Immunohistochemistry (IHC) tests for JNA.
\r\n\t
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Author of more than 100 publications, awarded three Doctorate degrees and the National End of Degree Award, granted by the Ministry of Education to the best academic records of Bachelor's degrees in Spain. Dr. Ortega-Sánchez has been Vice-Rector for Social Responsibility, Culture, and Sports at the University of Burgos since 2021.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"302925",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Delfín",middleName:null,surname:"Ortega-Sánchez",slug:"delfin-ortega-sanchez",fullName:"Delfín Ortega-Sánchez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302925/images/system/302925.jpg",biography:"I hold a PhD in Didactics of Social Sciences from the Autonomous University of Barcelona, a PhD in Educational Sciences from the University of Burgos, and a PhD in History from the University of Extremadura. 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Although JNAs comprise of less than 0.05% of all head and neck tumors, their tendency to bleed torrentially makes them an interesting disease entity to study and treat [1].
Development of other medical fields has been instrumental in studying the origin, growth and other characteristics of this disease entity. Advancements in radiology, histopathology and endoscopic nasal surgeries have been particularly useful. We can now better diagnoses, stage and treat JNA than the previous decade.
Earliest known documentation of juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma is credited to Hippocrates in the 4th century BC [2]. The term “juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma” was coined by Chaveau in 1906 and his works re-sparked the interest in JNA [3]. Shaheen et al. [4] reported the first female case of JNA (1930).
Harma et al. in 1959 gave a detailed clinico-pathological insight into this tumor [5]. Works of Bensch, Ewing, Som, Neffson, Moore, Handousa, Denker etc. have been vital in understanding the natural history of disease and its surgical management [6, 7, 8, 9].
Nasopharynx is a near-cuboidal shaped space with an approximate volume of 30cm3. It is located exactly below the middle cranial fossa.
Boundaries of Nasopharynx:
Posterior to the torus tuboris, lies a deep recess called
Endoscopic anatomy of nasopharynx as seen through right nasal cavity
Pterygopalatine fossa is a bilateral wedge-shaped space located below the orbital apex and behind the posterior wall of maxillary sinus. It communicates with other regions of skull through various canals and foramina.
Boundaries of Pterygopalatine Fossa:
I
Communications of Pterygopalatine Fossa:
Via
Via
Via
Via
Via
Via
Via
Contents of Pterygopalatine Fossa:
Pterygopalatine ganglion with its branches
Maxillary nerve (V2) and its branches
Vidian Nerve (carrying secretomotor fibers of facial nerve from superior salivatory nucleus and sympathetic fibers from internal carotid artery via deep petrosal nerve)
Third part of maxillary artery
Juvenile Nasopharyngeal Angiofibroma occurs almost exclusively in males and that too in adolescent period. Mean age of presentation is 14 years (range 7 years to 19 years) [10]. Isolated cases of JNAs in females or in younger/ older ages have been reported in literature [4, 11]. Exact etiology, although unknown, evidences point towards a hormonal influence on its occurrence and growth.
Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma can arise from any one of the following sites:
Scientists are still looking out for exact etiological factors and how these affect the growth of the tumor. Following factors should be considered:
The fibrous stroma has varying amounts of fine and coarse collagen fibers. Plump spindle, angular, or stellate-shaped cells are also seen. Rarely, mast cells may be present. The nuclei of stromal cells generally lack any characteristic features; although, multinucleated pleomorphic cells are not uncommon.
The vascular and fibrous elements vary in proportion within the same tumor and with the tumor age. While the fibrous component is more towards the centre of the tumor, peripheral areas have abundance of vascular elements. Also, newer lesions have predominantly vascular component while long standing tumors are enriched with fibrous tissue.
Embolised specimens show myxoid changes with areas of infarction. Embolic agent can be seen in the tumor vessels. Post flutamide therapy or radiotherapy specimens show a significant increase in fibrous component (Figure 2).
Histopathological section of JNA as seen under a microscope. Multiple blood vessels of varying diameters are seen in a fibrous stroma.
IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY | |||
---|---|---|---|
TEST ANTIBODY | TUMOR COMPONENT | TUMOR CELLS | STAINING PATTERN |
1. Vimentin | Vascular & Fibrous | All tumor cells | Cytoplasmic |
2. Androgen receptor | Vascular & Fibrous | All stromal cells and endothelial cells | Nuclear |
3. VEGF | Vascular & Fibrous | Stromal and vascular cells | Cytoplasmic |
4. PDGF | Vascular & Fibrous | Stromal and vascular cells (+/−) | Cytoplasmic |
5. IGF-2 | Vascular & Fibrous | Stromal and vascular cells (+/−) | Cytoplasmic |
6. TGF- β | Vascular & Fibrous | Stromal and vascular cells (+/−) | Cytoplasmic |
7. SMA (Smooth Muscle Actin) | Vascular | Smooth muscle cells in blood vessels | Cytoplasmic |
8. Desmin | Vascular | Cells in walls of larger blood vessels | Cytoplasmic |
9. FVIIIRAg | Vascular | Endothelial cells | Cytoplasmic |
10. CD31 | Vascular | Endothelial cells | Cytoplasmic |
11. CD34 | Vascular | Endothelial cells | Cytoplasmic |
12. ER | Vascular | Vascular cell nuclei (+/−) | Nuclear |
13. PR | Vascular | Vascular cell nuclei (+/−) | Nuclear |
14. CD117 (c-kit) | Fibrous | Stromal cells | Cytoplasmic |
15. β Catenin | Fibrous | Stromal cells | Nuclear |
Immunohistochemistry (IHC) tests for JNA.
JNA arises at the upper lip of sphenopalatine foramen. As it grows further, it spreads along the path of least resistance to involve many vital structures.
From sphenopalatine foramen, it extends into the nasopharynx and grows submucosally. It can occupy the entire nasopharynx to produce bilateral nasal obstruction and nasal intonation of voice (rhinolalia clausa). Recurrent epistaxis often starts at this stage only. The tumor mass may depress the soft palate or hang in the oropharynx. Blockage of eustachian tube(s) results in conductive hearing loss (otitis media with effusion).
It enters the ipsilateral nasal cavity first to cause unilateral nasal obstruction and epistaxis. Here it may acquire secondary attachments.
As the tumor grows further within the ipsilateral nasal cavity, it pushes the nasal septum towards the opposite side to produce contralateral nasal obstruction as well.
Further tumor growth allows it to involve ethmoidal sinuses. This results in flattening of the nasal bridge and an increase in the intercanthal distance. An associated proptosis gives a classical ‘
The tumor may encroach upon and erode anterior wall of sphenoid sinus. It may further invade the sphenoid sinus.
Lateral growth of the tumor results in the involvement of pterygopalatine fossa. Pterygopalatine fossa is a small wedge-shaped cavity, which can be considered as a cross-section/ junction point of many important ‘highways’.
As the mass lesion fills the pterygopalatine fossa, it causes anterior bowing of the posterior wall of maxillary sinus
From pterygopalatine fossa, it can extend into the orbit via the inferior orbital fissure. This produces proptosis. Further involvement of orbital apex results in loss of vision. Involvement of extraocular muscles produces diplopia.
From pterygopalatine fossa, tumor grows laterally to invade infratemporal fossa via the pterygomaxillary fissure. This causes facial swelling and fullness in the cheek region. Erosion of the anterior face of greater wing of sphenoid causes entry of tumor into the middle cranial fossa.
From pterygopalatine fossa, it can grow along the vidian canal to reach foramen lacerum. Foramen lacerum opens in the middle cranial fossa, providing easy access to the tumor for intra cranial extension.
The tumor can erode the pterygoid process posteriorly and spread downwards into the pterygoid fossa. It can reach as far as the parapharyngeal space.
Tumor growth in the posterolateral part of nasopharynx can cause extension into the fossa of rosenmuller. Further posterolateral growth into the apex of this fossa results in intracranial extension by eroding the carotid canal and petrous apex.
The tumor can involve the orbit through the following routes-
Sphenopalatine foramen ➔ pterygopalatine fossa ➔ via inferior orbital fissure ➔ enters orbit.
Sphenopalatine foramen ➔ nasopharynx and nasal cavity ➔ erodes lamina papyracea ➔enters orbit.
The tumor can have intracranial extension through the following routes:
Sphenopalatine foramen ➔ pterygopalatine fossa ➔ infratemporal fossa ➔ erosion of anterior face of greater wing of sphenoid AND/ OR through foramen ovale causing its widening ➔ middle cranial fossa. The tumor lies lateral to Internal Carotid Artery (ICA) and Cavernous Sinus (CS) in such cases.
Sphenopalatine foramen ➔ pterygopalatine fossa ➔ via inferior orbital fissure ➔ orbit ➔ growth within orbit towards orbital apex and superior orbital fissure ➔ middle cranial fossa. The tumor lies anterolateral to ICA and lateral to CS.
Sphenopalatine foramen ➔ nasopharynx and nasal cavity ➔ erosion of floor and anterior wall of sphenoid sinus to invade sphenoid sinus ➔ erosion of roof of sphenoid sinus ➔ intracranial spread. The tumor lies medial to ICA and lateral to pituitary gland.
Sphenopalatine foramen ➔ pterygopalatine fossa ➔ pterygoid (vidian) canal ➔ foramen lacerum ➔ middle cranial fossa. Encasement of ICA is seen early.
Sphenopalatine foramen ➔ nasopharynx ➔ fossa of rosenmuller ➔ erodes carotid canal and petrous apex ➔ intracranial spread.
Sphenopalatine foramen ➔ nasopharynx ➔ nasal cavity ➔ through cribriform plate ➔ anterior cranial fossa (rare route for intracranial extension).
The patient is almost invariably male in his second decade of life. Mean age of presentation is 14 years (reference).
The patient may have one or more of the following symptoms
Mucopurulent discharge in the involved side is seen. Tumor mass may also be visualized. Septum is often deviated towards contralateral side.
Mass lesion is visualized in the nasopharynx.
Examination with a Hopkin’s rigid rod lens 0o endoscope reveals a fleshy mass lesion. It is usually covered in mucopurulent secretions which require gentle suctioning. Probing is avoided as it can complicate into profuse nasal bleed.
Though for any nasal mass, golden rule is that biopsy is preceded by radiological imaging to ascertain origin, extent, and nature of the disease; in vascular tumors such as JNAs, biopsy is contraindicated. Risk of bleeding during and/ or after the procedure outweighs any added advantage we may get out of preoperative biopsy.
Water’s view (Occipitomental view)/ Peer’s view (Occipitomental view with open mouth) shows haziness of the involved sinus. Lateral view shows anterior bowing of posterior wall of maxillary antrum (
Contrast enhanced computed tomographic imaging is the investigation of choice for JNA. Infact, the diagnosis of JNA is confirmed by presence of a mass in nasopharynx and pterygopalatine fossa that enhances after contrast administration on CECT. CECT is a non-invasive procedure that forms the basis for JNA diagnosis and staging.
mass lesion in the nasopharynx/ nasal cavity and pterygopalatine fossa
erosion of posterior bony margin of sphenopalatine foramen with extension to the upper medial pterygoid plate.
Contrast enhanced MRI (CE-MRI) is the investigation of choice for advanced JNA tumors, particularly those with intracranial, intra-orbital, or parapharyngeal space involvement. It can accurately determine the extent of the tumor. ‘Salt and pepper’ appearance on contrast MRI is characteristic to any vascular tumor, resulting due to flow-void areas (T2WI and contrast enhanced T1WI) [22, 34].
MRI is also the preferred modality for post-operative long-term surveillance because of its superior soft tissue differentiation quality without any radiation exposure.
CT angiography is useful to identify the feeder vessel(s) to the tumor. Internal maxillary artery is the most common feeder vessel for JNA. JNA may additionally acquire blood supply from ascending pharyngeal artery, contralateral external carotid artery branches, ipsilateral or contralateral internal carotid artery and its branches (ophthalmic, meningohypophyseal, vidian artery).
Knowledge about the feeding vessel and its site of entry into the tumor is absolutely critical to decide the surgical approach for JNA excision. For example, where feeder vessels are located posterior to the main tumor mass without direct access, open approach is preferred to endoscopic approach.
DSA is used in preoperative phase to identify the feeder vessel and its preoperative embolization. Selective vessel angiography in DSA allows to determine the exact branch(es) supplying the tumor and its selective embolization. JNA shows a characteristic
Various staging systems have been proposed over the years, each with its own merits and demerits.
SESSION’S STAGING SYSTEM | |
---|---|
STAGE | TUMOR EXTENSION |
IA | Involvement of the nose or nasopharyngeal vault |
IB | Extension into one or more sinuses |
IIA | Minimal extension into the pterygopalatine fossa |
IIB | Full occupation of the pterygopalatine fossa |
IIC | Infratemporal extension (± involvement of the cheek) |
III | Intracranial extension |
JNA staging system by Sessions, 1981 [36].
CHANDLER’S STAGING SYSTEM | |
---|---|
STAGE | TUMOR EXTENSION |
I | Involvement of the nasopharyngeal vault |
II | Extension into nasal cavity or sphenoid sinus |
III | Extension into maxillary sinus, ethmoid sinus, pterygopalatine fossa, infratemporal fossa, cheek, palate |
IV | Intracranial extension |
JNA staging system by Chandler, 1984 [37].
ANDREWS-FISCH’S STAGING SYSTEM | |
---|---|
STAGE | TUMOR EXTENSION |
I | Confined to nose or nasopharyngeal vault |
II | Invasion of the pterygopalatine fossa or maxillary/ ethmoid/ sphenoid sinuses with bone destruction |
IIIA | Extension into the infra- temporal fossa or orbit |
IIIB | Intracranial but extradural extension (parasellar area) |
IVA | Intracranial intradural extension |
IVB | Intracranial intradural extension involving |
JNA staging system by Andrew- Fisch, 1989 [38].
RADKOWSKI’S STAGING SYSTEM | |
---|---|
STAGE | TUMOR EXTENSION |
IA | Involvement of the nose or nasopharyngeal vault |
IB | Extension into one or more sinuses |
IIA | Minimal extension into pterygopalatine fossa |
IIB | Complete extension into pterygopalatine fossa |
IIC | Extension into infratemporal fossa/ posterior to pterygoid plates |
IIIA | Minimal skull base involvement (middle cranial fossa/ base of pterygoid plates) |
IIIB | Extensive intracranial involvement ± involvement of cavernous sinus |
JNA staging system by radkowski, 1996 [39].
Only valid for tumors which are preoperatively embolised (Table 6).
UPMC/ SNYDERMAN’S STAGING SYSTEM | |
---|---|
STAGE | TUMOR EXTENSION |
I | Nasal cavity, medial pterygopalatine fossa |
II | Paranasal sinuses and lateral pterygopalatine fossa, no residual vascularity |
III | Skull base erosion, orbit, infratemporal fossa, no residual vascularity |
IV | Skull base erosion, orbit, infratemporal fossa, with residual vascularity from ICA |
V | Intracranial extension with residual vascularity from ICA |
VM | Medial cavernous sinus |
VL | Middle cranial fossa |
JNA staging system by Snyderman/ UPMC, 2010 [40].
Choice of treatment depends on the size and extent of the tumor. Treatment modalities include surgical excision (open v/s endoscopic approach) and non-surgical adjuvant therapy (embolization/hormonal/ radiotherapy) or their combination(s).
Complete excision of the entire tumor mass should be the aim of any surgical procedure and the approach selected accordingly. Though the advancements in endoscopic surgery have minimized the need for open approaches, the surgeon should be well versed with all the techniques.
In general, open approaches have the advantage of providing a wide exposure. But this comes at the cost of higher morbidity, increased hospital stay, and some degree of cosmetic deformity.
This is the shortest and most direct approach for tumors limited to nasopharynx with/ without minimal extension into sphenoid sinus/ choana [41, 42].
A U-shaped incision (Wilson’s incision) is made 2.5 cm anterior to the junction of hard and soft palate. Submucoperiosteal flap is elevated posteriorly till the soft palate to bare the underlying horizontal plate of palatine bone. Soft palate and hard palate are separated. Bone is removed from the posterior part of hard palate to visualize the entire nasopharynx along with the tumor.
This approach has the advantage of good post-operative healing with no visible scar.
Lateral rhinotomy was first described by Irwin Moore in 1917 [43].
The incision is started 5 mm anterior and superior to the medial canthus and continued inferiorly along the deepest portion of the nasomaxillary groove. At its inferior end, it is curved medially in the crease beneath the ala. Skin flaps are elevated over the maxilla and nasal bones. Medial wall of maxillary antrum is removed.
This provides adequate exposure for tumors extending into the nasal cavity and/ or sinuses with minimal extension into the pterygopalatine fossa.
Adequate healing allows for an inconspicuous scar mark, well hidden within the facial creases.
The lateral rhinotomy incision is further extended inferiorly along the ipsilateral ridge of the philtrum and continued to split the upper lip in paramedian position. After dividing the upper lip, incision is continued laterally along the gingivobuccal sulcus upto the first molar. This approach is required in cases needing exposure beyond the infraorbital neurovascular bundle.
The main objective of this approach is to expose the maxillary antrum and remove its medial, anterior and posterolateral walls along with perpendicular plate of palatine bone. Orbital floor and alveolar arch are left intact. This converts the maxillary sinus, nasal cavity, nasopharynx, pterygopalatine fossa and infratemporal fossa into a single large accessible cavity.
This wide exposure is required for large tumors spilling in the infratemporal fossa. Lateral most aspect of these tumors is identified. Feeder vessel in the form of internal maxillary artery (most common feeder vessel) is identified as it enters the lateral aspect of the tumor in the infratemporal fossa and ligated before starting with the tumor dissection. Ascending pharyngeal artery maybe seen entering and supplying the tumor at its posterior aspect. It is also identified and ligated. This allows for minimal blood loss during the tumor dissection and delivery. Tumor delivery is done in-toto through transnasal/ transoral route or in a piecemeal fashion.
Two pathways for this approach have been described:
An incision is made in the gingivobuccal sulcus between the two upper second molars. Periosteum is elevated to expose maxilla in its anterior and lateral aspect. Horizontal osteotomies from pyriform aperture to pterygomaxillary fissure and from pyriform aperture to palatine canals are made. Nasal septum is freed from anterior nasal spine and maxillary crest. Pterygoid dysjuctioning allows easy down fracturing of maxilla to achieve a wide exposure of the tumor extending into multiple paranasal sinuses, infratemporal fossa or intracranial space. After tumor excision, fixation of mid facial skeleton is achieved using titanium plates. This approach provides the widest possible exposure without any external scar [44].
A Weber-Ferguson incision is combined with the splitting of the hard palate [45, 46]. Multiple osteotomies are done and maxilla is disarticulated. Overlying skin and muscles are NOT dissected. Rather they are raised as a single flap along with underlying maxillary and zygomatic bone (
This approach provides accessibility to nasopharynx, paranasal sinuses, infratemporal fossa, parapharyngeal space and intracranial space. Malocclusion of upper jaw and palatal fistula are some uncommon but difficult to manage complications associated with this procedure [47].
MRR starts as a midfacial degloving approach through a sublabial incision [48]. Partial osteotomy at nasofrontal angle allows extended degloving of midface. Multiple osteotomies are made to resect and remove the maxillary bone. Tumor is resected. Maxilla is repositioned at its original anatomical position and secured with titanium plates/ absorbable plates.
Wide exposure for tumor resection from infratemporal fossa, parapharyngeal space, and middle and anterior cranial fossa is achieved. Such extensive resections can cause malocclusions, visual disturbances and disruption of growth centres in the maxillary bone, resulting in future cosmetic deformities.
A combination of infratemporal fossa approach and transfacial approach is required in certain cases with advanced stage angiofibromas [52]. This approach allows access to the infratemporal fossa, middle and anterior cranial fossa, and entire cavernous sinus (both medial and lateral aspects). An added enhanced exposure to the nasopharynx, paranasal sinuses and pterygopalatine fossa facilitates complete tumor excision. Facial skeletal growth retardations and facial asymmetry is rare [53].
Large primary tumors or recurrent tumors may necessitate the need for using more than one open approach in the same sitting. These combinations can be tailor –made depending on size of the tumor, involvement of vital structures, and surgeon’s expertise in one or more approaches. Some commonly used combined approaches are-
Last decade has seen a paradigm shift from open approach to transnasal endoscopic approach. In today’s time, endoscopic surgery can be regarded as the most rapidly advancing surgical field. As the surgeon’s familiarity with the endoscopes is increasing, hard to reach anatomical regions are also becoming more accessible, thereby, widening the horizon for this approach. Tumors, which were earlier labeled as operable via an open approach only, can now be easily and completely resected using endoscopic approach.
Endoscopic surgery has the advantage of better illumination and magnification, lower morbidity, and shorter duration of hospital stay which ultimately leads to cost saving. Advantage of no visible facial scar adds to the cosmetic viability of this approach.
Tumor size and extent decides the exact endoscopic approach required. While smaller tumors are managed via an endonasal approach; medium to large sized tumors require an endoscopic Denker’s / Sturman- Canfield or a more extensive transpterygoid approach [57, 58].
Extended anterior skull base approaches are recommended for intracranial lesions [59].
Exposure is the key to a successful surgery. Adequate exposure allows identification of tumor limits, delineation of feeder vessels, and assessment of tumor’s relation with vital structures. Most of the surgical time is spent in achieving this exposure before starting off with the tumor resection.
It is always advisable to identify and ligate the feeding artery first (usually internal maxillary artery), before starting with tumor dissection.
Posterior septectomy, wherever required, is recommended. This greatly increases the access to the tumor.
Dissection is carried along the tumor pseudocapsule from lateral to medial direction. Any injury to tumor surface can provoke massive bleeding.
For larger tumors, a four-handed technique is recommended [22]. For large tumors with extensive lateral extension into infratemporal fossa/ parapharyngeal space, the four-port Bradoo’s technique is a worthy option [60].
Drilling of pterygoid base at the end of the procedure should be a routine practice, so as to minimize the recurrence rates (Figures 3–8).
The operative room should have the availability of hemostatic materials like SURGICEL, FLOSEAL, TIS SEEL and a functioning bipolar cautery. Access to a blood bank is recommended.
Coblation is a plasma based device that can be used for surface coagulation of the tumor without causing any collateral thermal damage. This shrinks the tumor and also greatly reduces intra-op bleeding.
During preoperative planning stage, it is imperative to discuss with the patient, the possibility to convert an endoscopic approach into an open approach at any given time during the surgery.
CE-MRI showing hyperintense tumor (*) with massive lateral extension into infratemporal fossa.
CE-MRI showing hyperintense tumor (*) in the infratemporal fossa.
CECT showing JNA occupying nasopharynx (1), pterygoid wedge (2), infratemporal fossa (3) and intracranial space (4). Notice the widening of left pterygoid wedge (red arrow) as compared to the right normal pterygoid wedge (green arrow)-
CT angiography showing a vascular tumor (*). Notice the internal maxillary artery supplying this tumor (orange arrow).
Endoscopic view through left nasal cavity: Medial and posterior walls of left maxillary sinus and left inferior turbinate have been removed. 1-nasopharyngeal component of JNA; 2- pterygopalatine fossa + infratemporal fossa component of JNA; 3- remnants of left inferior turbinate; R- right, L- left, S- superior, I- inferior.
Coblation wand being used in juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma endoscopic surgery. 1- coblation wand, 2- tumor, R- right, L- left, S- superior, I- inferior.
Broad skull base infiltration
extensive blood supply from ICA
encasement of ICA
brain infiltration
Considering the pace of progress in endoscopic techniques, it would not be surprising if some more indications are added by the time this chapter reaches the readers.
Though Juvenile angiofibroma is now an established surgical entity, there has been an era when medical management alone was the rule for extensive tumors especially those with intracranial extension. With paradigm shift towards more aggressive surgical procedures for all stages of the tumor, other treatment modalities are now valued as adjuvant therapy only.
The procedure is usually done 24 to 48 hours before the scheduled surgery. Further surgical delay is not appreciated/recommended as tumor gains collateral blood supply through neoangiogenesis. A wide variety of materials are available as embolic agents: microspheres, gelatin sponge, Teflon particles, gel foam, poly-vinyl alcohol, polystyrene, silicone particles, silk, cyanoacrylate, sodium tetradacyl sulphate, autogenous clot, duramater, muscle fragments, etc. 300–500 micrometer spheres are preferred owing to greater blocking capacity of vascular lumen [62].
The procedure is not without complications. Cerebral ischemia and vision loss are known complications following embolic agent migrating to ICA system. Rare complications like cerebral edema, hemiplegia and aphasia have also been reported [63].
This results in almost complete filling of tumor microvasculature with irreversible occlusion of embolized vessels. Tumor gains a dark color (due to tungsten powder with blue dye) which helps to better distinguish it from surrounding normal tissue. Direct cytotoxicity of absolute ethanol has shown good therapeutic effects.
DPTE alone or in combination with TAE has shown to have better devascularisation effects than TAE alone [65, 66].
Hormonal influence on growth of JNA has been speculated since long. An interplay between estrogens and androgens has been associated with tumor proliferation and its spontaneous involution. Various hormonal therapies are recommended based on these concepts.
Flutamide therapy is recommended as a six week preoperative adjuvant therapy for intracranial and intraorbital lesions, recurrent lesions and those with their blood supply primarily from ICA.
Low dose radiotherapy is used for angiofibromas extending intracranially, not amenable to primary surgery. Typically, total radiation dose of 3,500 cGy is given over 3 weeks. A successful response in terms of decreased tumor size and vascularity is seen over several months in 80% of the patients [67, 68]. Those showing no response/incomplete response by 2 years post radiotherapy are deemed as failures and taken up for salvage surgery.
There are numerous side effects to use of radiotherapy at a young age. Posterior capsular opacities, glaucoma, optic nerve atrophy, xerostomia, hypopituitarism, cerebral necrosis, osteoradionecrosis of mandible, skull base osteomyelitis, risk of developing new head–neck tumors later in life, potential malignant transformation of angiofibromas are few of the complications associated with the use of radiotherapy in head and neck region.
Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma, although an old disease entity, is still fascinating medical experts all over the world. Although still largely unknown, with advanced genetic and molecular studies, we have moved a step closer to find the origin and etiology of this disease. At present, surgery is the mainstay of treatment with endoscopic approach replacing the conventional open approach. Future considerations can be focused on therapeutic embolisation, stereotactic radiotherapy and targeted molecular therapy for a non-surgical cure.
I wish to express my sincere gratitude towards Dr. Anupama Mahajan, Dr. Stuti Mahajan and Dr. Anugeet Sethi for their constant moral support. I am fortunate to have worked with Dr. Rajesh Choudhary and Dr. Bikramjeet Singh on numerous juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma cases. A special vote of thanks to Dr. Rohan Sardana and Dr. Karamjeet Singh Gill for providing valuable insight into the pathology of this disease. I shall always be indebted to ENT Department of my alma mater VMMC & Safdarjung Hospital, New Delhi.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has been described as the importance of pursuing environmental and social goals involving all shareholders and not just financial goals [1].
In a similar context, the concept of sustainability also comes up. Both CSR and sustainability are widely used terms. According to [2], sustainability requires us to “meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (page 41). Therefore, CSR is the contribution of companies to sustainable development efforts, taking into account the impact of their social and environmental actions and their contribution to the improvement of society as a whole and of the surrounding environment [3].
CSR has been studied over the years with a special emphasis on the benefits it does generate in the company’s financial performance. Many authors who have addressed the relationship between CSR and financial performance have come to different conclusions. Many claim that there is a positive relationship [4, 5, 6], others argue that the existing relationship is negative [7, 8], while others claim that there is no relationship at all [9]. These differences may be due to the lack of theoretical support behind the hypotheses formulated and the limitations in the design and size of the sample and the variables used [10]. Also, Davidson and Worrell [11] state that sometimes doubtful CSR indexes or inappropriate techniques are used, which may contribute to the mix results found in the literature.
Our main motivation to study this topic is directly related to the growing concern of companies with the environmental and social issues, since there is a greater understanding that being socially responsible increases their reputation and image, thus generating short-, medium-, and long-term benefits. In addition, most studies on the relation between CSR and finance performance focus on a single industry or country.
Therefore, the main objective of this chapter is to analyze whether companies that pursue CSR-based policies have a higher level of financial performance compared to those that do not in an international sample. A separate analysis of this relationship will also be conducted and will be focused on the last financial crisis period in order to figure out whether or not companies sharing these environmental and social concerns have higher financial performances than their peers. To this end, 266 companies from 15 European countries were analyzed in a 10-year period from 2007 to 2016.
Results suggest that companies pursuing CSR-based policies have, on average, higher financial performance than those that do not. In the same way, during the period of financial crisis, companies pursuing CSR-based policies are found to have outperformed other companies in line with existing literature trends [12, 13, 14, 15, 16].
The study is divided as follows: Section 2 reviews the literature in order to have the theoretical support for the development of the hypothesis; Section 3 presents the sample selection process and the methodology used; Section 4 describes and analyzes the results obtained, and lastly, Section 5 presents the main conclusions.
The concept of sustainability has undergone some changes in terms of approach, theories, and terminology. Its emergence was primarily due to a greater focus on existing environmental problems, but this concept has changed over time and gained a new perspective, including two further strands, the social and the economic [17]. In the past 15 years, scientific debate regarding sustainability has grown, focusing on the intertwining between the economic, environmental, and social goals [18]. Companies have begun to refer to this concept using different terminologies such as “sustainable development,” “sustainability,” “corporate social responsibility,” or “corporate responsibility.”
According to [19], the concept of sustainability that embraces the three trends listed above is called triple bottom line or three Ps: planet (environmental), people (social), and profit (economic). Each strand interconnects with the others in order to establish a balance of responsibility where all interests are balanced, thus generating value for the company. In the same way, over time, the concept of CSR has won the attention of companies and their shareholders, along with a new meaning, since companies have realized that their business purposes have broadened beyond the economic purpose of generating profit for its shareholders, now encompassing the interests of all stakeholders [20]. Indeed, according to [18], companies must consider the stakeholders’ expectations and decisions. These authors highlighted the stakeholders’ involvement and their role in the strategic management of organizations as a relevant topic for academic scholars. Also, Del Giudice et al. [21] underlined the crucial role played by owner-managers when engaging in sustainability activities jointly with employees and other stakeholders.
Currently, the pressure on business is high, and shareholders are increasingly asking companies for information not only on the economic and financial performance but also on their environmental and social concerns [22, 23, 24, 25]. Thus, a greater transparency about the CSR activities is expected by shareholders [26]. In fact, with the emergence of greater environmental and social concerns, a greater emphasis on business transparency and accountability began to emerge. Following these new expectations, stakeholders are demonstrating a growing interest on sustainability performance and thus there is an increasing pressure on businesses to report on sustainability [18]. The nonfinancial reporting, together with the financial reporting, aims to provide shareholders “with the picture of corporate positions and activities on the economic, environmental and social fronts. In short, such reports attempt to describe company’s contribution toward to sustainable development” [27], page 9).
Moreover, Cucari et al. [26] highlighted the importance of companies having a CSR committee. Indeed, through a CSR committee, companies can better plan and implement sustainable projects, enhancing the awareness and involvement of the stakeholders and ensuring the quality of the reporting process.
As can be seen, although sustainability has emerged from environmental problems and CSR from the emergence of social problems, both have a common intention, since their ultimate goal is to balance on both sides.
There are many reasons for pursuing a CSR-based policy. Kurucz et al. [28] define four reasons:
Cost and risk reduction—environmental investments can lead to cost and risk reduction for the company, as there is present and future compliance with environmental legislation [29]. Building positive relationships with the surrounding community also results in reduced risks and costs [29].
Competitive advantage—Singha et al. [30] suggest that environmental ethics influences environmental performance and competitive advantage. Competitive advantage is built thanks to the business commitment and adoption of CSR activities in order to meet the stakeholder’s requirements. One of the most commonly used examples in literature is consumer loyalty. Pivato [31] shows that increased consumer loyalty is often the result of the adoption of CSR activities by companies. Also, socially responsible companies attract more investment. Certain investors avoid companies that do not fulfill their defined values and mission, which break the law and its principles [32].
Reputation development—Smith [33] argues that CSR activities attract investors, consumers, and workers and explains that many workers prefer to work in companies that are more socially responsible. Brammer and Pavelin [34] underline the great importance of disclosing social responsibility reports.
Value creation—Value creation through CSR practices enables companies, on the one hand, to meet the demands of all shareholders and, on the other hand, to pursue operations inherent to its core business. By enabling the involvement of all related parties and meeting their demands, the company can achieve a greater financial performance with the support of all through new opportunities and solutions [35].
However, the adoption of strategies that meet the concept of CSR may involve certain costs for companies, such as the implementation of quality control equipment, the purchase of environmentally friendly equipment. Hence, it is necessary to analyze the benefits and the risks and costs of applying CSR in the business world.
For any company, when costs or investments of any kind are incurred, the financial return is always analyzed, that is, an investment is considered good when it generates future benefits. Thus, in order to fully understand whether the application of the CSR concept has a positive impact on the company, a link must be established with the future benefits it may bring (or not) to the company’s financial performance. Thus, the relationship between CSR and corporate financial performance is a relevant topic in business management literature.
There is evidence of a positive relationship between CSR and financial performance [12, 14, 15, 16]. A good financial performance results in good social performance as companies that are more profitable have more resources to invest in social activities. On the other way, greater investment in social activities attracts more and better resources, conscious consumers, and a higher reputation, further generating greater competitive advantage over other companies.
Today, companies view reputation as an extremely important factor that must be maintained and protected [3]. A greater focus on CSR makes the company more appealing to investments and consequently leads to a higher financial performance [36], given that the current investors are aware of the importance of social, environmental, and economic concerns. Some authors also argue that there are larger investments in companies with better social performance [37]. Similarly, Eccles et al. [38] come to the conclusion that it really matters to invest in CSR. Companies that do so have a higher financial performance, creating greater value for all their shareholders, given that they gain loyal consumers and more committed workers. On the other way around, Singha et al. [30] highlight that committed workers and top management, along with sustainable environmental management practices, enhance the firm’s environmental performance and that, in turn, will positively influence its competitive advantage.
However, others authors, based on the shareholder theory, claim that the relationship between CSR and finance performance is negative because the company’s motto is the creation of profit for the shareholder and that is not consistent with the increased costs of social responsibility activities [39, 40]. Also, the incremental costs from social responsibility activities may lead to losses in the company’s competitive capacity [41]. Following this point of view, CSR activities have a negative impact on the financial performance and therefore reduce the shareholder benefits.
Considering the trend in literature according to which companies pursuing policies based on corporate social responsibility have a higher level of financial performance compared to those that do not, we formulated our hypothesis as follows:
The sample was obtained from the STOXX Europe 600 Index and the information was accessed during February 2018. Financial information was taken from Bureau Van Dijk’s Amadeus database, version 14.07. Additional data was taken from FTSE Group and World Bank.
Our measure of CSR is based on The STOXX Europe Sustainability Index, a subset from the STOXX Europe 600 Index. It aggregates the selected companies according to a sector-business analysis together with sustainability assessments based on environmental, social, and economic criteria. The assessment is considered positive if the combination of company valuation and sector valuation results in a shaded matrix field in the Sarasin Sustainability Matrix [42].
From the initial sample of 600 companies, all those belonging to the public and financial sectors were excluded due to their specific rules and legislation, thus avoiding possible bias in the results. Companies for which it was not possible to calculate all the variables under study were also removed.
Besides, in order to avoid bias due to the extreme values found, outliers were also removed. Outliers are defined as the values of the variables below percentile 5% and above percentile 95%. Therefore, the final sample used for the study consists of 266 companies, with a total of 2660 observations.
Through the analysis of the sample composition by country (Table 1), we can see that most of the companies are from the United Kingdom with 84 companies (32%), France with 50 companies (19%), and Germany with 36 companies (14%).
Country | Number | % of Total |
---|---|---|
The United Kingdom | 84 | 32 |
France | 50 | 19 |
Germany | 36 | 14 |
Sweden | 17 | 6 |
Switzerland | 17 | 6 |
Spain | 14 | 5 |
Denmark | 12 | 5 |
Finland | 10 | 4 |
The Netherlands | 8 | 3 |
Belgium | 4 | 2 |
Norway | 4 | 2 |
Italy | 3 | 1 |
Portugal | 3 | 1 |
Austria | 2 | 0 |
Ireland | 2 | 0 |
Total | 266 | 100 |
Sample by country.
According to the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS), the 266 companies were divided into 14 sectors. The most represented sectors are the professional, scientific, and technical services sectors with 85 companies (32%), followed by the industrial and other services sectors with, respectively, 53 companies (20%) and 34 companies (13%) (Table 2).
Sector | Number | % of Total |
---|---|---|
Mining and quarrying | 11 | 4 |
Utility vehicles | 0 | 0 |
Building and construction | 9 | 3 |
Industrial | 53 | 20 |
Retail trade | 20 | 8 |
Transportation | 11 | 4 |
Information | 25 | 9 |
Real estate | 6 | 2 |
Professional, scientific, and technical services | 85 | 32 |
Administrative services, support, and waste management | 3 | 1 |
Health care and social assistance | 1 | 0 |
Art—entertainment and recreation | 4 | 2 |
Hospitality and food services | 4 | 2 |
Other services | 34 | 13 |
Total | 266 | 100 |
Sample by sector.
Prior research on CSR has measured financial performance using accounting-based measures or market-based measures (e.g., see [14, 43, 44]). As accounting-based measures, those authors have used return on equity (ROE) and return on assets (ROA) and, as market-based measures, they use the Tobin’s Q . These two types of measures can capture the two dimensions of financial performance: the short-term through ROE and ROA [15] and the long-term and future evaluation through Tobin’s Q [14]. Indeed, several authors choose to use
Following previous studies, financial performance is measured by both ROE and ROA as accounting measures of short-term financial performance. ROE provides information on how efficient the company is in using its shareholder’s invested capital [39], while ROA measures the efficiency that comes from using all company’s assets during a fiscal year, that is, the ability to generate earnings [15]. Both profitability ratios are based on the company’s net income over a given fiscal period because it is what effectively “remains” after all expenses are deducted from the income obtained, thus presenting the impact of financial policies and also the tax burden incurred by companies in different countries. We also use Tobin’s Q as a market-based measure of long-term value which has proven to be an important variable to assess the future financial performance [46].
Therefore, based on [43], three estimation models were developed to test the hypothesis:
Based on prior literature, the following control variables were chosen:
In addition, the type of business activities [49] as well as the level of economic development of a country [50] may be related to a higher or lower CSR. Indeed, companies developing activities with high social and environmental impacts tend to adopt more CSR policies compared to others. Besides, companies with high liquidity are more likely to adopt CSR policies compared to others with less liquidity that can only focus on their own business activities [51]. Appendix 1 provides more detailed information about variables’ measurement.
Table 3 presents the descriptive statistics of the variables for the total sample.
Variáveis | Mean | Median | Max. | Min. | Standard deviation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.140 | 0.135 | 0.720 | −0.879 | 0.139 | |
0.054 | 0.051 | 0.210 | −0.786 | 0.058 | |
0.976 | 0.786 | 3.55 | 0.024 | 0.709 | |
6.855 | 6.831 | 8.121 | 4.817 | 0.569 | |
0.585 | 0.595 | 0.909 | 0.001 | 0.159 | |
1.510 | 1.332 | 5.865 | 0.072 | 0.823 |
Descriptive statistics for the whole sample.
Furthermore, it is possible to observe that companies have, on average, a level of indebtedness of approximately 59%, suggesting that they rely more on external capital than on equity to meet the asset needs. In terms of the current liquidity, that is, the ability to meet short-term liabilities, the result is higher than 1 (1.51), which means that companies have a favorable short-term financial situation.
In a next step, we divided the sample into two subsets, companies that pursue social responsibility-based policies (SRSE) and those that do not (NRSE). Tables 4 and 5 present the values for the SRSE and NRSE, respectively.
Variables | Mean | Median | Max. | Min. | Standard deviation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.156 | 0.147 | 0.582 | −0.767 | 0.131 | |
0.061 | 0.056 | 0.210 | −0.786 | 0.060 | |
1.073 | 0.882 | 3.55 | 0.024 | 0.749 | |
6.974 | 6.969 | 8.046 | 5.315 | 0.499 | |
0.616 | 0.618 | 0.907 | 0.065 | 0.148 | |
1.419 | 1.306 | 5.728 | 0.072 | 0.719 |
Descriptive statistics for SRSE.
Variables | Mean | Median | Max. | Min. | Standard deviation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.099 | 0.094 | 0.72 | −0.879 | 0.148 | |
0.037 | 0.036 | 0.198 | −0.399 | 0.049 | |
0.724 | 0.597 | 3.368 | 0.024 | 0.516 | |
6.809 | 6.762 | 8.121 | 4.818 | 0.589 | |
0.573 | 0.587 | 0.909 | 0.001 | 0.163 | |
1.545 | 1.349 | 5.865 | 0.114 | 0.858 |
Descriptive statistics for NSRSE.
It is possible to observe that the SRSE shows, on average, higher values than the NRSE for all financial performance measures, which means that, on average, SRSE has a higher financial performance compared to the NRSE. Moreover, the average of
For the remaining variables, on average, SRSE is larger than NRSE and the debt ratio is higher for SRSE compared to NRSE by approximately 4 percentage points (61.6% for SRSE and 57.3% for NRSE). On the contrary,
Table 6 shows the results of the mean equality test of the dependent variables
Companies | Number | ROE | ROA | Tobin’s Q |
---|---|---|---|---|
740 | 0.156 | 0.061 | 1.073 | |
1920 | 0.099 | 0.037 | 0.724 | |
p-Value | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Mean t-test results.
The correlation between the different variables is presented in Appendix 2. Most of the variables do not show strong correlations with each other and are statistically significant at 1%, except for the correlation of the
The dependent variables
A multicollinearity test was performed by calculating the variance inflation factors (VIFs). The values are less than 10, suggesting that there are no multicollinearity problems.
The main results of the three linear regressions estimated, Eqs. (1)–(3), are presented in Table 7.
0.145 *** (3.678) | 0.097 *** (6.457) | 3.149 *** (17.341) | |
0.008 ** (1.068) | 0.004 ** (1.361) | 0.061 ** (2.479) | |
0.017 *** (3.384) | 0.004 * (1.861) | 0.278 *** (11.502) | |
−0.019 ** (−0.988) | −0.104 *** (−10.783) | −1.359 *** (−14.303) | |
0.051 *** (9.682) | 0.016 *** (6.807) | 0.179 *** (6.387) | |
−0.049 *** (−8.519) | −0.015 *** (−6.055) | −0.137 *** (−4.882) | |
−0.052 *** (−7.777) | −0.017 *** (−6.255) | −0.241 *** (−7.882) | |
0.054 *** (8.851) | 0.019 *** (7.288) | 0.226 *** (8.632) | |
0.000 ** (0.103) | 0.002 ** (0.933) | 0.0353 ** (1.969) | |
No. of Obs. | 2660 | 2660 | 2660 |
Adjusted R2 | 0.130 | 0.179 | 0.313 |
p-Value (F-statistics) | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Relation between CSR and financial performance.
Statistical significance at 10%.
Statistical significance at 5%.
Statistical significance at 1%.
Regarding the coefficient of the independent variable
Regarding control variables, most have statistically significant coefficients at 1% except for the
Regarding the
Based on R2 values, the first model explains 13.0% of the total variation of the ROE, the second one 17.9% of the total variation of the ROA, and the third one 31.3% of the total variation of the Tobin’s Q . The third model shows the highest value, which is in agreement with the study by [52].
Finally, the models are valid in the explanation of the ROE, ROA, and Tobin’s Q measures because the p-value of the F-statistics is equal to 0.000 in all the models which means that the hypothesis of joint nullity of the independent variable coefficients can be rejected.
In conclusion, the results support our hypothesis that companies pursuing CSR-based policies have a higher financial performance compared to those that do not, both in the short-term (ROE and ROA) and in the long-term (Tobin’s Q).
Given that most of the previous studies look at the relationship between CSR and financial performance in periods of nonfinancial crisis, it would be interesting to understand how this relationship works during periods of recession. In fact, the last economic and financial crisis (2009–2013) was considered by many as the worst financial crisis since the Great Recession of 1930 with a huge impact on the lives of companies, notably on their financial performance [53].
According to [54], financial crisis affects negatively corporate financial performance. During these periods, investors are more concerned about financial performance and the disclosure of CSR information may minimize this concern [55].
In order to focus on the effects of crisis on the financial performance of companies pursuing CSR policies, a modification was made to the models, including the
Table 8 presents the main results of this additional analysis. We chose not to present the results for the remaining variables to make it simpler.
0.171 *** (4.354) | 0.107 *** (7.205) | 3.374 *** (18.644) | |
0.051 *** (5.213) | 0.016 *** (4.634) | 0.132 *** (3.649) | |
−0.034 *** (−6.512) | −0.012 *** (−5.351) | −0.110 *** (−8.116) | |
0.072 *** (5.7969) | 0.020 *** (4.680) | 0.114 *** (2.595) | |
Remaining control variables | Included | Included | Included |
No. of Obs. | 2660 | 2660 | 2660 |
Adjusted R2 | 0.145 | 0.188 | 0.335 |
p-Value (F-statistics) | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Relation between CSR and financial performance: Impact of crisis.
Statistical significance at 10%.
Statistical significance at 5%.
Statistical significance at 1%.
There is statistical evidence that, in years of crisis, companies with SRSE have a higher financial performance compared to NRSE, since the coefficient of the interaction variable
Given that the financial performance of SRSE decreased less than the financial performance of the NRSE during the period of crisis, it was possible to conclude that during the period of financial crisis, the financial performance of companies adopting CSR-based policies suffered fewer negative impacts compared to the financial performance of companies that do not. These results are in line with [56], which concluded that with the onset of the subprime financial crisis, the positive relationship between financial performance and CSR was disappearing but that was inverted when companies began implementing CSR strategies.
Companies pursuing corporate social responsibility policies have realized how important is to build and protect their corporate reputation through the use of corporate social responsibility policies, leaving behind the idea of the traditional company that focused on financial performance only.
This study was conducted to understand whether companies pursuing policies based on social responsibility outperform those that do not as well as how financial performance of both types of companies was affected by the financial crisis. Companies that have a good relationship with society, as the activities they perform improve the quality of life and the environment, are probably better accepted by the market and therefore are in a better position than the rest of companies.
The results suggest that indeed, on average, companies that pursue policies based on corporate social responsibility have higher values of financial performance compared to companies that do not pursue these policies, both in the short-term (ROE and ROA) and in the long-term (Tobin’s Q). This is in line with the studies by Griffin, Margolis and Walsh, and Orlitzky et al. [4, 5, 6].
During the period of crisis, it is possible to conclude that all companies suffered a reduction in financial performance. However, this reduction is less negative in companies that pursue policies based on corporate social responsibility. In fact, this group of companies maintained their performance above the others even during this period of crisis, which meets the findings of Marti et al. [52].
This study contributes to the existing literature on social responsibility and corporate financial performance by providing an overview of the positive aspects of “betting” on social responsibility policies and the resulting benefits. It also contributes to the literatures that study the impact of financial crisis on the relation between corporate social responsibility and finance performance. Thus, it highlights the idea that socially responsible companies benefit from a stronger reputation and image and are therefore better accepted by society, which in turn generates short- and long-term benefits.
The main difficulty found when preparing this study was the lack of information on the variables used, which contributed to reduce the size of the sample. Also, the lack of information made it impossible to use some important variables such as research and development. Therefore, our results should be interpreted with some caution.
The authors are grateful for the financial support from FCT-Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (Portugal), national funding through research grant (UIDB/04521/2020).
Variables | Calculation |
---|---|
Dependent variables | |
Ratio between net income and equity | |
Ratio between net income and total assets | |
Ratio between market capitalization and total asset value | |
Independent variables | |
Dummy variable that assumes the value 1 if the company belongs to the STOXX Europe Sustainability Index and value 0 otherwise | |
Total assets’ logarithm | |
Ratio of total liabilities to total assets | |
Dummy variable based on the environmental impact of companies’ activity: low impact, medium impact, and high impact. This classification results from the categorization by the FTSE Group: http://www.ftserussell.com/?_ga=2.101616001.1622009662.1506552100-356423440.1505860288 | |
Dummy variable assuming value 1 if the company is located in a country with a high gross national income growth rate and value 0 otherwise. Information was taken from World Bank. | |
Current ratio (current assets divided by current liabilities) | |
Dummy variable that assumes value 1 for the 2009–2013 period data and value 0 otherwise. |
1 | |||||||
0.725*** | 1 | ||||||
0.425 | 0.525*** | 1 | |||||
0.183 | 0.184*** | 0.221 | 1 | ||||
0.160*** | 0.197*** | 0.391*** | 0.129*** | 1 | |||
−0.061*** | −0.319*** | 0.407*** | 0.122*** | 0.325*** | 1 | ||
0.067*** | 0.186*** | 0.251*** | −0.069*** | −0.229*** | −0.427*** | 1 |
Statistical significance at 10%.
Statistical significance at 5%.
Statistical significance at 1%.
Authors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
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\\n\\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\\n\\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nFei Wei 2016-18
\\n\\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\\n\\nQi Xie 2016-18
\\n\\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
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The problem of construction of optimal one-electron representation is directly linked with a problem of the correct accounting for multielectron exchange-correlation effects and gauge-invariance principle fulfilling in atomic calculations. New approach to construction of optimal PT zeroth approximation is based on accurate treating the lowest order multielectron effects, in particular, the gauge-dependent radiative contribution for the certain class of photon propagator (for instance, the Coulomb, Feynman, Babushkin ones) gauge. This value is considered to be a typical representative of important multielectron exchange-correlation effects, whose minimization is a reasonable criteria in the searching for optimal PT one-electron orbital basis. This procedure derives an undoubted profit in the routine many-body calculations as it provides the way of refinement of the atomic characteristics calculations, based on the “first principles”. The relativistic density-functional approximation is taken as the zeroth one. There have taken into account all exchange-correlation corrections of the second order and dominated classes of the higher orders diagrams (polarization interaction, quasiparticles screening, etc.). New form of multi-electron polarization functional is used. As illustration, the results of computing energies, transition probabilities for some heavy ions are presented.",book:{id:"5863",slug:"recent-studies-in-perturbation-theory",title:"Perturbation Theory",fullTitle:"Recent Studies in Perturbation Theory"},signatures:"Alexander V. Glushkov, Olga Yu. Khetselius, Andrey A. Svinarenko,\nVasily V. Buyadzhi, Valentin B. Ternovsky, Anna A. Kuznetsova and\nPetr G. Bashkarev",authors:[{id:"13795",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:"V.",surname:"Glushkov",slug:"alexander-glushkov",fullName:"Alexander Glushkov"},{id:"48675",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Prepelitsa",slug:"george-prepelitsa",fullName:"George Prepelitsa"},{id:"201182",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey",middleName:null,surname:"Svinarenko",slug:"andrey-svinarenko",fullName:"Andrey Svinarenko"},{id:"207215",title:"Prof.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Khetselius",slug:"olga-khetselius",fullName:"Olga Khetselius"},{id:"207216",title:"Mr.",name:"Vasily",middleName:null,surname:"Buyadzhi",slug:"vasily-buyadzhi",fullName:"Vasily Buyadzhi"},{id:"207217",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentin",middleName:null,surname:"Ternovsky",slug:"valentin-ternovsky",fullName:"Valentin Ternovsky"},{id:"207218",title:"Dr.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Bashkarev",slug:"petr-bashkarev",fullName:"Petr Bashkarev"}]},{id:"63095",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79870",title:"Understanding Low-Dose Exposure and Field Effects to Resolve the Field-Laboratory Paradox: Multifaceted Biological Effects from the Fukushima Nuclear Accident",slug:"understanding-low-dose-exposure-and-field-effects-to-resolve-the-field-laboratory-paradox-multifacet",totalDownloads:1242,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Many reports about the biological effects of the Fukushima nuclear accident on various wild organisms have accumulated in recent years. Results from field-based laboratory experiments using the pale grass blue butterfly have clearly demonstrated that this butterfly is highly sensitive to “low-dose” internal exposure from field-contaminated host-plant leaves. These experimental results are fully consistent with the filed-collection results reporting high abnormality rates. In contrast, this butterfly is highly resistant against the internal exposure to chemically pure radioactive cesium chloride under laboratory conditions. To resolve this field-laboratory paradox, I propose that the field effects, which are a collection of indirect effects that work through different modes of action than do the conventional direct effects, play an important role in the “low-dose” exposure results in the field. In other words, exclusively focusing on the effects of direct radiation, as predicted by dosimetric analysis, may be too simplistic. In this chapter, I provide a working definition and discuss the possible variation in the field effects. I include an example on the misunderstanding of the field effects In the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) 2017 Report. Lastly, I discuss a theoretical application of the butterfly model to humans.",book:{id:"7287",slug:"new-trends-in-nuclear-science",title:"New Trends in Nuclear Science",fullTitle:"New Trends in Nuclear Science"},signatures:"Joji M. Otaki",authors:[{id:"208068",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Joji",middleName:"M.",surname:"Otaki",slug:"joji-otaki",fullName:"Joji Otaki"}]},{id:"54948",doi:"10.5772/68026",title:"Detection and Measurement of Quantum Gravity by a Curvature Energy Sensor: H-States of Curvature Energy",slug:"detection-and-measurement-of-quantum-gravity-by-a-curvature-energy-sensor-h-states-of-curvature-ener",totalDownloads:1284,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The curvature energy as spectra of a field observable that is resulted of the variation of energy due to the speed of direction change in the space, is measured and detected by a sensor designed and developed through H-fields of energy that are superposes, obtaining strong variations in the fermion state to the H-torsion (second curvature energy) of the space-time via the gravitational covariant derivative having that the actions can be consigned to these H-fields as Majorana states with a corresponding action of gauge field. Likewise, in this chapter, some geometrical models of these H-states and their spectra of curvature are generated and discussed, which are extrapolated to the design of curvature energy sensors to quantum gravity.",book:{id:"5863",slug:"recent-studies-in-perturbation-theory",title:"Perturbation Theory",fullTitle:"Recent Studies in Perturbation Theory"},signatures:"Francisco Bulnes",authors:[{id:"92918",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Bulnes",slug:"francisco-bulnes",fullName:"Francisco Bulnes"}]},{id:"54848",doi:"10.5772/67856",title:"Perturbed Differential Equations with Singular Points",slug:"perturbed-differential-equations-with-singular-points",totalDownloads:1473,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Here, we generalize the boundary layer functions method (or composite asymptotic expansion) for bisingular perturbed differential equations (BPDE that is perturbed differential equations with singular point). We will construct a uniform valid asymptotic solution of the singularly perturbed first-order equation with a turning point, for BPDE of the Airy type and for BPDE of the second-order with a regularly singular point, and for the boundary value problem of Cole equation with a weak singularity.A uniform valid expansion of solution of Lighthill model equation by the method of uniformization and the explicit solution—this one by the generalization method of the boundary layer function—is constructed. Furthermore, we construct a uniformly convergent solution of the Lagerstrom model equation by the method of fictitious parameter.",book:{id:"5863",slug:"recent-studies-in-perturbation-theory",title:"Perturbation Theory",fullTitle:"Recent Studies in Perturbation Theory"},signatures:"Keldibay Alymkulov and Dilmurat Adbillajanovich Tursunov",authors:[{id:"200572",title:"Dr.",name:"Keldibay",middleName:null,surname:"Alymkulov",slug:"keldibay-alymkulov",fullName:"Keldibay Alymkulov"},{id:"205100",title:"Dr.",name:"Dilmurat",middleName:"Abdillajanovich",surname:"Tursunov",slug:"dilmurat-tursunov",fullName:"Dilmurat Tursunov"}]},{id:"57723",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71962",title:"History of Uranium Mining in Central Europe",slug:"history-of-uranium-mining-in-central-europe",totalDownloads:1460,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The Central European deposits were the first industrially mined uranium deposits in the world. Uranium minerals were noticed by miners in the Ore Mts. area (Saxony, Bohemia) for a long time prior the uranium discovery. The uranium mineral pitchblende was reported from this ore district as early as 1565. Pitchblende was firstly extracted for production of colouring agents used in the glassmaking industry. The German chemist Klaproth in 1789 detected uranium by analysing pitchblende. In 1896, A.H. Becquerel discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity. His student Marie Sklodowska-Curie recognized that pitchblende has higher radioactivity as pure uranium salts. Later, together with her husband P. Curie, they discovered two new elements: radium and polonium. Research by O. Hahn and its colleges led later to using of uranium as first nuclear weapons. The significant amount of uranium ores for producing of the Russian nuclear weapons and nuclear power plants in the former Eastern Bloc was mined in the East Germany (GDR) and Czechoslovakia. The total production of uranium ores in GDR from 1946 to 2012 was 219,626 t U. In Czechoslovakia, the total uranium production from 1945 to 2017 was 112,250 t U.",book:{id:"6303",slug:"uranium-safety-resources-separation-and-thermodynamic-calculation",title:"Uranium",fullTitle:"Uranium - Safety, Resources, Separation and Thermodynamic Calculation"},signatures:"Miloš René",authors:[{id:"142108",title:"Dr.",name:"Miloš",middleName:null,surname:"René",slug:"milos-rene",fullName:"Miloš René"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"62792",title:"Nuclear Reactor Simulation",slug:"nuclear-reactor-simulation",totalDownloads:1378,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"A summary is described about nuclear power reactors analyses and simulations in the last decades with emphasis in recent developments for full 3D reactor core simulations using highly advanced computing techniques. The development of the computer code AZKIND is presented as a practical exercise. AZKIND is based on multi-group time dependent neutron diffusion theory. A space discretization is applied using the nodal finite element method RTN-0; for time discretization the ?-method is used. A high-performance computing (HPC) methodology was implemented to solve the linear algebraic system. The numerical solution of large matrix-vector systems for full 3D reactor cores is achieved with acceleration tools from the open-source PARALUTION library. This acceleration consists of threading thousands of arithmetic operations into GPUs. The acceleration is demonstrated for different nuclear fuel arrays giving extremely large matrices. To consider the thermal-hydraulic (TH) feedback, several strategies are nowadays implemented and under development. In AZKIND, a simplified coupling between the neutron kinetics (NK) model and TH model is implemented for reactor core simulations, for which the TH variables are used to update nuclear data (cross sections). Test cases have been documented in the literature and demonstrate the HPC capabilities in the field of nuclear reactors analysis.",book:{id:"7287",slug:"new-trends-in-nuclear-science",title:"New Trends in Nuclear Science",fullTitle:"New Trends in Nuclear Science"},signatures:"Andrés Rodríguez Hernández, Armando Miguel Gómez-Torres and Edmundo del Valle-Gallegos",authors:null},{id:"55074",title:"Green Function",slug:"green-function",totalDownloads:1634,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Both the scalar Green function and the dyadic Green function of an electromagnetic field and the transform from the scalar to dyadic Green function are introduced. The Green function of a transmission line and the propagators are also presented in this chapter.",book:{id:"5863",slug:"recent-studies-in-perturbation-theory",title:"Perturbation Theory",fullTitle:"Recent Studies in Perturbation Theory"},signatures:"Jing Huang",authors:[{id:"198550",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"jing-huang",fullName:"Jing Huang"}]},{id:"57723",title:"History of Uranium Mining in Central Europe",slug:"history-of-uranium-mining-in-central-europe",totalDownloads:1454,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The Central European deposits were the first industrially mined uranium deposits in the world. Uranium minerals were noticed by miners in the Ore Mts. area (Saxony, Bohemia) for a long time prior the uranium discovery. The uranium mineral pitchblende was reported from this ore district as early as 1565. Pitchblende was firstly extracted for production of colouring agents used in the glassmaking industry. The German chemist Klaproth in 1789 detected uranium by analysing pitchblende. In 1896, A.H. Becquerel discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity. His student Marie Sklodowska-Curie recognized that pitchblende has higher radioactivity as pure uranium salts. Later, together with her husband P. Curie, they discovered two new elements: radium and polonium. Research by O. Hahn and its colleges led later to using of uranium as first nuclear weapons. The significant amount of uranium ores for producing of the Russian nuclear weapons and nuclear power plants in the former Eastern Bloc was mined in the East Germany (GDR) and Czechoslovakia. The total production of uranium ores in GDR from 1946 to 2012 was 219,626 t U. In Czechoslovakia, the total uranium production from 1945 to 2017 was 112,250 t U.",book:{id:"6303",slug:"uranium-safety-resources-separation-and-thermodynamic-calculation",title:"Uranium",fullTitle:"Uranium - Safety, Resources, Separation and Thermodynamic Calculation"},signatures:"Miloš René",authors:[{id:"142108",title:"Dr.",name:"Miloš",middleName:null,surname:"René",slug:"milos-rene",fullName:"Miloš René"}]},{id:"54848",title:"Perturbed Differential Equations with Singular Points",slug:"perturbed-differential-equations-with-singular-points",totalDownloads:1467,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Here, we generalize the boundary layer functions method (or composite asymptotic expansion) for bisingular perturbed differential equations (BPDE that is perturbed differential equations with singular point). We will construct a uniform valid asymptotic solution of the singularly perturbed first-order equation with a turning point, for BPDE of the Airy type and for BPDE of the second-order with a regularly singular point, and for the boundary value problem of Cole equation with a weak singularity.A uniform valid expansion of solution of Lighthill model equation by the method of uniformization and the explicit solution—this one by the generalization method of the boundary layer function—is constructed. Furthermore, we construct a uniformly convergent solution of the Lagerstrom model equation by the method of fictitious parameter.",book:{id:"5863",slug:"recent-studies-in-perturbation-theory",title:"Perturbation Theory",fullTitle:"Recent Studies in Perturbation Theory"},signatures:"Keldibay Alymkulov and Dilmurat Adbillajanovich Tursunov",authors:[{id:"200572",title:"Dr.",name:"Keldibay",middleName:null,surname:"Alymkulov",slug:"keldibay-alymkulov",fullName:"Keldibay Alymkulov"},{id:"205100",title:"Dr.",name:"Dilmurat",middleName:"Abdillajanovich",surname:"Tursunov",slug:"dilmurat-tursunov",fullName:"Dilmurat Tursunov"}]},{id:"58667",title:"Uranium in Poland: Resources and Recovery from Low-Grade Ores",slug:"uranium-in-poland-resources-and-recovery-from-low-grade-ores",totalDownloads:1260,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The presented studies deal with an assessment of the possibility of uranium recovery from the low-grade uranium resources in Poland. Uranium was leached from the ground uranium ores with efficiencies in 81–100% range that depend on the type of ore and leaching solution used. In the next step, the post-leaching solution was treated by the solvent extraction or ion exchange chromatography to separate uranium from other metals present in the ore. The novel routes of leaching by using membrane methods were examined. The final product, “yellow cake,” was obtained in precipitation step. The studies of precipitation of uranium as ammonium diuranate or uranium peroxide from diluted uranium solutions are presented in this chapter. The work was completed with tentative economic analysis and environmental impact assessment along with radiation protection issues connected to uranium production.",book:{id:"6303",slug:"uranium-safety-resources-separation-and-thermodynamic-calculation",title:"Uranium",fullTitle:"Uranium - Safety, Resources, Separation and Thermodynamic Calculation"},signatures:"Katarzyna Kiegiel, Agnieszka Miskiewicz, Dorota Gajda, Sylwester\nSommer, Stanislaw Wolkowicz and Grazyna Zakrzewska-\nKoltuniewicz",authors:[{id:"213312",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Kiegiel",slug:"katarzyna-kiegiel",fullName:"Katarzyna Kiegiel"},{id:"213313",title:"Prof.",name:"Grazyna",middleName:null,surname:"Zakrzewska-Koltuniewicz",slug:"grazyna-zakrzewska-koltuniewicz",fullName:"Grazyna Zakrzewska-Koltuniewicz"},{id:"213314",title:"Dr.",name:"Agnieszka",middleName:null,surname:"Miskiewicz",slug:"agnieszka-miskiewicz",fullName:"Agnieszka Miskiewicz"},{id:"213315",title:"MSc.",name:"Dorota",middleName:null,surname:"Gajda",slug:"dorota-gajda",fullName:"Dorota Gajda"},{id:"213316",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylwester",middleName:null,surname:"Sommer",slug:"sylwester-sommer",fullName:"Sylwester Sommer"},{id:"213317",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw",middleName:null,surname:"Wolkowicz",slug:"stanislaw-wolkowicz",fullName:"Stanislaw Wolkowicz"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"752",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",slug:"alexandros-tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. 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Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/349717",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"349717"},fullPath:"/profiles/349717",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()