low range of force field in order to find out the size of linear ranges, and it explains the nature of nonlinearity of SCCNPs. It has been shown that the measured outcomes at steady states of external field of F* (=0.005) are in acceptable agreement with previous numerical outcomes, and it showed that the deviations are within less than 12% for most of the data and depend on plasma states.",signatures:"Aamir Shahzad and Fang Yang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64599",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64599",authors:[{id:"238571",title:"Prof.",name:"Maogang",surname:"He",slug:"maogang-he",fullName:"Maogang He"},{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9441",title:"Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)",subtitle:"Past, Present, and Progress",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b0f6032c45ead7f1cb11bb488bfcd48d",slug:"ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-otec-past-present-and-progress",bookSignature:"Albert S. 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The pure equilibrium state can be established in an isolated system, in which neither mass nor heat is transferred between the system and the environment. Most engineering transport analyses are based on the semi-, quasi-, or local equilibrium assumptions, which assume that any infinitesimal volume can be treated as a box of equilibrium. This book includes various aspects of non-equilibrium or irreversible statistical mechanics and their relationships with engineering applications. I hope that this book contributes to expanding the predictability of holistic engineering consisting of thermo-, fluid, and particle dynamics.",isbn:"978-1-83968-078-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-077-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-079-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78729",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"non-equilibrium-particle-dynamics",numberOfPages:196,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"2c3add7639dcd1cb442cb4313ea64e3a",bookSignature:"Albert S. 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Aviation is probably the most reliable means of disaster response and relief for most large-scale natural disasters. For example, it is unrealistic to maintain or repair road or rail connections across areas affected by earthquakes, floods, landslides, storms, or wildfires, to transport relief and aid to those affected. Thus, adaptation and risk management must pay particular attention to the strengthening of aviation infrastructure to guarantee robust and sustainable relief. By providing a perspective on the impacts on aviation of anticipated changed atmospheric conditions over the near future, this research addresses the adaptation of aviation transport to climate change. The greatest concerns of the aviation industry under a warming climate possibly are the following two questions: how will the maximum payload be affected by the warmer and lighter lower layer atmosphere? and, during the journey, will the changed ambient air properties (density, temperature and viscosity) affect the engine performance? Anyway, all current aviation engines are breathing thermal engines. The first part of this chapter focuses on the maximum payload, whereas the second part concentrates on the effects on the efficiency and fuel consumption of the thermal engines. Commercial airliners provide an environment-friendly express means of cargo transport and personnel travel (Section 7.4.1.2 of IPCC AR5 [1]). Possible effects of aviation on atmospheric components and climate already have been studied in detail [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Conversely, the the effects of climate warming on aviation have not yet been extensively studied. In Section 1 of this chapter, climate warming effects on aviation payload are investigated, based on the fact that air density is proportional to the maximum take-off weight (MTOW) for an aircraft, irrespective of the design (fixed wing or helicopters; jets or propellers). Aircraft are air-lifted and the MTOW can be expressed in a generic form as
\nwhere
Twenty-seven GCM models used in this study.
The second theme of this chapter is on aviation fuel efficiency. According to FAA regulations, the flight profile consists the seven stages (A-G from taxi out till taxi in). To estimate the extra work that needs to be performed, along flight route integration is the exact approach. Because the commercial data on flight logs are not available for us, we have to make some assumptions according to the carrier aircraft and the routes, which are readily available online (e.g., from those websites selling air tickets). Unlike the issue with maximum payload, where only the airport level air density plays the decisive role, temperature, air density, and winds all matter in the fuel efficiency issue. There sure exist apparent canceling effects among them as well. In addition, the tropopause’s elevation will fluctuate as climate warms; this involves extra potential energy cost in case the aircraft still cruise in the coldest (hence the most favorable for the thermal engine) and most clear level of the Earth’s atmosphere. This likely is the case since the cruise stage is the most fuel-consuming stage of the flight (although the rate of fuel burning is only a half of the ascending stage). So, a complete consideration of the issue involves the along flight route integration plus the potential energy changes of the entire aircraft. Discussion bifurcates in the following sections, focusing, respectively, on the effects on maximum payload (Section 2) and fuel efficiency (Section 3). This study should inspire further investigation into how climate and environmental changes influence the civil aviation sector of industry.
\nAir density is derivable from air pressure, temperature, and humidity [9, 10]:
\nwhere
From Eq. (2), two factors cause air density fluctuations: temperature changes and mixing in tracers of different molecular weight to the average molecular weight of the air. Earth atmosphere is dominated by the “dry” inactive components (N2, O2, CO2, etc.). With heat intake, the primary response is expanding in volume and, subsequently, an increased mass center. During the past half century, on average, there is a 30 m lift of the mass center, indicating that the mass is now distributed in a thicker (larger depth) layer (thus reduced density at lower levels). Heating caused expansion is just one effective means that decreases air density throughout the entire tropospheric atmosphere. In-taking of lighter molecules (H2O has smaller molar mass than N2 and O2, the dominant constituents of dry air) is another effective way of reducing air density. Although from Clausius-Clapeyron equation [13] warm air has more capacity of holding moisture, it still is debatable whether earth atmosphere actually gains mass, because the hydrological cycle also tends to intensify [14, 15, 16], through facilitating interhemispherical moisture exchange [17] and destabilizing local stratification profile [15, 16]. If precipitation increases more than evaporation, there still is a net mass loss for atmosphere. Interestingly, all existing reanalysis datasets show no statistically significant changes in global total air mass during their respective reanalyses period. This implies that the net water vapor input into atmosphere is globally delicately balanced between geographic regions.
\nApplying the formula as in Eq. (2) to climate model-simulated (under RCP 8.5, a strong emission scenario) near-surface pressure, temperature, and humidity, near-surface air density is estimated over the globe. The same formula also is used on the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data. Density variations over 1900–2100 for six global airports are shown in Figure 1, as representatives. All 27 climate models unanimously indicate that all six locations experienced salient density decreases. Significant inter-model spread exists but started well before the year 1900 and should be ascribed to model systematic biases/drifts. For each climate model, the amount of density decrease easily exceeds the natural interannual variability magnitude. Geographically, high-latitude regions (e.g., Moscow) have larger interannual density variability but also generally experiences larger density decreases over the simulated 200 years. The linear trends of decrease estimated based on the reanalyses are close to model simulation. All 27 climate models show high degree of consensus in the simulated air density changes (e.g., Figure 2 for GFDL-CM3).
\nChanges in near-surface air density for the period 1900–2100 as simulated by 24 climate models over six selected world airports. Near-surface air density estimated from NCEP/NCAR reanalyses is shown as red bold lines. The upper and lower bounds among the 24 climate models are shown as brown lines. The analyses were performed on monthly data and averaged to annual values (actual plotted). As with all land-ocean-ice sheet fully coupled climate model outputs, the exact timing is hard to pinpoint. Only the statistical properties and long-term averages would resemble reality.
GFDL-CM3-simulated near-surface air density (kg/m3) averaged over two periods: (2005–2025) (a) and (2081–2100) (b), under RCP 8.5 scenario assumption. The density differences between these two periods are shown in (c), with corresponding percentage changes shown in (d).
Air density changes are a gradual process over the years. To quantitatively examine if the density changes were statistically significant, a
A t-test was performed for near-surface air density (simulated under RCP 8.5 scenario) annual time series over two periods (2005–2025) and (2080–2100). Sophisticated modern climate models show consensus on the geographical patterns of the P-value (left panels) and t-values (right panels). Except for some oceanic regions off the southern tip of Greenland and some portions of the Southern Oceans, most global regions passed the 95% confidence interval, for a DoF of 38. Tropical regions, especially over the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), experienced the most significant density decreases. The oceanic region off southern Greenland collocates with the region of deep-water formation of the North Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (MOC).
Although air density values simulated by the 27 climate models, when compared with those derived from the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data, have systematic biases, the linear trends derived from models agree very well with the reanalyses. This indicates that for estimating payload decreases as the climate warms, the density time series can be normalized by their average value over a control period, say 1900–1920. For a specific model, differences in the values of the normalized density time series from unity are the percentage reductions of NSAD and MTOW. If one further assumes an invariant unavoidable load (weight of an empty airplane), the decrease of MTOW also is the decrease of maximum payload. Air density changes estimated from all climate models were interpolated to the same spatial resolution as MRI-CGCM3. Figure 4 shows the MTOW changes between the two 20-year periods (2005–2025 and 2080–2100). Globally, the changes can reach 5% reduction for some high-latitude and high-elevation airports. For the busy North Atlantic Corridor (NAC), the reduction generally is greater than 1%. This has important economic significance. For the Boeing 747-400, this means a net load reduction of about 3969 kg (Table 2), approximately the passenger and luggage weight of ∼25 passengers, or a ∼6% reduction in its full passenger carrying capacity. Actual payload equivalence of a 1% reduction in MTOW for other types of aircraft is listed in Table 2. Because the ratio of unavoidable load to its maximum effective payload varies for different aircraft, the general reduction in net payload over NAC varies from 5 to 8.3% for all the aircraft types considered. Some Northern Hemisphere high latitudes have a ∼5% decrease in NSAD or MTOW. Considering that a 1% reduction in MTOW corresponds to a ∼2% (for larger aircraft such as a Boeing 747-800 or an An-24) to ∼3.6% (for small aircrafts such as an Embraer ERJ-145) reduction in effective payload, the ∼5% reduction in MTOW means a ∼8.5–19% reduction in effective payload year-round. As we stated earlier, at the costs of extra maintenance, aircraft still can operate with the manufacturer-labeled MTOW, which is lower than MTOW, under the unfavorable condition of warming. There may be no apparent passenger or cargo reduction. However, there will be hidden extra costs from a warming atmosphere.
\nThe estimated ensemble mean decrease in aircraft maximum takeoff total weight (MTOW), as a percentage, based on air density changes simulated by 27 climate models under the RCP 8.5 scenario. The near-surface density from each climate model was normalized by its mean value over 2005–2025 (the control period). Then a bilinear interpolation scheme was used to interpolate on to MRI-CGCM3’s horizontal resolution. An ensemble average was taken over the climate models. The reduction can reach 5% over Northern Europe. For the North Atlantic Corridor (NAC), a ∼1% reduction in MTOW was reached during the 75-year span.
Actual payload equivalence of a 1% reduction in near-surface air density (NSAD). Percentages of maximum payload equivalence are shown in parenthesis.
Based on the diagnosis of stresses (and forces) exerted on aircraft, a suitable invariant entity was identified for investigating climate change effects on aviation payload. Assuming no changes in technical aspects of aircraft and no changes to FAA regulations on takeoff performance, near-surface air density is the single most significant atmospheric parameter. Reanalyses data indicated clearly that the Earth’s atmosphere had expanded in volume in the past half century.
\nConsequently, the near-surface air density experienced significant decreases globally. The 27 climate models showed a high level of consensus in simulated near-surface air density variations. The ensemble mean of their twenty-first century simulations in NSAD trends was used to examine future reduction to effective payload. In line with Ref. [18], our study aimed to illustrate the potential for rising temperatures to influence weight restriction at takeoff stage. All technical aspects as commented on by Ref. [19] were assumed to be invariants during the analyses period. The simple fact that during extreme hot weather in summertime cargo airplanes have to reduce the effective payload indicates the validity of such analyses. The difference found with seasonal cycle is that these superimposed effects work persistently year-round and there is no easy way to circumvent or ameliorate them. We, however, agree with Ref. [19] that aviation industry still has technical room to cope with the detrimental effects from climate warming, perhaps at the extra costs of maintenance, passenger comfort, and may even require relaxation of aviation code.
\nAviation fuel efficiency is underpinning recent contest between aviation engine makers—using higher bypass engines and improving higher fuel-burning temperature. Aside from technical challenges, further improvements in fuel-burning efficiency may also have safety consequences. In the following discussion, a normal seven-stage flight profile (these are A, start and taxi to runway; B, takeoff and initial climbing; C, climbing to cruising altitude; D, en route cruising; E, descent; F, approach (includes ∼8-minute holding at ∼1500 ft. approach and landing); and G, taxi to docking) is considered (Figure 5). Figure 5 also shows the typical fuel-burning rates at different stages of a commercial airplane engine.
\nTypical flight profile of an aircraft and the fuel-burning rate in each stage. Except the cruising stage, other six stages last from 10 to 40 minutes only. In all, cruising stage is the most fuel-consuming stage.
In this subsection, we start from the theoretical expression of the total work an aircraft needs to perform from the origin airport to the destination airport. Another aspect of the fuel efficiency issue is related to the second law of thermodynamics. All airplane engines are thermal engine. Increased environmental temperature always is detrimental for thermal efficiency. This is directly related to the fuel costs of civil aviation. With changed atmospheric thermal structure, the aircraft’s mechanical efficiency may also vary; suppose the same FAA regulation is in position. All components that are sensitive to climate change are investigated and quantitatively from climate model simulations under the RCP 4.5 emission scenario—a more likely scenario.
\nDuring different stages of flying, the force balance situation on an aircraft is different. At the takeoff and climbing stages, there are vertical and forward accelerations. The vertical component of thrust aids the lift in overwhelming gravity. Similarly, the horizontal component of thrust also overwhelms drag. At cruising stage, thrust is reduced mainly to counteract drag, and the weight is balanced primarily by lift. Inevitable work done to the aircraft involves lifting it to the cruise elevation. The potential energy cannot be reclaimed at descending stage, unlike electronics cars. This portion of energy only is sensitive to warming when tropopause height changes as climate warms. The far larger term in energy cost would be that used to overcome drag. While it is apparent that drag is proportional to fuel cost, the picture for how total drag is affected by climate change is more sophisticated, because of the multiple sources involved. Classifying the many drag terms into pressure drag (e.g., induced drag, wave drag, and form drag) and skin friction drag (second term on right-hand side of Eq. (3)) is convenient because the pressure drags tend to be proportionally affected by air temperature and density changes. For example, for a specific design, the effects from environmental air on induced drag and net lift are usually proportional. Thus, the changes in skin friction are decisive for the sign of extra drag on top of total drag stress. To separate out climate change effects on aviation, it is assumed that there is no technological advance in design of subsonic aircrafts used for commercial airliners during the timespan of consideration:
\nwhere
To have an estimate of the effects by the end of the twenty-first century, we followed a line-by-line analysis of available commercial airliners. For this purpose, online commercial ticketing databases are browsed for available flights among global airports. Non-direct flights are decomposed to several “direct flights” in a row. An annual, global, direct flight database is thus archived for this research. To estimate the total annual fuel consumption, we follow a line-by-line adding method that considers all available (in operation as of 2010) commercial airliners and their scheduled flights. The integration is along the flying trajectory. There are all sorts of alliances and partnerships between the commercial airliners. A trip involving multiple stops is likely carried out by different airliners in collaboration. For example, between Beijing and Singapore, there are 14 companies having such a transportation service at sub-weekly frequency. Asiana and Air China, for example, have a service to take passengers to Seoul first before heading to Singapore. Cathay Pacific and Thai Airlines stop, respectively, in Hong Kong and Bangkok. Xiamen Airlines even make two stops in between (Beijing → Zhoushan → Xiamen → Singapore). To eliminate possible recounting of the flying legs, only direct flights (each involves one takeoff, cruise, and one landing) between airports are analyzed. In the above case between Beijing and Singapore, there are only five such daily flights, from Air China (A975 and A976, Airbus 330 s) and Singapore Airlines (SA801, 805, Boeing 777 s as carrier, and SA 807, an Airbus 380-800). Connecting flights from the same airline or from several partner airlines are considered to be several connected direct flights, with distinct flight profile legs and usually carried out using different types of aircraft. For example, the Xiamen Airline schedule from Beijing to Singapore is looked upon as a direct flight from Beijing to Zhoushan, followed by a direct flight from Zhoushan to Xiamen, and another direct flight from Xiamen to Singapore. In this specific case, the same types of aircrafts are used. However, for intercontinental flights, usually different types of aircrafts are involved and intercontinental legs cruise at a higher elevation than the domestic legs of flights.
\nIn the estimation of fuel efficiency change by the end of this century, atmospheric parameters (i.e., air temperature and humidity) from multiple climate models (all under RCP 8.5 scenario) are used to drive expressions (Eqs. (3)–(5)), weighted by airplane-specific aerodynamic parameters. Ensemble averages are taken after the along trajectory integrations driven, respectively, by all climate models (Table 1). The climate model outputs are obtained from the IPCC Deutsches Klimarechenzentrum (DKRZ) Data Distribution Centre (http://www.ipcc-data.org/sim/gcm_monthly/AR5/Reference-Archive.html). For models providing multiple perturbation runs, only
From the discussion in Section 3.1, we see that the total energy an aircraft needs to perform is the one overcoming the drag force (Eq. (3)) and the one overcoming gravity to the cruising altitude. The drag forces do work all stages taking off and before landing (all the suspension stages), whereas the potential energy increases only during the taking off and climbing to the cruising altitude (usually tropopause elevation for best visibility and thermal efficiency—to be discussed soon). Because the cruising stage is of very different lengths, in the following discussion, we estimate the percentage change in energy (fuel) costs relative to each stage in the A-G profile against their respective values (e.g., changes in fuel cost in each flight stage, rather than vaguely relative to the total seven stages).
\nFrom Figure 6, tropopause has apparent latitudinal distribution: reaching lower pressure (higher altitudes) at the tropical region and drops to higher pressure levels at the polar regions. As climate warms, tropopause was lifted to higher elevations (Figures 6b and 7a and b), except very localized regions around the South Pole. This is in agreement with Refs. [20, 21]. Different emission scenarios differ primarily in magnitudes, with decreasing regions totally disappeared for the strong emission scenario RCP 8.5. For the bustling North Atlantic Corridor (NAC, 305–350E; 30–60N), not only the trend but even the differences between the two scenarios (Figure 7c) pass a
GFDL2.1 simulated tropopause height (shades in (a), in km) and tropopause temperature (contour lines in (a)) during a control period (1980–2000). The projected differences between (2080–2100) and the control period, under the RCP 8.5 emission scenario, are shown in (b). The increases in tropopause height are a global phenomenon. For most areas, tropopause temperatures also increase.
GFDL2.1 simulated tropopause height changes (shades in (a) and (b), in hPa) between periods 1980–2000 and 2080–2100, represented in pressure levels. The area averaged time series over the NAC (305–350E; 30–60N) is shown in (c), for two emission scenarios (RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5). The two differs only quantitatively.
In the ascending stage, (in the vertical direction) the aircraft not only overcomes gravity, but it also experiences drag (both terms in Eq. (3)). As a result, the ascending at the lower altitudes is more fuel-consuming, because of the higher air density. As a result of this fact, the elevated tropopause elevation is only an increase of less than 0.2% in fuel costs for long-range international flights. Except for very short-range flights, the cruising stage is the most fuel-consuming stage. Factors affecting the cruising stage needed to be examined to have an estimate of the fuel efficiency issue of climate warming.
\nAircraft engines are breathing thermal engines. That is, they use oxygen in the environmental air fanned into the burning chamber, rather than carrying the oxidizers (as rocket engines do) for burning the fuel. The working fluid is the high-temperature and thus high-pressure exhausts (gases resulting from burning of fuel plus other components in the inhaled air). As fuel and inhaled air are “locked” in the burning chamber moving with the aircraft, the overall efficiency (in providing thrust) is a multiplication of thermal efficiency and mechanical efficiency. Applying Newton’s third law of motion (or momentum theory) \n
As aircraft engines are thermal engines, their thermal efficiency is adversely affected by environmental temperature rise. The second law of thermodynamics puts a fundamental limit on thermal efficiency (\n
where \n
As the airplane moves forward by ejecting exhausts backward, the way in which the kinetic energy (extracted from the fuel-burning chemical energy) is partitioned between aircraft and exhaust jet (i.e., used for pushing aircraft forward versus removed by the exhaust) is measured by the mechanical (propulsive) efficiency (\n
where
In the global belt between 65°S and 70°N, which contains most of the trajectories of commercial flights, the tropopause temperature increased ∼0.8–1.2°C over a 100-year period (the difference between (2080–2100) and (1980–2000)). For most commercial engines, thermal efficiency reduces only 0.06% during the cruising stage of the flight profile. Due to air density decrease, the mechanical efficiency is affected by warming the opposite way. As a result, the total efficiency was affected only by ∼0.03%. The most significant effect from a warming flying environment is in fact from the increased air stickiness—the body drag acting on the aircraft.
\nThe percentage change in skin friction drag is caused primarily by the increase in the kinematic viscosity of air, within the cruising space, which has a temperature lapse rate of about 8 × 10−8 m2 s−1 K−1. Figure 8c indicates that, for all operating airliners considered, there could be a 3.5% increase in skin frictional drag by 2100 (\n
Decreases in thermal efficiency (a) and mechanical efficiency (b), increase in skin frictional drag (c), and the overall decrease in fuel efficiency (d) during 2000–2100, for entire commercial aviation sector as a whole. Multiple climate model ensemble means (shown as thick red lines), and the ranges of the variability (thick yellow lines) are shown for 24 climate models under RCP 8.5 emission scenarios (for clarity only, the other two models both are within the range). The flight schedules of year 2010 are assumed unchanged during the entire period. Note that the control period is centered on 2010 (2005–2015), so the values at starting (2000) is not exactly united.
To conclude, factors affecting aviation fuel efficiency are thermal and propulsive efficiencies and overall drag on aircrafts. An along-the-route integration is made for all direct flights in baseline year 2010, under current and future atmospheric conditions from nine climate models under the representative concentration pathway (RCP) 8.5 scenario. Thermal and propulsive efficiencies are affected oppositely by environmental warming. The former decreases 0.38%, but the latter increases 0.35% over the twenty-first century. Consequently, the overall engine efficiency decreases only by 0.02%. Over the same period, skin frictional drag increases ∼5.5%, from the increased air stickiness. This component is only 5.7% of the total drag, the ∼5.5% increase in air viscosity accounts for a 0.275% inefficiency in fuel consumption, one order of magnitude larger than that caused by engine efficiency reduction. The total decrease in fuel efficiency equals to ∼0.24 billion gallons of extra fuel annually, a qualitatively robust conclusion but quantitatively with significantly inter-climate model spread.
\nThe effects on fuel cost from increased airplane potential energy still is one order of magnitude smaller than factors considered here, due to the fact that it is a less than a 1% increase in the climbing stage (at most 1 hour). The fuel cost, in the cruising stage is much greater, because of the length of time (up to 14 hours). Also, at higher altitudes, the fuel cost for climbing is reduced (the increased tropopause height’s effect is the upper level part of the trajectory). The common statement that the climb stage is more fuel-consuming refers to the rate, not the total value (except for very short flights, e.g., from Oklahoma City to Tulsa).
\nClimate effects on aviation are a burgeoning but promising research field. Our study here focused on the rudimentary aspects that are of concern to the commercial airlines: the effects on maximum payload and on fuel costs. Other directions such as customer comfort and safety also are profoundly affected, especially the circulation changes (winds and turbulence [24]). These will be addressed in future studies in this walk of line.
\nWe are thankful for the useful discussions with Professors Huiling Yuan (Nanjing University), Weidong Guo (Nanjing University), and Zhaohua Wu (FSU) on the relevance of this research to environmental change and societal adaptations. We also thank Professors Mervyn Lynch (Curtin University), Zhaomin Wang (Hihai University), and Xiangbai Wu for providing constructive comments on the aspects of the manuscript.
\nThe authors claim no conflict of interest in this research.
Kidney diseases are a major clinical concern in sickle cell disorders (SCD). Acute kidney injury (AKI) as well as chronic kidney disease (CKD) is associated with higher risk of inpatient mortality, prolonged hospital stay and expensive hospitalizations [1, 2]. While an estimated 100,000 people are affected by SCD in the United States (US) [3, 4, 5], about 20–25 million people are living with SCD worldwide and the number is expected to increase by about 30% globally by 2050 [6]. In the US, the majority of healthcare for SCD is attributed to in-patient hospitalization for acute complications with an estimated annual cost of $953,640 per patient per year [7]. Progressive kidney disease leads to significant morbidity and mortality in both pediatric and adult patients with SCD. Sickle cell nephropathy (SCN) comprehends a spectrum of renal abnormalities that begins in childhood and may progress to advanced renal disorders in adulthood. In contrast to mild renal manifestations of sickle cell nephropathy includes decreased urinary concentrating ability, impaired renal acidification and potassium secretion, hematuria and proteinuria, progressive kidney disease leads to significant morbidity and mortality in both pediatric and adult patients with SCD. Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) causes sudden drop in kidney function and promotes chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end stage renal disease (ESRD) [8, 9, 10]. In SCD, incidences of AKI are common among hospitalized SCD patients [11, 12, 13] and it is associated with increased mortality in those admitted to intensive care unit [14]. It is also an independent risk factor for increase morbidity, longer hospitalizations, and increased costs [15] as well as with risk for CKD progression in SCD [16]. Approximately 30% of SCD individuals develop CKD by adulthood and a large proportion of this sub-population develops ESRD [17]. The annual rate of incidence of AKI and reported CKD is 2–3-fold higher among SCD patients compared to non-sickle individuals [2]. Although newborn screening along with early intervention decreased early childhood mortality in SCD, accumulation of kidney diseases and age dependent renal deterioration of renal health poses increased risk of mortality in this population.
The genetic basis of SCD includes a single point mutation in the beta-globin chain of hemoglobin resulting in a morphologically and functionally different red blood cells (RBC). The modified hemoglobin (HbS) polymerizes under hypoxic condition causing RBC sickling [18, 19]. This characteristic feature of SCD leads to two major pathophysiological consequences, namely, vasoocclusion and hemolysis [20]. Moreover renal medullary hypoxia, acidosis, hyperosmolarity and reduced blood flow contribute to elevated endothelial adhesion and recurrent ischemia–reperfusion (IR) injury [13]. Earlier studies implicated several aspects of SCD including volume depletion, rhabdomyolysis, infections and the use of non-steroidal analgesics (NSAIDs) as predisposing factors for AKI [13, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. A cascade of these events individually or in combination possibly generates a constellation of sterile inflammation and oxidative stress, which overwhelm the normal physiology and trigger several chronic and acute multiorgan damage including kidney injury in SCD. Recurrent episodes of IR injury trigger vasoocclusive pain crisis (VOC), one of the major causes for intensive care unit (ICU) admission for patients with SCD. This medically vulnerable population is at higher risk of developing AKI due to co-morbid conditions of kidney and other organs including heart and lung. Patients with SCD frequently develop cardiopulmonary events like pulmonary hypertension (PH) and acute chest syndrome (ACS) which often lead to premature death [26]. AKI is emerging as a major clinical concern among SCD patients hospitalized for VOC and acute chest syndrome (ACS). It has been reported in ~14% of adults [12] and 8% children [27] with ACS, and in 17% of children with VOC [28]. Additionally, while hyperfiltration and microalbuminuria are common in SCD [13], chronic kidney disease (CKD) occurs in up to 60% of these patients [17]. Recent epidemiological evidences increasingly indicate that CKD and AKI are linked and probably promote one another [29, 30]. Underlying CKD is now recognized as a clear risk factor for AKI, as both decreased glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and increased proteinuria.
Acute exacerbation of anemia that potentially generate excess extracellular heme is an independent risk factor for AKI in SCD [27, 28, 31]. Earlier studies implicated several aspects of SCD including volume depletion, rhabdomyolysis, infections and the use of non-steroidal analgesics (NSAIDs) as predisposing factors for AKI [13, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. Recent clinical studies have concluded that incidences of AKI are associated with rapid decline in hemoglobin (Hb). The link between acute hemolysis and AKI is corroborated with significantly low level of total Hb at the time of hospitalization among SCD patients who develop AKI compared to those who do not [16], and higher risk of developing acute renal insufficiency among ACS patients with rapidly progressive decline in total Hb [32]. Intravascular hemolysis is a cardinal pathophysiological event in SCD that raises cell free plasma Hb and arginase-1 levels to collectively reduce nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability and enhance reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation [33, 34]. Cell-free hemoglobin is primarily scavenged by plasma protein haptoglobin (Hp). The resulting duo (Hb-Hp complex) is internalized by macrophage receptor CD163 for subsequent globin and heme metabolism. Haptoglobin is depleted in SCD resulting high amount of plasma hemoglobin that can easily get exposed to the underlying oxidative environment. Heme is subsequently released following oxidation of Hb to methemoglobin (metHb) with ferric heme. Extracellular circulating heme is rapidly transferred to hemopexin (Hx), the plasma protein with the highest binding affinity for heme. It is well known that heme-hemopexin (heme-Hx) complex is transported to the liver for degradation by heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) [35, 36]. In SCD, plasma Hx is also intrinsically exhausted due to chronic hemolysis [37, 38]. Lack of haptoglobin and hemopexin along with chronic and acute hemolysis elevate extracellular hemoglobin and heme in plasma of SCD patients [33]. Furthermore, the HbS is a relatively unstable molecule that can easily undergo autooxidation contributing to increase circulating free heme in SCD [39]. Both cell-free circulating hemoglobin and heme are toxic, unless sufficiently metabolized, to the cells and may cause significant damage to organs including kidney.
The primary etiology of AKI involves four major structures of kidney including tubules, glomeruli, interstitium and intrarenal blood vessels. While acute tubular injury is the major pathological manifestation of AKI, rapid decline in renal function identified by reduced glomerular filtration rate (GFR) clinically define AKI [40]. The dimeric form of circulating cell free Hb can filter through glomerular sieve and enters in proximal tubular segment. The endocytosis of Hb molecules is possible through the megalin and cubilin receptors on tubular epithelial cells. The internalized hemoglobin breaks down in to heme that induces caspase-3 mediated apoptosis of the tubular cells leading to AKI development. This idea was supported by the presence of hemoglobin and myoglobin in plasma and urinary space in multiple in vivo models of AKI induced by glycerol, ischemia, sepsis and cisplatin [41, 42, 43].
In vivo, excess circulating heme, a byproduct of acute hemolysis, triggers VOC and ACS, the two major SCD complications associated with hospitalization and AKI development in SCD [44, 45]. Our recent study demonstrated that modest elevation of extracellular heme in circulation promotes clinically relevant AKI in an established humanized murine model of SCD containing human HbS. In this study, the researchers have established that a secondary heme scavenger, alpha-1-microglobin (A1M) is elevated in mice and human with SCD as an adaptive response to decreased hemopexin, the primary heme scavenger responsible for clearance of circulating free heme [46]. Several other studies have shown that heme bound to A1M is transported to renal tubular epithelial cells [47]. Excess deposition of heme causes proximal tubular epithelial cell death and promotes AKI (Figure 1). This study identifies that relative concentration of A1M and Hx may serve as prognostic factor of future AKI events in SCD during acute hemolytic events [46, 48].
Pathogenesis of AKI in SCD. Hemolysis cause release of cell free Hb and heme in circulation. Free dimeric Hb or free heme bound to A1M passes through glomerular filtration and internalized into renal proximal tubular epithelial cells. Excess heme can overwhelm the HO-1 degradation capacity and induce multiple cell death pathways. On the other hand, Hb may cause podocyte injury leading to glomerular dysfunction. Tubular cell death and/or glomerular damage develops AKI.
Kidney diseases gradually develop in individuals with SCD. Microalbuminuria is evident in childhood, progressing to apparent proteinuria, deteriorating glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in early adulthood, while CKD becomes prevalent in adults [49]. Development of CKD in SCD is complex, but several studies have invariably demonstrated its association with low hemoglobin level and hemolysis [50, 51, 52, 53]. Higher frequency of severe anemia (Hb: 7–9 g/dl) among SCD patients with ESRD (71%) compared to non-SCD patients with ESRD (25%) has also been reported [54]. Moreover, among SCD patients, exacerbation of anemia is an independent risk factor for acute kidney injury (AKI) which is a predisposing factor for CKD and ESRD [27, 28, 31]. Progression of kidney damage is defined as CKD when eGFR is reduced to <60 mL/min/1.73 m2. The reduced GFR is often associated with hematuria, albuminuria and nephrotic syndromes. Intravascular hemolysis is a cardinal pathophysiological event in SCD that raises cell free plasma hemoglobin and arginase 1 to collectively reduce nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability and enhance reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation [33, 34]. Worsening anemia and elevated persistent oxidative stress lead to decline in GFR in association with reduced erythropoietin synthesis. Individuals with SCD develop CKD at a median age of 23.1 years, while 16–27% of pediatric patients have CKD [17].
Increased renal blood flow and higher GFR are characteristics of kidney function among SCD patients at their younger age. The hyperfiltration subsides to normal GFR that eventually lowers to subnormal level with the progression of age and the development of CKD [13, 55]. Sustained glomerular hyperfiltration causes damage to different parts of the glomerulus including the endothelium and the epithelial layer of the Bowman’s capsule. These events predispose the development of focal segmental glomerular sclerosis (FSGS), which is a common feature in SCD. Hyperfiltration occurs due to glomerular hyper perfusion that increases the renal blood flow. Hyper perfusion stems from underlying anemia and decreased vascular resistance, while the reduced blood flow is evident within hypoxic renal medulla due to vasoocclusion of sickle red blood cells. This phenomenon commonly known as “perfusion paradox” generates increased oxidative stress, mesangial proliferation, endothelial barrier disruption, and thickening of the glomerular basement membrane [56].
Hyperfiltration among children with SCD is associated with proteinuria in the form of microalbuminuria (urine albumin 30–300 mg/g creatinine). This condition increases with age and about 68% of these patients experienced macroalbuminuria (urine albumin >300 mg/g creatinine) as they grow older [57, 58]. While about 4% of SCD patients exhibit macroalbuminuria at the nephrotic range (urine albumin >500 mg/g creatinine), a substantial number of patients suffer from irreversible kidney complications. Several studies have indicated association of albuminuria with hemolysis, incidences of vasoocclusive crisis and acute chest syndrome, and pulmonary hypertension. These events also impact blood pressure which in turn can regulate hyperfiltration [13, 17, 21, 53].
Apart from the underlying hemoglobin gene mutation, progression and severity of CKD development are associated with polymorphisms of multiples genes among SCD patients. A major proportion of SCD population has alpha thalassemia. Two polymorphisms in the α-chain of the globin chain including i) a 3.7 Kb deletion and ii) a 4.2 Kb deletion are associated with reduced albuminuria, higher eGFR and hence lower risk of CKD progression [59, 60].
The variants of apolipoprotein L1 gene (
Besides the increased risk of AKI with longer GT tandem repeats of HMOX-1 gene promoter, the allele frequency of a variant of
In SCD, intrinsic hemolytic, inflammatory, oxidative and hypercoagulative stress contribute to the characteristic endothelial dysfunction that alters the systemic vascular biology [68]. Endothelial interaction with multiple blood components, including sickled red blood cells, leukocytes and platelets, injure the endothelium and obstruct the vasculature impacting internal organs [69]. Renal pathology in sickle cell nephropathy includes extensive peritubular microvascular congestions and chronic thrombotic microangiopathy that can lead to CKD by peritubular microvascular rarefaction, interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy [70, 71, 72].
Several studies including ours have demonstrated that extracellular heme triggers endothelial barrier disruption in various organs in SCD including the kidneys [44, 73, 74, 75, 76]. Endothelial dysfunction may occur in the glomerulus affecting the podocytes that maintain the glomerular endothelial integrity. One study has shown that renal endothelial dysfunction is triggered by an increase in soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFLT-1), a splice variant of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 (VEGFR1) in SCD. The sFLT-1 blocks interaction of VEGF with glomerular endothelium leading to endothelial damage associated with increased albuminuria [77]. Moreover, endothelin-1 (ET-1) generated by endothelial cells under inflammation causes endothelial injury by reducing NO bioavailability. Alongside, ET-1 mediates podocyte injury by binding endothelin A (ETA) receptor. In animal studies, antagonists to ETA receptor showed renal protection [78, 79].
Hemolysis and hemoglobinuria, cardinal features of SCD are associated with proteinuria and progression of CKD in SCD patients [51, 53]. Multiple chronic and acute hemolytic events may induce episodes of vasoocclusion leading to vulnerability of the endothelium susceptible to injury. The peritubular capillaries may split leading hematuria through extravasation of RBCs. These events may prompt development of vasoocclusion of vasa recta and papillary necrosis [80].
Endothelial injury in the renal peritubular microvessels is closely linked to rarefaction and interstitial fibrosis that leads to CKD progression [81, 82, 83]. Moreover, free heme reflects the function of danger associated molecular pattern in hemolytic diseases activating vital defense response compartments including toll-like receptor-4 signaling, neutrophil extracellular trap formation and inflammasome activation [84, 85, 86]. The inflammatory milieu including activated neutrophils regulate endothelial barrier function through adhesion and secretion dependent mechanisms [87].
Medications and timely management are critical in protecting the kidney. Chronic RBC transfusion therapy is offered to enhance the osmolality and concentrating ability in children with SCD. Hydroxyurea therapy has been shown to reduce the hyperfiltration in children [88]. Hypotonic fluid is recommended for renal papillary necrosis thiazide or loop diuretics are used to maintain urine flow rate [80]. The angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE-inhibitors) can dilate efferent arterioles and help decrease glomerular pressure. ACE-inhibitors are used widely to control albuminuria [89].
Free heme is considered as an eDAMP (erythroid danger-associated molecular pattern) that induces sterile inflammation in SCD. Heme has been shown to activate toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) on endothelial cell surface to promote TNFα stimulating innate immune signaling in SCD [45]. Moreover, heme activates NLRP3 inflammasome pathway and releases caspase-1 induced IL-1β from macrophages. The resulting inflammation is associated with hemolysis induced lethality in SCD mice and heme induced cell death in macrophages [85]. Heme-mediated toxicity is particularly relevant to renal tubular epithelial cells as these cells presumably confront the majority of heme that passes through the glomeruli during acute hemolysis. Inflammasomes potentially activate caspase-1 that mediates cell death leading to release of IL-1β and IL-18. These are pro-inflammatory cytokines that are induced and cleaved in the proximal tubule, and subsequently easily detected in the urine of SCD patients and their concentrations were associated with hemolysis [90]. In a cross-sectional study, urine IL-18 levels were markedly elevated in patients with established AKI [91]. An in vitro study using immortalized human proximal tubular epithelial cells (HK-2) suggests that activation of inflammasomes mediates contrast-induced AKI [92]. Whether acute hemolytic events followed by exposure of excess heme on proximal tubular epithelial cell surface induces AKI facilitated by stimulation of inflammasome machinery has not yet been established.
The role of the rate limiting heme catabolizing enzyme, HO-1 may be of significant importance. HO-1 degrades heme into iron (Fe), carbon monoxide (CO) and biliverdin, and thereby protects against adverse effects of heme. Multiple studies featured rapid induction of HO-1 under oxidative stress accounts for its beneficial effect against kidney injury [93, 94, 95]. Moreover, longer [GT]n repeats in HO-1 gene (
Besides tubular damage, etiology of AKI also includes impaired glomerular structure. Podocytes, the highly differentiated visceral epithelial cells, is a major constituent of glomerular structure and function. One in vitro study has shown that human and murine podocytes exposed to Hb develops increased oxidative stress and undergo apoptosis resulting podocyte dysfunction [96]. In SCD, the cell free HbS may serve as an oxidant to cause podocyte injury that may contributes to AKI, whereas, multiple AKI events may induce focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS), a characteristic CKD feature in SCD.
The intracellular signaling within the podocyte regulating glomerular endothelial integrity has not been explained.
Despite clinical association, mechanistic studies linking hemolysis to renal peritubular endothelial impairment leading to progressive kidney diseases in SCD have not yet been described. The underlying chronic inflammation in SCD leads to activation of blood cells including neutrophils and platelets. During AKI and CKD, neutrophil and platelet accumulation are evident within renal vasculature. The cellular and molecular mechanism depicting the interactions of activated blood cells and the endothelium leading to progression of CKD is an important area of future research.
Kidney injuries in SCD is multifactorial and may involve multiple unique and overlapping cell biological events in several renal compartments (Figure 2). Incidences of AKI are generally considered as independent risk factor for CKD progression not only in general population but also in SCD. Multiple AKI events attributed to acute intravascular hemolytic events in SCD may be responsible for progressive CKD and end stage renal disease among SCD patients. Future studies elucidating mechanisms of AKI to CKD transition along with identification of specific risk factors are warranted for development of potential therapeutics to protect individuals with SCD from broad spectrum of renal complications.
Overview of sickle cell disease nephropathy. Figure prepared with biorender.com.
Samit Ghosh is supported in part by National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) [grant R01DK124426]. The author acknowledges research support from Vascular Medicine Institute, the Hemophilia Center of Western Pennsylvania and Vitalant.
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\n\nIntechOpen works with award winning print-houses and we hold to the fact that all of our printed products are of the highest quality.
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Govindarajan and Giovanni Benelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5527.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1692",title:"Parasitology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b2110e81c765897e4ffdfbd340495e25",slug:"parasitology",bookSignature:"Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1692.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:6,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"31812",doi:"10.5772/32521",title:"Soft Ticks as Pathogen Vectors: Distribution, Surveillance and Control",slug:"soft-ticks-as-pathogen-vectors-distribution-surveillance-and-control-",totalDownloads:6423,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:null,book:{id:"1692",slug:"parasitology",title:"Parasitology",fullTitle:"Parasitology"},signatures:"Raúl Manzano-Román, Verónica Díaz-Martín, José de la Fuente and Ricardo Pérez-Sánchez",authors:[{id:"91813",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Sánchez",slug:"ricardo-perez-sanchez",fullName:"Ricardo Pérez-Sánchez"},{id:"120373",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Manzano-Román",slug:"raul-manzano-roman",fullName:"Raúl Manzano-Román"},{id:"120375",title:"Ms.",name:"Verónica",middleName:null,surname:"Díaz-Martín",slug:"veronica-diaz-martin",fullName:"Verónica Díaz-Martín"},{id:"120378",title:"Dr.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"De La Fuente",slug:"jose-de-la-fuente",fullName:"José De La Fuente"}]},{id:"69898",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89634",title:"Gut Microbiome: A New Organ System in Body",slug:"gut-microbiome-a-new-organ-system-in-body",totalDownloads:1113,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"The gut microbiome is comprised of various types of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses naturally occurring in humans and animals as normal microflora. Gut microorganisms are typically host specific, and their number and type vary according to different host species and environment. Gut microbes contribute directly and/or indirectly to various physiological processes including immune modulation, regulation of various neurotransmitter, and hormones, as well as production of many antioxidants and metabolites. They also play a role as antibiotic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, and anti-carcinogenic agents. Moreover, the ability of gut microbes to attenuate various systemic diseases like coronary heart disease, irritable bowel syndrome, metabolic diseases like diabetes mellitus, and infectious diseases like diarrhea has recently been reported. Current research findings have enough evidence to suggest that gut microbiome is a new organ system mainly due to the microorganisms’ specific biochemical interaction with their hosts and their systemic integration into the host biology. Investigations into the potential ability of gut microbiome to influence metabolism inside their host via biochemical interaction with antibiotics and other drugs has recently been initiated. This chapter specifically focuses on the importance of gut microorganisms as a new organ system.",book:{id:"9025",slug:"parasitology-and-microbiology-research",title:"Parasitology and Microbiology Research",fullTitle:"Parasitology and Microbiology Research"},signatures:"Haseeb Anwar, Shahzad Irfan, Ghulam Hussain, Muhammad Naeem Faisal, Humaira Muzaffar, Imtiaz Mustafa, Imran Mukhtar, Saima Malik and Muhammad Irfan Ullah",authors:[{id:"240684",title:"Dr.",name:"Haseeb",middleName:null,surname:"Anwar",slug:"haseeb-anwar",fullName:"Haseeb Anwar"},{id:"244522",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"ghulam-hussain",fullName:"Ghulam Hussain"},{id:"244524",title:"Mr.",name:"Imtiaz",middleName:null,surname:"Mustafa",slug:"imtiaz-mustafa",fullName:"Imtiaz Mustafa"},{id:"310200",title:"Dr.",name:"Shahzad",middleName:null,surname:"Irfan",slug:"shahzad-irfan",fullName:"Shahzad Irfan"},{id:"310201",title:"Dr.",name:"Humaira",middleName:null,surname:"Muzaffar",slug:"humaira-muzaffar",fullName:"Humaira Muzaffar"},{id:"310202",title:"Dr.",name:"Imran",middleName:null,surname:"Mukhtar",slug:"imran-mukhtar",fullName:"Imran Mukhtar"},{id:"310203",title:"Ms.",name:"Saima",middleName:null,surname:"Malik",slug:"saima-malik",fullName:"Saima Malik"},{id:"310204",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Irfan Ullah",slug:"muhammad-irfan-ullah",fullName:"Muhammad Irfan Ullah"},{id:"311357",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Naeem",middleName:null,surname:"Faisal",slug:"muhammad-naeem-faisal",fullName:"Muhammad Naeem Faisal"}]},{id:"54514",doi:"10.5772/67668",title:"Plant-Derived Compounds as an Alternative Treatment Against Parasites in Fish Farming: A Review",slug:"plant-derived-compounds-as-an-alternative-treatment-against-parasites-in-fish-farming-a-review",totalDownloads:2735,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Aquaculture has grown rapidly for food production around the world. However, outbreaks of infectious diseases have also increased in aquaculture, causing serious economic losses. For many years, fish farmers have applied conventional treatments such as anti‐parasitics and chemical treatments to control fish parasites. However, previous studies have revealed an accumulation of these chemical residues in fish tissues, and a negative environmental impact from farms to aquatic organisms. As an alternative to conventional methods, many plant‐derived compounds such as essential oils (e.g. Origanum sp. and Lippia spp.) and plant extracts (e.g. Allium sativum and Mentha spp.) have been used as an efficient treatment to control parasites in freshwater, brackishwater and marine aquaculture systems. Our objective with this review is to highlight the advantages of the use of plant extracts as an alternative treatment against parasites in aquaculture (e.g. protozoans, myxozoans and monogeneans) and to show the possible negative environmental impacts of conventional treatments used in fish farming systems. Finally, we also highlight the potential of discovering new plant‐derived bioactive compounds that have been increased in the last year due to the use of new tools such as the application of nanotechnology and microencapsulation to control diseases in fish farming.",book:{id:"5527",slug:"natural-remedies-in-the-fight-against-parasites",title:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites",fullTitle:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites"},signatures:"Alison Carlos Wunderlich, Érica de Oliveira Penha Zica, Vanessa\nFarias dos Santos Ayres, Anderson Cavalcante Guimarães and\nRenata Takeara",authors:[{id:"124356",title:"Dr.",name:"Erica O.P.",middleName:null,surname:"Zica",slug:"erica-o.p.-zica",fullName:"Erica O.P. Zica"},{id:"192845",title:"Dr.",name:"Alison",middleName:null,surname:"Wunderlich",slug:"alison-wunderlich",fullName:"Alison Wunderlich"},{id:"193541",title:"Dr.",name:"Renata",middleName:null,surname:"Takeara",slug:"renata-takeara",fullName:"Renata Takeara"},{id:"193600",title:"BSc.",name:"Vanessa F. S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ayres",slug:"vanessa-f.-s.-ayres",fullName:"Vanessa F. S. Ayres"},{id:"193601",title:"Prof.",name:"Anderson C.",middleName:null,surname:"Guimarães",slug:"anderson-c.-guimaraes",fullName:"Anderson C. Guimarães"}]},{id:"54617",doi:"10.5772/67554",title:"Introductory Chapter: Back to the Future - Solutions for Parasitic Problems as Old as the Pyramids",slug:"introductory-chapter-back-to-the-future-solutions-for-parasitic-problems-as-old-as-the-pyramids",totalDownloads:1870,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"5527",slug:"natural-remedies-in-the-fight-against-parasites",title:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites",fullTitle:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites"},signatures:"Hanem Fathy Khater",authors:[{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater"}]},{id:"63554",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80372",title:"Current Aspects in Trichinellosis",slug:"current-aspects-in-trichinellosis",totalDownloads:1285,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Currently, it is estimated that more than 11 million humans in the world are infected by helminth parasites of Trichinella species, mainly by Trichinella spiralis (T. spiralis), responsible for causing Trichinellosis disease in both animals and humans. Trichinellosis is a cosmopolitan parasitic zoonotic disease, which has direct relevance to human and animal health, because it presents a constant and important challenge to the host’s immune system, especially through the intestinal tract. Currently, there is an intense investigation of new strategies in pharmacotherapy and immunotherapy against infection by Trichinella spiralis. In this chapter, we will present the most current aspects of biology, epidemiology, immunology, clinicopathology, pharmacotherapy and immunotherapy in Trichinellosis.",book:{id:"6979",slug:"parasites-and-parasitic-diseases",title:"Parasites and Parasitic Diseases",fullTitle:"Parasites and Parasitic Diseases"},signatures:"José Luis Muñoz-Carrillo, Claudia Maldonado-Tapia, Argelia López-\nLuna, José Jesús Muñoz-Escobedo, Juan Armando Flores-De La\nTorre and Alejandra Moreno-García",authors:[{id:"214236",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Carrillo",slug:"jose-luis-munoz-carrillo",fullName:"Jose Luis Muñoz-Carrillo"},{id:"216080",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno-García",slug:"alejandra-moreno-garcia",fullName:"Alejandra Moreno-García"},{id:"254888",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Armando",middleName:null,surname:"Flores-De La Torre",slug:"juan-armando-flores-de-la-torre",fullName:"Juan Armando Flores-De La Torre"},{id:"254889",title:"Dr.",name:"José Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Escobedo",slug:"jose-jesus-munoz-escobedo",fullName:"José Jesús Muñoz-Escobedo"},{id:"254890",title:"Dr.",name:"Argelia",middleName:null,surname:"López-Luna",slug:"argelia-lopez-luna",fullName:"Argelia López-Luna"},{id:"254891",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Maldonado-Tapia",slug:"claudia-maldonado-tapia",fullName:"Claudia Maldonado-Tapia"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65773",title:"Life Cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi in the Invertebrate and the Vertebrate Hosts",slug:"life-cycle-of-em-trypanosoma-cruzi-em-in-the-invertebrate-and-the-vertebrate-hosts",totalDownloads:1380,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi) is a protozoan parasite that causes Chagas disease, a zoonotic disease that can be transmitted to humans by blood-sucking triatomine bugs. T. cruzi is a single-celled eukaryote with a complex life cycle alternating between reduviid bug invertebrate vectors and vertebrate hosts. This article will look at the developmental stages of T. cruzi in the invertebrate vector and the vertebrate hosts, the different surface membrane proteins involved in different life cycle stages of T. cruzi, roles of different amino acids in the life cycle, carbon and energy sources and gene expression in the life cycle of T. cruzi. The author will also look at extracellular vesicles (EV) and its role in the dissemination and survival of T. cruzi in mammalian host.",book:{id:"8806",slug:"biology-of-em-trypanosoma-cruzi-em-",title:"Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi",fullTitle:"Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi"},signatures:"Kenechukwu C. Onyekwelu",authors:[{id:"245368",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenechukwu C.",middleName:null,surname:"Onyekwelu",slug:"kenechukwu-c.-onyekwelu",fullName:"Kenechukwu C. Onyekwelu"}]},{id:"55437",title:"Biological Control of Parasites",slug:"biological-control-of-parasites-2017-07",totalDownloads:4222,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Parasites (ectoparasites or endoparasites) are a major cause of diseases in man, his livestock and crops, leading to poor yield and great economic loss. To overcome some of the major limitations of chemical control methods such as rising resistance, environmental and health risks, and the adverse effect on non‐target organisms, biological control (biocontrol) is now at the forefront of parasite (pests) control. Biocontrol is now a core component of the integrated pest management. Biocontrol is defined as “the study and uses of parasites, predators and pathogens for the regulation of host (pest) densities”. Considerable successes have been achieved in the implementation of biocontrol strategies in the past. This chapter presents a review of the history of biocontrol, its advantages and disadvantages; the different types of biological control agents (BCAs) including predators, parasites (parasitoids) and pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses and virus‐like particles, protozoa and nematodes); the effect of biocontrol on native biodiversity; a few case studies of the successful implementation of biocontrol methods and the challenges encountered with the implementation of biocontrol and future perspectives.",book:{id:"5527",slug:"natural-remedies-in-the-fight-against-parasites",title:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites",fullTitle:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites"},signatures:"Tebit Emmanuel Kwenti",authors:[{id:"191763",title:"Dr.",name:"Tebit Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Kwenti",slug:"tebit-emmanuel-kwenti",fullName:"Tebit Emmanuel Kwenti"}]},{id:"54084",title:"Can the Cure for Chagas’ Disease be Found in Nature?",slug:"can-the-cure-for-chagas-disease-be-found-in-nature-",totalDownloads:1786,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Nature is a skilled factory that produces a wide variety of secondary metabolites known as natural products. Those compounds synthesized by living organisms are usually related to their vital processes. Many drugs used nowadays, had its origins in medicinal plants and other organisms such as herbs, fungi and sponges. Hence, those sources constitute a viable alternative to conventional medicine in many developing countries. In other hand, protozoan diseases like Chagas, represent a health threat causing mortality to populations around the world. The classic treatment for Chagas’ disease is chemotherapic and includes benznidazole and nifurtimox, although, the search for new drugs still remains. Triatomines that may spread Chagas can also be controlled making use of the insecticide property of certain plants. After literature survey it was found, classes of natural products, plant extracts, essential oils, and other natural sources that have shown activity against T. cruzi. In this context, many substances were tested in vitro and in vivo assays to verify trypanocidal efficacy. Promising results were published regarding to compounds arising from plants and sponges that showed high toxicity on different forms of the parasite with low toxicity on mammalian cells, although few were clinically tested on Chagas’ disease.",book:{id:"5527",slug:"natural-remedies-in-the-fight-against-parasites",title:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites",fullTitle:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites"},signatures:"Nelissa Pacheco Vaz",authors:[{id:"192870",title:"Dr.",name:"Nelissa",middleName:null,surname:"P. Vaz",slug:"nelissa-p.-vaz",fullName:"Nelissa P. Vaz"}]},{id:"62896",title:"Malaria Pathophysiology as a Syndrome: Focus on Glucose Homeostasis in Severe Malaria and Phytotherapeutics Management of the Disease",slug:"malaria-pathophysiology-as-a-syndrome-focus-on-glucose-homeostasis-in-severe-malaria-and-phytotherap",totalDownloads:1229,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Severe malaria presents with varied pathophysiological manifestations to include derangement in glucose homeostasis. The changes in glucose management by the infected human host emanate from both Plasmodium parasitic and host factors and/or influences which are aimed at creating a proliferative advantage to the parasite. This also includes morphological changes that that take place to both infected and uninfected cells as structural alterations occur on the cell membranes to allow for increased nutrients (glucose) transportation into the cells. Without the availability, effective and efficient intervention there is a high cost incurred by the human host. Hyperglycaemia, hypoglycaemia and hyperinsulinemia are critical aspects displayed in severe malaria. Conventional treatment to malaria renders itself hostile to the host with negative glucose metabolism changes experiences in the young, pregnant women and malaria naïve individuals. In malaria, therefore, host effects, parasite imperatives and treatment regimens play a pivotal role in the return to wellness of the patient. Phytotherapeutics are emerging as treatment alternatives that ameliorate glucose homeostasis alternations as well as combat malaria parasitaemia. The phytochemicals e.g. triterpenes, have been shown to alleviate the “disease” and “parasitic” aspects of malaria pointing at key aspects in ameliorating malaria glucose homeostasis fallings-out that are experienced in malaria.",book:{id:"6979",slug:"parasites-and-parasitic-diseases",title:"Parasites and Parasitic Diseases",fullTitle:"Parasites and Parasitic Diseases"},signatures:"Greanious Alfred Mavondo, Joy Mavondo, Wisdom Peresuh, Mary\nDlodlo and Obadiah Moyo",authors:[{id:"202805",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfred Mavondo-Nyajena Mukuwa",middleName:"Alfred Mukuwa",surname:"Greanious",slug:"alfred-mavondo-nyajena-mukuwa-greanious",fullName:"Alfred Mavondo-Nyajena Mukuwa Greanious"},{id:"263433",title:"Dr.",name:"Obadiah",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"obadiah-moyo",fullName:"Obadiah Moyo"},{id:"263434",title:"Mrs.",name:"Joy",middleName:null,surname:"Mavondo",slug:"joy-mavondo",fullName:"Joy Mavondo"},{id:"263435",title:"Ms.",name:"Mary",middleName:null,surname:"Dlodlo",slug:"mary-dlodlo",fullName:"Mary Dlodlo"},{id:"263436",title:"Mr.",name:"Wisdom",middleName:null,surname:"Peresu",slug:"wisdom-peresu",fullName:"Wisdom Peresu"}]},{id:"65273",title:"Introductory Chapter: Vectors and Vector-Borne Pathogens around Us",slug:"introductory-chapter-vectors-and-vector-borne-pathogens-around-us",totalDownloads:1161,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"8122",slug:"vectors-and-vector-borne-zoonotic-diseases",title:"Vectors and Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases",fullTitle:"Vectors and Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases"},signatures:"Sara Savić",authors:[{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/355367",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"355367"},fullPath:"/profiles/355367",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()