“Humanistic” has two aspects.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5393",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Biomass Volume Estimation and Valorization for Energy",title:"Biomass Volume Estimation and Valorization for Energy",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is the outcome of contributions by many experts in the field from different disciplines, various backgrounds, and diverse expertise. This book provides information on biomass volume calculation methods and biomass valorization for energy production. The chapters presented in this book include original research and review articles. I hope the research presented in this book will help to advance the use of biomass for bioenergy production and valorization. \nThe key features of the book are:\nProviding information on biomass volume estimation using direct, nondestructive and remote sensing methods\nBiomass valorization for energy using thermochemical (gasification and pyrolysis) and biochemical (fermentation) conversion processes.",isbn:"978-953-51-2938-7",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2937-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4109-9",doi:"10.5772/62678",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"biomass-volume-estimation-and-valorization-for-energy",numberOfPages:516,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"f2bd967a72387889d0000243d139cdba",bookSignature:"Jaya Shankar Tumuluru",publishedDate:"February 22nd 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5393.jpg",numberOfDownloads:41249,numberOfWosCitations:129,numberOfCrossrefCitations:96,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:187,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:412,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 23rd 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 13th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 18th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 16th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 15th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"95803",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya Shankar",middleName:null,surname:"Tumuluru",slug:"jaya-shankar-tumuluru",fullName:"Jaya Shankar Tumuluru",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/95803/images/system/95803.png",biography:"Dr. Tumuluru is Distinguished Staff Engineer at Idaho National Laboratory. He is PI for the US Department of Energy Funded Projects at INL. His research is focused on biomass preprocessing and pretreatments. In food processing, he has researched extrusion processing and storage. He has published over 100 papers in modeling, predicting, and optimizing food and bioprocessing. He has edited books on biomass preprocessing and valorization and has published over 15 book chapters. He has received Asian American Engineer of the year award for 2018, R & D 100 award Finalist for 2018 and 2020, Outstanding Achievement in Scientific and Technical Publication award 2014, Outstanding Reviewer Award from the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers, Biomass, and Bioenergy Journal, and Institute of Chemical Engineers, UK. He has a Ph.D. in Agricultural and Food Engineering from, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India.",institutionString:"United States Department of Agriculture",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"United States Department of Agriculture",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"763",title:"Bioresource Engineering",slug:"bioresource-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"52993",title:"Developing Tree Biomass Models for Eight Major Tree Species in China",doi:"10.5772/65664",slug:"developing-tree-biomass-models-for-eight-major-tree-species-in-china",totalDownloads:1410,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the context of climate change, estimating forest biomass for large regions is key to national carbon stocks, but few models have been developed at regional level. Based on mensuration data from large samples (4818 and 1626 trees for above- and belowground biomass, respectively) of eight major tree species in China, the author developed one- and two-variable compatible integrated model systems for aboveground and belowground biomass, biomass conversion factor (BCF) and root-to-shoot ratio (RSR), using the error-in-variable simultaneous equations. Furthermore, the differences of aboveground and belowground biomass among various species were analyzed using the dummy variable approach. The results indicated that (1) two-variable models were almost better than one-variable models for aboveground biomass estimation, while the two model systems were not significantly different for belowground biomass estimation; (2) the eight species can be ranked in terms of aboveground biomass from Quercus (largest), Betula, Populus, Pinus massoniana, Picea, Larix, Abies to Cunninghamia lanceolata and in terms of belowground biomass from Quercus (largest), Betula, Larix, Picea, Populus, P. massoniana, C. lanceolata to Abies; (3) mean prediction errors (MPEs) of aboveground biomass models for the species were less than 5%, whereas MPEs of belowground biomass equations were less than 10%, except for Abies.",signatures:"WeiSheng Zeng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52993",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52993",authors:[{id:"187097",title:"Prof.",name:"WeiSheng",surname:"Zeng",slug:"weisheng-zeng",fullName:"WeiSheng Zeng"}],corrections:null},{id:"52687",title:"Methods of Estimating Forest Biomass: A Review",doi:"10.5772/65733",slug:"methods-of-estimating-forest-biomass-a-review",totalDownloads:3451,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Forest plays a special role in carbon sequestration and thus mitigating climate change. However, the large uncertainty in biomass estimation is unable to meet the requirement of the accurate carbon accounting. The use of a suitable and rigor method to accurately estimate forest biomass is significant. Moreover, the world is increasingly facing the conflicting pressures of economic growth and environmental protection. Improving energy structure and vigorously developing biomass energy has become the development trend of energy utilization in the future. As energy plant is characterized by a large net accumulation of biomass. Therefore, the scientific evaluation of the size and potential of energy from plant also requires a suitable method for estimating biomass. Here, we reviewed the estimate methods, including allometric equation, mean biomass density, biomass expansion factor, geostatistics, etc. For each method, we will present background, rational, applicability, as well as estimation procedure by exemplifying a case. In this chapter, we argued that the new developed technique such as geo-statistics and remote sensing technique (e.g. LIDAR) would be the key tools to improve forest biomass estimation accuracy. However, prior to this, spatial variation of forest biomass at various levels should be explored using multi-source data and multi-approaches.",signatures:"Lei Shi and Shirong Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52687",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52687",authors:[{id:"187616",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Lei",surname:"Shi",slug:"lei-shi",fullName:"Lei Shi"},{id:"194544",title:"Prof.",name:"Shirong",surname:"Liu",slug:"shirong-liu",fullName:"Shirong Liu"}],corrections:null},{id:"52664",title:"Above‐Ground Biomass Estimation with High Spatial Resolution Satellite Images",doi:"10.5772/65665",slug:"above-ground-biomass-estimation-with-high-spatial-resolution-satellite-images",totalDownloads:1897,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Assessment and monitoring of forest biomass are frequently done with allometric functions per species for inventory plots. The estimation per area unit is carried out with an extrapolation method. In this chapter, a review of the recent methods to estimate forest above‐ground biomass (AGB) using remote sensing data is presented. A case study is given with an innovative methodology to estimate above‐ground biomass based on crown horizontal projection obtained with high spatial resolution satellite images for two evergreen oak species. The linear functions fitted for pure, mixed and both compositions showed a good performance. Also, the functions with dummy variables to distinguish species and compositions adjusted had the best performance. An error threshold of 5% corresponds to stand areas of 8.7 and 5.5 ha for the functions of all species and compositions without and with dummy variables. This method enables the overall area evaluation, and it is easily implemented in a geographic information system environment.",signatures:"Adélia M. O. Sousa, Ana Cristina Gonçalves and José R. Marques da\nSilva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52664",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52664",authors:[{id:"187880",title:"Prof.",name:"Adélia",surname:"Sousa",slug:"adelia-sousa",fullName:"Adélia Sousa"},{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves"},{id:"194485",title:"Prof.",name:"José",surname:"Marques Da Silva",slug:"jose-marques-da-silva",fullName:"José Marques Da Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"53831",title:"Fatal Accidents During Marine Transport of Wood Pellets Due to Off-Gassing: Experiences from Denmark",doi:"10.5772/66334",slug:"fatal-accidents-during-marine-transport-of-wood-pellets-due-to-off-gassing-experiences-from-denmark",totalDownloads:1752,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The atmosphere in unventilated wood pellet storage confinements, such as the cargo hold of marine vessels transporting pellets in solid bulk, can be severely oxygen deficient and contain deadly concentrations of harmful gasses, of which the most feared is the poisonous and odour-less carbon monoxide. The hazard has been known for over a decade and has been responsible for many accidents. We examine three fatal accidents on marine vessels in or near Danish waters and argue that they share strikingly similar aetiologies, if not repetitive patterns. It is generally recognized that accidents should be thoroughly investigated and lessons learned shared widely in order to minimize the number of times the same lessons have to be learned. The three Danish cases suggest that this learning process is deeply troubled for the solid biomass segment. The International Maritime Organization IMO/SOLAS has recently revised its guidance on entering enclosed spaces aboard ships in response to the ongoing problem of confined space incidents. We argue that the interpretation of the concept of an “enclosed space” is of utmost importance because accidents take place in rooms that are not considered enclosed by the crew.",signatures:"Frank Huess Hedlund and Øssur Jarleivson Hilduberg",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53831",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53831",authors:[{id:"189194",title:"Dr.",name:"Frank",surname:"Hedlund",slug:"frank-hedlund",fullName:"Frank Hedlund"},{id:"189196",title:"MSc.",name:"Øssur J",surname:"Hilduberg",slug:"ossur-j-hilduberg",fullName:"Øssur J Hilduberg"}],corrections:null},{id:"53155",title:"Biomass Valorization: Agricultural Waste in Environmental Protection, Phytomedicine and Biofuel Production",doi:"10.5772/66102",slug:"biomass-valorization-agricultural-waste-in-environmental-protection-phytomedicine-and-biofuel-produc",totalDownloads:2237,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Industrialization is a major promoter of any nation’s economy; it is not without detrimental effects on our immediate environment. Human exposure to various pollutants discharged into the environment may lead to serious health challenges. In the same vein, discharge from the combustion of fossil fuel contributes a great deal to the environmental pollution. The resulting quest for a clean and sustainable environment has spurred myriads of research into advantageous utilization of waste biomass in industrial wastewater treatment and environmentally friendly/alternative energy. Similarly, diverse waste materials have been adopted as sources of important phytochemicals with different medicinal applications. This chapter focuses on the application of waste biomass in environmental remediation, curative medicine, and clean/alternative energy.",signatures:"Inyinbor Adejumoke Abosede, Oluyori Abimbola Peter and\nAdelani-Akande Tabitha Adunola",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53155",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53155",authors:[{id:"187738",title:"Dr.",name:"Adejumoke",surname:"Inyinbor",slug:"adejumoke-inyinbor",fullName:"Adejumoke Inyinbor"},{id:"188818",title:"Dr.",name:"Abimbola",surname:"Oluyori",slug:"abimbola-oluyori",fullName:"Abimbola Oluyori"},{id:"188819",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tabitha",surname:"Adelani-Akande",slug:"tabitha-adelani-akande",fullName:"Tabitha Adelani-Akande"}],corrections:null},{id:"52693",title:"Modeling Biomass Substrates for Syngas Generation by Using CFD Approaches",doi:"10.5772/65857",slug:"modeling-biomass-substrates-for-syngas-generation-by-using-cfd-approaches",totalDownloads:1822,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recent reports from top universities state that in spite of having great national importance, there are dozens of fields of study that are suffering due to a lack of funding. Perhaps the greatest tool available to assist researchers with this regard is numerical simulation. This tool allows cutting costs, decreasing the necessary design cycle and allows an enormous amount of physical insight on the process itself). Numerical model’s ability to correctly predict a complex system was tested in this chapter by drawing from a previously developed computational fluid dynamics model for biomass gasification. Numerical results were compared with both experimental results (pilot scale plant) and available literature. Results from common Portuguese biomass substrates were found to be within a satisfactory margin of error of 20%. Influence of all major operational conditions was then investigated and the model was once again able to predict all the expected trends. All the relevant process products were also analyzed. Finally, the numerical model was coupled with an optimization model. Maximum efficiency value was found at 900°C with a SBR of 1.5 for MSW and 1 for forest residues. Results showed that numerical models could have a preponderant impact on biomass gasification field.",signatures:"Nuno Couto and Valter Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52693",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52693",authors:[{id:"187136",title:"Dr.",name:"Valter",surname:"Silva",slug:"valter-silva",fullName:"Valter Silva"},{id:"194412",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuno",surname:"Couto",slug:"nuno-couto",fullName:"Nuno Couto"}],corrections:null},{id:"52711",title:"Sustainability of the Biowaste Utilization for Energy Production",doi:"10.5772/65825",slug:"sustainability-of-the-biowaste-utilization-for-energy-production",totalDownloads:1382,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This article presents strategies for the development and practical modelling of biogas processes under economy market conditions. Herewith, anaerobic digestion results out of practical tests in different scales (lab to pilot) and different substrate mixtures were taken into account. Two lab-scale reactors on the one hand and pilot-scale examinations of chosen substrate mixtures on the other hand led to workable conclusions such as mixture suitability for biogas production, gas amounts and technical demands for full-scale implementation under market economy conditions. A comparison of both laboratory and pilot system performance with a full-scale biogas system has been done; herewith, the suitability of the corresponding practical process upscaling simulation has been proven. On the basis of the results, calculations regarding the necessary full-scale fermenter sizes and the required substrate amounts as well as the disposable (reusable) fermentation residues were made. The conclusion of outputs on biogas technology particularly with regard to the demand-driven production of electricity (500 + 250 kW flexible) as a special request for energy from renewable sources is given. As a further result, a general outlook and estimation for the economical implementation on a common Baltic Sea region country basis have been developed.",signatures:"Thorsten Ahrens, Silvia Drescher-Hartung and Olga Anne",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52711",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52711",authors:[{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",surname:"Anne",slug:"olga-anne",fullName:"Olga Anne"},{id:"187918",title:"Prof.",name:"Thorsten",surname:"Ahrens",slug:"thorsten-ahrens",fullName:"Thorsten Ahrens"},{id:"187919",title:"MSc.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Drescher-Hartung",slug:"silvia-drescher-hartung",fullName:"Silvia Drescher-Hartung"}],corrections:null},{id:"53786",title:"Effects of Fertilizers on Biomass, Sugar Content and Ethanol Production of Sweet Sorghum",doi:"10.5772/66814",slug:"effects-of-fertilizers-on-biomass-sugar-content-and-ethanol-production-of-sweet-sorghum",totalDownloads:1307,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sweet sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) is a promising alternative crop for bioethanol production in developing countries. However, to extend the cultivative area of this crop, it needs to develop an appropriate growing protocol for farmers. This chapter describes the examination of different doses of fertilizers combined with manure and micronutrients, in various applied times, on biomass, sugar content and ethanol production of sweet sorghum. It was observed that the application of 90 N + 90 P2O5 + 60 K2O provided maximum stem yield and optimum contents of sugar and ethanol yield, however nontreatment of any among P, P2O5 and K2O caused significant reduction of biomass and ethanol production. Higher fertilization >90 N may provide greater productivity of this crop but it may cause lodging and economic deficit for farmers in developing countries. It was also found that the applied times of fertilization should be at 3–4 to 7–8 leaf stage. In contrast, when the fertilization was as close to the flowering stage caused remarkable reduction of stem yield and ethanol production. The supplementation of (NH4)2MO7O2.4H2O at 5 kg/ha provided an increase of 10–12 tons/ha of stem yield and a remarkable enrichment of ethanol production. Findings of this study are useful for farmers and agricultural extensionists to promote biomass and ethanol productivity of this crop for bioethanol production. This research also highlights a greater possibility of exploiting sweet sorghum cultivation in infertile and hilly, abandoned areas for ethanol production.",signatures:"Tran Dang Xuan, Nguyen Thi Phuong and Tran Dang Khanh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53786",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53786",authors:[{id:"162491",title:"Prof.",name:"Tran Dang",surname:"Xuan",slug:"tran-dang-xuan",fullName:"Tran Dang Xuan"}],corrections:null},{id:"52415",title:"Biomass as Raw Material for Production of High‐Value Products",doi:"10.5772/65507",slug:"biomass-as-raw-material-for-production-of-high-value-products",totalDownloads:2610,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:29,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Industrial production of a wide range of value‐added products heavily relies on fossil resources. Lignocellulosic biomass materials are receiving increased attention as a renewable, economical, and abundant alternative to fossil resources for the production of various value‐added products. Biomass feedstocks utilized for these productions include energy crops, agricultural biomass residues, forest biomass, and food‐based biomass wastes. Various conversion technologies are used for production value‐added products from biomass. Efficiencies of conversion technologies highly depend on the types of biomass used as raw materials that differ in contents and compositions of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin structures in biomass. In some conversion technologies, such as chemical, biochemical, and hydrothermal conversion techniques, biomass materials must be first broken down into smaller molecular weight components (e.g., oligosaccharides and monosaccharides) in order to be efficiently converted into target products. In this matter, pretreatment and hydrolysis play critical roles on the yield of the product(s). The chapter describes lignocellulosic materials that are used for production of top value‐added products and conversion technologies to produce products in high yields. Future developments in the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass into value‐added products are directly correlated to improvements of conversion technologies and selection the right types of biomass in the process.",signatures:"Sibel Irmak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52415",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52415",authors:[{id:"187113",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sibel",surname:"Irmak",slug:"sibel-irmak",fullName:"Sibel Irmak"}],corrections:null},{id:"52732",title:"Catalytic Biomass Valorization",doi:"10.5772/65826",slug:"catalytic-biomass-valorization",totalDownloads:2363,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biomass is a significant non-conventional energy reserve, which has been considered as a promising alternative over other renewable sources such as solar, wind or hydroelectric storage due to its comparatively ample availability. A variety of biomass types can be converted into useful products via bioenergy technologies. The deep understanding and knowledge of these processes are necessary for optimization and advancement in a cost-effective way. A comprehensive comparison and discussion is conducted with respect to biochemical and thermochemical conversion technology such as microbic digestion and fermentation, pyrolysis, liquefaction and gasification. Pyrolysis is the process of converting biomass into bio oil, charcoal and gaseous factions by heating anaerobically to above 500°C. Liquefaction is a low temperature (LT) and high-pressure thermochemical process to produce marketable liquid over suitable catalysts under hydrogen or reductive environment. Gasification is the conversion of biomass into preferred combustible gas mixture (syngas) via the partial oxidation at high temperature, typically in the range of 800–900°C. The product gas is more versatile and can be burned in gas turbine for electricity production or synthesis of high-value chemicals. The parametric impact, mechanism, development status and future direction have been summarized for each of these technologies with the aim to pave the way for optimization of future investigation.",signatures:"Aiguo G. Wang, Danielle Austin and Hua Song",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52732",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52732",authors:[{id:"178239",title:"Dr.",name:"Hua",surname:"Song",slug:"hua-song",fullName:"Hua Song"},{id:"194355",title:"MSc.",name:"Aiguo",surname:"Wang",slug:"aiguo-wang",fullName:"Aiguo Wang"},{id:"194356",title:"BSc.",name:"Danielle",surname:"Austin",slug:"danielle-austin",fullName:"Danielle Austin"}],corrections:null},{id:"52751",title:"Biomass Compositional Analysis for Conversion to Renewable Fuels and Chemicals",doi:"10.5772/65777",slug:"biomass-compositional-analysis-for-conversion-to-renewable-fuels-and-chemicals",totalDownloads:2882,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:30,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"As the world continues to deplete its nonrenewable resources, there has begun a shift toward using renewable materials for the production of fuels and chemicals. Terrestrial biomass, as well as municipal solid wastes, provides renewable feedstocks for fuel and chemical production. However, one of the major challenges to using biomass as a feedstock for fuel and chemical production is the great amount of innate variability between different biomass types and within individual biomass species. This inconsistency arises from varied growth and harvesting conditions and presents challenges for conversion processes, which frequently require physically and chemically uniform materials. This chapter will examine intrinsic biomass compositional characteristics including cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, extractives/volatiles, and ash for a wide array of biomass types. Additionally, extrinsic properties, such as moisture content and particle grind size, will be examined for their effect on biomass conversion to fuels using four major conversion processes: direct combustion, pyrolysis, hydrothermal liquefaction, and fermentation. A brief discussion on recent research for the production of building block chemicals from biomass will also be presented.",signatures:"C. Luke Williams, Rachel M. Emerson and Jaya Shankar Tumuluru",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52751",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52751",authors:[{id:"95803",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya Shankar",surname:"Tumuluru",slug:"jaya-shankar-tumuluru",fullName:"Jaya Shankar Tumuluru"},{id:"187715",title:"Dr.",name:"C. Luke",surname:"Williams",slug:"c.-luke-williams",fullName:"C. Luke Williams"},{id:"194456",title:"MSc.",name:"Rachel M.",surname:"Emerson",slug:"rachel-m.-emerson",fullName:"Rachel M. Emerson"}],corrections:null},{id:"52434",title:"Modeling the Calorific Value of Biomass from Fruit Trees Using Elemental Analysis Data",doi:"10.5772/65276",slug:"modeling-the-calorific-value-of-biomass-from-fruit-trees-using-elemental-analysis-data",totalDownloads:1727,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pruning of fruit trees produces a great quantity of biomass each year that can be used for energy production. For this purpose, it is necessary to carry out an energy characterization of these pruned wastes, where the determination of heating value is significant. This value is usually measured by an adiabatic or isoperibolic calorimeter, which causes high economic costs and wastes time. The present study is focused on the development of indirect models for heating value prediction of biomass from orange trees Citrus × sinensis Osbeck, almond trees Prunus dulcis (Mill) D.A. Webb, and olive trees Olea europaea L. from an elemental analysis in order to reduce the time of determination as well as the economic costs. Residual biomass was classified and characterized according to CEN regulations such as received, without drying. Also, moisture content wet basis, bark ratio, density, heating value, and elemental composition (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur) were measured. The influence of these variables on the heating value was analyzed. Finally, mathematical models were developed to predict this value for this studied species. These models showed coefficients of determination between 0.83 and 0.97, being suitable for industrial use.",signatures:"Borja Velázquez-Martí, Isabel López-Cortés, Domingo Salazar-\nHernández and Ángel Jesús Callejón-Ferre",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52434",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52434",authors:[{id:"25356",title:"Dr.",name:"Borja",surname:"Velazquez-Marti",slug:"borja-velazquez-marti",fullName:"Borja Velazquez-Marti"},{id:"183124",title:"Dr.",name:"Isabel",surname:"López Cortés",slug:"isabel-lopez-cortes",fullName:"Isabel López Cortés"},{id:"183371",title:"Prof.",name:"Domingo M.",surname:"Salazar Hernández",slug:"domingo-m.-salazar-hernandez",fullName:"Domingo M. Salazar Hernández"},{id:"187111",title:"Prof.",name:"Ángel-Jesús",surname:"Callejón-Ferre",slug:"angel-jesus-callejon-ferre",fullName:"Ángel-Jesús Callejón-Ferre"}],corrections:null},{id:"53415",title:"Microalgal Biomass: A Biorefinery Approach",doi:"10.5772/65827",slug:"microalgal-biomass-a-biorefinery-approach",totalDownloads:2437,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The biorefinery concept has been identified as the most promising way to create a biomass-based industry, which can be defined as the sustainable biomass processing to obtain energy biofuels and high-value products through processes and equipment for biomass. Microalgae can be used as an efficient and economically viable biorefinery feedstock; microalgae could be used in different areas such as human and animal nutrition, nutraceutical and therapeutic products, fertilizers, plastics, isoprenes and biofuels and also in the treatment of wastewaters and CO2 capture. Microalgae biomass can be used for biofuel production, such as bioelectricity, methane, biohydrogen, bioethanol and biodiesel. In this chapter, an overview of the factors that affect the production of the microalgal biomass yield and value-added by-products production is presented. Likewise, we present the results of the microalgal culture of Scenedesmus sp. SCX2 performed in semicontinuous culture (SCC), in 2000 raceway ponds employing Bold’s Basal Medium (BBM), under greenhouse conditions. Over the SCC, we monitored biomass concentration, lipid, protein, pigments and sugar production, light irradiance, culture and greenhouse temperature and nitrate concentration in the medium.",signatures:"Luis C. Fernández Linares, Kevin Á. González Falfán and Citlally\nRamírez-López",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53415",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53415",authors:[{id:"187840",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Luis",surname:"Fernandez Linares",slug:"luis-fernandez-linares",fullName:"Luis Fernandez Linares"}],corrections:null},{id:"52883",title:"Biomass Production on Reclaimed Areas Tailing Ponds",doi:"10.5772/65829",slug:"biomass-production-on-reclaimed-areas-tailing-ponds",totalDownloads:1417,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the results of a multiannual systematic research and development of essentially new environmental safety technology of overlapping tailing pond modelled in terms of Vojany thermal power plant (EVO), Slovakia. Re‐cultivated tailing area can be used to produce biomass (Swedish willow) and this biomass is used again for subsequent incineration with coal. Laboratory and small plot experiments conducted directly in the tailing pond area resulted in the development of another new dimension of environmental technology of decontamination of tailing ponds. This technology connects technical, safety, economical and environmental effects for biomass production.",signatures:"Martin Bosák",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52883",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52883",authors:[{id:"188328",title:"Prof.",name:"Martin",surname:"Bosak",slug:"martin-bosak",fullName:"Martin Bosak"}],corrections:null},{id:"53833",title:"Biomass Blending and Densification: Impacts on Feedstock Supply and Biochemical Conversion Performance",doi:"10.5772/67207",slug:"biomass-blending-and-densification-impacts-on-feedstock-supply-and-biochemical-conversion-performanc",totalDownloads:1773,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:26,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The success of lignocellulosic biofuels and biochemical industries depends on an economic and reliable supply of high‐quality biomass. However, research and development efforts have been historically focused on the utilization of agriculturally derived cellulosic feedstocks, without considerations of their low energy density, high variations in compositions and potential supply risks in terms of availability and affordability. This chapter demonstrated a strategy of feedstock blending and densification to address the supply chain challenges. Blending takes advantage of low‐cost feedstock to avoid the prohibitive costs incurred through reliance on a single feedstock resource, while densification produces feedstocks with increased bulk density and desirable feed handling properties, as well as reduced transportation cost. We also review recent research on the blending and densification dealing with various types of feedstocks with a focus on the impacts of these preprocessing steps on biochemical conversion, that is, various thermochemical pretreatment chemistries and enzymatic hydrolysis, into fermentable sugars for biofuel production.",signatures:"Allison E. Ray, Chenlin Li, Vicki S. Thompson, Dayna L. Daubaras,\nNicholas J. Nagle and Damon S. Hartley",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53833",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53833",authors:[{id:"188436",title:"Dr.",name:"Allison",surname:"Ray",slug:"allison-ray",fullName:"Allison Ray"},{id:"188963",title:"Dr.",name:"Chenlin",surname:"Li",slug:"chenlin-li",fullName:"Chenlin Li"},{id:"188964",title:"Dr.",name:"Vicki",surname:"Thompson",slug:"vicki-thompson",fullName:"Vicki Thompson"},{id:"188965",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayna",surname:"Daubaras",slug:"dayna-daubaras",fullName:"Dayna Daubaras"},{id:"188966",title:"MSc.",name:"Nick",surname:"Nagle",slug:"nick-nagle",fullName:"Nick Nagle"}],corrections:null},{id:"52703",title:"Metal Removal by Seaweed Biomass",doi:"10.5772/65682",slug:"metal-removal-by-seaweed-biomass",totalDownloads:1816,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Environmental metal pollution is a serious public problem, and it has become an issue leading to research in the effluent remediation area. Techniques involving biosorption processes have been found to be promising due to the low cost of nonliving biomaterials, which have the potential to adsorb metal ions from wastewaters. One of the most promising types of biomasses to be used as biosorbents is the seaweed biomass, particularly from brown algae. The biosorption capability of the seaweed biomass relies on their cell wall chemical composition, mainly composed of alginates and fucoidans, molecules with a high presence of functional groups that interact with metal ions. This book chapter focuses on the use of seaweed biomass for metal biosorption and the chemical basis underlying the process. The current state of the commercial status of biosorption technology based on seaweed biomass is presented. Examples of complementary uses of the algae biomass other than industrial wastewater cleaning processes are presented, and the potential reuse of the biomass after the biosorption focused on biofuel production is discussed.",signatures:"Claudia Ortiz-Calderon, Héctor Cid Silva and Daniel Barros Vásquez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52703",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52703",authors:[{id:"188518",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Ortiz",slug:"claudia-ortiz",fullName:"Claudia Ortiz"},{id:"188522",title:"BSc.",name:"Hector",surname:"Cid",slug:"hector-cid",fullName:"Hector Cid"},{id:"188523",title:"BSc.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Barros",slug:"daniel-barros",fullName:"Daniel Barros"}],corrections:null},{id:"52835",title:"Valorisation of Lignocellulosic Biomass Wastes for the Removal of Metal Ions from Aqueous Streams: A Review",doi:"10.5772/65958",slug:"valorisation-of-lignocellulosic-biomass-wastes-for-the-removal-of-metal-ions-from-aqueous-streams-a-",totalDownloads:1754,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:16,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Heavy metal pollution derived from anthropogenic activities is a relevant environmental threat nowadays due to their toxic nature, persistence and accumulation potential in the food chain. A wide variety of lignocellulosic-based biomaterials have been thoroughly assessed by the scientific community as sorbents for the removal of metals from aqueous streams. This kind of biomaterials, mainly constituted by lignin and cellulose, bear functional groups such as alcohol, ketone and carboxylates that provide active sorption points for the effective removal of heavy metals. The role of lignin in the sorption process is especially relevant, since this substance provides polyhydroxy and polyphenol functional groups—especially effective in the coordination of metals—and that provide ion exchange functionality to the material. Depending on their nature, these materials can be used either in their raw form or chemically modified form so as to enhance their sorption capacity and/or to achieve improved mechanical and mass transfer properties.",signatures:"Carlos Escudero-Oñate, Núria Fiol, Jordi Poch and Isabel Villaescusa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52835",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52835",authors:[{id:"188725",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Escudero-Oñate",slug:"carlos-escudero-onate",fullName:"Carlos Escudero-Oñate"},{id:"188731",title:"Prof.",name:"Isabel",surname:"Villaescusa",slug:"isabel-villaescusa",fullName:"Isabel Villaescusa"},{id:"188755",title:"Prof.",name:"Jordi",surname:"Poch",slug:"jordi-poch",fullName:"Jordi Poch"},{id:"188757",title:"Prof.",name:"Nuria",surname:"Fiol",slug:"nuria-fiol",fullName:"Nuria Fiol"}],corrections:null},{id:"52502",title:"Progress Towards Engineering Microbial Surfaces to Degrade Biomass",doi:"10.5772/65509",slug:"progress-towards-engineering-microbial-surfaces-to-degrade-biomass",totalDownloads:1383,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lignocellulosic biomass is a promising feedstock to sustainably produce useful biocommodities. However, its recalcitrance to hydrolysis limits its commercial utility. One attractive strategy to overcome this problem is to use consolidated bioprocessing (CBP) microbes to directly convert biomass into chemicals and biofuels. Several industrially useful microbes possess desirable consolidated bioprocessing characteristics, yet they lack the ability to degrade biomass. Engineering these microbes’ surfaces to display cellulases and cellulosome‐like structures could endow them with potent cellulolytic activity, enabling them to be used in CBP. In this chapter, we discuss recent progress in engineering the surfaces of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Corynebacterium glutamicum, and lactic acid bacteria. We discuss the techniques used to display cellulases on their surfaces, their recombinantly achieved cellulolytic activities, and current obstacles that limit their utility.",signatures:"Grace L. Huang and Robert T. Clubb",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52502",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52502",authors:[{id:"188956",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",surname:"Clubb",slug:"robert-clubb",fullName:"Robert Clubb"},{id:"189156",title:"Ms.",name:"Grace",surname:"Huang",slug:"grace-huang",fullName:"Grace Huang"}],corrections:null},{id:"52753",title:"Determination of the Biomass Content of End-of-Life Tyres",doi:"10.5772/65830",slug:"determination-of-the-biomass-content-of-end-of-life-tyres",totalDownloads:1544,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Studies have been conducted in France and Spain for (1) the validation of sampling methods to achieve representative samples of end‐of‐life tyre (ELT) materials and (2) the comparison and validation of test methods to quantify their biomass content. Both studies conclude that the 14C techniques are the most reliable techniques for determining the biomass content of end‐of‐life tyres. Indeed, thermogravimetry and pyrolysis‐GC/MS do not lead to results consistent with the theoretical content of biogenic materials present in tyres, and results in both cases differ considerably from the known natural rubber content of the reference samples studied using thermogravimetric analysis. Furthermore, in the two last techniques, natural isoprene cannot be distinguished from synthetic isoprene. Results obtained with radiocarbon analysis based on 14C contents could be used as reference values of the biomass content of the ELTs: in the ranges of 18–22% for passenger car tyres and 29–34% for truck tyres, in line with actual natural rubber and other components content. Additionally, the presence of textile fibres and stearic acid, which are known sources of biomass in the tyre, cannot be evaluated by thermogravimetry and pyrolysis‐GC/MS techniques.",signatures:"Leticia Saiz Rodríguez, José M. Bermejo Muñoz, Adrien Zambon and\nJean P. Faure",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52753",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52753",authors:[{id:"189512",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Leticia",surname:"Saiz-Rodriguez",slug:"leticia-saiz-rodriguez",fullName:"Leticia Saiz-Rodriguez"},{id:"190373",title:"Mr.",name:"José María",surname:"Bermejo",slug:"jose-maria-bermejo",fullName:"José María Bermejo"},{id:"190374",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Philippe",surname:"Faure",slug:"jean-philippe-faure",fullName:"Jean-Philippe Faure"},{id:"194669",title:"Mr.",name:"Adrien",surname:"Zambon",slug:"adrien-zambon",fullName:"Adrien Zambon"}],corrections:null},{id:"52609",title:"Reaction Behaviors of Bagasse Modified with Phthalic Anhydride in 1‐Allyl‐3‐Methylimidazolium Chloride with Catalyst 4‐Dimethylaminopyridine",doi:"10.5772/65508",slug:"reaction-behaviors-of-bagasse-modified-with-phthalic-anhydride-in-1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium-chlori",totalDownloads:1273,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The modification of lignocellulose with cyclic anhydrides could confer stronger hydrophilic properties to lignocellulose, which could be used in many industrial fields. To elucidate the modification mechanism of lignocellulose, bagasse was phthalated comparatively with its three main components in 1‐allyl‐3‐methylimidazolium chloride (AmimCl) using 4‐dimethylaminopyridine as catalyst and phthalic anhydride as acylation reagent in the present study. From FT‐IR and 2D HSQC analyses, the skeleton of bagasse and the fractions were not significantly changed during phthalation in AmimCl. 2D HSQC results suggested that the reactive hydroxyls in bagasse were partially phthalated, and the reactivity of the hydroxyls in anhydroglucose units followed the order C‐6 > C‐2 > C‐3. Similarly, the reactivity order of hydroxyls in anhydroxylose units was C‐2 > C‐3. For lignin, the predominant diesterification occurred during the homogeneous modification, and both aliphatic and aromatic hydroxyls were phthalated. The reactivity order of phenolic hydroxyls was S‐OH > G‐OH > H‐OH, which was distinct from that without catalyst. In addition, it was found that the thermal stability of phthalated bagasse was affected by the disruption of cellulose crystallinity and the degradation of components. The thermal stability of the phthalated bagasse decreased upon chemical modification and regeneration.",signatures:"Hui‐Hui Wang, Xue‐Qin Zhang, Yi Wei and Chuan‐Fu Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52609",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52609",authors:[{id:"19012",title:"Dr.",name:"Chuan-Fu",surname:"Liu",slug:"chuan-fu-liu",fullName:"Chuan-Fu Liu"},{id:"194363",title:"Ms.",name:"Xue-Qin",surname:"Zhang",slug:"xue-qin-zhang",fullName:"Xue-Qin Zhang"},{id:"194364",title:"Mr.",name:"Yi",surname:"Wei",slug:"yi-wei",fullName:"Yi Wei"},{id:"194365",title:"Ms.",name:"Hui-Hui",surname:"Wang",slug:"hui-hui-wang",fullName:"Hui-Hui Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"53271",title:"Review of Biomass Thermal Gasification",doi:"10.5772/66362",slug:"review-of-biomass-thermal-gasification",totalDownloads:3018,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Gasification of biomass is one of the most attractive methods for producing hydrogen rich gas. Syngas production from biomass is an attractive solution for energy crisis. The production of energy from biomass reduces the dependence of developing countries on fossil fuels, as ample biomass is available in the developing countries and is renewable. Downdraft gasifiers are fixed bed gasifiers where the gasifying agent and biomass are flowing downwards, developed for high-volatile fuels such as wood or biomass gasification. Cocurrent flow regime throughout the oxidation and reduction zones reduces the tars and particulates in syngas, which will reduce the necessity of complicated cleaning methods compared to updraft gasifiers especially if the gas is used as a burnable gas in a small community. It is important to ensure homogenous distribution of gasifying agent at the downdraft gasifier throat. This chapter presents latest trends in gasification of biomass using downdraft gasification.",signatures:"Mohammed Abed Fattah Hamad, Aly Moustafa Radwan and Ashraf\nAmin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53271",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53271",authors:[{id:"192359",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed Abed Fattah",surname:"Hamad",slug:"mohammed-abed-fattah-hamad",fullName:"Mohammed Abed Fattah Hamad"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"448",title:"Biofuel Production",subtitle:"Recent Developments and Prospects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c74ec286656d475a34445a835eee296d",slug:"biofuel-production-recent-developments-and-prospects",bookSignature:"Marco Aurelio dos Santos Bernardes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/448.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6625",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Aurelio",surname:"Dos Santos Bernardes",slug:"marco-aurelio-dos-santos-bernardes",fullName:"Marco Aurelio Dos Santos Bernardes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"582",title:"Biodiesel",subtitle:"Feedstocks and Processing Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6515b40c0b7f5abd126e0325263a581c",slug:"biodiesel-feedstocks-and-processing-technologies",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva and Gisela Montero",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/582.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6375",title:"Prof.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"450",title:"Biofuel's Engineering Process Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff9814e64849f2167e29403f356e018e",slug:"biofuel-s-engineering-process-technology",bookSignature:"Marco Aurélio dos Santos Bernardes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/450.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6625",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Aurelio",surname:"Dos Santos Bernardes",slug:"marco-aurelio-dos-santos-bernardes",fullName:"Marco Aurelio Dos Santos Bernardes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2965",title:"Sustainable Degradation of Lignocellulosic Biomass",subtitle:"Techniques, Applications and Commercialization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79f3af7841253f5e3e67f53245c121d6",slug:"sustainable-degradation-of-lignocellulosic-biomass-techniques-applications-and-commercialization",bookSignature:"Anuj K. Chandel and Silvio Silvério da Silva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2965.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76898",title:"Dr.",name:"Anuj",surname:"Chandel",slug:"anuj-chandel",fullName:"Anuj Chandel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3526",title:"Liquid, Gaseous and Solid Biofuels",subtitle:"Conversion Techniques",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"27e5fc2ee32eebf66804d16b48e3545f",slug:"liquid-gaseous-and-solid-biofuels-conversion-techniques",bookSignature:"Zhen Fang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3526.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63891",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhen",surname:"Fang",slug:"zhen-fang",fullName:"Zhen Fang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"460",title:"Progress in Biomass and Bioenergy Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bd3ca64524ad4e5ab8280bb2e8e71d64",slug:"progress-in-biomass-and-bioenergy-production",bookSignature:"Syed Shahid Shaukat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/460.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58930",title:"Dr.",name:"Shahid",surname:"Shaukat",slug:"shahid-shaukat",fullName:"Shahid Shaukat"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1323",title:"Biogas",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3bd0527b475ee7658e14add4834a8937",slug:"biogas",bookSignature:"Sunil Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1323.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"86581",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunil",surname:"Kumar",slug:"sunil-kumar",fullName:"Sunil Kumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3662",title:"Biomass",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"biomass",bookSignature:"Maggy Ndombo Benteke Momba",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3662.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"125307",title:"Prof.",name:"Maggy Ndombo",surname:"Benteke Momba",slug:"maggy-ndombo-benteke-momba",fullName:"Maggy Ndombo Benteke Momba"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1858",title:"Biodiesel",subtitle:"Quality, Emissions and By-Products",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee4fbba87cc2259cc2e726be4cd58bfd",slug:"biodiesel-quality-emissions-and-by-products",bookSignature:"Gisela Montero and Margarita Stoytcheva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1858.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"69000",title:"Dr.",name:"Gisela",surname:"Montero",slug:"gisela-montero",fullName:"Gisela Montero"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3525",title:"Biofuels",subtitle:"Economy, Environment and Sustainability",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c96c437f720c3cd5fec55f29198625c9",slug:"biofuels-economy-environment-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Zhen Fang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3525.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63891",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhen",surname:"Fang",slug:"zhen-fang",fullName:"Zhen Fang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited 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Rath",authors:[{id:"59158",title:"Dr.",name:"Eitan Z.",middleName:null,surname:"Rath",fullName:"Eitan Z. Rath",slug:"eitan-z.-rath"}]},{id:"23842",title:"Steroid Induced Glaucoma",slug:"steroid-induced-glaucoma",signatures:"Avraham Cohen",authors:[{id:"61596",title:"Dr.",name:"Avraham",middleName:null,surname:"Cohen",fullName:"Avraham Cohen",slug:"avraham-cohen"}]},{id:"23843",title:"Glaucoma in Cases of Penetrating Keratoplasty, Lamellar Procedures and Keratoprosthesis",slug:"glaucoma-in-cases-of-penetrating-keratoplasty-lamellar-procedures-and-keratoprosthesis",signatures:"Shimon Rumelt",authors:[{id:"54335",title:"Dr.",name:"Shimon",middleName:null,surname:"Rumelt",fullName:"Shimon Rumelt",slug:"shimon-rumelt"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"286",title:"Keratoplasties",subtitle:"Surgical techniques and complications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e8d2ab941ea6074e7a7ae55de9c78fa",slug:"keratoplasties-surgical-techniques-and-complications",bookSignature:"Luigi Mosca",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/286.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37700",title:"Dr.",name:"Luigi",surname:"Mosca",slug:"luigi-mosca",fullName:"Luigi Mosca"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"360",title:"Electroretinograms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bfbc5538173f11acb0f9549a85b70488",slug:"electroretinograms",bookSignature:"Gregor Belusic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/360.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"44595",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregor",surname:"Belusic",slug:"gregor-belusic",fullName:"Gregor Belusic"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"540",title:"Age Related Macular Degeneration",subtitle:"The Recent Advances in Basic Research and Clinical Care",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"457bf890ed1e947a2ed23fc8237e34f0",slug:"age-related-macular-degeneration-the-recent-advances-in-basic-research-and-clinical-care",bookSignature:"Gui-Shuang Ying",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/540.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"86603",title:"Dr.",name:"Gui-Shuang",surname:"Ying",slug:"gui-shuang-ying",fullName:"Gui-Shuang Ying"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"666",title:"Diabetic Retinopathy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc9ab3a3c861825692bb9eea670aea2e",slug:"diabetic-retinopathy",bookSignature:"Mohammad Shamsul Ola",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/666.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"86018",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Shamsul",surname:"Ola",slug:"mohammad-shamsul-ola",fullName:"Mohammad Shamsul Ola"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"751",title:"Advances in Ophthalmology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"63feda93d7fee6fb1f164a52e9f6427c",slug:"advances-in-ophthalmology",bookSignature:"Shimon Rumelt",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/751.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54335",title:"Dr.",name:"Shimon",surname:"Rumelt",slug:"shimon-rumelt",fullName:"Shimon Rumelt"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"237",title:"Astigmatism",subtitle:"Optics, Physiology and Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"899b6b3d1d0250ee904841f62bac8bee",slug:"astigmatism-optics-physiology-and-management",bookSignature:"Michael Goggin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/237.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65903",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Goggin",slug:"michael-goggin",fullName:"Michael Goggin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"73157",title:"Humanistic Next-Generation Artificial Intelligence Capable of Association",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93559",slug:"humanistic-next-generation-artificial-intelligence-capable-of-association",body:'The third artificial intelligence (AI) boom focused on the “handling of large amounts of data” and “automated learning.” Collecting and learning information expressed in various forms in a variety of fields can lead to the automated detection of knowledge and rules. One may think that AI can do anything because it is capable of automated learning, but there are still many problems that AI must tackle. The “necessity of a large amount of data” is and will become an even more significant problem.
Large amounts of data are indispensable to statistic processing. In other words, problems where data cannot be collected cannot be solved. One view is that “problems where the collection of data is difficult are not big problems anyway, and therefore, can be ignored.” Is this really acceptable? Ignoring a problem because the amount of data is small separates problems into those that can and those that cannot be processed using AI. Stretching in this direction leads to the formation of gaps, which then leads to discrimination and information gaps. Therefore, although an effective use of information technology should be accessible to the weak, a totally opposite scenario may occur.
The population of Japan is approximately 120 million, which is about one tenth of that of all of the Western countries combined or that of China. As a consequence, the amount of data that a large country can collect in 1 month takes around a year to collect in Japan. Therefore, Japan cannot win against large countries, as the performance of AI is currently governed by the amount of collected data.
Therefore, AI developed abroad will be imported and used. This is sufficient to some extent from a macroscopic point of view. However, Japan is a very unique group as compared to large countries, a fact that is often overlooked because Japan is highly ranked, for instance, in terms of economy. Many aspects of the Japanese culture are peculiar; hence, there will be some unreasonableness if AI developed abroad is used as-is. From a microscopic point of view, Japanese people have to put up with some issues in their lives.
For example, a translation service that a large company provides for free mistranslated “Sakaisuji Line,” which is a subway line in Osaka, as “Muscular Line,” and “Sakaisuji” as “thigh muscle.” This is a big problem for people living in Japan, and international sightseeing visitors will be bewildered (Figure 1) [1].
Example of a translation service.
This type of mistake can be easily detected and resolved by Japanese people. In contrast, for companies providing services globally, a small mistake in a specific region in a single country might not be an issue. Indeed, this mistranslation must not have been viewed as a problem that needed to be addressed, because no correction was made for a long time after this problem was reported. Thinking from a global macroscopic viewpoint naturally emphasizes covering more countries, regions, and languages. However, minority groups must clearly understand this issue: systems are not always created and provided with sufficient consideration to minority groups.
Having more data is not always better. For example, consider someone who loves “tomatoes” very much and eats tomatoes every day. A favorite friend’s birthday is approaching, and he wants to give this friend a present. After consultation with various acquaintances, the recommendation was to “give my favorite thing as a present.” He therefore decided to give “tomatoes” as the birthday present because “I love ‘tomatoes’ so much; I eat them every day.” Is this a good idea?
Of course not. Giving “tomatoes” as a birthday present clearly contradicts common sense. However, “giving my favorite thing as a present to others” is not a wrong idea. Had the person loved “cakes” instead of “tomatoes,” then giving “cakes” as a birthday present to his favorite friend would have been a very successful result. Then, what is the difference between “tomatoes” and “cakes”? These are both food! Distinguishing these just by using statistical processing is very difficult. In contrast, the “tomatoes” lover might be very happy when very rare, top-grade tomatoes are given to him as a birthday present.
As is evident from this example, schemes that do not simply analyze large amounts of data but instead analyze high-quality data or give solutions with good precision will be indispensable.
Many data can be collected if the target is large. One resolution when a large amount of data cannot be collected is to increase the denominator by increasing the target domain. A considerable amount of data can be collected in this case, but a large amount of irrelevant data will also be collected. In contrast, purging unnecessary data that become the noise leads to the narrowing of the target domain. Characteristic data can be collected by focusing on a certain domain, but this results in the problem of how to collect large amounts of data in the limited domain.
The issue of quantity and quality is basically a trade-off relationship. Collecting large amounts of data is necessary to cover various cases and to judge the importance of certain things by investigating the frequency. Therefore, the shortcut to obtaining high-quality data is to secure the variation and sufficient data for determining the relative importance.
Obtaining an accurate solution from small amounts of data requires imagination and the detection of trends from a small number of phenomena. One approach is to add artificial data. For example, data can be created by intentionally including noise, and the variation may be expanded by a crossover. Different data can be generated by association or inference. Needless to say, these are artificial data and are not correct cases. However, if an environment where very delicate simulations are possible can be obtained, artificial data that are not true, but very close, may be created.
We humans can, without actually experiencing everything, imagine and think by reading books or listening to others’ experiences. Simulated experience is valuable. I think that computers can also respond to simulated data. However, computers are not as imaginative as humans. Common sense is necessary when imagining things. The timing, circumstances, and situation must be taken into account. Moreover, judgments must consider the position of the counterpart, human relations, the atmosphere, and the underlying background.
However, current computers are not capable of this task, which is understandable because computers live in a world of “0”s and “1”s and things are considered and handled as symbols. AI that can support humans and can be active as partners need a mechanism that has common sense and can understand and share human feelings.
I founded the Artificial Intelligence Engineering Research Center at Doshisha University in 2018, and I am now its Director. Many professors who focus on various AI-related research work at this research center and are conducting research on AI from diverse viewpoints. I am particularly interested in the “implementation of humanistic AI” [2].
“Humanistic” has two aspects: one is “common knowledge,” which is “what everyone knows,” and the other is “common sense,” which is “conscience and sound consideration and judgment.” “What everyone knows” can be statistically processed because it can be found explicitly in dictionaries or is what many people agree upon. However, “conscience and sound consideration and judgment” is very tricky. It depends on ethics, morals, manners, virtues, and cultures; thus, the “correct” answer is vague, and judgments can vary from person to person. However, there can be some guidelines such as “this is not good” or “this is impossible” (Table 1).
Common knowledge | Common sense | |
---|---|---|
Meaning | What everyone knows | Conscience and sound Consideration and judgment |
Definition | Found explicitly in dictionaries | The “correct” answer is vague |
Judgments of people | Many people agree upon | Judgments can vary from person to person |
“Humanistic” has two aspects.
Examples of expressions that the Japanese use casually are “the size of 20 Koshien Stadiums” and “input single-byte alphanumeric characters in this field.” These expressions are not strange to the Japanese but are difficult to understand for people outside of Japan. A person unfamiliar with the size of the “Koshien Stadium” cannot relate to what the term “the size of 20 Koshien Stadiums” means. “Single-byte alphanumeric characters” are different from “double-byte” characters, and this expression does not make sense to Westerners who do not use double-byte characters that appear in languages such as Japanese and Chinese. Another example is the following conversation of a married couple: “Help with housework when you are off from work!” “I’m ceaselessly driving a truck, so please let me rest on those rare days off!” The assumption that “the wife is doing the housework, and the truck driver is the husband” is a very outdated common sense in the current world of gender equality.
“Conscience and sound consideration and judgment” therefore changes with, for example, the timing, circumstances, sex, age group, region, position, and/or era. Trying to learn this automatically results in a lack of data. The population of Japan is already small, and classifying data by sex, age group, or region further reduces the amount of data. However, “humanistic AI” must be implemented under these circumstances by devising a scheme to allow accurate learning from small amounts of data (Figure 2).
Example of “humanistic AI.”
My specialty is AI with an emphasis on natural language processing. In particular, I have continued to study emotions ever since I started research. With the widespread use of smartphones, speech input is gaining popularity again. New search methods by the use of Siri in iPhones and smart speakers have been proposed, and these are becoming accepted. Further advances in technology and the day when everyone can freely use sophisticated computers are being anticipated. One solution is to use the means of communication between humans as the means to use computers. When robots that can coexist and live together with humans are developed, the ability of robots to understand humans, judge human emotions, and sympathize with humans should be a very important element. Therefore, I focused on reading the emotions of the counterpart from the contents of one’s speech and proposed a method to judge the speaker’s emotions by analyzing the contents of the speech (Figure 3) [3, 4, 5].
Outline of the emotion judgment system.
Emotions were judged on the basis of a knowledge database where emotions were defined for 406 combinations of 203 objective word categories and two verb and normal and nominal adjective word categories, or for 8024 combinations of 34 objective word categories; 59 verb and normal and nominal adjective word categories; active or passive voice (two categories); and positive or negative form (two categories). When categorizing objective words and verb and normal and nominal adjective words, the ambiguity is judged from the relationships between words (Figure 4). To effectively use this knowledge database where a small amount of knowledge is registered to judge processing and emotions, I developed a proprietary “concept base” that automatically interprets limited knowledge broadly to respond to diverse expressions [6, 7, 8, 9] (Figure 5). One result showed that this proposed method is capable of reproducing 74.2% of the emotion judgment ability.
Flow of emotion judgment system.
Technique of automatically interpreting limited knowledge broadly to respond to diverse expressions.
The “concept base” has been developed for over 20 years by my research group. “Word2vec,” which has gained considerable popularity recently, is a dictionary built on a similar concept [10]. Word2vec appeared recently; thus, my feeling is that “the times have finally caught up with our ideas.” Word2vec is a method that expresses the meaning of a word using multiple numbers on the basis of the hypothesis that “the meaning of a word can be characterized using words that collocate with it.” In other words, a word is expressed using a vector in an arbitrary dimension. Expressing the meaning with multiple numbers requires learning from large amounts of data. One method is “Skipgram” that learns words close to a given word (Figure 6), and another is “CBoW,” which learns words that often appear when a certain number of words exist (Figure 7).
Image of Skipgram in Word2vec.
Image of CBoW in Word2vec.
Word2vec needs to arbitrarily specify a finite number of dimensions. Therefore, the meaning of words must be compressed, and the expressions are slightly forced. In contrast, the concept base expresses the meaning of words with multiple words, which is different from Word2vec. This setup allows the expression of a word with multiple, or, in theory, an infinite number of words. Therefore, all the concepts of a word pictured in a human brain can be expressed (Figure 8). Indeed, our concept base captures the meaning of words more precisely than that captured in Word2vec (Table 2) [11].
Example of concept base.
Concept base | Word2vec | |
---|---|---|
Accuracy | 89.9% | 78.4% |
Result of accuracy comparison between concept base and Word2vec.
The implementation of “humanistic AI” may lead to humans falling in love with a robot instead of a real human. A robot may know more about you than other humans, will do what you want to be done, will not complain, and can have a good conversation. Therefore, the chances of falling in love with a robot are considerably high.
I think that the days when robots are considered enemies are transient and robots will soon be recognized as good partners that support humans instead of being rivals. When such a time comes, what will humans do and what should humans do? Research on AI forces me to think about humans instead of just on technology. After all, the role model of a robot is none other than us humans. I wish for an evolution to a world where humans can be humans.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
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\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. 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Leaching is the vertical downward displacement of pesticides through the soil profile and the unsaturated zone, and finally to groundwater, which is vulnerable to pollution. Pesticides are frequently leached through the soil by the effect of rain or irrigation water. Pesticide leaching is highest for weakly sorbing and/or persistent compounds, climates with high precipitation and low temperatures, and soils with low organic matter and sandy texture. On the contrary, for pesticides with a low persistence that disappear quickly, the risk of groundwater pollution considerably decreases. Different and varied factors such as physical-chemical properties of the pesticide, a permeability of the soil, texture and organic matter content of the soil, volatilization, crop-root uptake, and method and dose of pesticide application are responsible for the leaching rate of the pesticides. Soils that are high in clays and organic matter will slow the movement of water, attach easily to many pesticides, and generally have a higher diversity and population of soil organisms that can metabolize the pesticides.",book:{id:"8533",slug:"pesticides-use-and-misuse-and-their-impact-in-the-environment",title:"Pesticides",fullTitle:"Pesticides - Use and Misuse and Their Impact in the Environment"},signatures:"Gabriel Pérez-Lucas, Nuria Vela, Abderrazak El Aatik and Simón Navarro",authors:[{id:"202983",title:"Dr.",name:"Simón",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro",slug:"simon-navarro",fullName:"Simón Navarro"},{id:"202988",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuria",middleName:null,surname:"Vela",slug:"nuria-vela",fullName:"Nuria Vela"},{id:"206059",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Lucas",slug:"gabriel-perez-lucas",fullName:"Gabriel Pérez-Lucas"},{id:"283154",title:"Mr.",name:"Abderrazak",middleName:null,surname:"El Aatik",slug:"abderrazak-el-aatik",fullName:"Abderrazak El Aatik"}]},{id:"48594",doi:"10.5772/60911",title:"Environmental Exposure and Health Effects Associated with Malathion Toxicity",slug:"environmental-exposure-and-health-effects-associated-with-malathion-toxicity",totalDownloads:2698,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"Malathion (O,O-dimethyl-S-1,2-bis ethoxy carbonyl ethyl phosphorodithionate) is a non-systemic, wide-spectrum pesticide. It is widely used throughout the world for agricultural, residential, and public health purposes, mainly to enhance food production and to provide protection from disease vectors. Malathion preference over other organophosphate pesticides relates to its low persistence in the environment as it is highly susceptible to hydrolysis, photolysis, and biodegradation. However, numerous malathion poisoning incidents including acute and chronic cases have been reported among pesticide workers and small children through accidental exposure. Malathion toxicity is compounded by its reactive metabolites and also depends upon the product purity, route of exposure, nutritional status, and gender of exposed individuals. Its metabolic oxidation in mammals, insects, and plants leads to the formation of malaoxon which appears to be several times more acutely toxic and represents the primary cause of malathion’s toxicity. Depending on the level of exposure, several signs and symptoms of toxicity including numbness, tingling sensation, headache, dizziness, difficulty breathing, weakness, irritation of skin, exacerbation of asthma, abdominal cramps, and death have been reported. Similar to other organophosphate pesticides, malathion exerts it toxic action by binding to acetylcholinesterase enzyme and inhibiting its activity, leading to accumulation of acetylcholine in synaptic junctions, which in turn results in overstimulation of cholinergic, muscarinic, and nicotinic receptors, and subsequent induction of adverse biologic effects. This chapter provides an update and analysis of the production and use, environmental occurrence, molecular mechanisms of toxicity, genotoxicity and carcinogenicity, and adverse human health effects associated with malathion exposure.",book:{id:"4637",slug:"toxicity-and-hazard-of-agrochemicals",title:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals",fullTitle:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals"},signatures:"Paul B. Tchounwou, Anita K. Patlolla, Clement G. Yedjou and\nPamela D. Moore",authors:[{id:"113353",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Tchounwou",slug:"paul-tchounwou",fullName:"Paul Tchounwou"}]},{id:"48553",doi:"10.5772/60767",title:"Ecotoxicology of Glyphosate and Glyphosate-Based Herbicides — Toxicity to Wildlife and Humans",slug:"ecotoxicology-of-glyphosate-and-glyphosate-based-herbicides-toxicity-to-wildlife-and-humans",totalDownloads:2594,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"The use of agrochemicals, especially herbicides, is necessary to control pests in order to produce adequate food for the global population (estimated at 7 billion). Glyphosate and glyphosate-based herbicides have been used extensively for this purpose but recent studies have reported these chemical substances to be found in aquatic ecosystems, wildlife and humans in various quantities. In this chapter, we reviewed the impacts of glyphosate and glyphosate-based herbicides on wildlife and humans using measured endpoint effects caused by genotoxicity, cytotoxicity and reproductive toxicity. We used findings from different current investigations to demonstrate adverse effects, or otherwise, of glyphosate exposure to wildlife and humans. Our review reveals that glyphosate and its formulations may not only be considered as having genotoxic, cytotoxic or endocrine disrupting properties but they may also be causative agents of reproduction abnormalities in both wildlife and humans. Furthermore, the extensive use of glyphosate-based herbicides in genetically modified glyphosate-resistant plants grown for food and feed should be of grave concern since they can be sources of genotoxicity, cytotoxicity, and reproductive toxicity in wildlife and humans.",book:{id:"4637",slug:"toxicity-and-hazard-of-agrochemicals",title:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals",fullTitle:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals"},signatures:"Paul K. Mensah, Carolyn G. Palmer and Oghenekaro N. Odume",authors:[{id:"169135",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Mensah",slug:"paul-mensah",fullName:"Paul Mensah"},{id:"173888",title:"Prof.",name:"Carolyn",middleName:null,surname:"Palmer",slug:"carolyn-palmer",fullName:"Carolyn Palmer"},{id:"175580",title:"Dr.",name:"Oghenekaro Nelson",middleName:null,surname:"Odume",slug:"oghenekaro-nelson-odume",fullName:"Oghenekaro Nelson Odume"}]},{id:"65766",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84161",title:"Pesticides, Anthropogenic Activities, and the Health of Our Environment Safety",slug:"pesticides-anthropogenic-activities-and-the-health-of-our-environment-safety",totalDownloads:1454,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Mankind depends on agricultural products for food consumption. Increasing population (more than 7 billion) requires significant growth in crop yield to meet essential demand. This aim was achieved through the use of pesticides to protect crops from diseases. Pesticides are toxic by design for organisms that can threaten food products. Their mode of action is by targeting systems or enzymes in the pests that may be similar to human system and therefore pose risks to human health and the environment as well. The WHO recommended classifying pesticides according to their toxicity and chemicals according to their chronic health and environmental hazards.",book:{id:"8533",slug:"pesticides-use-and-misuse-and-their-impact-in-the-environment",title:"Pesticides",fullTitle:"Pesticides - Use and Misuse and Their Impact in the Environment"},signatures:"Mona Saud AL-Ahmadi",authors:[{id:"276726",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mona",middleName:null,surname:"AL-Ahmadi",slug:"mona-al-ahmadi",fullName:"Mona AL-Ahmadi"}]},{id:"48545",doi:"10.5772/60739",title:"Environmental Risk Assessment of Agrochemicals — A Critical Appraisal of Current Approaches",slug:"environmental-risk-assessment-of-agrochemicals-a-critical-appraisal-of-current-approaches",totalDownloads:2559,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"This chapter provides insights into the difficulties and challenges of performing risk evaluations of agrochemicals. It is a critical review of the current methodologies used in ecological risk assessment of these chemicals, not their risks to humans. After an introduction to the topic, the current framework for ecological risk assessment is outlined. Two types of assessments are typically carried out depending on the purpose: i) regulatory assessments for registration of a chemical product; and ii) ecological assessments, for the protection of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, which are usually site-specific. Although the general framework is well established, the methodologies used in each of the steps of the assessment are fraught with a number of shortcomings. Notwithstanding the subjectivity implicit in the evaluation of risks, there is scepticism in scientific circles about the appropriateness of the current methodologies because, after so many years of evaluations, we are still incapable of foreseeing the negative consequences that some agrochemicals have in the environment. A critical appraisal of such methodologies is imperative if we are to improve the current assessment process and fix the problems we face today. The chapter reviews first the toxicity assessment methods, pointing to the gaps in knowledge about this essential part of the process and suggesting avenues for further improvement. Deficiencies in the current regulations regarding toxicity testing are discussed, in particular the effect of the time factor on toxicity and the issue of complex mixtures. Other matters of concern are the extrapolation of toxicity data from the individual to the population and community levels, and the sub-lethal effects. The exposure assessment methods are dealt with in a second place. These rely on modelling and actual measurements of chemical residues in the environment. Various techniques employed to determine to exposure and bioavailability of agrochemicals to the various organisms in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems are reviewed. Again, the shortcomings and gaps in knowledge are addressed and suggestions for improvement are pointed out. Then, the process of putting together the information from the toxicity and exposure assessments to evaluate risks is discussed. Tiers I and II of the risk assessment are reviewed. The challenge here is to keep objectivity in the evaluations; this may require the introduction of new methods of risk assessment. Finally, the risk assessment implies establishing a management strategy that aims at reducing or minimising the impacts of agrochemicals under normal agricultural scenarios. Recommendations are often case-specific and need to be based on sound science as well as common sense principles. The chapter concludes with a summary of issues that need to be considered for improving risk assessments of agrochemicals.",book:{id:"4637",slug:"toxicity-and-hazard-of-agrochemicals",title:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals",fullTitle:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals"},signatures:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo and Henk A. Tennekes",authors:[{id:"74970",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Bayo",slug:"francisco-sanchez-bayo",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo"},{id:"173845",title:"Dr.",name:"Henk",middleName:null,surname:"Tennekes",slug:"henk-tennekes",fullName:"Henk Tennekes"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"48594",title:"Environmental Exposure and Health Effects Associated with Malathion Toxicity",slug:"environmental-exposure-and-health-effects-associated-with-malathion-toxicity",totalDownloads:2698,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"Malathion (O,O-dimethyl-S-1,2-bis ethoxy carbonyl ethyl phosphorodithionate) is a non-systemic, wide-spectrum pesticide. It is widely used throughout the world for agricultural, residential, and public health purposes, mainly to enhance food production and to provide protection from disease vectors. Malathion preference over other organophosphate pesticides relates to its low persistence in the environment as it is highly susceptible to hydrolysis, photolysis, and biodegradation. However, numerous malathion poisoning incidents including acute and chronic cases have been reported among pesticide workers and small children through accidental exposure. Malathion toxicity is compounded by its reactive metabolites and also depends upon the product purity, route of exposure, nutritional status, and gender of exposed individuals. Its metabolic oxidation in mammals, insects, and plants leads to the formation of malaoxon which appears to be several times more acutely toxic and represents the primary cause of malathion’s toxicity. Depending on the level of exposure, several signs and symptoms of toxicity including numbness, tingling sensation, headache, dizziness, difficulty breathing, weakness, irritation of skin, exacerbation of asthma, abdominal cramps, and death have been reported. Similar to other organophosphate pesticides, malathion exerts it toxic action by binding to acetylcholinesterase enzyme and inhibiting its activity, leading to accumulation of acetylcholine in synaptic junctions, which in turn results in overstimulation of cholinergic, muscarinic, and nicotinic receptors, and subsequent induction of adverse biologic effects. This chapter provides an update and analysis of the production and use, environmental occurrence, molecular mechanisms of toxicity, genotoxicity and carcinogenicity, and adverse human health effects associated with malathion exposure.",book:{id:"4637",slug:"toxicity-and-hazard-of-agrochemicals",title:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals",fullTitle:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals"},signatures:"Paul B. Tchounwou, Anita K. Patlolla, Clement G. Yedjou and\nPamela D. Moore",authors:[{id:"113353",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Tchounwou",slug:"paul-tchounwou",fullName:"Paul Tchounwou"}]},{id:"64602",title:"Environmental Risk of Groundwater Pollution by Pesticide Leaching through the Soil Profile",slug:"environmental-risk-of-groundwater-pollution-by-pesticide-leaching-through-the-soil-profile",totalDownloads:3055,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:66,abstract:"Adsorption, degradation, and movement are the key processes conditioning the behavior and fate of pesticides in the soil. Six processes that can move pesticides are leaching, diffusion, volatilization, erosion and run-off, assimilation by microorganisms, and plant uptake. Leaching is the vertical downward displacement of pesticides through the soil profile and the unsaturated zone, and finally to groundwater, which is vulnerable to pollution. Pesticides are frequently leached through the soil by the effect of rain or irrigation water. Pesticide leaching is highest for weakly sorbing and/or persistent compounds, climates with high precipitation and low temperatures, and soils with low organic matter and sandy texture. On the contrary, for pesticides with a low persistence that disappear quickly, the risk of groundwater pollution considerably decreases. Different and varied factors such as physical-chemical properties of the pesticide, a permeability of the soil, texture and organic matter content of the soil, volatilization, crop-root uptake, and method and dose of pesticide application are responsible for the leaching rate of the pesticides. Soils that are high in clays and organic matter will slow the movement of water, attach easily to many pesticides, and generally have a higher diversity and population of soil organisms that can metabolize the pesticides.",book:{id:"8533",slug:"pesticides-use-and-misuse-and-their-impact-in-the-environment",title:"Pesticides",fullTitle:"Pesticides - Use and Misuse and Their Impact in the Environment"},signatures:"Gabriel Pérez-Lucas, Nuria Vela, Abderrazak El Aatik and Simón Navarro",authors:[{id:"202983",title:"Dr.",name:"Simón",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro",slug:"simon-navarro",fullName:"Simón Navarro"},{id:"202988",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuria",middleName:null,surname:"Vela",slug:"nuria-vela",fullName:"Nuria Vela"},{id:"206059",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Lucas",slug:"gabriel-perez-lucas",fullName:"Gabriel Pérez-Lucas"},{id:"283154",title:"Mr.",name:"Abderrazak",middleName:null,surname:"El Aatik",slug:"abderrazak-el-aatik",fullName:"Abderrazak El Aatik"}]},{id:"65752",title:"Uses and Misuses of Agricultural Pesticides in Africa: Neglected Public Health Threats for Workers and Population",slug:"uses-and-misuses-of-agricultural-pesticides-in-africa-neglected-public-health-threats-for-workers-an",totalDownloads:1555,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Pesticides are use in agriculture for their capacity to reduce pest and protect foods. Since their introduction in Africa by colonial masters, the use of these chemicals is constantly growing. Herbicides and insecticides are the two dominant categories. Although they are used in small quantities by farmers who own small exploitation, the frequency of their use, as well as overuses and misuses, constitutes serious factors of exposure and health risks. Farm workers are more vulnerable to occupational effects from pesticide inhalation and skin contacts. Failure to wear protective equipment and observe good agricultural practices explained health symptoms that are frequently experienced: eye and skin irritation, nausea, vomiting, and headache. Population is subject to chronic health effects due to repeated dietary intake of pesticides. Most consumed staple foods on the continent (cereals, vegetables, and fruits) have been found to be contaminated by one or multiple residues of pesticides. The level of residues is often higher than regulatory limits. Organization of surveillance programs to monitor concentration of pesticide residues remains inexistent in most countries, same for toxicovigilance systems to documented poisoning cases. Current data underline the need to carry out pesticide health risk assessment in order to appreciate the threats they pose for public health.",book:{id:"8533",slug:"pesticides-use-and-misuse-and-their-impact-in-the-environment",title:"Pesticides",fullTitle:"Pesticides - Use and Misuse and Their Impact in the Environment"},signatures:"Pouokam Guy Bertrand",authors:[{id:"276832",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Guy Bertrand",middleName:null,surname:"Pouokam",slug:"guy-bertrand-pouokam",fullName:"Guy Bertrand Pouokam"}]},{id:"65766",title:"Pesticides, Anthropogenic Activities, and the Health of Our Environment Safety",slug:"pesticides-anthropogenic-activities-and-the-health-of-our-environment-safety",totalDownloads:1454,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Mankind depends on agricultural products for food consumption. Increasing population (more than 7 billion) requires significant growth in crop yield to meet essential demand. This aim was achieved through the use of pesticides to protect crops from diseases. Pesticides are toxic by design for organisms that can threaten food products. Their mode of action is by targeting systems or enzymes in the pests that may be similar to human system and therefore pose risks to human health and the environment as well. The WHO recommended classifying pesticides according to their toxicity and chemicals according to their chronic health and environmental hazards.",book:{id:"8533",slug:"pesticides-use-and-misuse-and-their-impact-in-the-environment",title:"Pesticides",fullTitle:"Pesticides - Use and Misuse and Their Impact in the Environment"},signatures:"Mona Saud AL-Ahmadi",authors:[{id:"276726",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mona",middleName:null,surname:"AL-Ahmadi",slug:"mona-al-ahmadi",fullName:"Mona AL-Ahmadi"}]},{id:"48545",title:"Environmental Risk Assessment of Agrochemicals — A Critical Appraisal of Current Approaches",slug:"environmental-risk-assessment-of-agrochemicals-a-critical-appraisal-of-current-approaches",totalDownloads:2559,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"This chapter provides insights into the difficulties and challenges of performing risk evaluations of agrochemicals. It is a critical review of the current methodologies used in ecological risk assessment of these chemicals, not their risks to humans. After an introduction to the topic, the current framework for ecological risk assessment is outlined. Two types of assessments are typically carried out depending on the purpose: i) regulatory assessments for registration of a chemical product; and ii) ecological assessments, for the protection of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, which are usually site-specific. Although the general framework is well established, the methodologies used in each of the steps of the assessment are fraught with a number of shortcomings. Notwithstanding the subjectivity implicit in the evaluation of risks, there is scepticism in scientific circles about the appropriateness of the current methodologies because, after so many years of evaluations, we are still incapable of foreseeing the negative consequences that some agrochemicals have in the environment. A critical appraisal of such methodologies is imperative if we are to improve the current assessment process and fix the problems we face today. The chapter reviews first the toxicity assessment methods, pointing to the gaps in knowledge about this essential part of the process and suggesting avenues for further improvement. Deficiencies in the current regulations regarding toxicity testing are discussed, in particular the effect of the time factor on toxicity and the issue of complex mixtures. Other matters of concern are the extrapolation of toxicity data from the individual to the population and community levels, and the sub-lethal effects. The exposure assessment methods are dealt with in a second place. These rely on modelling and actual measurements of chemical residues in the environment. Various techniques employed to determine to exposure and bioavailability of agrochemicals to the various organisms in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems are reviewed. Again, the shortcomings and gaps in knowledge are addressed and suggestions for improvement are pointed out. Then, the process of putting together the information from the toxicity and exposure assessments to evaluate risks is discussed. Tiers I and II of the risk assessment are reviewed. The challenge here is to keep objectivity in the evaluations; this may require the introduction of new methods of risk assessment. Finally, the risk assessment implies establishing a management strategy that aims at reducing or minimising the impacts of agrochemicals under normal agricultural scenarios. Recommendations are often case-specific and need to be based on sound science as well as common sense principles. The chapter concludes with a summary of issues that need to be considered for improving risk assessments of agrochemicals.",book:{id:"4637",slug:"toxicity-and-hazard-of-agrochemicals",title:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals",fullTitle:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals"},signatures:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo and Henk A. Tennekes",authors:[{id:"74970",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Bayo",slug:"francisco-sanchez-bayo",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo"},{id:"173845",title:"Dr.",name:"Henk",middleName:null,surname:"Tennekes",slug:"henk-tennekes",fullName:"Henk Tennekes"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"306",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. 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