Post-gasification tar removal methods [15].
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9710",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Olive Oil - New Perspectives and Applications",title:"Olive Oil",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Olive Oil - New Perspectives and Applications is a collection of reviewed and relevant research chapters, offering a comprehensive overview of recent developments in the field of agricultural, medical, and biological sciences. The book comprises single chapters authored by various researchers and edited by an expert active in the olive oil research area. All chapters are complete in themselves but united under a common research study topic. This publication aims at providing a thorough overview of the latest research efforts by international authors on olive oil and opening new possible research paths for further novel developments.",isbn:"978-1-83968-415-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-414-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-251-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87514",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"olive-oil-new-perspectives-and-applications",numberOfPages:160,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2f673efc0d0213f2d937fc89e65a24df",bookSignature:"Muhammad Akram",publishedDate:"January 19th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9710.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2199,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 2nd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 3rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 1st 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 22nd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 21st 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"215436",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Akram",slug:"muhammad-akram",fullName:"Muhammad Akram",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215436/images/system/215436.jpg",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Akram is an Associate Professor in the Department of Eastern Medicine, Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan. He received his Ph.D. from Hamdard University Karachi-Pakistan in 2013. Dr. Akram was a chairman in the Department of Eastern Medicine and Surgery, University of Poonch, Rawalakot Azad Kashmir from 2015 to 2017. He received many honors and awards during his career. He serves as an editor and invited reviewer of several national and international journals. He has numerous publications and presentations to his credit, and he is an active member of several professional societies. Dr. Akram’s research interests include hyperuricemia, xanthine oxidase inhibition by some selected medicinal plants, enzyme inhibition, Indusyunic medicine, phytochemistry, poisonous plants, bioactivity, and phytopharmaceutical evaluation of herbal drugs and their natural products, biochemistry, and bioinformatics.",institutionString:"Government College University, Faisalabad",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"323",title:"Food and Nutrition",slug:"food-and-nutrition"}],chapters:[{id:"75509",title:"Health Benefits of Extra Virgin Olive Oil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96570",slug:"health-benefits-of-extra-virgin-olive-oil",totalDownloads:338,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), also called the “Elixir of the youth and health” by the Ancient Greeks, is a cornerstone in the Mediterranean diet, which has been recognized as one of the healthiest and most sustainable dietary pattern and lifestyle. In this chapter, a brief overview of the major and minor components of EVOO is given followed by a review of their health benefits. In particular, the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer and cardiovascular protective effects of EVOO are emphasized. At the end of this chapter, the reader would benefit by realizing that EVOO, as a functional food, proves the Hippocrates’s quote “Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food”.",signatures:"Anka Trajkovska Petkoska and Anita Trajkovska-Broach",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75509",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75509",authors:[{id:"342708",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",surname:"Trajkovska-Broach",slug:"anita-trajkovska-broach",fullName:"Anita Trajkovska-Broach"},{id:"342710",title:"Prof.",name:"Anka",surname:"Trajkovska Petkoska",slug:"anka-trajkovska-petkoska",fullName:"Anka Trajkovska Petkoska"}],corrections:null},{id:"75409",title:"Anti-Cancer and Cardiovascular Properties of Phenolic Compounds Present in Virgin Olive Oil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96392",slug:"anti-cancer-and-cardiovascular-properties-of-phenolic-compounds-present-in-virgin-olive-oil",totalDownloads:205,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Cancer and cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the leading cause of death worldwide. Furthermore, current cardiovascular and cancer therapy is accompanied by various side effects, which considerably reduce the quality of life. Epidemiological studies suggest that the Mediterranean diet has been related to a lower risk of non-communicable diseases such as CVD and cancer. This lower incidence has been partially attributed to the regular intake of virgin olive oil (VOO) which is the main fatty component of the traditional Mediterranean die. In addition to monounsaturated fatty acid, VOO contains various phenolic compounds, which have shown a broad spectrum of pharmacological properties due to their antioxidant activity. This chapter summarizes current knowledge on the effects of the main phenolic compounds isolated from VOO on different cancers and CVD as well as the plausible action mechanisms involved.",signatures:"Mohammed El Haouari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75409",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75409",authors:[{id:"343789",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"El Haouari",slug:"mohammed-el-haouari",fullName:"Mohammed El Haouari"}],corrections:null},{id:"79608",title:"Prospective Adaptation of the Mediterranean Crop Olive in India",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101313",slug:"prospective-adaptation-of-the-mediterranean-crop-olive-in-india",totalDownloads:89,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The market for the Mediterranean crop Olive is ever increasing in the Indian Sub-continent. Apart from import, exploring the local possibilities of cultivating Olive in this country is being explored. Adaption and acclimatization of the new crop is always a challenge. Though the country has large areas with similar agronomic regions as that of the native Mediterranean regions, ecological adjustment of the crop to the micro-climate of the new area needs modification of cultural practices. The success of olive cultivation, the challenges encountered, the prospective of making this cultivation a sustainable one by innovative alternate usage is explored in this chapter.",signatures:"Thangamani Dhandapani, K.B. Sridhar and S. Vimala Devi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79608",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79608",authors:[{id:"269509",title:"Dr.",name:"S. Vimala",surname:"Devi",slug:"s.-vimala-devi",fullName:"S. Vimala Devi"},{id:"357095",title:"Dr.",name:"K.B.",surname:"Sridhar",slug:"k.b.-sridhar",fullName:"K.B. Sridhar"},{id:"436277",title:"Dr.",name:"Thangamani",surname:"Dhandapani",slug:"thangamani-dhandapani",fullName:"Thangamani Dhandapani"}],corrections:null},{id:"75925",title:"Olive Phenomenon from the Mediterranean Diet: Health Promotion via Phytochemicals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96938",slug:"olive-phenomenon-from-the-mediterranean-diet-health-promotion-via-phytochemicals",totalDownloads:337,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Mediterranean Diet contains fruits, vegetables, nuts, whole grains, fish and virgin olive oil (VOO) as a key component. It is well explained that those consumption has a number of positive health effects. It has been accepted for a long time that the leading compound in olive was oleic acid as a monounsaturated fatty acid. However, the latter researches were figured out that VOO rich in natural phenolics have multifaceted influence on major diseases including cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disease, and metabolic disorders. Recent medical studies proved that oleocanthal and oleacein, characteristic bioactive biophenol-secoiridoids in VOO, success in the anti-inflammatory and in the antioxidant properties, respectively. It has more recently investigated that oleocanthal and hydroxytyrosol (HT) kills cancer cells (CCs). HT and oleuropein reduces breast cancer and cutaneous melanoma cancer cells both in number and aggressiveness, and inhibits CCs multiplying. It has been declared too many times that nutrition type is the strongest factor can be caused acute and chronic diseases. However, at the same time, nutrition can also prevent some of those heavy symptoms. The main purpose of presented chapter is to meet olive’s bioactive molecules and to examine how to improve our health with diet.",signatures:"Didar Üçüncüoğlu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75925",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75925",authors:[{id:"338210",title:"Dr.",name:"Didar",surname:"Üçüncüoğlu",slug:"didar-ucuncuoglu",fullName:"Didar Üçüncüoğlu"}],corrections:null},{id:"76013",title:"The Impact of Olive Oil and Mediterranean Diet on the Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97146",slug:"the-impact-of-olive-oil-and-mediterranean-diet-on-the-prevention-of-cardiovascular-diseases",totalDownloads:261,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The Mediterranean diet has a lot of health benefits but especially because it lowers the incidence of cardiovascular diseases. It has been shown that food components, certain nutrients and the pattern of the diet lowers the risk of several diseases such as diabetes, certain cancers, obesity, respiratory disorders, mental health and cognitive decline, bone diseases (osteoarthritis), healthy aging and quality of life among more others. It has been concluded from studying the mechanism responsible for lowering these risks that food combinations, food nutrients, presence of non-nutritive substances, lifestyles habits and the cooking techniques all together make the Mediterranean dietary pattern into a tool that can not only prevent but can also be used as a way of treatment for these medical ailments. As part of the essential dietary fat, consumption of extra virgin olive oil is the main feature of Mediterranean diet. Olive oil is noted to have anti-bacterial characteristics, involved in improving the endothelial function in young females, and is hypothesized to have epigenetic effects interplay offering protection from cancers due to the presence of beneficial monounsaturated fats. The presence of antioxidants contributes to the inflammation protecting properties of the olive oil. Olive oil has high quantities of antioxidants and offers numerous benefits for cardiovascular health, such as protection of LDL from oxidation and lowering of the high blood pressure as well as offers protection from diabetes mellitus. The Mediterranean diet and the Olive oil consumption also have a fundamental impact in secondary prevention, such as in patients with atrial fibrillation that underwent catheter ablation.",signatures:"Muhammad Akram, Rumaisa Ansari, Naheed Akhter, Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin, Sadia Zafar, Muhammad Ishaque, Naveed Munir, Luigi Sciarra, Giulia My, E.C. Gianvito Matarrese, Zefferino Palamà and Muhammad Riaz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76013",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76013",authors:[{id:"215436",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Akram",slug:"muhammad-akram",fullName:"Muhammad Akram"}],corrections:null},{id:"76754",title:"Olive Oil Production in Albania, Chemical Characterization, and Authenticity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96861",slug:"olive-oil-production-in-albania-chemical-characterization-and-authenticity",totalDownloads:190,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Olive tree is present to the Western and Southern regions of Albania, alongside Adriatic and Ionian Sea, two body waters of the Mediterranean basin. Genetic studies have revealed the existence of 22 native olive cultivars, while several introduced foreign olive cultivars are present. Two most important olive cultivars respectively, exploited in the olive oil production, and table olive, are Kalinjot and Kokërrmadh Berati. Olive fruit production ranks the country 20th in the world. Olive tree comprises an important permanent crop with considerable potential for the Albanian economy. Principal component analyses (PCA) of fatty acids in OO displays their differentiation according to the cultivar and their region. Chemometric analysis gives support to the differentiation of OO according to the olive cv. in terms of phenolic compounds. Secoiridoids are found in abundance, 3,4-DHPEA-EDA and p-HPEA-EDA as dominant compounds, especially in Kalinjot olive oils. Albanian OO shows high levels of aroma compounds with (E)-2-hexenal as the principal aroma compound. Its concentrations reach up to 40411 μg/kg in Kalinjot cv., much higher compared to Bardhi Tirana cv (27542.7 μg/kg). The authenticity of OOs constitutes an opportunity for domestic production and certification according to the geography or origin and present an important resource to the development of a sustainable economy.",signatures:"Dritan Topi, Gamze Guclu, Hasim Kelebek and Serkan Selli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76754",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76754",authors:[{id:"88186",title:"Dr.",name:"Serkan",surname:"Selli",slug:"serkan-selli",fullName:"Serkan Selli"},{id:"260916",title:"Prof.",name:"Dritan",surname:"Topi",slug:"dritan-topi",fullName:"Dritan Topi"},{id:"355740",title:"Dr.",name:"Gamze",surname:"Guclu",slug:"gamze-guclu",fullName:"Gamze Guclu"},{id:"355741",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasim",surname:"Kelebek",slug:"hasim-kelebek",fullName:"Hasim Kelebek"}],corrections:null},{id:"76086",title:"Cooking with Extra Virgin Olive Oil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97165",slug:"cooking-with-extra-virgin-olive-oil",totalDownloads:332,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Mediterranean cultures have used Extra Virgin Olive Oil (EVOO) as the only source of cooking oil for centuries, with their diet showing the highest amount of scientifically proven health benefits. However, there is a common misconception that EVOO is not suitable for cooking given its relatively lower smoke point, despite no scientific evidence that support this. This chapter aims to provide an overview of how EVOO is healthier, safer, and more stable to cook with than other common edible oils. Furthermore, this chapter aims to present EVOO’s suitability for use on Teflon coated pans, which is another common myth.",signatures:"Ana Florencia de Alzaa, Claudia Guillaume and Leandro Ravetti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76086",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76086",authors:[{id:"183110",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Guillaume",slug:"claudia-guillaume",fullName:"Claudia Guillaume"},{id:"340158",title:"Ms.",name:"Ana Florencia",surname:"de Alzaa",slug:"ana-florencia-de-alzaa",fullName:"Ana Florencia de Alzaa"},{id:"340760",title:"Mr.",name:"Leandro",surname:"Ravetti",slug:"leandro-ravetti",fullName:"Leandro Ravetti"}],corrections:null},{id:"77294",title:"Virgin Olive Oil Phenolic Compounds: Insights on Their Occurrence, Health-Promoting Properties and Bioavailability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98581",slug:"virgin-olive-oil-phenolic-compounds-insights-on-their-occurrence-health-promoting-properties-and-bio",totalDownloads:220,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Virgin olive oil is a highly appreciated edible oil, considered as a relevant component of the Mediterranean diet. The spread of this foodstuff all over the world is making, to a certain extent, that new markets and consumers are getting used to this “Mediterranean’s golden treasure”. Currently, there is great momentum in research relating virgin olive oil intake to healthiness, which has been mainly associated with its phenolics content. Phenolics are considered health-promoting compounds due to their multifaceted biochemical actions that can potentially reduce the risk of various health problems. Yet, since the health-promoting effects of various phenolic compounds have been widely attributed to their metabolic products rather than the naturally occurring forms, the assessment of virgin olive oil phenolics bioavailability is still gaining immense attention and considered a great hot topic among researchers. In the first section of this contribution, the main groups of phenolic compounds identified in virgin olive oil are described, their qualitative and quantitative variability is discussed while analytical approaches applied for their determination are highlighted. The second section reports the beneficial health properties of virgin olive oil consumption related to its phenolics content paying special attention to their bioavailability.",signatures:"El Amine Ajal, Salah Chaji, Sanae Moussafir, Rachid Nejjari, Abdelmajid Soulaymani and Aadil Bajoub",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77294",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77294",authors:[{id:"186812",title:"Prof.",name:"Aadil",surname:"Bajoub",slug:"aadil-bajoub",fullName:"Aadil Bajoub"},{id:"416861",title:"Prof.",name:"El Amine",surname:"Ajal",slug:"el-amine-ajal",fullName:"El Amine Ajal"},{id:"416862",title:"Prof.",name:"Rachid",surname:"Nejjari",slug:"rachid-nejjari",fullName:"Rachid Nejjari"},{id:"416863",title:"Dr.",name:"Salah",surname:"Chaji",slug:"salah-chaji",fullName:"Salah Chaji"},{id:"416864",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanae",surname:"Moussafir",slug:"sanae-moussafir",fullName:"Sanae Moussafir"},{id:"416865",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelmajid",surname:"Soulaymani",slug:"abdelmajid-soulaymani",fullName:"Abdelmajid Soulaymani"}],corrections:null},{id:"75546",title:"Experimental Carcinogenesis with 7,12-Dimethylbenz(a)Anthrazene (DMBA) and Its Inhibition with Extra Virgin Olive Oil and a Diet of Mature Olives (Picual Variety)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96514",slug:"experimental-carcinogenesis-with-7-12-dimethylbenz-a-anthrazene-dmba-and-its-inhibition-with-extra-v",totalDownloads:228,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"7,12-Dimethylbenz(a)anthrazene (DMBA) is a carcinogen that induces carcinomas within a few weeks of application. Forty-four male hamsters were divided into four groups: DMBA dissolved in paraffin oil (DMBA-PO), DMBA dissolved in olive oil (DMBA-OO), paraffin oil and olive oil. Their mouths were swabbed daily with paraffin oil or extra virgin olive oil alternatively for the first two weeks, during the biweekly application of DMBA at 0.5% diluted in paraffin oil or olive oil for five weeks and daily until the twentieth week. The animals in the DMBA-OO and olive oil groups received an additional diet of mature Picual olives. The DMBA-PO carcinogen effect (35 carcinomas) is 100% and the inhibitory effect 0. The use of olive oil as DMBA solvent and the ad libitum diet with Picual olive has an inhibitory effect of 80%, with only three intraepithelial carcinomas and four verrucous carcinomas occurring and no invasive carcinoma.",signatures:"Juan José Soto-Castillo and Isicio Ortega-Medina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75546",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75546",authors:[{id:"341939",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Isicio",surname:"Ortega- Medina",slug:"isicio-ortega-medina",fullName:"Isicio Ortega- Medina"},{id:"344856",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan José",surname:"Soto-Castillo",slug:"juan-jose-soto-castillo",fullName:"Juan José Soto-Castillo"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9445",title:"Alternative 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",isbn:"978-1-83768-257-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-256-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-258-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"09a2f5fe50b90b20637b7aceccf1cfdd",bookSignature:"Dr. Kavitha Palaniappan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12109.jpg",keywords:"Workplace Conflict, Bullying, Working Conditions, Long Hours, Depressed Mood, Anxiety, Irritability, Fatigue, Coping Techniques, Therapies, Sleep Enhancement, Time Management",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 31st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 28th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 27th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 15th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 14th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"An academic director and pioneering researcher in the field of occupational health and safety, Dr. Palaniappan thrives in multi-disciplinary research, including the prevalence of psychosocial illnesses and their impacts on society. 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Apart from teaching, Dr. Palaniappan is also actively involved in multi-disciplinary research, including the prevalence of psychosocial illnesses and their impacts on society, economy and country. She also researches alternative therapies to enhance sleep, yoga and its health benefits, the toxicity of nanomaterials, exposure measurements and hygiene requirements for nano-titanium dioxide, exposure to nano-silver in mattresses and beddings and their health effects, associations between seasonal patterns, climate variables, and dengue risks in Singapore. 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Scientists and governments around world are looking for new energy resources which could be used safely and efficiently with enough amount for deployment and security. Bioenergy is a renewable energy, which is stored in the organic form in the chemical state and supports human beings’ daily life since our ancestor apes knew how to use fire to cook. In these millions of years, bioenergy was mostly used in small scale like household cooking. Now, people have realized that efficient exploitation of biomass resource can actually reduce their dependency over fossil fuel. Biomass gasification has been regarded as an effective pathway to utilization of bioresource. It takes biomass as raw materials and employs pyrolysis or thermal cracking under anoxic conditions. This is an energy conversion process including a group of complex chemical reactions that large organic molecules degrade into carbon monoxide, methane and hydrogen and other flammable gases in accordance with chemical bonding theory. Biomass feedstock with the gasification agent is heated inside an integrated gasifier. With temperature increase, biomass goes through dehydration, volatilization and decomposition. Eventually, the produced gases are used for central gas supply and power generation. This technology has already been developed over several decades and progressively achieved commercialization all over the world, especially in Sweden, Germany, Canada, the United States, India and China. In the early stage, downdraft gasifier had been implemented at a large scale in China and India due to its relatively low tar production. Recently, the development of circulating fluidized bed (CFB) gasifier makes it adaptable for both biomass quality and the raw particle size. Besides, CFB is also easy for scale-up and ash cleaning.
\nChina, as a large agricultural country, produces a large number of crop straw, poultry manure, agricultural by-products and other plant biomass every year. Thus, research and development on key technologies and integrated peripherals of biomass gasification become very necessary. China has already developed various gasifiers, the size of which range from 400 KW to 10 MW. However, compared with fossil fuel, biomass has lower bulk density and energy density, which make it uneconomic for collection and transportation. Therefore, biomass gasification coupled with distributed power generation in small communities with abundant biomass resource would be the way out in future [1].
\nIn recent years in China, the yield of domestic waste has increased every year and exceeds 400 million tonnes per year. Chinese government’s 13th five-year plan proposed that the proportion of waste harmless treatment should be no less than 70% by 2020. But waste landfill is still the primary method used to deal with waste in rural areas. Compared with landfill, gasification has advantages of lower environmental impacts and does not consume land resource. When contrasting gasification with incineration, the gasification technology has better quality of gaseous emissions with much lower capital input, which makes gasification more suitable for distributed deployment in rural area. Therefore, there will be a great demand for deployment of waste gasification treatment plants in Chinese rural areas, and more and more people are now focusing on the development of more efficient small-scale gasifiers with capacity under 300 tonne/day. The relevant equipment has also been deployed in Iran, Thailand, Burma and Laos. However, several technical barriers are still there such as effective removal of tar with low cost, environmental influence, accuracy control of gasifier inner temperature, solidification of fly ash and so on.
\nTherefore, this chapter introduces both technological and logistics challenges of biomass gasification via introducing biomass characters and gasifier technologies. The details of tar minimization and socio-environmental impacts of biomass gasification are also presented as main contents to help understand the primary barriers for the deployment of biomass gasification.
\nBiomass includes all the living or recently living organisms, like land plants, grasses, water-based vegetation and manures [2], and these organisms consist of a number of major elements such as C, H, O, N, P and S. The classification of biomass into different categories is based on their properties. One feasible way is based on the appearances and the growth environment of biomass: woody plants, herbaceous plants/grasses, aquatic plants, manures and wastes [2]. Biomass could also be divided into two types: low moisture content and high moisture content. The low moisture content biomass can be used in thermo-chemical processes (i.e., gasification, combustion and pyrolysis), while the high moisture content plants are more suitable to be used in some wet processing technologies (i.e., fermentation and anaerobic digestion) [3]. Such high moisture contents would consume a large amount of energy for the drying process if employed as resources for thermo-chemical processing.
\nBiomass is derived from solar energy via photosynthesis. Under a good illumination condition, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can be converted into organic materials or, in another way, the solar energy is stored as chemical energy, which existed as chemical bonds in the organisms [4]. The said chemical energy is released when these bonds are broken either via thermo-chemical or wet processing. This is an ongoing energy transfer from the sun and hence the sustainability of biomass resource could be ensured. As we have known, the total energy captured annually in biomass is more than that of the annual energy consumption globally [5]. On the other hand, biomass is clean as it is carbon neutral. On the view of carbon network, the net emission of carbon dioxide into the environment during the harvesting of energy from biomass is zero. The final products of conversion of biomass (CO2 and H2O) are originally absorbed into the plants from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. The conversion of biomass also has less harmful releases such as NOx and SOx compared with fossil fuels [6].
\nHowever, the characters of biomass also create many barriers during its actual application. On the aspect of species diversity, biomass usually does not behave as steady as fossil fuels, which causes a lot of difficulty during project planning stage including gasifier type, plant size and the way of energy output. On the other hand, the varieties of biomass resource also lead to different heating values and moisture contents. Compared with other energy carriers, biomass has much lower heating values. Taking wood and wheat straw as examples, their lower heating values are only 18.6 and 17.3 MJ/kg, respectively, while the lower heating value of coal is as high as 23–28 MJ/kg [2, 7]. The reason for this disparity is that the oxygen content of biomass carbohydrates is very high while the combustible elements such as C and H are low. In addition, the intrinsic moisture content in biomass is also very high, which requires more energy for drying before further processes take place [3]. Hence, use of biomass requires the complexity in material handling, pre-treatment and the design of processing facilities [3]. For the purpose of transportation and collection, biomass is unlike any other renewable resources (solar, wind, hydropower) where it is able to be stored directly and transported somewhere else. However, biomass is highly dispersed in regional distribution and the low volumetric of biomass makes it a bit more difficult for the collection and transportation. Therefore, small-scale gasification unit operated in small communities with abundant biomass resource or domestic waste would be the way out in future.
\nFor the utilization purpose, the conversion technologies of biomass could be classified in three categories: mechanical extraction; thermo-chemical conversion; and biological conversion, as illustrated in Figure 1 [3, 8]. Among them, direct combustion, gasification and pyrolysis are considered as the thermo-chemical processes; fermentation and anaerobic digestion are regarded as biological conversion.
\nThe main processes for the biomass conversion technologies [
The direct combustion of biomass is widely applied in small-scale cooking and domestic heating by converting chemical energy stored in biomass into heat [9]. In modern industrial technology, combustion is also employed in large-scale applications to produce mechanical power and electricity with the aid of boilers, steam turbines and turbo-generators. The temperature range of biomass combustion is within 800–1000\n
Pyrolysis is a thermo-chemical process, in which biomass decomposes into fuel gas, bio-oil and solid char in the absence of oxygen. The selectivity leading to different types of products could be controlled by manipulating the operating conditions (temperature and residence time). Low temperatures (<500\n
Fermentation is a bio-chemical process which is used for the production of about 80% of the world’s ethanol [13]. The main process of fermentation involves using microorganisms to convert sugars into ethanol under a warm and wet environment. The sugar is typically obtained from the mechanical handling (crushing and mixing with water) of sugar-rich crops, such as sugar cane and sugar beet. However, the high cost of sugar-rich crops has diminished its proportion of utilization in fermentation. The starch-based biomass is also commonly used for ethanol production. However, it requires an extra step to convert starch into sugar by enzymatic reactions.
\nAnaerobic digestion involves using anaerobic microorganisms to convert biomass into bio-gas (CH4 and CO2 as the main gaseous products) by means of decomposition. Under the anaerobic environment, the organic material in biomass is decomposed into usable-sized molecules, such as sugar, as the first step. The sugar molecules is then converted into organic acids and further decomposed to CH4 gas. This process has been proven as a commercially feasible technology and is widely applied in the rural areas of China.
\nGasification process converts biomass, a low-energy density material, into a gaseous product (LHV at 4–11 MJ/N/m3), which is a mixture of CO, H2, CH4 and CO2 [10]. Gasification is a partial oxidation process and it is commonly operated at 800–900\n
The gasifier, as the principle component of a gasification plant, actually provides a space for biomass and gasification agent being mixed to a certain extent, in some cases with catalysts or additives [14]. The different selection of gasifiers is actually responsible for keeping steady the production of syngas regarding the variations of biomass. Literature shows that gasifiers could be categorized into three main types: fixed bed gasifiers, fluidized gasifiers and the entrained flow gasifiers [15].
\nFixed bed gasifiers is the traditional approach applied for biomass gasification and generally operated around 1000\n
In an updraft gasifier (shown in Figure 2), the biomass material is fed from the top of the reactor, while the gasification agent enters from the bottom. The gasification agent flows through the bed of ash and biomass. The gas generated is exhausted through the top. For the reaction, the gasification agent meets the bottom char at first and achieves a complete combustion and raises temperature to c.a. 1000\n
Schematic of updraft gasifier [
For the downdraft gasifier (shown in Figure 3), both biomass and gasification agent flow into the vessel from the top. At the “throated” area, where air or O2 is fed into system with homogeneously distribution. The temperature could rise to around 1200–1400\n
Schematic of downdraft gasifier [
In the fluidized gasifier, the gasification agent enters the bed at a relatively fast rate from the bottom of the vessel and exits from the top. This kind of gasification features uniform temperature distribution in the bed zone. The consistency of temperature is obtained by the application of air-fluidized bed material, which ensured the intimate mixing of fuel, hot combustion gas and bed material. Currently, three main types of fluidized gasifiers are widely used [15], bubbling fluidized bed (BFB), circulating fluidized bed (CFB) and dual fluidized bed (DFB).
\nBFB gasifier applies inlet from the bottom and moves the bed of fine-grained materials. The bed temperature is maintained at 700–900\n
The CFB gasifier consists of two principle units: the gasifier unit and the circulation unit, as shown in Figure 4. The bed material and char in this type of gasifier is circulated between the reaction chamber and the cyclone separator, where ash and hot gas could be separated. The bed material is fully fluidized and leaves from the first unit, and then it is sent back by the second unit. The solids are moving in the solid circulation loop in greater extent of fluidization with higher residence time. Moreover, its operation pressure is also relatively higher.
\nSchematic diagram of circulating fluidized bed gasifier (CFB) [
Dual fluidized bed (DFB) gasifiers consist of two separated fluidized beds which are used for pyrolysis process and combustion process [14]. The first bed is operated as a pyrolysis reactor and it is heated by the second reactor with hot circulated bed material. The second reactor provides heat by burning char provided from the first reactor. The bed material plays an important role as a heat transfer medium, which prevents the dilution of the hot gas product.
\nEntrained flow gasifiers are generally classified into two types: top-fed gasifier and side-fed gasifier (shown in Figure 5), which is according to how and where the fuel and gasification agent is fed. This type of gasifier is suitable for integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plants. It is extensively applied in large-scale gasification and is widely employed for coal, biomass and refinery residues. The gasification temperature of this kind of gasifier could reach 1400\n
Schematic diagram of an entrained flow gasifier (side-fed) [
Tar is a major inherent problem in biomass gasification; it can cause a lot of issues such as equipment blockages, lower system efficiency, poor quality gas output and increased maintenance. Tar consists of a group of very complicated mixtures with more than 200 components. Several key components include benzene, toluene, single-ring aromatic hydrocarbon, naphthalene and so on. The formation of tar was due to lower temperature of gasification. It was confirmed that increased temperature of gasification could reduce the content of tar in the outflow and it was believed that higher temperature can promote the cracking of tar [18]. Currently, there are a lot of methods that could be employed for tar minimization, and they can be divided into two categories depending on where the removal technology is applied.
\nFirstly, tar could be removed inside the gasifier by choosing an appropriate operation parameter or using a catalyst. Previous research indicates that both particle size and surface area-volume ratio of loading feedstock have a significant effect on tar yields [19, 20]. It showed that the gasification of pine saw dust only produced 0.4 wt% of tar at 700\n
Secondly, in many processes, tar is removed as a downstream step after gasification, including mechanical method, thermal cracking and catalysis. The details of some common technologies have been listed in Table 1. Wet gas cleaning method has been accepted at an early stage. Its equipment investment is relatively low and the operation is also easy to handle. But this technology would also create a lot of waste water and bring serious environmental issues. Therefore, dry gas cleaning method becomes more widespread via various types of filters, rotating particle separators and dry cyclones. Although the dry method avoids waste water issues, its efficiency of tar removal is not good enough if compared with wet method. On the other hand, the replacement, renewal or disposal of filter materials reduces the financial effectiveness of the entire gasification system. This similar situation could also be applied to thermal cracking method and higher operation temperature requires much more energy input.
\nMethod | \nTechnique used | \nDetails/examples | \n
---|---|---|
Wet gas cleaning [21] | \nUsage of mechanical device or equipment | \nElectrostatic precipitator, wet cyclone, wet scrubber | \n
Dry gas cleaning [21] | \nUsage of mechanical device or equipment | \nCyclone, rotary partial separator, fabric filter, ceramic filter, activated carbon adsorber, sand filter | \n
Thermal cracking [21, 22] | \nApplication of high temperature with long residence time | \nMaximum tar destruction was found at 1250\n | \n
Catalytic cracking [21] | \nUsage of appropriate catalyst | \nTar cracking catalysts are divided into five major groups, namely Ni-based, non-Ni-based, alkali metal-based, acid catalysts, basic catalysts and activated carbon-based catalysts | \n
Post-gasification tar removal methods [15].
In the recent two decades, catalytic cracking has attracted more and more attention and has already become the central branch of research. Catalytic cracking is more like a downstream catalytic reforming unit and could easily degrade comparative stable tar to a significant extent. The previous research indicated that the catalytic cracking unit could promote gas yield by 10: 20 vol% and increase the heating value by c.a. 15% [23]. Ni-based catalyst is applied most widely and especially preferred for hydrogen or syngas production. Nickel has a very good catalytic activity and a preferable price advantage. While the application of Ni catalysts needs to avoid extremely high heavy-tar content flue gas, which will form a serious carbon deposition over the catalyst surface and lead to a quick deactivation. The other transition metal-based catalysts, such as co, Fe and cu, also have similar issues. Thus, some applications used the two-stage catalytic reforming process: the first stage used dolomite to reduce the concentration of tar to a certain level and then the second stage employed transition metal-based catalysts bed for near-completed removal of tar. But this kind of two-stage reforming process would increase operational cost clearly. In the research scale, some people applied noble metal catalysts and achieved highly catalytic activity as well as better carbon-resistant ability. However, high cost and low accessibility still restrain the wide utilization of noble metal-based catalysts before the technical breakthrough of catalyst regeneration. Alkali metal catalyst is an alternative with good catalytic performance and also exhibits outstanding coke resistance. It is due to this that alkali metal could suppress directly decomposition of hydrocarbon by avoiding quick adsorption of tar components. But alkali metal evaporates under high temperature gasification condition. In many practical process, biomass ash has been reused as an alkali catalyst because most biomass contains abundant alkali metal elements and it is believed that this type of natural catalyst with properties of low cost and disposability should attract special attention
\nIn the future, the development of novel and economic catalysts is still a promising option for tar elimination. At this stage, the biggest barrier for the catalyst development is the unclear mechanism of complex tar reformation. Therefore, employing model tar components for the study of coke formation mechanism is still very important and will be an effective way out. For the catalyst synthesis, composite catalysts with different components should be considered. It is also favored that if the developed catalyst could be applied under a low temperature condition (400–600\n
Biomass gasification could exploit an abundant variety of waste materials as feedstock such as agricultural residues and food waste. It actually achieves resource recovery and mitigates CO2 emission as an environmental benefit. However, power generation from biomass gasification poses several key hazards and socio-environmental impacts.
\nOne of the major risks is the potential emission of toxic producer gas and particulates. The production of CO, SOx, NOx and volatile organics involves incomplete combustion and oxidation of trace elements in feedstock [24]. As one of the most dangerous constituent, CO can permeate into human blood system and combine with hemoglobin to stop oxygen adsorption and distribution. Long-term exposure to CO causes asthma, lung inflammation, schizophrenia and cardiac defects. Toxic gases like SOx, NOx and volatile organics could also destruct inhalation, ingestion and dermal system of human [25]. Hence, the entire gasification process should prevent leakage and an efficient gas clean-up system is essential. In recent years, the hazard of particles emission (PM2.5) attracts public attention increasingly, due to its carcinogenicity. PM2.5 particles can adsorb many soluble organic compounds including alkanes, carboxylic acid and aromatic compounds, which will damage human organs like lung and liver [26]. For control of these particles’ emission, an efficient gas clean-up system with conditioning unit is necessary, as well as avoiding insufficient combustion and gasification. In addition, ashes and condensate from biomass gasification also contribute to environmental problems if they are not disposed properly. Especially the toxic condensate with high content of tar is very difficult to deal with and has higher risk of hazards.
\nBesides the risk of health hazards and environment, gasification is also confronted with risk of fire and explosion. Because the gasification system is normally operated at relatively high temperature and pressure, it also produces flammable gas mixture with a great portion of hydrogen gas. However, explosion is not easy to be created even air leakage into the gasification system, which could raise a partial combustion. This will only lead to lower quality and higher temperature of producer gas [1], unless there is a large amount of air which enters with feedstock from the feeding system or massive leakage of flammable outlet gas occurs.
\nThe development of bioenergy will need a lot of land for energy-growing crops. This requirement will clash with other applications of farmland, like food and other cash crops. The competition with food agriculture must be intensive. The food shortage is still a big global issue nowadays. According to the data of World Hunger Education Service, the world’s hungry population was 925 million in 2010. Besides this, the world population is still growing by rate of 1.2%. The natural disasters and climate change also affect agriculture. These three factors will decide that the demand of the farmland in the future will expand. Thus, transferring farmland for energy crop planting in a large scale would be difficult, especially in Europe.
\nThe bioethics report by Nuffield council points out that deployment of bioenergy should not violate the human right which is reflected in the Universal Declaration of Human Right (UDHR). In the UDHR, it states that every people can share and enjoy the protection of the moral and the any product from any scientific, literary or artistic which is owed by them. There are a lot of ethical issues referring bioenergy, like human rights, solidarity and sustainability. Biofuel production application will require land use, water supply and labor from local community. Destruction to the land and local ecosystem cannot be avoided. Also, land displaced for energy crops will not only bring food price increases; some local residents may face migration. All these could be regarded as the actions, which violate the human rights of citizens and non-citizens.
\nThe commercialization of biomass gasification is still at the early stage of development and leaves a lot to be desired on the technology aspect. In particular, large-scale utilization of biomass still needs to overcome the challenge of biomass collection and transportation, due to its low energy density. However, in some small communities, with large amount of local biomass materials, using biomass to replace polluting fossil fuels is a competitive way for providing reliable and clean power and heat.
\nThis chapter provides the current technique status and development condition in China. It concludes that the gasification of biomass waste with distributed power generation would be a potential market. The properties of biomass feedstock have been analyzed and both advantage and disadvantage of biomass utilization were pointed out. Consequently, highly dispersed property and the low volumetric of biomass limit its large-scale application. Apart from that, this chapter also detailed some common types of gasifiers, except some emerging technologies, for meeting special requirements such as supercritical water gasification (SCWG) for wet biomass and plasma gasification for toxic organic waste. The tar issue, one of the most baffling problems in biomass gasification, is introduced briefly as well as its removal technologies. In our view, the socio-environmental impact is not the primary factor for restriction of biomass gasification development, while an objective financial return can actually attract investors and accelerate commercialization; in the meantime, it will also contribute to other technical breakthroughs.
\nA safe, reliable, and sustainable operation of an industrial plant is in the best interest of all the involved stakeholders. The sizes of modern hazardous process plants as well as their potential failure consequences can be enormous. One major challenge in their integrity risk management are the multiple equipment units experiencing specific operational and damage conditions, that is, one storage tank’s corrosion damage is different from another due to different contents, one truck chassis cracking progress is different from another due to traveling on different roads, and one crane structure fatigue damage is different from another due to different histories of these cargo cycles. These examples explain the term “individual” equipment and render a batch reliability data or, especially, the “big data” not well applicable to them due to unit-specific load and damage spectra acting in a real operation.
Historically, the first approach to safeguarding equipment integrity was reactive: failures were rectified as they happen, but it was not a responsible strategy for hazardous equipment. A transition to proactive maintenance occurred over the automotive industry development, as we are familiar from the time/mileage-based car servicing. That solution obviously improved the reliability, but its cost control efficiency in practice can vary. In parallel, statistical quality control principles were implemented in manufacture to ensure a uniform endurance of production batches and facilitate the reliability theory [1] applications.
In contrast, there was not such a scientific breakthrough in the domain of static equipment, which is hardly maintainable or replaceable, nonredundant, and not suitable for collecting failure statistics due to high consequences thereof. The static equipment integrity is traditionally addressed via time-based (fixed interval) diagnostics, often using visual in-service inspections, as in the oil and gas industry. In this way, an inspector takes responsibility for the equipment fail-safe operation during a future fixed term, while no in-depth analysis is actually done for a scope damage potential (mostly a form of corrosion and cracking or, more occasionally, metallurgical changes and material properties degradation).
The potential of missing or misinterpreting a damage condition was effectively alleviated by adopting the risk-based inspection (RBI) principles two decades ago. The main idea of RBI is proportioning the risk control efforts to the individual risk levels, that is, prioritizing the equipment units for reinspections according to their relative risks across the plant. But how to measure risk levels without excessive analysis budgets in a context of a large plant? The widely adopted robust solution is the semiquantitative (Semi-Q) RBI, which uses corporate risk matrices to unify and compare relative failure risks unit by unit:
where LoF is the likelihood of failure and the CoF is the consequence of failure.
The size of the risk matrices is usually 5×5, and the LoF and CoF enter Eq. (1) as dimensionless multipliers ranging from 1 to 5; thus, the product risk varies from 1 to 25. CoF ratings are mapped from considering safety, financial, and environmental impacts of the unit failure, which are confidently assigned using plant operations’ personnel knowledge. LoF ratings are mapped from the anticipated “remnant life” (RL). In corrosion problems, RL is calculated from dividing a corrosion allowance CA by a corrosion rate CR:
It is paramount that the risk ratings from Eq. (1) are dimensionless, and their evolution in the future remains unknown. This simplification disables a numeric cost/benefit analysis in terms of dollars and fatalities, and, thus, the asset management aspirations. In turn, it provides no justification for implementing advanced nondestructive testing (NDT) tools, as the figures entering Eq. (2) are available from basic and low-cost ultrasonic thickness (UT) gauge inspections. A numeric comparison of risk control options is not supported either.
Other fitness-for-service (FFS) problems [2], such as fatigue life, crack propagation intervals, tolerance to mechanical defects and imperfections in a wide spectrum of stress, and environmental conditions, all involve some form of stress field measurement or modeling. Stress modeling can be done using finite-element analysis (FEA), with an added benefit of reducing an uncertainty in stress concentration factors (SCF) and of performing a relatively quick analysis even for very complex geometries. But again, FFS and FEA studies often output constant figure “remnant lives”; thus, the above limitations apply.
As a matter of big picture, there are many advanced integrity assessment technologies developed to date, but they are not well aligned to each other or to the common umbrella of the asset management concept [3], by the major reason of providing single-figure outputs. Namely, a single-figure “remnant life” does not exist. What exists in reality is an individual probability of failure (PoF), which grows over time due to the mechanical damage accumulation. This applies to corrosion, fatigue, and other mechanical strength problems. Next examples show how a simple transition from the single figure to the PoF(
Over the past century, machinery has become much more powerful and high speed. More power leads to more energy losses, which are dissipated mostly in the forms of heat, vibration, and noise. Mechanical excitation from reciprocating machinery is not the only vibration source in a modern plant. Acoustically induced vibration (AIV) and flow-induced vibration (FIV) also occur in power circuits of compressors and pumps. An excellent overview of these vibration mechanisms is given in the UK Energy Institute Guidelines [4]. FIV and AIV often occur at no flow piping branches, such as small bore fittings (SBF) (Figure 1), designed for process probes, ancillary access, or for draining and venting purposes.
A small bore fitting (SBF) and its FEA model.
Real-life case: High vibration levels were measured on SBFs of 11 compressor pulsation bottles during a gas plant commissioning. AIV velocities of up to 29.5 mm/sec root mean square (RMS) at 150 Hz were recorded using portable vibration equipment. These figures were screened using the chart of [4] and, accordingly, classified as a “concern” region. The commissioning was continued, and all 11 pulsation bottles failed within 500 hours (Table 1).
Unit | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TTF [hours] | 341 | 382 | 188 | 385 | 373 | 505 | 449 | 290 | 50 | 299 | 455 |
SBF failure statistics; TTF stands for time to failure.
In this example, the SBF tends vibrating at its natural frequency about the zero mean (M) level harmonically, and its displacement peaks follow the Gaussian probability distribution. The RMS vibration displacement (of 31 micron here) is equal to one standard deviation (SD) of this random displacement. This displacement can be converted into the weld root bending stress amplitude (see the red spot in Figure 1) even manually—using simple beam theory of materials strength in view of this particular geometry simplicity. The nominal stress amplitude of 12.2 MPa RMS was estimated, and the whole stress spectrum was reconstructed analytically to obey a zero-mean Gaussian law having this very SD value.
The nominal bending stress formulation is compatible with the BS 7608 [5] standard material fatigue data (category F), which data were formerly obtained from large-scale testing or real weld details. Other standards (ASME VIII [6] and EN 13445 [7]) require more complex stress formulations, which would normally involve finite-element analysis.
In the risk owner’s context, the problem is: “How long will it last?” Answers can vary:
Using constant stress amplitude (such as 1·SD, 2·SD or 3·SD) with single-figure standard fatigue data is here typical, but an incorrect approach. Material fatigue analysis does not tolerate simplifications and/or factors due to the high nonlinearity of the fatigue life in function of the stress level. If a structure is subjected to a spectrum of stresses, then each tower of the stress histogram has to be input into the fatigue analysis, and the total damage should be calculated as a sum of contributions from each tower according to the Miner’s rule [see Eq. (4)].
Using the whole stress spectrum (as suggested just above) is a step forward indeed, but in conjunction with a single-figure fatigue strength value, it will lead us to the same pitfall: a single-figure remnant life output with an unknown risk evolution in time. The solution is found in the fatigue damage physics: Material strength is a random variable statistically independent from the live stress spectrum it experiences, as illustrated by the two probability density functions (PDFs) in Figure 2. This simple schematic of the load and resistance interaction can be found in reliability theory textbooks (such as [1]) and is often called “bell shape” curves.
Since these two variables,
In this example, the reconstruction of the Gaussian stress spectrum enabled the use of the whole red “camelback” shape from Figure 2. The spread of fatigue strength properties is naturally available from specimens testing data and manifests itself as a change in a fatigue curve position as the number of standard deviations (SDs) around mean (M) is varied. Thus, replacing the green shape in Figure 2 by a histogram of discrete
The above solution for the analysis upgrade is not only reflecting the damage physics more precisely (than a “single-figure” route), but also enables seamless cost/benefit considerations made from converting the PoF(
According to Figure 2, the stress histogram was used with fatigue curves at seven (M ± i·SD) levels of the weld detail fatigue strength results with the output shown in Table 2.
Some final remarks to this study can also be useful for other practical applications:
Particulars of fatigue methodologies vary across the standards, as shown on the right in Figure 3. A benchmarking study has been done for this problem and published on the ResearchGate network [9]. It has concluded that the BS 7608 [5] standard in conjunction with its simple input data requirements performed best in this particular problem, showing slightly conservative outputs. Notably, if two standards output different figures, then one would be closer to the reality and another further away from it. The benchmark in Figure 3 quantifies this example effect. The reasons for fatigue methodology differences across similar application domain standards were earlier investigated in yet another ResearchGate paper [10].
The mean time to failure (TTF) in this example is 338 hours at 150-Hz frequency, that is, 1.8×108 stress cycles, or a “gigacycle fatigue” (GCF) regime. The term “gigacycle” was introduced by the fundamental research published in [11, 12]. Its major conclusion was that a “
“Bell shape” curves showing the product of probabilities.
SBF-estimated PoF(
BS 7608 | 1.4% | 2.3% | 16% | 50% | 84% | 97.7% | 98.6% |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Predicted | 29 | 61 | 112 | 219 | 431 | 982 | 2276 |
Example of PoF(
Strain gauges [13] (left in Figure 4) can be attached to structures to record mechanical strains and further convert them into material stresses. This technique provides the most reliable information on the live stress spectra in real operation of industrial equipment. Care should be taken to ensure that the recorded process is representative of the dominant operation.
Strain gauges attached to a pressure vessel nozzle and its FEA model.
This real-life example deals with temperature- and pressure-induced stresses in a glycol pump pulsation dampener nozzle. The pump run-up cycle stresses were strain gauged in a typical pump “mission,” as shown in Figure 5.
Nozzle stresses recorded during the glycol pump run-up cycle.
Accordingly, the bending stress range of up to 56 MPa occurs in each run-up/shut-down cycle due to the increase in pressure by 112 barg and the piping heating up from 27°C to 70°C, which is representative for this particular plant process. There is one major stress cycle of this magnitude occurring during each run-up event; thus, the stress spectrum (Figure 2) collapses into a single vertical red line in lieu of the whole red bell shape
Statistical variation of the material (SA 106 B) properties still needs to be considered. This is done similarly to the previous example via usage of fatigue curves corresponding to varying probability levels of the material fatigue strength (green vertical lines in Figure 2).
One nuance here is that strain gauges cannot be positioned exactly on stress “hot spots” as the latter usually occur at structural discontinuities visible in Figure 4. The pressure vessel design code EN 13445 [7] contains a provision for stress extrapolation in such cases using readings from two locations of strain gauges (or of an FEA mesh). The above measurement had only one strain gauge at each location; however, an FEA model of the dampeners (right in Figure 4) provided the figures of stress gradient along the nozzle length helpful for such an extrapolation. It is evident from Figure 4 that the stress concentration effect in this case does not exceed 1.25, and thus, the extrapolated stress range should not be more that 70 MPa (zero to peak). The weld detail classifies as the Category 32 (fillet and partial penetration welds) fatigue curve given in [7]. By varying the number of standard deviations (SDs) of the CAT 32 fatigue data, we get the varying number of cycles to failure straight away.
Since the frequency of the pump run-up/shutdown cycles is no more often than once a day, the number of cycles in Table 3 maps directly into the number of days, that is, 288 years at the lower bound failure probability. Hence, the equipment should not fail by the nozzle fatigue mechanism until the end of the offshore platform life, providing that the recorded constant amplitude conditions were representative for the whole operation of the pump.
EN 13445 PoF | 0.0135 (M – 3·SD) | 0.023 (M – 2·SD) | 0.156 (M – 1·SD) | 0.50 (M – 0·SD) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cycles to failure | 1.07e5 | 1.24e5 | 1.5e5 | 1.2e6 |
PoF(
This example simplicity is due to the actual constant amplitude loading. It shows how the probabilistic integrity analysis unambiguously supports the asset management decision-making process. One remaining safeguard is performing a penetrant inspection (PI) of the nozzle to ensure that there are no cracks from other reasons (transportation, impacts, etc.).
This example illustrates a more complex situation where strain gauging provided a true stress spectrum for a mining truck tray hot spot. A total of 18 potential hot spots were strain gauged using triaxial rosettes during a typical truck mission involving: loading rocks in the tray, travel, emptying, and returning to mine site several times during a 7-hour-long shift. The most critical location of the tray was identified as a result and is shown in Figure 6.
Mining truck tray and its critical location identified from strain gauging.
Signal processing software was used for the analysis, and the output fatigue damage spectrum is shown in the left of Figure 7. The maximum principal stress range was used, as the fatigue crack growth is governed by the maximum stress component opening the crack.
Tray damage spectrum accumulated during one shift and the PoF(
The majority of fatigue damage in the left of Figure 7 occurred in the low-stress area; however, few spikes up to 290 MPa were recorded infrequently during the tray loading. The whole damage spectrum is a good illustration of a variable amplitude fatigue loading, and the damage introduced by each stress range
where
Unlike the previous example where the stress field extrapolation was required by the standard [7], the present example used BS 7608 fatigue data [5]. The philosophy of the latter is slightly different: real weld details were tested for fatigue with the output of nominal structural stresses. In turn, nominal stresses are used with the fatigue curve of [5], e.g., those stresses reasonably away from hot spots, as it was attempted to collect by placing rosettes at a small distance from the stress raisers (refer Figure 6). The BS 7608 detail Category G Class 5.5 fatigue data were used at two levels of its probability (Table 4).
BS 7608 PoF | 0.05 (M – 2·SD) | 0.50 (M – 0·SD) |
---|---|---|
Time to failure [hours] | 2374 | 5150 |
PoF(
Material testing data for the M and M – 2·SD levels can be found in technical literature most often, and these two points can be used to approximate the PoF(
The vendor’s guarantee on the tray life was 20,000 hours, and this worst-case location was recommended for reinforcement as an outcome from the above analysis. A self-explanatory picture of the PoF(
The term fitness for service (FFS) is used where damage in excess of a design tolerance has already been found in the equipment, and this analysis aims at replying two questions:
How critical is the defect at the moment of its characterization?
How long will that equipment last in view of this defect future growth?
The first question triggers a pass/fail or a screening-type output, and the second drives a fixed “remnant life” figure in many studies. While the FFS methods do use empirical methods (such as crack growth laws), applications of FFS analysis are unfortunately narrow. This is mostly due to their complexity and timing, while risk owners need prompt decisions in such critical situations. The same upgrade idea can be used to output the damaged equipment PoF versus time and add more value through visualizing the risk evolution.
Port cranes (left in Figure 8) showed three failures by fracture of the boom top shelf (right in Figure 8), which resulted in catastrophic consequences. Since then, the manufacturer has reinforced the boom design. However, a life extension decision was required in the late 1990s, and that decision needed a scientific substantiation in view of potential failure implications.
Port crane structure and an FEA model of its cargo boom.
As it was mentioned in the introduction, cranes are highly individual structures in the sense of their loading, and a screening using a conventional fatigue theory showed that a “generic” port crane has a life expectancy of 25 years ± 30 years spread, which outcome is not practical.
The solution was in adopting the damage tolerance approach: cracking inspections to be implemented at individual intervals. If cracks are not found, then it is assumed that a crack of a nondetectable length (less than 5 mm) is nevertheless present. A life extension is then warranted for a safety factored period needed by that crack to grow to a critical size. This scenario required only basic visual inspections, but had a good potential to control the risk. An earlier application of a similar method for bridges life extension can be found in [15].
The relevant science apparatus is the fracture mechanics empirical laws of crack growth detailed for example in the BS 7910 FFS standard [2]. Since this theory is a rather uncommon specialist knowledge, a simplistic introduction follows here.
In function of the material, temperature, and the strain rate, there is a variable-size plastic zone at a crack tip. Thus, the stresses there are singular, and the fatigue theory term “stress range” is not straight applicable to predict the crack growth rate. Instead, a stress intensity factor (SIF) range
where
Cracks grow nonlinearly; they accelerate as they grow starting from microns per cycle and ending with a catastrophic growth rate. The empirical Paris law approximates this process:
where the left-side derivative is the crack growth rate,
Using mathematical transformations, the system of Eqs. (6) and (7) yields the crack length increase (from size
Eq. (8) is suitable for simulating the crack growth cycle by cycle using the Monte Carlo method. Nuances are numerous, but two of them are sometimes overlooked in practice:
Cracking often initiates in heat-affected zones (HAZ) of welds, where residual tensile stresses originate from welding and do affect the crack tip opening.
Structural stress gradients affect the nominal stress range
To include these stress gradients, a cycle-by-cycle Monte Carlo simulation has been performed, and the results compared with the output of the simplified equations below, which estimate the total (e.g., integral) number of stress cycles
where
where
The Monte Carlo validation proved Eqs. (9) and (10) being correct and underestimated the crack propagation life by some 30% compared to the stress gradients included. The equivalent nominal stress range
Crane boom PoF(
Now, let us enrich this research project from the early 2000s by considering two probability levels of the steel fracture resistance parameters
P(fracture properties) | 5% (original study) | 50% (present study) |
---|---|---|
5.97e–11 | 1.44e–14 | |
2.25 | 4.72 |
Carbon Steel (St38b2) fracture resistance parameters at two levels of their probability.
The account of material properties variation also gives an order of magnitude change in life predictions, resulting in 112 shifts using the mean properties, as opposed to 22 shifts resulted from the lower bound data (taken for the worst-case cargo cycle—the brown curve in the left of Figure 9). Similarly, manual fitting of an S-shaped curve to these two data points produces a smooth PoF(
Multiplying the PoF(
Getting back to the FFS scope of problems [2], in majority of cases, these are:
Fatigue and crack propagation governed damage (addressed above)
Creep (empirical analysis apparatus generally similar to the present fracture mechanics example, which is suitable for a similar probabilistic analysis approach)
Corrosion and/or erosion driven material wastage (discussed in next section)
Gross defects affecting the distribution of loads and strains (modeled by FEA and then analyzed versus operational stress spectra similarly to examples in Section 3).
Thus, the majority of operational damage cases can be quantified using the PoF(
The problem of corrosion failures, surprisingly, is the most technically challenging for estimating the PoF(
The most natural and straightforward corrosion risk analysis methodology was outlined in the introduction to this chapter and is called “Semi-Q” risk-based inspection (RBI) planning. It is very robust for large plants and does output a relative risk ranking. However, the dimensionless risk levels are not aligned with a numeric cost/benefit analysis and personnel safety demonstration in this context and, thus, require an upgrade.
Another popular RBI methodology API RP 581 (refer [16] for technical background) is used in most RBI software. For a simplistic explanation, their POF values originate chiefly from
where
The meaning of
The recent API 581 editions change from second to third refined the
using generic constant frequencies
using a single “worst-case” corrosion location, thus neglecting the rest of them.
The latter is a clear indication of distorting an actual PoF because a pool of thickness readings did contain the intrinsic corrosion distribution information. This information cannot be restored if it was collapsed into a “worst-case” data point; hence, an analysis done from a single location will not produce a true PoF, as one of probabilistic distributions was ignored.
Quite apart stands the DnV-RP-G101 [17] RBI methodology, which extensively uses PoF terms for age-related (time-driven) and non-age-related (process-parameter-driven) damage mechanisms. The terms are linked to the quantitative consequence assessment, and three levels of assessment detail are recognized too. One major simplification, again, is using generic PoF varied by a damage mechanism type there. PoF data in [17], thus, enables PoF estimates with no inspection data involvement whatsoever. This is useful for design, but quite confusing for assessment purposes. We observe the same attempt of generalizing failure probabilities for individual equipment and neglecting the true spatial distribution the damage. Hence, same as above pitfalls 1) and 2) apply in the DnV-RP-G101 method too.
Perhaps, the most comprehensive statistical treatment of corrosion data is outlined in Appendix B of the Nonintrusive Inspection guideline DnV-RP-G103 [18]. This guideline resulted from the HOIS Joint Industry Project to assist implementation of advanced NDT tools (such as large coverage corrosion mapping) in the oil and gas industry. It introduces the extreme value analysis (EVA) [19] applications to large samples of corrosion data. In brief, the data points
Finally, a “worst-case” reading is found from the survivor function at a target level of its occurrence probability, say 1%. Thus, the whole data are collapsed into a single point again.
Seemingly, there is psychological antagonism in such a scenario: advanced NDT providers aim supplying more and better data, but collapse it to a single value, as they are asked by the risk owner to produce a “worst location.” This is because RBI methods require a single location for a corrosion assessment, and thus, advanced NDT applications add little more value.
The solution proposed here (and previously reported at few industrial conferences) is using the same bell shape curves product principle (right in Figure 10) for corrosion risk assessments. In contrast to the above methods, it retains all the relevant inspection data points and uses the corrosion damage distribution “as is” (left in Figure 10), without any fixed value extrapolation or user factoring involved:
Product of probabilities in corrosion problems.
The brown points are the corrosion data “as measured” with a Gumbel distribution fitted (dashed line), and the green curve is the cumulative density function (CDF) of this individual corrosion distribution. The probability of failure in this case is also a product of two events:
The probability of failure at a certain thickness level is also equipment individual. It can be quantified as in the above examples or even more simplistically. The PoF in Eq. (14) is instantaneous at the moment of inspection. To assess the PoF(
A PoF(
Corrosion PoF(
A surprisingly common confusion is that inspections affect PoF or risks. This is not the case until actual risk controls have been implemented following the inspection and do physically minimize or mitigate risks, similarly to the resource restoration in the reliability theory [1].
The dashed-dotted line depicts the cost of all inspections done, totaled toward the end of equipment life, in function of the variable inspection interval (horizontal axis). The sum of the solid and dashed-dotted lines is the total cost (of risk and inspections), which has a minimum at 6 years since the last inspection here. It should be used to reinspect or set other relevant risk controls (replacement, barriers, and process changes), providing that they occur prior to the safety limit breach at 7.5 years in this example. Otherwise, the safety limit must prevail.
The cost/benefit plotting shown on the right of Figure 11 is especially useful for building effective asset management frameworks, as it facilitates an unambiguous budget allocation made from the numeric figures of risk exposure and their comparison with mitigation costs.
The above material illustrates an integrity analysis upgrade potential resulting from the new strategic premise that every operational integrity assessment should output PoF(
The asset management concept [3] offers a common umbrella for all integrity risk control decision-making, including the adoption of advanced condition monitoring (CM) tools and digitalization technologies on the basis of their cost and safety control efficiency. In turn, the latter is assisted by providing an adequate level of data analysis using the PoF(
The methodology is regarded complete as the following has been achieved to date:
The concept of estimating PoF(
The shown real-life examples of all the output predictions were consistent with operational experience and were well agreed upon by experienced professionals in this field, e.g., inspection and integrity engineers responsible for those particular problems troubleshooting. No artificial factors were used, but these studies have output very sensible figures. This reinforces the validity of the methodology.
The transition to the cost of risk and safety exposure tolerance was made using likely consequences of failure. Estimating CoF is usually done at ease by the relevant site personnel. A further refinement of CoF is feasible using a Layers of Protection Analysis (LOPA) if this is warranted by risk levels and control systems.
The rightful concept of risk-based integrity control was applied to all the studied problems. In other words, the level of analysis should be proportional to the problem criticality. The PoF(
The methodology also does not contradict with any modern inspection and risk analysis standards, but supplements their capabilities via more advanced data analysis and aligns the particular data collection and analysis apparatus with the asset management aspirations of cost and risk control.
The implementation of the method does not demand for an instant step change in condition monitoring tools, as wide spread technologies (spot check UT, strain gauging, and vibration accelerometers [13]) are sufficient to support its initial implementation as shown above. In turn, this implementation will provide a numeric cost/benefit basis for advanced CM tool implementation consideration.
The PoF(
Finally, the upgrade is not too cumbersome technically, as the most labor in static equipment operational integrity assessments is spent on measuring and modeling the damage phenomena, while the addition of multi-PoF analysis only requires repeating certain calculations few times and visualizing the new results.
And the way forward is obviously to expand trials of this methodology across industries, work through particular nuances where required, and validate its application benefits. The concept implementation now became feasible thanks to the cross-industry adoption of precise measurement techniques applicable to integrity problems, although not yet fully realized.
One misconception found in practice is applying design premises to operational integrity assessments. The “design life” concept has another purpose, and it is still open for further improvements [15] via evidential data. Reliable data originate from
To conclude, the following quote from Galileo Galilei outlines the general research concept eventually reinforced here: “
The author is sincerely grateful to his teachers who guided his work on the thesis (section 4.1). He also very much appreciates the hard work of field engineers, who were collecting the live data (Sections 2 and 3) during his times at SVT Engineering Consultants (Perth). The R&D work on implementing the PoF(
None exist.
The information in this chapter aims at highlighting a big picture of the probabilistic analysis process and its implementation potential made in a simple language. It does not show all the nuances or technical details of these examples. Since the scope problems are individual, the above data and simplified equations should not be applied to other individual equipment cases. We disclaim any liability resulting from an application of this information by others.
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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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