Summary of the intervention and findings of the selected studies.
\\n\\n
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10251",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Plankton Communities",title:"Plankton Communities",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Plankton is a group of small organisms that are passively displaced by water, that is, they are dragged by marine tides and currents. Marine plankton, which includes organisms such as protozoa, microalgae, small crustaceans, and jellyfish, play an important role in maintaining the health and balance of the ocean and its complex food chains. Over three sections and eight chapters, this book provides a comprehensive overview of zooplankton and phytoplankton as well as their environmental and economic importance.",isbn:"978-1-83968-609-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-608-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-610-8",doi:null,price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"plankton-communities",numberOfPages:198,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e11e441ca2d2d5f631b1b4704505cfb6",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira and Ana Marta Gonçalves",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10251.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1104,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:null,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:1,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 28th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 25th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 24th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 13th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"320124",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana M.M.",middleName:"Marta",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-m.m.-goncalves",fullName:"Ana M.M. Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320124/images/system/320124.jpg",biography:"Ana Marta Gonçalves obtained a Ph.D. in Biology with a specialization in Ecology from the University of Coimbra, Portugal, in collaboration with Ghent University, Belgium, in 2011. Currently, she is an auxiliary researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal, where she is also a member of the Directive Board. Since 2016, she has been a member of the Scientific Council of the Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra (IIIUC). Dr. Gonçalves holds various administrative and management positions in international networks, societies (e.g., Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, AIL), and associations (e.g., PROAQUA). She is an editorial board member and reviewer for several indexed journals. She has published more than 70 journal articles, 50 book chapters, and 165 communications in international scientific events. She participated as a member and/or coordinator in more than twenty-five national and international projects and is currently the coordinator of four research projects. She has supervised more than ninety-five national and international undergraduate and graduate students. She has experience as a teacher of university courses and in accredited training sessions for teachers. Additionally, she has coordinated several ocean literacy and environmental education activities for kindergarten and school students. During her research career, Dr. Gonçalves obtained several grants and a MARS award for young scientists funded by The Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ).\n\nShe has expertise in biosafety, biochemical pathways, and impacts of stressors in aquatic species. Her research focus is on the valorization of marine resources and their applications in the industrial sector, such as the food and pharmaceutical industries. Her studies also highlight the application of biomarker tools for monitoring and managing aquatic systems",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"40",title:"Marine Biology",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-marine-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"76429",title:"Response of Marine Plankton Communities in Ponds to the Presence of Vertical Structures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97475",slug:"response-of-marine-plankton-communities-in-ponds-to-the-presence-of-vertical-structures",totalDownloads:98,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The effects of bottom vertical structures like AquaMats® in enhancing plankton productivity was evaluated. One experimental earthen pond of 500 m2 was provided with AquaMats® increasing the surface substrate area 12 times and water quality, phytoplankton and zooplankton populations developed during almost 100 days was compared with a pond without AquaMats®. Their presence favored the development of Dinoflagellates (Miozoa, Dinophyceae), mostly Gymnodiniales, which may be of some concern since some species of this group have been associated with toxic algal blooms while in the ponds without AquaMats® Diatoms (Bacillariophyta) predominate. In both ponds plankton production was very much sculptured by external nutrients added to the systems. The balance between different nutrients is extremely important to regulate the phytoplankton populations with Diatoms blooming at silicate concentrations higher than 2 μM and below this level and at low nitrate and high ammonium being more appropriate for Dinoflagellates. The linkage between phytoplankton and zooplankton population in ponds is strong with zooplankton exerting control over the phytoplankton population and vice-versa. The use of vertical substrates enhances plankton productivity by increasing the substrate area for periphyton fixation. The main zooplankton taxonomic groups associated with the presence of AquaMats® were Calanoid and Harpacticoid copepodites and nauplii, veligers of gastropods and trochophore of polychaets, larval stages of organisms that except for calanoid copepods are benthic and correspond to the meroplanktonic phase in the life cycle of those organisms.",signatures:"Maria Emília Cunha, Hugo Quental Ferreira, Ana Barradas and Pedro Pousão-Ferreira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76429",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76429",authors:[{id:"331559",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maria Emília",surname:"Cunha",slug:"maria-emilia-cunha",fullName:"Maria Emília Cunha"},{id:"334013",title:"MSc.",name:"Hugo",surname:"Quental Ferreira",slug:"hugo-quental-ferreira",fullName:"Hugo Quental Ferreira"},{id:"334945",title:"MSc.",name:"Ana",surname:"Barradas",slug:"ana-barradas",fullName:"Ana Barradas"},{id:"415985",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro",surname:"Pousão Ferreira",slug:"pedro-pousao-ferreira",fullName:"Pedro Pousão Ferreira"}],corrections:null},{id:"80684",title:"Plankton: Environmental and Economic Importance for a Sustainable Future",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100433",slug:"plankton-environmental-and-economic-importance-for-a-sustainable-future",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plankton is composed by unicellular, filamentous or colonial organisms that may have prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell structures. These organisms have an extreme ecological importance in the different water bodies worldwide, as they fix carbon dioxide, produce oxygen and are an important key element in the basis of various food chains. Through an industrial perspective, phytoplankton species have been used as a feedstock for a wide range of applications, such as wastewater treatment, or production of high value compounds; and commercial products, such as food and feed supplements, pharmacological compounds, lipids, enzymes, biomass, polymers, toxins, pigments. Zooplankton is commonly used as live food for larval stages to the period of termination of fish, shrimp, mollusks and corals. These types of organisms have characteristics such as a valuable nutritional composition, digestibility, buoyancy, ease of ingestion and attractive movement for post-larvae, thus presenting economic importance. This book chapter aims to demonstrate the several advantages that plankton have, their ecological and economic importance, targeting the production of add-value products.",signatures:"Glacio Souza Araujo, Diana Pacheco, João Cotas, José William Alves da Silva, Jefferson Saboya, Renato Teixeira Moreira and Leonel Pereira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80684",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80684",authors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas"},{id:"338257",title:"Dr.",name:"Glacio Souza",surname:"Araujo",slug:"glacio-souza-araujo",fullName:"Glacio Souza Araujo"},{id:"338258",title:"Dr.",name:"Diana",surname:"Pacheco",slug:"diana-pacheco",fullName:"Diana Pacheco"},{id:"338259",title:"Dr.",name:"José William",surname:"Alves da Silva",slug:"jose-william-alves-da-silva",fullName:"José William Alves da Silva"},{id:"338260",title:"Dr.",name:"Jefferson Pablo",surname:"de Souza Saboya",slug:"jefferson-pablo-de-souza-saboya",fullName:"Jefferson Pablo de Souza Saboya"},{id:"471749",title:"Dr.",name:"Renato",surname:"Teixeira Moreira",slug:"renato-teixeira-moreira",fullName:"Renato Teixeira Moreira"}],corrections:null},{id:"74590",title:"Remote Sensing of Phytoplankton Pigments",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95381",slug:"remote-sensing-of-phytoplankton-pigments",totalDownloads:181,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pigments, as a vital part of phytoplankton, act as the light harvesters and protectors in the process of photosynthesis. Historically, most of the previous studies have been focused on chlorophyll a, the primary light harvesting pigment. With the advances in technologies, especially High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and satellite ocean color remote sensing, recent studies promote the importance of the phytoplankton accessory pigments. In this chapter, we will overview the technology advances in phytoplankton pigment identification, the history of ocean color remote sensing and its application in retrieving phytoplankton pigments, and the existing challenges and opportunities for future studies in this field.",signatures:"Guoqing Wang and John Moisan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74590",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74590",authors:[{id:"330788",title:"Dr.",name:"Guoqing",surname:"Wang",slug:"guoqing-wang",fullName:"Guoqing Wang"},{id:"342748",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Moisan",slug:"john-moisan",fullName:"John Moisan"}],corrections:null},{id:"74724",title:"First Report on the Diversity of Epizoic Algae in Larval of Shellfish Gastropod Aliger gigas",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95113",slug:"first-report-on-the-diversity-of-epizoic-algae-in-larval-of-shellfish-gastropod-em-aliger-gigas-em-",totalDownloads:193,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Epibiosis occur frequently on the shells of some marine crustaceans, which often serve as substrate for various species of algae, there is few information on the associations between these. The objective of this study was to determine if the gastropod mollusk Aliger gigas (formerly Lobatus gigas) in larval had some sort of the association with algal. To the above was carried out collecting egg masses in the environment, the larvae were cultivated in seawater filtered 5 μm. The algal material found was observed in electron microscopy, for its identification and quantification. We analyzed 60 larvae aged 2–44 days for analyzing the structure of the shell and its epibionts. Of the larvae analyzed, 50 larvae presented epizoic. The algae community consisted of 28 taxa, and composed of 25 diatoms (Bacillariophyta) and three cyanophytes (Cyanobacteria). The H′ diversity values fluctuated between 0.2 a 1.2. The dominant and frequent species were formed by diatoms: Nitzschia panduriformis var. minor, Halamphora sp. and Cyclophora sp.",signatures:"Rocío Elizabeth Muciño-Márquez, Dalila Aldana-Aranda, María Guadalupe Figueroa-Torres and Oscar Hernández-Almeida",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74724",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74724",authors:[{id:"210762",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar Ubisha",surname:"Hernández-Almeida",slug:"oscar-ubisha-hernandez-almeida",fullName:"Oscar Ubisha Hernández-Almeida"},{id:"219130",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Rocio Elizabeth",surname:"Muciño Marquez",slug:"rocio-elizabeth-mucino-marquez",fullName:"Rocio Elizabeth Muciño Marquez"},{id:"340696",title:"Dr.",name:"Dalila",surname:"Aldana-Aranda",slug:"dalila-aldana-aranda",fullName:"Dalila Aldana-Aranda"},{id:"343887",title:"Dr.",name:"María Guadalupe",surname:"Figueroa-Torres",slug:"maria-guadalupe-figueroa-torres",fullName:"María Guadalupe Figueroa-Torres"}],corrections:null},{id:"74844",title:"The Use of Allelochemicals of Aquatic Macrophytes to Suppress the Development of Cyanobacterial “Blooms”",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95609",slug:"the-use-of-allelochemicals-of-aquatic-macrophytes-to-suppress-the-development-of-cyanobacterial-bloo",totalDownloads:357,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Harmful algal “blooms”, or HABs, is a hazardous natural phenomenon that often occurs under the influence of anthropogenic factors, for example, during the anthropogenic eutrophication of water bodies. An increase in the frequency and duration of cyanobacterial “blooms” carries a number of serious threats, including local and global degradation of water resources and the impact of cyanotoxins. There are various methods of fighting cyanobacterial “blooms” - physical, chemical, the use of bacterial preparations, etc. However, these methods are not effective enough and, most importantly, do not allow effectively solving the problem of suppressing HABs in water bodies without damage to other components of the aquatic ecosystem. Allelopathy is a natural phenomenon for both stimulatory and inhibitory effects of one plant upon another including microorganisms that resolves this problem. Allelochemicals of macrophytes can be considered as natural algaecides and become the basis of a nature-like convergent technology to suppress the development of plankton cyanobacteria and prevent HABs in water bodies. In our work, we used some allelochemicals of aquatic macrophytes to create a combined algicide of the new generation for suppressing the development of cyanobacteria. The effectiveness of suppressing cyanobacterial “blooms” is demonstrated by the example of field experiments with mesocosms and natural phytoplankton.",signatures:"Evgeny Kurashov, Julia Krylova and Elena Protopopova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74844",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74844",authors:[{id:"317884",title:"Prof.",name:"Evgeny",surname:"Kurashov",slug:"evgeny-kurashov",fullName:"Evgeny Kurashov"},{id:"317899",title:"Dr.",name:"Julia",surname:"Krylova",slug:"julia-krylova",fullName:"Julia Krylova"},{id:"333381",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",surname:"Protopopova",slug:"elena-protopopova",fullName:"Elena Protopopova"}],corrections:null},{id:"76242",title:"Food Webs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97252",slug:"food-webs",totalDownloads:88,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ciliates are important elements of the trophic networks of aquatic and terrestrial environments, they can be primary producers (myxotrophs), consumers of bacteria, algae, flagellates, even other ciliates and can serve as food for metazoans, for all the above they are the link between different levels of food webs. The structure of the ciliates varies according to the seasons of the year and depending on the trophic conditions of the aquatic systems. Ciliated communities have modifications and adaptations in response to environmental perturbations. The objective of this chapter is to describe the importance of different trophic groups of ciliates in different ecosystems, including anthropogenic perturbations and their impact on trophic webs.",signatures:"Laura Mondragón-Camarillo and Salvador Rodríguez Zaragoza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76242",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76242",authors:[{id:"340699",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Laura",surname:"Mondragón-Camarillo",slug:"laura-mondragon-camarillo",fullName:"Laura Mondragón-Camarillo"},{id:"341482",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvador",surname:"Rodríguez Zaragoza",slug:"salvador-rodriguez-zaragoza",fullName:"Salvador Rodríguez Zaragoza"}],corrections:null},{id:"78037",title:"Ciliates as Symbionts",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99341",slug:"ciliates-as-symbionts",totalDownloads:150,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Although many ciliates are free-living, more than 140 families of ciliates (Alveolata, Ciliophora) include symbiotic species of animals. Symbiosis, defined as an interaction between two species, is analyzed in this chapter to show a wide diversity of symbiotic systems in ciliates (epibiosis, commensalism, mutualism, and parasitism), providing some data about ciliate strategies showing their success as symbionts. Some species are free-living as well symbionts, facultative symbionts, and obligate symbionts. Analysis of reconstructions of ancestral state evidence that the parasitism arose numerous times and independently among the lineages of ciliates. At least three evolutionary routes can be traced: (1) transition from free-living to mutualism and parasitism, (2) transition from free-living to parasitism, and (3) regression from parasitism to free-living. The evolution of the symbiosis in ciliates demonstrates a higher diversification rate concerning free-living ciliates. The analysis of the evolution of the life cycles complexity, exploring molecular data of the phases of the ciliate cycle in their hosts is also essential. We propose new approaches for an integrative study of symbiotic ciliates.",signatures:"Rosaura Mayén-Estrada, Roberto Júnio Pedroso Dias, Mireya Ramírez-Ballesteros, Mariana Rossi, Margarita Reyes-Santos, Carlos Alberto Durán-Ramírez and Gerardo Cruz-Jiménez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78037",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78037",authors:[{id:"331546",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosaura",surname:"Mayén Estrada",slug:"rosaura-mayen-estrada",fullName:"Rosaura Mayén Estrada"},{id:"333204",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Júnio Pedroso Dias",slug:"roberto-junio-pedroso-dias",fullName:"Roberto Júnio Pedroso Dias"},{id:"357277",title:"MSc.",name:"Mireya",surname:"Ramírez-Ballesteros",slug:"mireya-ramirez-ballesteros",fullName:"Mireya Ramírez-Ballesteros"},{id:"357278",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariana",surname:"Rossi",slug:"mariana-rossi",fullName:"Mariana Rossi"},{id:"357279",title:"MSc.",name:"Carlos Alberto",surname:"Durán-Ramírez",slug:"carlos-alberto-duran-ramirez",fullName:"Carlos Alberto Durán-Ramírez"},{id:"357280",title:"BSc.",name:"Gerardo",surname:"Cruz-Jiménez",slug:"gerardo-cruz-jimenez",fullName:"Gerardo Cruz-Jiménez"},{id:"357281",title:"BSc.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Reyes-Santos",slug:"margarita-reyes-santos",fullName:"Margarita Reyes-Santos"}],corrections:null},{id:"81395",title:"Changes in the Fatty Acids Profile of the Zooplankton Community Reveals the Quality of Four Reservoirs in the Hydroelectric Power Plants Located in the Iguaçu River, Paraná, Brazil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102711",slug:"changes-in-the-fatty-acids-profile-of-the-zooplankton-community-reveals-the-quality-of-four-reservoi",totalDownloads:22,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fatty acids are molecules with important physiological functions, proved to be good bioindicators of the presence of natural and chemical stressors and so used as early warning signals. Indeed, biochemical analyzes, such as fatty acids, are an important tool in water body management and water quality analysis, allowing detecting molecular changes in aquatic communities, related to the trophic status of the systems, before they are perceived in the environment. In this work was investigated the fatty acid composition on zooplankton community collected in four reservoirs of hydroelectric plants on the Iguaçu River, Brazil, and assessed the species distribution to assess and compare the water quality in these reservoirs. Results showed the trophic state index presented a wide variation among samples, ranging from oligotrophic (Salto Caxias) to hypereutrophic (Foz do Areia). The most abundant fatty acid was docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6n3) an essential fatty acid with health benefits, playing a pivotal role in biological functions. This study highlights the sensitiveness of the zooplankton community to environmental conditions and underlines the role of fatty acids as good bioindicators, being good endpoints to use in ecological studies. This supports the zooplankton contribution as a biological quality element in the assessment of reservoir quality elements.",signatures:"Fabiano Ramiro Serpe, Júlio César Rodrigues de Azevedo, Fernando J.M. Gonçalves, João C. Marques and Ana M.M. Gonçalves",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81395",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81395",authors:[{id:"320124",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana M.M.",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-m.m.-goncalves",fullName:"Ana M.M. Gonçalves"},{id:"197482",title:"Prof.",name:"João C.",surname:"Marques",slug:"joao-c.-marques",fullName:"João C. Marques"},{id:"197483",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando J.M.",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"fernando-j.m.-goncalves",fullName:"Fernando J.M. 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Hashim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"79736",title:"Intervention of Yoga in Stress, Anxiety and Depression",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101619",slug:"intervention-of-yoga-in-stress-anxiety-and-depression",body:'Amongst all the mental health disorders, anxiety, depression and stress appear to be the most common ones inflicting the human society. These diseases are disorders of the biochemical and neurophysiological systems which have an impact on not only the release of mood-regulating chemicals such as serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline, but also on the cortisol and gamma amino-butyric acid (GABA) levels [1]. More than 264 million of people regardless of age, gender or creed suffer from depression [2]. Compared to men, women are more prone to this disorder, but the worrying trend is that depression leads to suicide. Evidence shows that approximately 700,000 people worldwide take their own lives annually, and what is more shocking is that suicide is deemed the fourth cause of death amongst 15 to 19-year-olds [3].
Not only depression, but also anxiety and stress are interrelated with physical well-being. For instance, cardiovascular diseases can lead to depression and vice versa. On a same note, the deadly Covid-19 pandemic which took the entire world by a storm in 2020 has had a significant undesirable impact on mental health. As the pandemic continues to ravage lives of innocent people in every nook and corner of the globe, a wide range of psychological outcomes have been observed at different layers of the society – individual, community, national and international levels. At the individual level, people are still apprehensive of falling ill or experiencing a painful death due the virus or being stigmatized by the society [4]. Health care workers and families with infected patients are completely fatigued. School and college-going students are not only totally demotivated, but also displeased as they have had to switch to virtual learning which in turn has impacted not only their eyesight, but also their physical health due to prolonged hours of being glued to the computer screen, and their social life. Family bread winners in various sectors who have lost jobs, and those in dire need of financial aid are totally dejected and devastated. Findings also reveal that those who have been quarantined or isolated, experienced quite a significant amount of stress, anxiety, mood swings, depression, and insomnia [5, 6, 7]. Frequent exposure to media appears to be another detrimental contributing factor to stress and anxiety [8]. It appears that patients with depression more often than not show symptoms of anxiety disorders, while those with anxiety disorders exhibit signs of depression [9]. Nonetheless, it is evident that both disorders tend to co-exist [10]. There are still so many people out there who are anxious and stressed out that they or their loved ones may contract the disease and not survive.
As anxiety and depression are affiliated with morbidity and mortality, it is imperative that these illnesses be identified and treated. Common treatments for these mental health disorders are available. Besides psychosocial treatments, psychological treatments such as cognitive behavioral therapy and pharmacotherapy such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) are usually used as the first line of treatment in moderate to severely depressed individuals [11]. Antidepressants augmented with antipsychotics have shown positive results in treating anxiety. It is noteworthy that some of the drug-based treatments for anxiety have been reported to produce a sharp decline in depressive symptoms [12, 13]; however, the strategy involved in preventing depression by treating anxiety successfully warrants further clinical investigation. Benzodiazepine, a common drug-based medication that enhances the effects of GABA at its receptor, on the other hand, is only effective in treating anxiety and not depression [9].
While treatments are readily available, some of the victims do not seek help because of financial issues, fear of being stigmatized for visiting a mental health counsellor, ignorance or for no rationale at all. Furthermore, there could be concerns about the adverse outcomes and compliance of these drugs [14].
In many parts of the world today, complementary and alternative medicine treatments are gaining popularity by all and sundry. Mindfulness-based interventions such as meditation and yoga are widely used in the therapy of both psychological and also physical ailments as research has shown a link between these practices, and physical and psychological health changes [15]. Findings seem to reveal that the practice of yoga can positively affect the biochemical and neurophysiological systems by regulating the autonomic nervous system and stress response, hence lowering the stress, anxiety and depression levels [16]. There is evidence that patients favour these conventional methods of treatment compared to mainstream approaches such as psychotherapy or psychotropic medications [17].
This chapter will look at the philosophy and benefits of yoga, review some recent research that have been done on the intervention of yoga as an adjunct or stand-alone therapy for stress, anxiety and depression, the effectiveness of this mind-body regime and its implications for the sufferers of the current society.
Yoga, an ancient mind-body movement practice, originated in India more than five millenniums ago. Also commonly referred to as a meditative movement practice, it involves movement, a meditative state of mind, breath focus and deep relaxation for purposes of enhancing or healing the physical, mental and emotional well-being [18].
Yoga appears to be a form of alternative medicine [19], and its philosophy is based on the eight limbs schematised by Maharishi Patanjali, one of the main pillars of classical yoga. These eight limbs comprise yama (universal moral ethics), niyama (internal attitudes for personal discipline), asana (yoga posture), pranayama (expansion of life force), prathyahara (withdrawal of senses), dharana (contemplation of one’s true nature), dhyana (meditation) and samadhi (liberation) [20].
The first three limbs or stages – yama, niyama and asana, are considered the outward quests (bahiranga sadhana). With the practice of yama and niyama, the practitioner works towards keeping his passions and emotions under control, while the asana component, if practised diligently, keeps the body strong and healthy, and in harmony with nature. Breath regulation and mind control take place in the next two stages, that is, pranayama and prathyahara. Since these stages work at the inner level, they are known as inner quests or antaranga sadhana in Sanskrit. The last three stages – dharana, dhyana and samadhi, elevate the practitioner into the deeper recesses of the soul [21].
As yoga is not a religion or a cult, anyone regardless of age, creed or gender can learn and practise it. For the genuine seeker, whose desire is to experience the universal self within, the practice of yoga is an unbroken journey. Nevertheless, this ancient practice can be simplified and performed in a number of ways to suit the practitioner [22].
The practice of yoga is so flexible that the practitioner can simply utilize some, if not all, of the limbs to their own comfort. In a conventional 1 h yoga session, it is not uncommon to have the asanas integrated with practices of pranayama, prathyahara, dharana and dhyana. Having said that, there are many styles of yoga; precision and alignment, asthanga yoga, flow yoga, asana yoga, gentle yoga and hot yoga are some of the common styles [23].
The practice of yoga brings about tremendous benefits to the body and mind. In the past nine decades, empirical research has been carried out on the techniques of yoga to test its credibility. Pioneer experiments conducted by Swami Kuvalayananda in 1924 focused on parameters like heart rate, blood pressure fluctuations, and intra-esophageal air pressure during the performance and also after the practice of asanas and pranayama [24].
Due to promising results, yoga has since been classified by the National Institute of Health as a form of complementary and alternative medicine, and people from all walks of life have incorporated this scientific practice into their lifestyles [25].
Unlike other forms of exercise, yoga focuses on being present in the moment. Hence, the practitioner needs to be mindful regardless of whether they have assumed a static position while holding an asana for a couple of breaths, or in motion especially during the performance of an asana. Preliminary research has advocated that yoga may increase levels of mindfulness in the practitioner [26, 27]. The asanas when performed steadily and joyfully, are useful in preventing and correcting structural imbalances in the body [28].
As this ancient science also appears to be a form of moving meditation, there have been suggestions that practitioners are more likely to be engaged in the movement aspect of yoga as it stimulates the cognitive processes related to mindfulness [29]. In addition, the meditative movement, which coordinates each movement with the breath systematically, increases physical endurance in the practitioner over time. As the muscles recurrently contract with more force while performing a particular movement, their strength eventually increases. An example would be in the classical cobra pose (bhujangasana). In this pose, the practitioner starts of by lying flat facing downward on the mat. As the upper torso and head are lifted of the mat upon inhalation, the back extensors are engaged and contracted strongly. Hence, if the position is held long enough (while breathing normally), and if the movement is repeated a couple of times in each practice, the back muscles will be strengthened [30].
Muscles and connective tissues are stretched in asanas to increase flexibility. Regardless of whether the stretch is with or against gravity, the body will experience a stretch, thus increasing flexibility [30]. Unfortunately, in the current situation today where many, who work from home, pay little attention to their sitting position, the structural alignment is greatly compromised. Certain sporting activities like tennis and football, which require strenuous use of one side of the body, are equally to be blamed too. Asanas taught in yoga have been known to prevent and correct structural misalignments in the body.
Having said that, existing research unveils that the benefits of yoga are not limited to only correcting structural misalignments, enhancing stretching and improving flexibility; yoga also enhances emotional and psychosocial health and brings about an increase in proprioceptive and interoceptive awareness [31, 32]. There have been propositions that if yoga is practised consistently, it has the ability to induce neuroplasticity i.e., changes in the neural pathways of the brain, thus improving psychological skills [33]. This augurs well for the yoga practitioner as it suggests that the brain can be rewired just like a muscle in the physical body.
Yoga as therapy or therapeutic yoga has been defined as application of yoga postures and practice to the treatment of health conditions [34]. Evidence from a growing body of research supports the notion that yoga may bring about positive effects not only in one’s physical but also mental health through the downregulation of the hypothalamo–pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) [35].
Since the aim of this review is to look into the impact of yoga specifically on stress, anxiety and depression in this contemporary society, only findings from articles that were published from 2014 to 2021 were reviewed and included. A combination of databases including PubMed, MEDLINE and PsychInfo were used to identify these articles with the help of keywords and phrases such as “intervention of yoga,” “anxiety,” “stress,” and “depression.” The search was streamlined to include only studies that were conducted with adults as participants, irrespective of gender or creed. Those that were conducted with children or teenagers below the age of 18 were excluded completely. In addition, studies that included adults suffering from multiple diseases and/or mental health issues, such as psychosis, obsessive – compulsive disorder and health-related aspects of physical fitness were not included in the discussion here. Studies that included pregnant and post-partum participants were also omitted as it is not unusual for this category of participants to undergo depression and anxiety during that period. In terms of the intervention, only studies that integrated classical yoga were included. Hence, the discussion is substantiated with findings from nine studies conducted between 2014 and 2021.
The design of all the studies varied considerably from pre-test/post-test to quasi-experimental and randomised controlled trials (RCTs). One of the RCTs was a stratified-randomised controlled with repeated measures [36]. The sample size incorporated in all these studies was relatively small, ranging from 18 [37] to a maximum of 226 [38]. While this review is not limited to qualitative and quantitative studies, the instruments used in each study varied rather significantly. In all these studies, the intervention of yoga was heterogeneous. Studies that had incorporated transcendental meditation or mindfulness meditation (or any other forms of meditation) or pranayama as stand-alone practices are not included in this discussion.
Only studies that assimilated aspects of classical hatha yoga specifically asana, pranayama, prathyahara, dharana and dhyana were included, though the duration of each class and frequency of sessions varied considerably. One study had administered Kundalini yoga; however, it had incorporated all the aspects of classical hatha yoga, hence the findings of that study were included in this review [38]. It is interesting to note that another study had incorporated chanting as part of the intervention [39].
On a positive note, most of the studies reviewed (2014–2021), if not all, exhibited appreciable outcomes; intervention of yoga, with or without pharmacotherapy, appeared to be effectual in reducing the symptoms of these mental health disorders [36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44]. A summary of the intervention and findings is provided in Table 1. Even though the duration of each and every study reviewed in this chapter varied considerably, that is, from 4 weeks to 6 months, there are implications that the practice of yoga advocates changes in the neural pathways of the human brain, resulting in favorable effects to the brain activity. Evidence has shown that, when compared to controls, there is less activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of yoga practitioners [45]. It appears that if there is consistency in the practice of yoga, the alpha, beta and theta brainwaves are activated; these have been linked to improvement in not only memory, but also mood and anxiety.
Authors | Description of Intervention | Findings |
Kinser et al. [40] | RCT; YG: 75 min of hatha yoga (asanas, breathing techniques, relaxation, guided meditation) per week over 8 weeks; CG: health education activities (lectures, videos, discussions) Both groups continued with prescribed medication and maintained their lifestyle activities. | YG experienced multiple benefits of yoga including a boost of confidence; Gained new skills to be used in daily life to manage depression and stress; |
Doria et al. [39] | Pre-test post-test; Grp 1: medication+SKY+self-help group weekly; Grp 2: SKY+self-help group weekly but no medication 6 months prior to study Intervention: 10 sessions of 2 h SKY in 2 weeks followed by weekly SKY for 6 months (asanas, pranayama, chanting, prathyhara, dharana) | A reduction in anxiety and depression levels in both groups No significant differences in scores between both groups |
Falsafi and Leopard [37] | Quasi-experimental (repeated measures with one group); Intervention: 90 min yoga per week for 8 weeks (asanas, pranayama and mindfulness practice) | Significant decrease ( |
De Manincor et al. [41] | RCT; YG: A 6 week yoga program; 30 min of vini yoga practice (asanas, pranayama, relaxation, mindfulness, meditation) for 4.8 days per week + TAU; CG: TAU – yoga was given after waitlist period. | A significant reduction in depression and anxiety scores; YG showed greater reduction compared to CG. |
Falsafi [36] | RCT (stratified- randomised controlled repeated measures); YG: 8 weeks hatha yoga; 75 min session once a week; 20 min daily home practice. CG: absence of yoga MIG: mindfulness practice | YG and MIG showed significant reduction in depression, stress and anxiety compared to CG; no significant change in CG; No difference between YG and MIG, but self-compassion scores significant in MIG. |
Prathikanti et al. [42] | RCT (stratified-randomised controlled); YG: A 8 week yoga program (asana, pranayama, dharana, prathyahara); 90 min per session, two sessions a week; props used; TAU. CG: 90 min of Yoga history workshop twice a week for 8 weeks, TAU. No medication for both groups. | YG showed a significant decrease in depression compared to CG ( YG more likely to achieve remission. YG requested for more sessions per week and also permission to attend yoga history workshop. |
Uebelacker et al. [44] | RCT (stratified-randomised controlled); YG: A 10 week yoga program (asana, pranayama, dharana, dhyana, prathyahara); 80 min per session; one or two sessions per week; TAU. CG: A 10 week healthy-living workshop; 60 min per session; one or two sessions per week; TAU. | Insignificant difference between YG and CG; YG demonstrated lower levels of depressive symptoms, better social and role functioning, and general health perceptions when compared to CG. |
Shohani et al. [43] | Quasi-experimental (pre/post -test); YG: 60–70 min hatha yoga, three times a week for 4 weeks | A significant, decrease in depression, stress and anxiety in the YG ( |
Simon et al. [38] | RCT (three-arm controlled single blind); YG: A 12 week program (asana, pranayama, dharana, prathyahara dharana, dhyana) 120 min per session CBT: evidence-based GAD protocol CG: stress education | YG and CBT showed efficacy for treatment of GAD; CBT remains first-line treatment. |
Summary of the intervention and findings of the selected studies.
CG: control group; CBT: cognitive behavioral therapy; GAD: generalized anxiety disorder; MIG: mindfulness intervention group; RCT: randomized controlled trial; TAU: treatment as usual; and YG: yoga group.
All the studies reviewed in this chapter incorporated the fundamental limbs of Patanjali yoga, that is, asanas, pranayama, prathyahara, dharana and dhyana. The first two limbs in yoga, that is, yama and niyama, are therapeutic in nature as both entail code of ethics that work at not only intrapersonal (yama), but also interpersonal (niyama) levels [46]. Yama includes practices such as ahimsa (non-violence), satya (non-stealing), asteya (non-lying), brahmacharya (non-excessiveness) and aparigraha (non-greediness). Niyama, on the other hand, encompasses traits such as saucha (cleanliness), santosha (contentment), tapas (sacrifice), swadyaya (self-study) and Ishwara pranidana (surrendering to the higher power). It is imperative to note that while none of these studies reported the inclusion of yamas and niyamas as part of the intervention, it is believed that these two limbs may have been interleaved into the yoga sessions in an informal manner [47].
It is common to prompt students in a timely manner specifically during the asana session to practise ahimsa, for example. While mindfully challenging oneself to perform a strenuous or a dynamic pose is encouraged, using unwarranted force recklessly to get into the pose is not. For obvious reasons, just like in any sporting activities, adding excessive pressure at certain joints in the body can and will bring about unforeseen injury to the practitioner. More importantly, while the pose is being held (being in the pose), students are persistently reminded to bring their awareness to the deep joy and pleasurable feelings that they are experiencing at that moment regardless of whether they are in the full pose or in a modified version. This act of experiencing joy while being in a particular position brings us to one of the niyamas, that is santosha. Hence, in this manner, the other yamas and niyamas are introduced and expounded during a yoga session at the academy where classes are conducted.
In the studies that have been reviewed in this chapter, the instructors assigned to the yoga sessions may have implicitly incorporated the yamas and niyamas but may have inadvertently failed to report the minutiae and hence, the details of the latter were not highlighted in the papers published. Just like in any study, implicit details are imperative for informed choices to be made. If the specifics of the yoga intervention for each study had been reported, it would have been instrumental not only to the researcher and the reader, but also to the participant who may be keen on exploring the philosophical roots of the yogic practice [47].
It is noteworthy that despite the insignificant sample size, heterogeneity in the sample population, varied duration of the intervention and wide-ranging styles of yoga taught, all studies reviewed demonstrated positive results in reducing the scores in depression, anxiety, and also stress.
In one study, where both the yoga group (YG) and the control group (CG) underwent pharmacotherapy during the intervention, the YG not only experienced a significant decrease in ruminations, but also found solace in the practice; participants used yoga as a strategy to help cope with ill-thoughts and other symptoms of depression in daily life [40]. This could be due to the impact of one of the components in the yoga practice, i.e., yoga nidra (guided meditation) that may have enhanced the self-regulatory capacities in the participants. On the hindsight, participants of this study acknowledged that the practice of yoga had intensified their confidence and that the practice had become an internal motivator for continued participation.
Similar results were seen in another study that engaged sudharshan kriya yoga (SKY) [39]. There was hardly any difference in the scores between the two groups (one group did SKY with pharmacotherapy, while the other group did SKY sans pharmacotherapy), purely suggesting that SKY may be effective not only as a stand-alone therapy, but also as an adjunct therapy for patients undergoing medical treatment. This study was exceptional as it had incorporated chanting in the yoga session. Chanting appears to have a healing effect not only on the physical and emotional, but also on the mental and spiritual body. It provides the drifting mind with a focal point. Though the chanting aspect was brief in this study, previous research has revealed that chanting has the potential to bring about deactivation in the amygdala, parahippocampal and hippocampal brain regions [46]. By stimulating the auricular branches of the vagal nerves, chanting creates vibrations at the cellular level. It is these vibrations that create neuro-linguistic effects which induce tranquility in the body and mind. Those suffering from depression tend to have a noisy mind – one that is cluttered with heaps of unnecessary thoughts. It is believed that the sounds of the mantra have the ability to mask the negative voices in the brain. Only when these ruinous thoughts are eradicated, can the mind have room for positive contemplations.
Similarly, the eight-week yoga intervention study which was conducted on 18 patients diagnosed with anxiety in the US showed a significant reduction in depressive symptoms (
In a study conducted amongst a subsyndromal population in Australia, a six-week yoga intervention was found to be effective in reducing depressive and anxiety symptoms in both groups of participants, the YG and the CG [41]. There was reduction in psychological stress and rumination, an increase in resilience, and an improvement in mental well-being. It is interesting to note that findings of this study revealed that the yoga participants, on their own accord, had reduced medication dosage and frequency of visiting the counsellor. Though the reasons for these actions are indistinct and warrants deeper investigation, the yoga intervention mode appeared effective in managing the issue at hand of these participants. Pharmacological interventions for depression and anxiety usually produce a delay of approximately 4 weeks before exerting significant mood effects over placebo; it may take up to 12 weeks to achieve full anti-depression effects with medication [48]. Hence, time is definitely a parameter for consideration in yoga intervention. However, in this Australian study, it was suggested that a 30 min yoga practice over 5 days per week should suffice for all and sundry.
Similar positive outcomes of practicing yoga were observed in a depressive and withdrawn community who participated in a randomized controlled trial in San Francisco [42]. Unlike other studies, participants in the YG in this study not only asked for more yoga sessions, but also sought permission to attend the theoretical sessions on yoga history that were specifically held for the CG. It appears that these participants were definitely eager to do yoga for the benefit of their own mind-body health, but at the same time, interested in understanding the physiology behind this ancient science. Specific asanas such as dhanurasana (bow pose), ardhakati chakrasana (half waist wheel pose), ardha chakrasana (half wheel pose), Bhujangasana (cobra pose), setu bandhasana (bridge pose), sarvangasana (shoulder stand) and matsyasana (fish pose) employed in this study were found to be effectual in helping the participants manage their depressive moods and anxiety. It is interesting to note that most of these asanas are heart/chest openers. It appears that in the process of expanding the chest and rib cage to oxygenate the lungs efficiently, these asanas have helped in managing symptoms of depression such as grief, anger and frustration.
The findings from an Iranian study which was carried amongst 52 women suffering from some form of mental health disorders albeit free from pharmacotherapy, was equally positive; the intervention of yoga as a stand-alone therapy brought upon a reduction in anxiety, depression and also stress levels (p = 0.001) in the participants who did 12 sessions of yoga over a four-week period [43].
While most studies showed promising outcomes, one study hardly showed any significant statistical difference between the YG and the CG even though there was evidence of a reduction in depressive symptoms and better social functioning in the YG [44]. These positive effects could have been merely an after effect due to the relaxation techniques included in the yogic regime. Relaxation techniques in yoga are known to downplay the sympathetic activity and balance the autonomic nervous system responses.
Finally, in one recent three-arm controlled single blind clinical trial, where participants were randomized over a period of 12 weeks to either the kundalini yoga (KY) or cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) while the CG was subjected to stress education, it was found that the KY group and the CBT group had shown significant reduction in generalized anxiety disorder symptoms. That said, the findings also revealed that CBT appears to be more effective than yoga, and it was concluded that the former shall remain the first line of treatment for anxiety disorders [38].
However, in most, if not all, of the studies reviewed in this chapter, they were subjected to limitations. For example, a few of the studies were predominantly a female sample [40, 43]. While there is a greater tendency for women to suffer from depression compared to men [49], the sample size in these studies was disproportionately represented. Also, most of the studies were limited by the insignificant sample population and heterogeneity. Due to the absence of controls in certain studies, it was challenging to establish whether the results obtained were due intervention of yoga or another factor. RCTs are known to be intervention research of high standards, but most of the studies reviewed here were challenged due to several reasons. Either the randomization was inappropriate, yoga styles in terms of postures, breathing and meditative techniques were too varied and/or incongruence in teaching methods.
Despite the limitations, it appears that participants who have benefitted from these yoga sessions may now have an extra tool at hand to help them manage stress, anxiety and depression. Since there were no adverse effects reported in any of the studies, yoga appears to be a safe practice.
All studies that have been reviewed in this chapter incorporated the fundamental limbs of Patanjali yoga that is, asanas, pranayama, prathyahara, dharana and dhyana. Despite the limitations such as heterogeneity in the sample population, insignificant sample size, varied durations of intervention and styles of yoga taught, most studies, if not all, demonstrated substantial positive outcomes in reducing the scores in depression, anxiety and stress. Previous studies have shown that the practice of asana, pranayama, dharana and dhyana have the ability to still not only the mind, but also the body, thus lowering anxiety levels, and these effects were seen in the studies reviewed in this chapter.
Having said that, another factor to delve into is the time (duration) required for participants to master the yoga asanas, especially for those whose flexibility is compromised, and the breathing techniques. The duration for the psycho-physiological factors mediating specific mood benefits of yoga to develop and exert a quantifiable effect in the participant is equally important. While factors such as duration of a yoga session, frequency and duration of each limb in a yoga session warrant further investigation, selection of asanas in a yoga intervention should not be neglected.
At the Malaysian Yoga Academy, students, regardless of their mental or physical health conditions, are encouraged to practise yoga daily for at least 45 min. This is not only to ensure there is sufficient time to practise most, if not all the limbs, but also to sustain a healthy mind and body, and keep diseases at bay; this step is crucial as studies have indicated that many people suffer from some form of anxiety and/or mood disorder at some point in their life.
Here are some simple postures (asanas) and breathing practices one can do two to three times daily. All practices should be done on an empty stomach. A suggestion would be to practice before sunrise, and/or at sunset and/or before bedtime. If food has been consumed, allow 2 h for digestion before the practice. It is imperative to note that these practices do not replace any form of prescribed medication. They are merely suggested complementary practices towards better mental and physical health, and tools that can be used to manage a sudden onslaught of stress, anxiety and/or a depressive mood.
All these postures and breathing techniques induce relaxation for the body and mind. One may practice all the postures and breathing techniques given here at any one sitting; alternatively, one may practice a few.
The author is grateful to Malaysian Association of Yoga Instructors (MAYI) Yoga Academy and the Malaysian Yoga Society for all the trainings and certifications she has received over the years.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
As a yoga instructor and therapist, the author has shared lots of personal experiences and provided home practice for the benefit of those who need it. Thank you.
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",metaTitle:"Prior Publication Policy",metaDescription:"Prior Publication Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/prior-publication-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\n\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\n\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\n\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\n\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
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