\r\n\tBook, “Mites, Ticks and Humans", is written by keeping in vision non-availability of any standard text dealing in different aspects of acarology at one place. Separate chapters in this book are devoted to medical importance of mites and ticks; ectoparasites, endoparasites and disease transmitting mites; classification, biology and epidemiology of dust mites; manifestations, diagnostics and preventions of dust mites allergy; ticks transmission of disease causing pathogens; and measures to mitigate mites and ticks. Book will stimulate interest in the readers for more information about different mites and ticks affecting publics. The knowledge contained in the book may prove as best material for graduate and post-graduate level courses, teachers and researchers in entomology, pestss control advisors, professional entomologists, pesticide industry managers, policy planners, and other experts having interest in mites and ticks.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"1ab684433f948520e8e90a2e74e2801a",bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Sarwar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8964.jpg",keywords:"Basic biology, Diversity of lifestyles, Scabies, Mange, Ecosystem, Soil mite, Dust mites allergy, Asthma, Vectors, Dispersal or spreading modes, Pest management, Detection and survey",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 28th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 16th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 15th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 3rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 3rd 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"272992",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarwar",slug:"muhammad-sarwar",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272992/images/system/272992.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Sarwar, Principal Scientist, is in his thirtieth year of service with the Department of Agriculture, Government of Punjab. He is also currently working for the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. He completed his post doctorate in 2008, funded by the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan from the Institute of Plant Protection in the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China. He has several hundred published papers to his credit and is recipient of the Shield award, letters of appreciation, and certificates of performance from faculty members of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China. In 2010, the Zoological Society of Pakistan presented him with the Prof. Dr. Mirza Azhar Beg Gold Medal. In 2011, the Pakistan Council for Science and Technology awarded him a Research Productivity Award.\n\nHis research activities focus on integrated pest management for rice, cotton, chickpea, and Brassica crops; predatory mites, ladybird beetles, Chrysoperla, Trichogramma, and parasitoids of fruit flies culturing as bio-control agents; integrated management of fruit flies and mosquitos; and other arthropod pest control methodologies. He has also researched vertebrate pest control, especially controls of rodents in field crops and storage. He was the first to explore thirty-six new species of stored grain mites belonging to eight genera, including Forcellinia, Lackerbaueria, Acotyledon, Caloglyphus, and Troupeauia in the Acaridae family; and Capronomoia, Histiostoma, and Glyphanoetus in the Histiostomatidae family. He also planned and designed research trials on the integrated management of cotton leaf curl virus (CLCV), pest scouting, pest monitoring, and forecasting. He conducted training of progressive farmers and field staff, and provided advisory services to the farmers regarding plant protection practices. He also trained pesticide dealers on the proper handling, distribution, and storing of pesticides.\n\nUnder a coordinated research program, Dr. Sarwar collaborated with other institutes to trace resistance sources for cotton, rice, gram, rapeseed, mustard plants, and stored cereals and pulses. He has supervised post-graduate research and is an external examiner for post-graduate studies. He has also organized various workshops, served as a reviewer for scientific journals, and is a member of various working committees. He is responsible for opening up a new avenue on rearing of predatory mites as bio-control agents of insects and mites pests in greenhouse and field crops.\n\t\nDr. Sarwar is an approved supervisor with the Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan. He completed a course in Basic Management organized by the Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Islamabad, in 2011. He has also completed trainings in Beijing, Bangkok, Havana, and Vienna. His is a lifetime member of the Zoological Society of Pakistan.",institutionString:"National Institute for Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8191",title:"Life Cycle and Development of Diptera",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3610997886df57ea1ec1cf71b0ff8ce2",slug:"life-cycle-and-development-of-diptera",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarwar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8191.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"272992",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Sarwar",slug:"muhammad-sarwar",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6418",title:"Hyperspectral Imaging in Agriculture, Food and Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9005c36534a5dc065577a011aea13d4d",slug:"hyperspectral-imaging-in-agriculture-food-and-environment",bookSignature:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado, Humberto Rodríguez Fuentes and Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6418.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105774",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Isabel",surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"alejandro-isabel-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10359",title:"Landraces",subtitle:"Traditional Variety and Natural Breed",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0600836fb2c422f7b624363d1e854f68",slug:"landraces-traditional-variety-and-natural-breed",bookSignature:"Amr Elkelish",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10359.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231337",title:"Dr.",name:"Amr",surname:"Elkelish",slug:"amr-elkelish",fullName:"Amr Elkelish"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"81824",title:"Natural Products as Antibiofilm Agents",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104434",slug:"natural-products-as-antibiofilm-agents",body:'
1. Introduction
The empirical approach to antimicrobial therapy among health care professionals and the concurrent patronage of over-the-counter antibiotics by patients have together caused an exponential rise in multidrug resistance among clinically relevant antimicrobials and with increasing trends for the past two decades [1]. Different mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance have been proposed, including the (i) alteration of the antibiotic target by genetic mutations or post-translational modification, (ii) deactivation of the antibiotic through hydrolysis or modification, such as phosphorylation by an enzyme, (iii) increased efflux of the antibiotic out of the cell by efflux pumps and porins, (iv) decreased influx/penetration of the antibiotic into the cell, through changes in cell wall structure; and overproduction of the antibiotic target through gene amplification [2]. However, one of bacteria’s preferred and commonly deployed strategies to overcome the effect of antimicrobials is the formation of biofilms. Over 90% of pathogenic bacterial species, including Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa), possess an inherent ability to produce biofilms, making biofilms the leading cause of multidrug resistance among microorganisms [3, 4, 5].
Biofilm is a complex community of sessile microbial communities embedded in a self-producing polymeric matrix comprising exopolysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids, and cell surface proteins [6, 7, 8]. As a community of microorganisms, biofilms constitute either a single microbial species or a combination of a different class of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, archaea, and yeast, with a unique ability to colonize almost any environmental niche, biotic or inert surfaces [9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. Biofilm enables microorganisms to withstand harsh environmental conditions such as nutrient deficiencies, high osmotic pressure, the low potential of hydrogen, oxidative stress, and antimicrobial insults [14]. The increased resistance of biofilms to antimicrobials arise from phenotypic cell variation and gene transcription. In particular, there is an exponential growth of microorganisms and genetic transfer of extrachromosomal elements via cell-to-cell communication system called quorum sensing [14, 15, 16, 17]. Quorum sensing is critical in the development and survival of biofilms; thus, it regulates the nutritional demands of microorganisms within the biofilm to meet the external supply of resources [18, 19]. In addition quorum sensing is essential for the biosynthesis and secretion of small molecule signals that activate a range of downstream processes including virulence and drug resistance mechanisms as seen in biofilms [20, 21].
The health risks of biofilms are enormous, which underscore their utilization in plant protection, bioremediation, wastewater treatment, and corrosion prevention in agricultural and industrial settings [22, 23, 24]. In particular, the biofilm grows on living human tissues such as the lungs and teeth and the surfaces of implanted biomedical devices, including contact lenses, central venous catheters [8, 25], prosthetic joints, pacemakers, and intrauterine devices [7]. Unlike single bacterial plankton cells, the treatment of biofilm-mediated infections is challenging owing to the decreased susceptibility to antimicrobial agents and other chemotherapeutics. The availability of qualitative (such as Congo red agar, microtitre plate, tube methods) and quantitative (including polymerase chain reaction (PCR)) techniques have enabled the detection and measurement of biofilms [26]. Conversely, the evaluation and screening of antimicrobials against biofilms are of great challenge. In particular, standard microdilution testing cannot evaluate the susceptibility of biofilms to antimicrobial drugs because these tests focus on planktonic (suspended) organisms rather than biofilm (surface-associated) organisms [7]. Instead, susceptibility must be determined directly against biofilm-associated organisms, preferably under conditions that mimic in vitro and/or in vivo conditions. In this light, several biofilm models systems have been developed to permit accurate screening and evaluation of novel agents for their antibiofilm activity [27, 28].
Although nature has provided a plethora of natural products with varying chemotherapeutic properties to fight human infectious diseases, discovering new and effective antimicrobials has been slow. The decline in the efficacy of existing chemotherapy and the surge in drug resistance has triggered an expedient exploration of natural products, especially from plants and microbial origin, for their antibiofilm activity against biofilm-mediated human infections. Plant extracts and plant-derived chemical products, such as essential oils, flavonoids, terpenoids, have been shown in vitro to have antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity [27, 28, 29, 30, 31]. Secondary metabolites and other peptidic compounds from microorganisms also exhibit antagonistic effects against biofilms [6, 32]. These chemical constituents exert their action by inhibiting critical elements within a biofilm and/or terminating biofilm formation processes [33]. Given the unique nature of plants and microbes, natural products derived from these sources could provide an avenue for developing newly efficacious and clinically desirable chemotherapies against biofilms-mediated infections and their associated health consequences.
This chapter aims to provide a comprehensive summary of natural products from plants and microbial sources as potential sources of antibiofilm agents. Again, it highlights the strategies and model organisms used to identify and evaluate the antibiofilm capacity of these naturally isolated chemical compounds.
2. Biofilm formation
Biofilm formation represents a survival mechanism deployed by microorganisms in response to unfavorable environmental conditions [34]. Structurally, biofilms are a collection of adherent microorganisms in a milieu of an extracellular matrix consisting of polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. This unique architecture enables biofilms to cling firmly to surfaces of implanted body organs and biomedical devices and, more importantly, increase their resistance to antimicrobial therapy. The presence of bacterial secreted glycocalyx and degrading matrix enzymes reduces the antimicrobial concentration of which individual plankton cells within the biofilm are exposed [35, 36].
The morphogenesis of biofilms constitutes five distinct stages; namely, reversible attachment, irreversible adhesion, production of extracellular polymeric substances, biofilm maturation, and dispersal/detachment. As the initial step in biofilm formation, reversible attachment is characterized by the interaction between plankton cells and the conditioned surface. Fewer plankton cells move to the surface of the substrate by convection, pedesis, or sedimentation [37]. Consequently, chemotaxis directs bacterial cells along a nutrient gradient [38]. Upon reaching the surface of the substratum, the interaction between the cell surfaces and the substratum is dependent on the net sum of repulsive or attractive forces generated by the two characters [39, 40]. The presence of fimbriae, flagella, pili, and glycocalyx enables the microorganisms to overcome the repulsive forces (such as electrostatic, hydrophobic, Van der Waals, and hydration interactions) from the substratum and subsequently cling [39, 41, 42]. The rate of biofilms formation is influenced by the substrate’s physicochemical properties, including the surface roughness, hydrophobicity, surface charge, and the presence of conditioning films [41, 43, 44].
Furthermore, bacterial cells transition into an irreversible adhesion phase. Irreversible attachment occurs through the combined effect of short-range forces of the substrate (such as dipole-dipole, hydrogen, ionic and covalent interactions) and adhesive structures of the bacterial cells. The flagella and pili, for instance, are critically important in the attachment process of various strains of microorganisms [45, 46, 47, 48]. For example, Vatanyoopaisarn et al. demonstrated the firm clinging ability of wild-type Listeria monocytogens (L. monocytogens) compared to the non-flagellated mutant type [45]. Similarly, Di Martino and colleagues showed the distinctive role of type one and type three fimbriae in initiating the attachment of Klebsiella pneumonia (K. pneumonia) to abiotic surfaces [46]. Alarcon and coworkers also observed the critical role of pilus in the twitching substrate movement of P. aeruginosa [48].
Moreover, the resident plankton cells produce extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), an essential biofilm component. Quorum sensing and cyclic-di-GMP mediated EPS formation [49, 50, 51, 52]. The formation of EPS promotes cohesion among bacteria and the adhesion of biofilms via hydrophobic and ionic interactions [49, 53, 54]. In addition, EPS is vital in constructing biofilms, maintaining biofilm architecture, quorum sensing, and genetic transfer among individual organisms within the biofilm [49, 55].
The resident bacterial cells proliferate into microcolonies mediated by autoinducers (AIs). AIs are chemical signaling molecules that permit intra-species and inter-species bacterial cell-to-cell communication [56, 57]. The surge in AIs activates critical enzymatic machinery in bacterial species for regulating the formation of microcolonies and the maturation of biofilms [52]. For example, the increase in AIs causes synchronous activation of the 15 gene-long epsA-O in Bacillus subtilis (B. subtilis) that causes an increased production of EPS. The proliferation of microcolonies and the increased accumulation of EPS trigger gene expression [52]. This alteration in gene expression reversibly stimulates additional EPS as adhesive molecules to bind individual plankton cells. In addition to EPS production, water channels are created to facilitate the inflow of nutrients to the individual cells within the biofilm [58]. During the maturation stage of biofilm formation, there is restricted motility of the bacterial cells together with characteristic variation in gene and protein expression between biofilm and plankton cells [59, 60].
The terminal phase of biofilm formation, delineated as detachment or dispersal, is regulated by a complex mechanism constituting signal transduction, effector, and environmental factors [61]. Detachment/dispersal represents a unique phase in the life cycle, where plankton cells segregate and escape from biofilms to establish microcolonies on fresh surfaces [62, 63]. Of note, the dispersal phase of a biofilm is characterized by the detachment of plankton cells from hitherto biofilm, seeding or passive movement of plankton to new uncolonized surfaces, and clinging or attachment to substrates [61, 64, 65].
3. Models for assessing antibiofilm activity
Several methods have been developed to study the antibiofilm activities of various compounds in vitro. However, only a few in vivo strategies for studying biofilms have been described. Given the importance of bacterial biofilm infections worldwide, we describie some models for assessing the efficacy of antibiofilm compounds in vivo.
3.1 The human organoid model
The human epidermis organoid model has a tough methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) USA300 and P. aeruginosa PAO1 biofilm system for studying host-microbe interplay and enable the screening of novel antibiofilm agents. This model allows the screening of synthetic host peptides to reveal their superior antibiofilm activity against MRSA compared to the antibiotic mupirocin. This model provides an exciting tool for elucidating disease pathology and testing novel drugs toxicities and efficacies. It also has the added advantage of reducing the use of animals in pre-clinical testing and replacing in vivo infection models with an ethical alternative that better reflects human disease [27].
This method involves establishing bacterial biofilm by seeding the center of the skin model with 5 µL of 2 × 108 CFU/ml of MRSA or P. aeruginosa PA01 or fluorescently-tagged MRSA or PA01-mCherry or luminescent MRSA-lux or PA01-lux resuspended in PBS and cultured at 37°C and 7.3% CO2. 30 µL of 1–4 mg/ml DJK-5 peptide was then added on top of the biofilm for 4 h, 1–3 days post inoculation. Luminisense signal are monitored daily after the establishment of infection until luminescence are observed in the culture medium underneath the skin. This is to study how long the skin could endure biofilm growth. ChemiDoc imaging system is used to visualize biofilms and bacterial counts quantified by sonicating, votexing and serially diluting excised skin samples on agar plates [27].
3.2 Wound models
Among the most widely used models to investigate antibiofilm compounds is the skin wound model. It involves either causing damage to the skin (abrasion, burns or surgical excisions) and subsequently infecting the injured region with biofilm-forming bacteria, or inducing the formation of absess or wounds by seeding high-density biofilm forming bacteria subcutaneously. The commonly used clinically relevant organisms are S. aureus, Stapylococcus epidermidis (Staphylococcus epidermidis) and P. aeuruginosa [66]. The inoculum can differ depending on the expected severity of the infection ranging from acute to chronic, with chronic infections mimicking biofilm infection in human more accurately. Recovery and/or healing of the infected wound therefore indicates antibiofilm activity. Effectiveness of antibiofilm compounds can also be assessed by (a) examining the infectious process and recovery via real-time imaging with an in vivo imaging system as well as wound size measurement using calipers and photographs, (b) tissue analysis to assess tissue regeneration process, (c) assessment of genetic fingerprints associated with the formation of biofilms such as pslD, mucC and quorum sensing related genes (d) analysis of inflammatory patterns (e) assessmet of underlying organs [67, 68].
3.3 Oral infections model
Various biofilms from disease and non-disease causing microorganisms results in the formation of dental caries. Dental caries results from the interation between diet and microbiota-matrix that occur on the oral surface [69]. This is mostly replicated in animal models using newly weaned rats. Prior treatmet with antbiotics is essential to elimintate existing microbiome. Subsequently, the animals are fed with cariogenic diet while also receiving the bacteria (e.g. Streptococcus mutans (S. mutans)) orally daily for period of 5–7 days. The infection is ascertained by sowing oral samples. The topical application of the compounds is carried out on the teeth, daily for 30–45 days and the mandibles and molars excised at the end of the study to evalauate the carious lesions [70].
Periodontitis can as well be replicated in animal models using its associated bacteria (e.g. Streptococcus gordoni (S. gordoni) and Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis)) and confirmed by oral sowing or PCR analysis [71]. The treatment can be perfomed topically either to prevent or eradicate already formed biofilm infection. The animals are euthanized at the end of the experiment, and the skull excised for alveolar bone loss assay of the maxilla [71, 72].
3.4 Respiratory tract chronic infections model
The primary organism associated with biofilm lung infection in cystic fibrosis (CF) has been identified to be P. aeruginosa. In the cystic fibrosis murine model, bacteria are inoculated either intrathecally, intranasally or by instillation [73]. The inoculum and the frequency of inoculation underscores the severity of infection. Bacteria carriers such as alginate formed by the bacteria strain itself or by bacteria incorporation on agar beads can be used to establish chronic pulmonary infection. Intrathecal instillation is however, the most preferred route for inoculation of bacteria in this scenario [74].
Clinical isolates of P. aeuruginosa has also been used in some models. This model has an advantage of having a shorter time between establishment of infection and end of treatment than that described above. Since the bacteria is directly inoculated, it can result in severe acute respiratory distress (SARS) and eventually death even before treatment has been effective [67].
3.5 Foreign body infection model
The ability of biofilm forming bacteria to grow and multiply on the surfaces of certain medical devices [75] has led to the discovery of this model. The preformation of biofilm on these surgically implanted foreign bodies affect the activity of defense cells [25]. This model can be executed using two (2) approaches. These are Site Specific Device Model where biofilm forming bacteria are introduced at the injection site after devices are placed in particular organ or region in humans for evaluation of antibiofilm activity, and Subcutaneous Device Model where deliberately colonized foreign bodies are inserted in the subcutaneous layer, mostly at the back of the animals [76]. In Site Specific Device Model, antibiofim activity is measured at the part of the device that made contact with bacteria or measured by bacterial recovery at injection site [75]. In Subcutaneous Device Model, the mobility of antibiofilm peptides can be restricted with the aim of preventing bacterial contact and eventually biofilm development [75]. However other modes of assessment like histological analysis, imaging by IVIS, scanning microscopy, and inflammatory response detection can also be employed in evaluating antibiofilm activity in test organisms [75].
4. Methods used to determine anti-biofilm effects of natural products
Bacteria undergo an evolutionary mechanism to withstand harsh environmental conditions. The antibacterial agents derived from natural sources may serve as an effective alternative due to the presence of secondary metabolites, which possess selectional advantages against the biofilm-forming microorganisms [77, 78, 79]. Several methods have been reported as reliable protocols to investigate the anti-biofilm effects of natural products (Table 1) [80, 81]. Crystal violet assay is the widely accepted assay used to identify the anti-biofilm potentials of natural products despite the limitation, including the repeated washing that could lead to loss of cells and biofilm disruption [77, 80, 82, 83]. Other methods used to determine the antibiofilm effects of natural products are the Tissue Culture Plate (TCP) method [84], which exists as the most typical use standard method and is a comparatively reliable method to Congo Red Agar method (CRA) and Tube method [85]. Tube method and Congo red agar methods qualitatively detect biofilm formed, whiles the tissue culture plate method quantitatively determines the amount of biofilm formed [76]. Real time, conventional and multiplex PCR are other techniques used at molecular level to detect biofilm genes [86, 87, 88].
Method of biofilm detection
Principle
Aim
Tissue culture plate
It involves the staining of cells with crystal violet dye [77, 85, 91]
Biofilm detected quantitatively
Tube method
Crystal violet staining where visible lining forms at the bottom and wall of the tube [85]
Biofilm detected qualitatively
Congo red agar
Congo red staining formed black colonies crystals [84, 91, 92, 93]
Amplification of DNA to the generation of fluorescence which can simply be detected [95, 96]
Detection of biofilm genes
Table 1.
Methods to determine anti-biofilm effects of natural products.
In measuring the anti-biofilm activities of natural products, viability and matrix biomass can be assessed, where resazurin and crystal violet staining are performed sequentially in the same plate. Wheat germ agglutinin-Alexa Fluor 488 fluorescent conjugate is mainly used to stain the matrix, which is essential to measure the biofilm matrix, biomass, and viability to investigate the potencies of anti-biofilm effects of natural products [89, 90].
5. Antibiofilm agents from nature
5.1 Plant-derived antibiofilm agents
Plants have since time immemorial served as a source of therapeutics for the treatment and prevention of a plethora of diseases. This practice continues today, with more than 80% of people globally reportedly using various herbal remedies as a source of primary healthcare [97]. In mainstream medicine, plants have proven to be a prolific source of novel chemical matter from which essential drugs used to treat various diseases have been developed [98]. Galvanized by the emergence and spread of the antimicrobial drug resistance phenomena, numerous plant species have been thoroughly investigated as novel sources of antibacterial agents. To complement these strategies, the search for agents that can reverse resistance (resistance breakers) or target alternative mechanisms of overcoming antibacterial resistance, including biofilms, is being pursued [99, 100]. Plants have been identified as a potential oasis of such agents, prompting many studies in the last decade inspired towards the search for antibiofilm agents from plants. This section summarizes current studies on the investigation of antibiofilm agents, including crude extracts, fractions thereof, and pure compounds from plants (Tables 2 and 3; Figure 1).
100% inhibition of S. aureus biofilm formation at 9.8 μg/ml [132]
5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (Musa acuminata)
83% inhibition at 10 μg/ml against P. aeruginosa [133]
Lupulone (H. lupulus)
100% inhibition of S. aureus biofilm formation at 1.2 μg/ml [132]
Cyanidin 3-O-glucoside (Lonicera caerulea)
MICB50 = 3.3 μg/ml against Porphyromonas gingivalis [134]
Hodiendiol I (P. artemisioides)
78, 75 and 13% inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus biofilms at 4 μg/ml [119]
Negletein (S. oblonga)
72–88% reduction of biofilms of S. aureus, B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa and E. coli at 12 μg/ml [135]
Syringopicroside (Syringa oblata)
92% inhibition at 1,28 μg/ml against S. aureus [136]
Quercitin-3-glucoside (S. oblonga)
92–98% reduction of biofilms of S. aureus, B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa and E. coli at 12 μg/ml [135]
Panduratin A (Kaempferia pandurate)
Prevented S. mutans and S. sanguis biofilm growth by >50% at 8 μg/ml, and reduced the biofilms by >70% at 10 μg/ml [124]
Table 3.
Potent antibiofilm plant-derived compounds.
Figure 1.
Chemical structures of some active plant derived antibiofilm compounds.
5.1.1 Apiaceae
Despite being one of the least investigated, the Apiaceae plant family has produced some of the most prolific antibiofilm plant species. Among them is the annual herb Trachyspermum ammi popularly called bishop’s weed [101]. Investigations on its seed led the isolation of a potent novel naphthalene compound, (4aS, 5R, 8aS) 5, 8a-di-1-propyl-octahydronaphthalen-1-(2H)-one, which remarkably inhibited both adherence (IC50 = 39.06 μg/ml) and formation of S. mutans biofilms (~60% inhibition at 78.13 μg/ml) in vitro (Figure 2). This activity was strikingly more pronounced than its parent compound’s bacteriostatic and bactericidal properties (MIC = 156.25 μg/ml; MBC = 312.5 μg/ml) against S. mutans [101]. Thymol, a monoterpenoid isolated from Carum copticum, showed good activity against three bacterial species, namely Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli (E. coli), and Enterobacter cloacae (E. cloacea), at sub-MIC levels, reducing biofilm formation by 80, 78, and 83%, respectively at 50 μg/ml (Figure 2). The compound was approximately fourfold more potent than its parent species [102].
Figure 2.
Chemical structures of (4aS, 5R, 8aS) 5, 8a-di-1-propyl-octahydronaphthalen-1-(2H)-one and thymol.
5.1.2 Asteraceae
The Asteraceae is one of the most prominent species-rich plant families that produce highly active terpenoid compounds. A study on Helichrysum italicum led to the isolation of 21 compounds demonstrating varied activity of either inhibiting the formation or eradication of preformed P. aeruginosa biofilms. From the 21 compounds screened, chlorogenic acid emerged as the most active inhibiting biofilm formation (45% inhibition at 128 μg/ml). In contrast, biofilm eradication for all compounds was weak (<30%) [103]. Chondrillasterol, a terpenoid isolated from the plant Vernonia adoensis, has shown an intriguing activity profile being more potent in disrupting P. aeruginosa biofilms (complete disruption at 1.6 μg/ml) in comparison to inhibiting biofilm formation (wholly inhibited at 100 μg/ml) (Figure 3) [104].
Figure 3.
Chemical structure of chondrillasterol.
5.1.3 Burseraceae
An aqueous extract of Commiphora leptophloeos showed promising inhibition of Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm formation on different surfaces. At a concentration of 4 mg/ml, an aqueous stem bark extract of C. leptophloeos showed equipotent activity on inhibiting S. epidermis biofilms on a polystyrene (84% inhibition) and glass surface (82% inhibition) [105].Boswellia papyrifera (B. papyrifera) is a deciduous tree 12 m high with a rounded crown, a white to pale brown bark that peels off in large flakes and exudes a fragrant resin [106]. Traditionally, as therapeutics, its leaves and roots are used to manage lymphadenopathy, while the resin serves as a febrifuge. The burnt leaves of B. papyrifera act as a mosquito repellent [107]. Essential oils obtained from B. papyrifera resin inhibited preformed S. epidermidis and S. aureus biofilms by 99–71%, and 95.3–59.1% at 217.3–6.8 μg/ml, respectively [108]. At a sub-MIC concentration of 0.27 μg/ml, the essential oil of B. papyrifera observed, under fluorescence microscopy, showed to inhibit the adhesion of stained S. epidermidis cells [109].
5.1.4 Combretaceae
The medicinal plant Terminalia bellerica (T. bellerica) is found predominantly in India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and South-East Asia. Its fruits are traditionally used as a laxative, astringent, and antipyretic in treating menstrual disorder, piles, and leprosy. An investigation by Ahmed et al. [109] showed that the dried fruits of T. bellerica ethanol extracts could inhibit S. mutans biofilm formation in vitro on a glass surface by 92.2% at 250 μg/ml. Another Terminalia species, T. fagifolia, has been shown to have good antibiofilm properties. The ethanol stem bark extract of T. fagifolia inhibited the formation of preformed S. epidermis and S. aureus strains in vitro. It was particularly active against S. epidermis by inhibiting biofilm formation by ~70% at a sub-MIC concentration of 12.5 μg/ml compared to ~85% inhibition at 50 μg/ml against S. aureus [110]. Similarly, a water fraction of Combretum elaeagnoides showed potency against multiple species being able to reduce biofilm formation of S. aureus, Salmonella typhimurium (S. typhimurium), Salmonella enteritidis (S. enteriditis), Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Enterobacter cloacae by 80, 73, 63, 54, and 66%, respectively, at 1 mg/ml [111].
5.1.5 Fabaceae
Along with the Asteraceae, the Fabaceae family is one plant species that has received substantial interest as a source of antibiofilm agents. Copaifera pauper C. paupera) is a medicinal tree commonly found in South America that exhibits activity against monospecies and multispecies formed biofilms [112]. For the monospecies (Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans and Porphyromonas gingivalis) produced biofilms, C. paupera oleoresins showed marked activity against the individual strains and with IC50 (eradication of biofilm) values of 58.66 μg/ml and 104.9 μg/ml, respectively. Activity against the multispecies biofilms was marginally lower with a measured IC50 (eradication of biofilm) of 594.5 μg/ml. Copaifera pubiflora oleoresins have shown a similar pattern of activity against individual A. actinomycetemcomitans [IC50 (eradication of biofilm) = 189.4 μg/ml)] and P. gingivalis [IC50 (eradication of biofilm) = 94.02 μg/ml)] strains and their combined multispecies biofilm [IC50 (eradication of biofilm) = 556.8 μg/ml)]. Three compounds, namely polylactic acid, hardwikiic acid, and kaurenoic acid, have been isolated from a Copaifera spp. and also shown to have potency against both the monospecies and multispecies biofilms of A. actinomycetemcomitans and P. gingivalis [IC50 (eradication of biofilm) ranging from 55.79 to 462 μg/ml)] [112]. Other species that have shown marked activity against multispecies biofilms include Pityrocarpa moniliformis, Anadenanthera colubrina, and Dioclea grandiflora [112].
Trigonella foenum-graceum (T. foenum-graceum), commonly called fenugreek, is an annual legume and a traditional spice crop native to the eastern Mediterranean. It has been known for its medicinal properties in the Mediterranean and Asian cultures for many years. Fenugreek seeds are traditionally used as laxative, expectorant, carminative, and demulcent [113]. The methanol extracts of T. foenum-graceum seeds inhibited P. aeruginosa biofilms in a dose-dependent pattern (24.1–68.7% at 125–1000 μg/ml) without affecting bacterial proliferation [114]. The extract caused a reduction to the exopolysaccharide (EPS) produced by P. aeruginosa biofilms. In addition to P. aeruginosa, T. foenum-graceum showed activity against the aquatic pathogen Aeromonas hydrophila reducing EPS production and biofilm formation by 46 and 76.9%, respectively, at 800 μg/ml [114].
5.1.6 Lamiaceae
The Lamiaceae is a family of flowering plants commonly known as the mint family with a cosmopolitan distribution containing about 236 genera and about 6900–7200 species. Many plants in this family are aromatic and include widely used culinary herbs like basil, mint, rosemary, and sage [115]. Several Lamiaceae species have been interrogated for their antibiofilm activity and have shown pronounced activity against different biofilm stages of various microorganisms. One such species is the plant Marrubium vulgare (M. vulgare), a perennial herb found right across the globe. The plant is well renowned for its medicinal properties and serves as a therapeutic agent for several ailments, including gastrointestinal disorders, asthma, pulmonary infections, and ulcers. The aqueous decoctions of M. vulgare inhibited adherence of methicillin-resistant S. aureus biofilms with IC50 of 8 μg/ml and IC90 of 128 μg/ml [116]. However, the plant was less effective in inhibiting S. aureus biofilm growth on a plastic surface (31% inhibition at 128 μg/ml). Surprisingly, at the highest test concentration of 128 μg/ml, M. vulgare showed no bacteriostatic activity suggesting the species is selectively more potent against biofilm mechanisms. Aqueous extract prepared from the aerial parts of Ballota nigra, mirrored this bioactivity profile. Specifically, inhibiting methicillin-resistant S. aureus biofilm formation and adherence by 45–90% at 8–128 μg/ml while demonstrating limited bacteriostatic activity at the highest test concentration [116].
The genus Salvia is well documented for its bacteriostatic and bactericidal properties. Various species within this genus possess dual antibiofilm properties. Hexane-soluble and dichloromethane soluble fractions and sub-fractions of Salvia officinalis (S. officinalis) have shown impeccable antibiofilm and bacteriostatic properties with an MBIC50 and MIC values ranging from 3.668 to 200 μg/ml and 25 to 400 μg/ml, respectively, against P. gingivalis, F. nucleatum, P. melaninogenica, and A. actinomycetemcomitans. The labdane diterpenoid manool has been isolated and identified as the active principle from S. officinalis, showing pronounced activity with MBIC50 and MIC values of 12.5 μg/ml and 3.12 μg/ml, respectively against A. actinomycetemcomitans (Figure 4) [117].
Figure 4.
Chemical structure of manool.
While Mentha piperita oil is considerably active against Chromobacterium violaceum (Inhibited biofilm formation by 72.5% at 0.049 μg/ml), it is inactive against P. aeruginosa at reasonably higher test concentrations of 6.25, 3.125 and 1.56 μg/ml. In the same study, Thymus vulgare essential oil showed marked potency against both species inhibiting their biofilm formation by 70% at 0.049 μg/ml (against C. violaceum) and 65% at 3.125 μg/ml (against P. aeruginosa) [118]. Equally impressive is the species Perovskia artemisioides, which has inhibited biofilm formation of L. monocytogenes, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, Acinetobacter baumanii (A. baumanii), and Pectobacterium carotovorum by 92, 95, 71, 35, and 94% at 4 μg/ml. Subsequent work led to the identification of numerous antibiofilm compounds from P. artemisioides [119].
5.1.7 Malvaceae
Alcea longipedicellata (Aulonemia longipedicellata) is a member of the Alcea genus with over 80 flowering plants in the family Malvaceae, commonly known as the hollyhocks and native to Asia and Europe. The compound, malvin, isolated from the flowers of A. longipedicellata flower, exhibited about 55% inhibition of S. mutans biofilm adherence at 0.1% v/v (Figure 5) [120]. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis a tropical shrub used in folk medicine to treat respiratory disorders and diarrhea, among other ailments, has shown remarkable activity against drug-resistant strains of Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori). An ethyl acetate fraction of H. rosa-sinensis demonstrated strong biofilm formation inhibition against H. pylori at sub-MIC concentrations (79% inhibition at 125 μg/ml) [121].
Figure 5.
Chemical structure of malvin.
5.1.8 Myristicaceae
The Myristicaceae are flowering plants native to Africa, Asia, Pacific islands, and the Americas. The family consists of 20 genera and at least 500 species. Fruit of the Myristicaceae, particularly the lipid-rich aril surrounding the seed in some species, are essential as food for birds and mammals of tropical forests [122]. Plants in the family Myristicaceae with reported antibiofilm activities include Myristica fragrans (M. fragrans), Syzygium aromaticum, and Syzygium cumini. M. fragrans has been shown to inhibit Salmonella enterica biofilm formation by 88% at 50 μg/ml. Biosynthesised silver nanoparticles of M. fragrans showed marginally improved activity inhibiting the formation of S. enterica biofilm by 99.1% at 50 μg/ml [123]. Another study on M. fragrans led to the isolation of the compound macelignan, which reduced the formation of S. mutans and S. sanguis biofilm by >50% at 10 μg/ml (Figure 6) [124]. The methanol fruit extract of S. cumini disrupted Klebsiella pneumoniae biofilm biomass in a dose-dependent manner by 35.85, 64.03, and 79.94% at test concentrations of 0.1, 0.5, and 1 mg/ml, respectively [125]. Essential oils from the aerial parts of S. aromaticum reduced Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm biomass by 50.3% at 20 μg/ml [126].
Figure 6.
Chemical structure of macelignan.
5.1.9 Amaryllidaceae
Extracts of Crinum asciaticum, a member of the family Amaryllidaceae, was investigated for its anti-tuberculosis, anti-efflux pump and antibiofilm activity. This study reealed the anti-infective activity of the extracts against Mycobacterium smegmatis (M. smegmatis) (NCTC 8159) and Mycobacterium aurum (M. aurum) (NCTC 10437) at MICs of 125 μg/ml and 250 μg/ml respectively. Also, efflux pump inhibition was observed for both M. smegmatis and M. aurum. Of great importance is the in vitro inhibition of M. smegmatis and M. aurum biofilms which was very significant at p < 0.005 [77].
5.2 Antibiofilm agents obtained from mushrooms
Research has shown that some species of macrofungi have various chemical components with antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antioxidant, anticancer and antiprotozoal properties [137]. The extracts of some species, including Laetiporus sulphureus, Ganoderma lucidum, and Lentinus edodes have demonstrated antibacterial activity [138]. Fistulina hepatica, Ramaria botrytis, and Russula delica extracts had promising antibacterial activity against multi-resistant microorganisms namely MRSA, E. coli and Proteus mirabilis.
In addition, some of these compounds were found to inhibit biofilm formation [137].
Studies on the aqueous extracts of Macrolepiota procera, Pleurotus ostreatus, Auricularia auricula-judae, Armillaria mellea, and Laetiporus sulphureus were shown to inhibit Staphylococcal spp biofilm formation. These extracts reduced biofilm formation by 47.72–70.87% without affecting bacterial growth [139].
A study by Borges et al demonstrated that ferulic and gallic acid inhibited biofilm formation in P. aeruginosa by interfering with cell motility and physico-chemical features on the cell surface. It also inhibited biofilm formation by E. coli due to phenolic compounds present therein [140]. Again, wild mushroom extracts had antibiofilm activity against E. coli, Leucopaxillus gigantes and Mycenus rosea. From this same study, extracts from Sarcodon imbricants, and Russula delica inhibited biofilm formation of P. mirabilis that is resistant to fluoroquinolones, ampicillin, and cephalosporins [138].
Extracts from Lentinus edodes, one of the mostly cultivated edible mushrooms, reacted negatively to biofilm proliferation by some bacteria in a study conducted by Lingström and colleagues [141]. Upon further fractionation and isolation, the compounds; oxalic acid, quinic acid, inosine and uridine (Figure 7) were discovered to be responsible for the various levels of antibiofilm activity against S. mutans, Actinomyces naeslundii, and Prevotella intermedia strains [141].
Figure 7.
Structures of compounds isolated from mushrooms with antibiofilm activities.
Melanin obtained from Auricularia aricula, an edible mushroom, has established antibiofilm properties [142]. This pigment exhibited significant antibiofilm inhibitory activity against E. coli K-12, P. aeruginosa PA01, and Pseudomonas fluorescens P-3 [142].
5.3 Sponges as antibiofilm agents
Marine sponges produce an array of secondary metabolites such as enzymes, enzyme inhibitors, and antibiotics and represent an untapped reservoir of bioactive compounds [143]. These compounds serve as defense against environmental threats like microbial infection, competition for space, or overgrowth by fouling organisms [144].
Phorbaketals isolated from the Korean marine sponge Phorbas spp. had antibiofilm activity against S. aureus [143]. Moreover, all six phorbaketals (phorbaketal A, phorbaketal B, phorbaketal C, phorbaketal A acetate, phorbaketal B acetate, phorbaketal C acetate, Figure 8) assessed for their antibiofilm activities revealed a minimum inhibitory concentration against S. aureus 6538 higher than 200 μg/ml. All six compounds significantly inhibited biofilm formation of methicillin-sensitive S. aureus in a dose-dependent manner, with Phorbaketal B and Phorbaketal C having the highest inhibitory effects, probably due to the presence of two hydroxyl groups in its structure. Phorbaketal B and C exerts their action via reduction of the expression of alpha-hemolysin (hla) and nuclease (nuc1). Phorbaketal C further reduced the expression of RNAIII (a regulatory molecule) which stimulates hla translation, thereby repressing the expression of hla [143].
Figure 8.
Chemical structures of phorbiketals isolated from Phorbas sp.
In addition, natural compounds such as collismycin, hydroxyl flavonoids, hydroxylbipyridine, and hydroxyl anthraquinones exhibited antibiofilm activity depending on the number and positions of hydroxyl groups in the backbone structures [145]. The planktonic cell growth of S. aureus was relatively unaffected by the six phorbaketals at <100 µg/ml [143].
In another study by Paul and Puglisi, cell-free supernatants (CFSs) isolated from the sponge-associated bacteria belonging to the genera Colwellia, Pseudoalteromonas, Shewanella and Winogradskyella were evaluated for antibiofilm activity at 4°C and 25°C against Antarctic strains of P. aeruginosa ATCC27853 and S. aureus ATCC29213. Inhibition of biofilm formation was observed differently among strains which was dependent on the incubation temperature. Significant antibiofilm activity was observed by CFSs at 4°C and 25°C respectively against S. aureus and P. auruginosa without exhibiting cidal activity on bacterial growth [146]. The different physico-chemical nature of exopolymers produced by the Colwellia sp. GW185, Shewanella sp. CAL 606 and Winogradsyella CAL396 is responsible for their antibiofilm activity (Table 4).
Species and strain
Major constituents
Antibiofilm activity against organisms
Colwellia spp. GW185
Glucose, mannose, galactose, galactosamine
P. aeruginosa, S. aureus
Shewanella spp. CAL606
Glucose, mannose, galactose, galactosamine
Winogradskyella spp. CAL396
Mannose, arabinose, galacturonic acid
Table 4.
Bacterial exopolysaccharide with antibiofilm activity against pathogenic bacteria [143].
In another study, marine sponge-derived Strepomyces sp. SBT343 extracts were investigated for their antibiofilm activity on Staphylococcal biofilm formation. Results from in vitro biofilm assay of an organic extract showed inhibition of biofilm formation on polysterene, glass and contact lens surfaces. This same extract inhibited biofilm formation of Staphylococcus epidermidis and S. aureus with no antibiofilm activity against Pseudomonas biofilms [147].
5.4 Algal sources of antibiofilm agents
Existing literature proves the existence of compounds obtained from algae that possess antibiofilm properties against human pathogenic microbes. The scientific research community however, continues to discover such natural antibiofilm agents. These compounds do not exist in their pure forms but are isolated from crude extracts through a series of processes [148].
Marine algae produce certain sulfated polysaccharides that exhibit antimicrobial and antibiofilm activities [149]. Fucoidan F85 (Figure 9), a sulfated polysaccharide extracted from Fucus vesiculosus upon observation was found to possess antimicrobial and antibiofilm properties against some dental plaque bacteria [149]. Fucoidans are made up of L-fucose and sulfate esters with other different molecules [150] and are normally extracted from brown algae using acid, solvent or water at a high temperature and a long reaction [151]. According to Yunhai and colleagues, Icelandic local seaweed species (Ascophyllum nodosum and Laminaria digitate), are sources of fucoidans with antibacterial activity [152].
Figure 9.
Structure of fucoidan.
A study conducted by Maggs et al proves that marine brown algae, Halidrys siliquosa produces compounds with antibiofilm activity against Staphylococcus sp, Streptococcus sp, Enterococcus sp, Pseudomonas sp, Stenotrophomonas sp, and Chromobacterium sp. Halidrys siliquosa can be found in rock pools and sometimes forests in the shallow subtidal zone [148].
Delisea pulchra red alga, produces halogenated furanones which show antibiofilm effects against B. subtilis, E. coli [153] and P. aueroginosa [154]. These furanones oppose the transmission of intracellular signals and speed up LuxR transcription turnover (Figure 10) [155].
Figure 10.
Structure of a halogenated furanones.
The algal fronds of Plocamium magga has been reported to produce an isolate, KS8 from the Pseudoalteromonas genus that shows antibiofilm activity against acyl homoserine lactone base reporter strains (Chromobacterium violaceum (CV) ATCC 12472 and CV026) [156].
Ethanolic extracts of Chlorella vulgaris and Dunaliella salina can inhibit biofilm formation by S. mutans and P. aueroginosa [157]. This antibiofilm characteristic may be associated with the activity of glucotransferases [157].
Methanol extract of Oscillatoria sp., green algae containing silver nanoparticles also showed strong antibiofilm activity against all test pathogens in an experiment conducted by Adebayo-Tayo and associates [158].
Silver nanoparticles associated with aqueous extract of Turbinaria conoides have been reported to possess antibiofilm activity via adherence inhibition against Salmonella typhi, E. coli and Serratialique faciens [159].
6. Miscellaneous agents with antibiofilm activities
Several agents from natural products such as essential oils, honey etc. have shown great potential as bacterial biofilm inhibitors. These have been described below;
6.1 Essential oil
Essential oils from medicinal plants have received attention in recent times for their potential exploitations. This is as a result of the increasing reports of their composition and biochemicals to possess medicinal properties. A number of in vitro evidences indicates that essential oils can act as antibacterial and antibiofilm agents against a large spectrum of pathogenic bacterial strains.
The effect of Lippia alba (L. alba) and Cymbopogon citratus (C. citratus) (lemon grass) essential oils on biofilms of S. mutans was tested by Tofiño-Rivera et al. in an attempt to find new compounds against dental caries using the MBEC-high-throughput (MBEC-HTP) assay. The L. alba essential oils demonstrated significant eradication activity against S. mutans biofilms of 95.8% in 0.01 mg/dL concentration, and C. citratus essential oils showed eradication activity of 95.4% at 0.1 and 0.01 mg/dL concentrations and of 93.1% in the 0.001 mg/dL concentration [160]. Further, geraniol and citral were later identified as the major components of the essential oils. A similar investigation by Ortega-Cuadros et al., showed 93.0% growth inhibition of S. mutans biofilms at a concentration of 1.00 μg/ml of C. citratus essential oil [161].
In an investigation to access the ability of Allium sativum fermented extract and cannabinol oil extract to inhibit and remove P. aeruginosa biofilms on soft contact lenses, the cannabinol oil extract inhibited biofilm formation by about 70% and eradicated preformed biofilms in both P. aeruginosa (ATCC 9027 strain) and P. aeruginosa clinical isolates from the ocular swabs tested [162]. Cannabigerol, a non-psychoactive cannabinoid which is also naturally present in trace amounts in the Cannabis plant was able to reduced the QS-regulated bioluminescence and biofilm formation of Vibrio harveyi (a marine quorum-sensing and biofilm-producing bacterial species) at concentrations not affecting the planktonic bacterial growth [163].
Essential oils from Cyclamen coam (C. coam) and Zataria multiflora (Zinnia multiflora) extracts inhibited biofilm formation on P. aeruginosa 214, a strong biofilm producing clinical strain [164]. C. coam and Z. multiflora essential oils inhibited biofilm formation completely at concentrations <0.062 mg/ml and 4 μl/ml, respectively. It is reported that carvacrol, a major constituent of Z. multiflora essential oil inhibits biofilm formation by preventing the initial adhesion of biofilm cells to the surface [165, 166].
6.2 Lectin
A study by Moura et al. reported the antibiofilm activity of a lectin extracted from Moringa oleifera (M. oleifera) seed. The lectin from this plant exhibited antibiofilm activity against Bacillus spp. and Serratia marcescens at concentrations of 20.8–41.6 μg/ml and 0.325–1.3 μg/ml respectively [167]. The antibiofilm activity of the M. oleifera seed lectin might be due to the ability of these lectins to damage the cell wall and cell membranes through its interactions with glycoconjugates and polysaccharides constituents within the bacterial cell wall [168].
Solanum tuberosum lectins had a varying biofilm inhibitory effect when evaluated against an isolate of P. aeruginosa PA01. At a concentration between 2.5 and 15 μg/ml, the lectins inhibited the biofilm formation by 5–20% [169].
Plant lectins are reported to also exhibit antibiofilm activities against pathogenic microorganisms. A typical example are, lectins extracted from Canavalia ensiformis, Calliandra surinamensis, Canavalia marítima and Alpinia purpurata [170].
6.3 Chitosan
Chitosan is a polysaccharide composed of units of glucosamine (2-amino-2-deoxy-d-glucose) and N-acetyl glucosamine (2-acetamido-2-deoxy-d-glucose) linked by β (1 → 4) bonds. Chitosan is produced as a result of partial deacetylation of chitin leads. Chitin is found on the shells of crustaceans, arthropods and fungal cell wall [171].
The antibiofilm activity of chitosan from crab and shrimp species indigenous to the Philippines was investigated against P. aeruginosa and S. aureus. Biofilm inhibitory activity for both crab and shrimp chitosan were not observed against S. aureus at the concentration used, but activity was observed for shrimp chitosan at a concentration of 2.5 g/L. A 2.5 g/L mixed (1:1) chitosan solution of the two extracts had the highest percentage antibiofilm formation inhibition in P. aeruginosa biofilms. S. aureus biofilm formation was sensitive to the 10 g/L mixed (1:1) solution. The same mixed solution produced an inhibition against P. aeruginosa [172].
Costa et al. also reported that chitosan demonstrated antibiofilm and biofilm eradication activity against the fungus Candida albicans [171].
6.4 Honey
The exploration of new antibiotics to combat biofilm formation in resistant microbes has led to an increase interest evaluating the antibiofilm properties of honey. Manuka honey have demonstrated good antibiofilm forming activity against a range of bacteria, including Streptococcus and Staphylococcus species, P. mirabilis, A. baumannii, E. coli, E. cloacae and P. aeruginosa [173, 174].
Lu and colleagues studied the antibiofilm properties of four New Zealand based honeys; monofloral manuka honey, Medihoney (a manuka-based medical-grade honey), manuka-kanuka blend, and a clover honey on two P. aeruginosa strains PAO1 and PA14 with different biofilm forming abilities. All the different types of honey used in the study were effective at inhibiting both the planktonic cell growth and biofilm formation of both strains. In the study of the biofilm eradication properties of the honey, they concluded that honey used at clinically obtainable concentrations completely eradicated established P. aeruginosa biofilms [175]. Similar results were obtained using different strains of S. aureus, including methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains. In this study, they demonstrated that honey is able to reduce biofilm mass and also to kill cells that remain embedded in the biofilm matrix; and planktonic cells released from biofilms following honey treatment do not have elevated resistance to honey [176].
The biofilm inhibitory effect of Costa Rican Meliponini stingless bee honeys has also been reported against S. aureus and P. aeruginosa biofilm formation. The meliponini stingless bee honeys in a concentration-dependent manner inhibited the planktonic growth and biofilm formation, and also caused the destruction of S. aureus biofilm [177].
Australian honey has also been reported to possess antibacterial and biofilm inhibitory activities. Sindi A and colleagues in their investigation reported that Western Australian honeys from Eucalyptus marginata (Jarrah) and Corymbia calophylla (Marri) trees exhibited antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative and Gram-positive pathogens. They reduced both the formation of biofilms and the production of bacterial pigments, which are both regulated by quorum sensing. The Western Australian honey when applied to preformed biofilms had biofilm eradication activity by reducing metabolic activity in the biofilms [178].
6.5 Peptides
Peptides are small molecules made of 10–100 amino acids that are part of the innate immune response, and found among all classes of life contributing to the first line of defense against infections. In the search for an effective agent that can treat chronic infections, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have been shown to demonstrate antimicrobial, antibiofilm and biofilm eradication properties. Although there has not been much studies on the biofilm inhibitory action of AMP compared to its antibacterial activity, some naturally occurring AMP’s have been reported to exhibit strong antibiofilm activities against multidrug resistant as well as clinically isolated bacterial biofilms [179].
Cathelicidin peptides are one of the most important classes of AMP. Investigation of cathelicidin AMP, indicates that SMAP-29, BMAP-28, and BMAP-27 have antimicrobial activity and are able to significantly reduce biofilm formation by multidrug-resistant (MDR) P. aeruginosa strains isolated from patients with cystic fibrosis. In addition, they were bactericidal in preformed biofilms [180]. Blower et al. also demonstrated that the SMAP-29 peptide is able to inhibit biofilm production in Burkholderia thailandensis by about 50% at peptide concentrations at or above 3 μg/ml [181].
Hepcidin 20 alters the biofilm architecture of Staphylococcus epidermidis by targeting the polysaccharide intercellular adhesin after it has reduced the extracellular matrix mass [182].
The peptides lactoferrin, conjugated lactoferricin, melimine and citropin 1.1 have all shown good anti-biofilm activity against S. aureus and P. aeruginosa infection in medical devices [183].
7. Conclusion
Microorganisms, though form biofilms as a defense mechanism for survival, this action poses a threat to the healthcare system by compromising the therapeutic efficacy of antimicrobial agents and causing ascendancies in antimicrobial resistance. Natural products from plants and microorganisms provide a plethora of chemical compounds with antibiofilm properties capable of disrupting pre-formed biofilms or inhibiting the formation of new biofilms. Identifying novel antibiofilm compounds from these sources is essential to mitigate biofilm-mediated infections. Similarly, the exploration of model systems is critical for evaluating the antibiofilm properties of newly identified medicinal compounds. Altogether, understanding the antibiofilm potential of these natural products could serve as an impetus in antimicrobial drug discovery.
\n',keywords:"biofilm, natural products, quorum sensing, anti-biofilm agents, antimicrobials",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81824.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81824.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81824",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81824",totalDownloads:5,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:0,impactScoreQuartile:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"February 2nd 2022",dateReviewed:"March 9th 2022",datePrePublished:"May 18th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"May 17th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Biofilms, are vastly structured surface-associated communities of microorganisms, enclosed within a self-produced extracellular matrix. Microorganisms, especially bacteria are able to form complex structures known as biofilms. The presence of biofilms especially in health care settings increases resistance to antimicrobial agents which poses a major health problem. This is because biofilm-associated persistent infections are difficult to treat due to the presence of multidrug-resistant microorganisms. This chapter will give an idea about documented agents including isolated compounds, crude extracts, decoctions, fractions, etc. obtained from natural sources such as plants, bacteria, fungi, sponge and algae with antibiofilm activities. Furthermore, we have done phylogenetic analysis to identify plant families most prolific in producing plant species and compounds with good antibiofilm properties so as to aid in prioritizing plant species to investigate in future studies. The data in this chapter will help serve as valuable information and guidance for future antimicrobial development.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81824",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81824",book:{id:"11092",slug:null},signatures:"Cynthia Amaning Danquah, Prince Amankwah Baffour Minkah, Theresa A. Agana, Phanankosi Moyo, Michael Tetteh, Isaiah Osei Duah Junior, Kofi Bonsu Amankwah, Samuel Owusu Somuah, Michael Ofori and Vinesh J. Maharaj",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Biofilm formation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Models for assessing antibiofilm activity",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 The human organoid model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Wound models",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Oral infections model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Respiratory tract chronic infections model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5 Foreign body infection model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Methods used to determine anti-biofilm effects of natural products",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Antibiofilm agents from nature",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.1 Plant-derived antibiofilm agents",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"5.1.1 Apiaceae",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"5.1.2 Asteraceae",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"5.1.3 Burseraceae",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"5.1.4 Combretaceae",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"5.1.5 Fabaceae",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"5.1.6 Lamiaceae",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"5.1.7 Malvaceae",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"5.1.8 Myristicaceae",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"5.1.9 Amaryllidaceae",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"5.2 Antibiofilm agents obtained from mushrooms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"5.3 Sponges as antibiofilm agents",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"5.4 Algal sources of antibiofilm agents",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24",title:"6. Miscellaneous agents with antibiofilm activities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"6.1 Essential oil",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"6.2 Lectin",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"6.3 Chitosan",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"6.4 Honey",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"6.5 Peptides",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Strathdee SA, Davies SC, Marcelin JR. Confronting antimicrobial resistance beyond the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2020 US election. Lancet. 2020;396(10257):1050-1053. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32063-8'},{id:"B2",body:'Blair JM, Webber MA, Baylay AJ, Ogbolu DO, Piddock LJ. Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance. Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 2015;13(1):42-51. DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro3380'},{id:"B3",body:'Jamal M et al. Bacterial biofilm and associated infections. Journal of the Chinese Medical Association. 2018;81(1):7-11. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcma.2017.07.012'},{id:"B4",body:'Romling U, Balsalobre C. Biofilm infections, their resilience to therapy and innovative treatment strategies. Journal of Internal Medicine. 2012;272(6):541-561. DOI: 10.1111/joim.12004'},{id:"B5",body:'Attinger C, Wolcott R. Clinically addressing biofilm in chronic wounds. Advances in Wound Care. 2012;1(3):127-132. DOI: 10.1089/wound.2011.0333'},{id:"B6",body:'Lemos ASO et al. Antibacterial and antibiofilm activities of psychorubrin, a pyranonaphthoquinone isolated from Mitracarpus frigidus (Rubiaceae). Frontiers in Microbiology. 2018;9:724. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00724'},{id:"B7",body:'Donlan RM. Biofilm formation: A clinically relevant microbiological process. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2001;33(8):1387-1392. DOI: 10.1086/322972'},{id:"B8",body:'Donlan RM, Costerton JW. Biofilms: Survival mechanisms of clinically relevant microorganisms. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 2002;15(2):167-119. DOI: 10.1128/CMR.15.2.167'},{id:"B9",body:'Chmit M, Kanaan H, Habib J, Abbass M, McHeik A, Chokr A. Antibacterial and antibiofilm activities of polysaccharides, essential oil, and fatty oil extracted from Laurus nobilis growing in Lebanon. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine. 2014;7S1:S546-S552. DOI: 10.1016/S1995-7645(14)60288-1'},{id:"B10",body:'Baker BJ, Banfield JF. Microbial communities in acid mine drainage. FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 2003;44(2):139-152. DOI: 10.1016/S0168-6496(03)00028-X'},{id:"B11",body:'Sweet MJ, Croquer A, Bythell JC. Development of bacterial biofilms on artificial corals in comparison to surface-associated microbes of hard corals. PLoS One. 2011;6(6):e21195. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0021195'},{id:"B12",body:'Raghupathi PK, Liu W, Sabbe K, Houf K, Burmolle M, Sorensen SJ. Synergistic interactions within a multispecies biofilm enhance individual species protection against grazing by a pelagic protozoan. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2017;8:2649. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.02649'},{id:"B13",body:'Costa-Orlandi CB et al. Fungal biofilms and polymicrobial diseases. Journal of Fungi. 2017;3(2):22. DOI: 10.3390/jof3020022'},{id:"B14",body:'Costerton JW, Lewandowski Z, DeBeer D, Caldwell D, Korber D, James G. Biofilms, the customized microniche. Journal of Bacteriology. 1994;176(8):2137-2142. DOI: 10.1128/jb.176.8.2137-2142.1994'},{id:"B15",body:'Flemming HC, Wingender J, Szewzyk U, Steinberg P, Rice SA, Kjelleberg S. Biofilms: An emergent form of bacterial life. Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 2016;14(9):563-575. DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro.2016.94'},{id:"B16",body:'Wright GD. Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance. Chemical Communications. 2011;47(14):4055-4061. DOI: 10.1039/c0cc05111j'},{id:"B17",body:'Taylor PK, Yeung AT, Hancock RE. Antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms: Towards the development of novel anti-biofilm therapies. Journal of Biotechnology. 2014;191:121-130. DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2014.09.003'},{id:"B18",body:'An AY, Choi KG, Baghela AS, Hancock REW. An overview of biological and computational methods for designing mechanism-informed anti-biofilm agents. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2021;12:640787. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.640787'},{id:"B19",body:'Abraham WR. Going beyond the control of quorum-sensing to combat biofilm infections. Antibiotics (Basel). 2016;5(1):3. DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics5010003'},{id:"B20",body:'Zhao X, Yu Z, Ding T. Quorum-sensing regulation of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria. Microorganisms. 2020;8(3):425. DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8030425'},{id:"B21",body:'Rutherford ST, Bassler BL. Bacterial quorum sensing : Its role in virulence and possibilities for its control. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine. 2012;2(11):p.a012427. DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a012427'},{id:"B22",body:'Edwards SJ, Kjellerup BV. Applications of biofilms in bioremediation and biotransformation of persistent organic pollutants, pharmaceuticals/personal care products, and heavy metals. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2013;97(23):9909-9921. DOI: 10.1007/s00253-013-5216-z'},{id:"B23",body:'Berlanga M, Guerrero R. Living together in biofilms: The microbial cell factory and its biotechnological implications. Microbial Cell Factories. 2016;15(1):165. DOI: 10.1186/s12934-016-0569-5'},{id:"B24",body:'Bogino PC, Oliva Mde L, Sorroche FG, Giordano W. The role of bacterial biofilms and surface components in plant-bacterial associations. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2013;14(8):15838-15859. DOI: 10.3390/ijms140815838'},{id:"B25",body:'Wu H, Moser C, Wang HZ, Hoiby N, Song ZJ. Strategies for combating bacterial biofilm infections. International Journal of Oral Science. 2015;7(1):1-7. DOI: 10.1038/ijos.2014.65'},{id:"B26",body:'Kırmusaoğlu S. The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening antibiofilm Activity of Agents. London, UK: IntechOpen; 2019. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84411. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/65613'},{id:"B27",body:'Wu BC et al. Human organoid biofilm model for assessing antibiofilm activity of novel agents. NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes. 2021;7(1):8. DOI: 10.1038/s41522-020-00182-4'},{id:"B28",body:'Thomsen K, Trostrup H, Moser C. Animal models to evaluate bacterial biofilm development. Methods in Molecular Biology. 2014;1147:127-139. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-0467-9_9'},{id:"B29",body:'Chung PY. Plant-derived compounds as potential source of novel anti-biofilm agents against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Current Drug Targets. 2017;18(4):414-420. DOI: 10.2174/1389450117666161019102025'},{id:"B30",body:'Guimaraes R et al. Antibiofilm potential of medicinal plants against Candida spp. oral biofilms: A review. Antibiotics (Basel). 2021;10(9). DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10091142'},{id:"B31",body:'Lahiri D, Dash S, Dutta R, Nag M. Elucidating the effect of anti-biofilm activity of bioactive compounds extracted from plants. Journal of Biosciences. 2019;44(2):52'},{id:"B32",body:'Alasil SM, Omar R, Ismail S, Yusof MY. Antibiofilm activity, compound characterization, and acute toxicity of extract from a novel bacterial species of paenibacillus. International Journal of Microbiology. 2014;2014:649420. DOI: 10.1155/2014/649420'},{id:"B33",body:'Roy R, Tiwari M, Donelli G, Tiwari V. Strategies for combating bacterial biofilms: A focus on anti-biofilm agents and their mechanisms of action. Virulence. 2018;9(1):522-554. DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2017.1313372'},{id:"B34",body:'Karatan E, Watnick P. Signals, regulatory networks, and materials that build and break bacterial biofilms. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 2009;73(2):310-347. DOI: 10.1128/MMBR.00041-08'},{id:"B35",body:'Arciola CR, Campoccia D, Speziale P, Montanaro L, Costerton JW. Biofilm formation in Staphylococcus implant infections. A review of molecular mechanisms and implications for biofilm-resistant materials. Biomaterials. 2012;33(26):5967-5982. DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.05.031'},{id:"B36",body:'Hoyle BD, Jass J, Costerton JW. The biofilm glycocalyx as a resistance factor. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 1990;26(1):1-5. DOI: 10.1093/jac/26.1.1'},{id:"B37",body:'Palmer J, Flint S, Brooks J. Bacterial cell attachment, the beginning of a biofilm. Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology. 2007;34(9):577-588. DOI: 10.1007/s10295-007-0234-4'},{id:"B38",body:'Porter SL, Wadhams GH, Armitage JP. Signal processing in complex chemotaxis pathways. Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 2011;9(3):153-165. DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro2505'},{id:"B39",body:'Carniello V, Peterson BW, van der Mei HC, Busscher HJ. Physico-chemistry from initial bacterial adhesion to surface-programmed biofilm growth. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science. 2018;261:1-14. DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2018.10.005'},{id:"B40",body:'Morra M, Cassinelli C. Bacterial adhesion to polymer surfaces: A critical review of surface thermodynamic approaches. Journal of Biomaterials Science. Polymer Edition. 1997;9(1):55-74. DOI: 10.1163/156856297x00263'},{id:"B41",body:'Donlan RM. Biofilms: Microbial life on surfaces. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2002;8(9):881-890. DOI: 10.3201/eid0809.020063'},{id:"B42",body:'Vacheethasanee K et al. Bacterial surface properties of clinically isolated Staphylococcus epidermidis strains determine adhesion on polyethylene. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. 1998;42(3):425-432. DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-4636(19981205)42:3<425::aid-jbm12>3.0.co;2-f'},{id:"B43",body:'Fletcher M, Loeb GI. Influence of substratum characteristics on the attachment of a marine pseudomonad to solid surfaces. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 1979;37(1):67-72. DOI: 10.1128/aem.37.1.67-72.1979'},{id:"B44",body:'Pringle JH, Fletcher M. Influence of substratum wettability on attachment of freshwater bacteria to solid surfaces. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 1983;45(3):811-817. DOI: 10.1128/aem.45.3.811-817.1983'},{id:"B45",body:'Vatanyoopaisarn S, Nazli A, Dodd CE, Rees CE, Waites WM. Effect of flagella on initial attachment of listeria monocytogenes to stainless steel. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2000;66(2):860-863. DOI: 10.1128/AEM.66.2.860-863.2000'},{id:"B46",body:'Di Martino P, Cafferini N, Joly B, Darfeuille-Michaud A. Klebsiella pneumoniae type 3 pili facilitate adherence and biofilm formation on abiotic surfaces. Research in Microbiology. 2003;154(1):9-16. DOI: 10.1016/s0923-2508(02)00004-9'},{id:"B47",body:'Jagnow J, Clegg S. Klebsiella pneumoniae MrkD-mediated biofilm formation on extracellular matrix- and collagen-coated surfaces. Microbiology. 2003;149(Pt 9):2397-2405. DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.26434-0'},{id:"B48",body:'Alarcon I, Evans DJ, Fleiszig SM. The role of twitching motility in Pseudomonas aeruginosa exit from and translocation of corneal epithelial cells. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 2009;50(5):2237-2244. DOI: 10.1167/iovs.08-2785'},{id:"B49",body:'Costa OYA, Raaijmakers JM, Kuramae EE. Microbial extracellular polymeric substances: Ecological function and impact on soil aggregation. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2018;9:1636. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01636'},{id:"B50",body:'Fong JNC, Yildiz FH. Biofilm matrix proteins. Microbiology Spectrum. 2015;3(2). DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.MB-0004-2014'},{id:"B51",body:'Ramirez-Mata A, Lopez-Lara LI, Xiqui-Vazquez ML, Jijon-Moreno S, Romero-Osorio A, Baca BE. The cyclic-di-GMP diguanylate cyclase CdgA has a role in biofilm formation and exopolysaccharide production in Azospirillum brasilense. Research in Microbiology. 2016;167(3):190-201. DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2015.12.004'},{id:"B52",body:'Toyofuku M, Inaba T, Kiyokawa T, Obana N, Yawata Y, Nomura N. Environmental factors that shape biofilm formation. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry. 2016;80(1):7-12. DOI: 10.1080/09168451.2015.1058701'},{id:"B53",body:'Bacosa HP et al. Extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) producing and oil degrading bacteria isolated from the northern Gulf of Mexico. PLoS One. 2018;13(12):e0208406. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0208406'},{id:"B54",body:'Jayathilake PG et al. Extracellular polymeric substance production and aggregated bacteria colonization influence the competition of microbes in biofilms. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2017;8:1865. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01865'},{id:"B55",body:'Limoli DH, Jones CJ, Wozniak DJ. Bacterial extracellular polysaccharides in biofilm formation and function. Microbiology Spectrum. 2015;3(3). DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.MB-0011-2014'},{id:"B56",body:'Bassler BL, Greenberg EP, Stevens AM. Cross-species induction of luminescence in the quorum-sensing bacterium Vibrio harveyi. Journal of Bacteriology. 1997;179(12):4043-4045. DOI: 10.1128/jb.179.12.4043-4045.1997'},{id:"B57",body:'Chen X et al. Structural identification of a bacterial quorum-sensing signal containing boron. Nature. 2002;415(6871):545-549. DOI: 10.1038/415545a'},{id:"B58",body:'Garnett JA, Matthews S. Interactions in bacterial biofilm development: A structural perspective. Current Protein & Peptide Science. 2012;13(8):739-755. DOI: 10.2174/138920312804871166'},{id:"B59",body:'Hall-Stoodley L, Stoodley P. Developmental regulation of microbial biofilms. Current Opinion in Biotechnology. 2002;13(3):228-233. DOI: 10.1016/s0958-1669(02)00318-x'},{id:"B60",body:'He X, Ahn J. Differential gene expression in planktonic and biofilm cells of multiple antibiotic-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus. FEMS Microbiology Letters. 2011;325(2):180-188. DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2011.02429.x'},{id:"B61",body:'Kaplan JB. Biofilm dispersal: Mechanisms, clinical implications, and potential therapeutic uses. Journal of Dental Research. 2010;89(3):205-218. DOI: 10.1177/0022034509359403'},{id:"B62",body:'Diaz-Salazar C et al. The stringent response promotes biofilm dispersal in pseudomonas putida. Scientific Reports. 2017;7(1):18055. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-18518-0'},{id:"B63",body:'Singh PK et al. Vibrio cholerae combines individual and collective sensing to trigger biofilm dispersal. Current Biology. 2017;27(21):3359-3366 e7. DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2017.09.041'},{id:"B64",body:'Shen D, Langenheder S, Jurgens K. Dispersal modifies the diversity and composition of active bacterial communities in response to a salinity disturbance. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2018;9:2188. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02188'},{id:"B65",body:'Lee K, Yoon SS. Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm, a programmed bacterial life for fitness. Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2017;27(6):1053-1064. DOI: 10.4014/jmb.1611.11056'},{id:"B66",body:'Chung EMC, Dean SN, Propst CN, Bishop BM, Van Hoek ML. Komodo dragon-inspired synthetic peptide DRGN-1 promotes wound-healing of a mixed-biofilm infected wound. npj Biofilms Microbiomes. 2017;3(1):1-13. DOI: 10.1038/s41522-017-0017-2'},{id:"B67",body:'Silveira GGOS et al. Antibiofilm peptides: Relevant preclinical animal infection models and translational potential. ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science. 2021;4(1):55-73. DOI: 10.1021/ACSPTSCI.0C00191'},{id:"B68",body:'Roberts AEL, Kragh KN, Bjarnsholt T, Diggle SP. The limitations of in vitro experimentation in understanding biofilms and chronic infection. Journal of Molecular Biology. 2015;427(23):3646-3661. DOI: 10.1016/J.JMB.2015.09.002'},{id:"B69",body:'Zhang T, Wang Z, Hancock REW, De La Fuente-Núñez C, Haapasalo M. Treatment of oral biofilms by a D-enantiomeric peptide. PLoS One. 2016;11(11):e0166997. DOI: 10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0166997'},{id:"B70",body:'Bowen WH. Rodent model in caries research. Odontology. 2013;101(1):9-14. DOI: 10.1007/S10266-012-0091-0'},{id:"B71",body:'Daep CA, James DAM, Lamont RJ, Demuth DR. Structural characterization of peptide-mediated inhibition of Porphyromonas gingivalis biofilm formation. Infection and Immunity. 2006;74(10):5756-5762. DOI: 10.1128/IAI.00813-06'},{id:"B72",body:'Daep CA, Novak EA, Lamont RJ, Demuth DR. Structural dissection and in vivo effectiveness of a peptide inhibitor of Porphyromonas gingivalis adherence to Streptococcus gordonii. Infection and Immunity. 2011;79(1):67-74. DOI: 10.1128/IAI.00361-10'},{id:"B73",body:'Harrington NE, Sweeney E, Harrison F. Building a better biofilm-formation of in vivo-like biofilm structures by Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a porcine model of cystic fibrosis lung infection. Biofilms. 2020;2:100024. DOI: 10.1016/J.BIOFLM.2020.100024'},{id:"B74",body:'Song Z et al. Effects of Intratracheal administration of Novispirin G10 on a rat model of mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa lung infection. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2005;49(9):3868. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.49.9.3868-3874.2005'},{id:"B75",body:'Franco L, Cardoso MH, Carvalho CME, De Fuente-nunez C. Antibio film peptides: Relevant preclinical animal infection models and translational potential. ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science. 2021;4(1):55-73. DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.0c00191'},{id:"B76",body:'Lebeaux D, Chauhan A, Rendueles O, Beloin C. From in vitro to in vivo models of bacterial biofilm-related infections. Pathogens. 2013;2(2):288-356. DOI: 10.3390/pathogens2020288'},{id:"B77",body:'Ofori M, Danquah CA, Ativui S, Doe P, Asamoah WA. In-vitro anti-tuberculosis, anti-efflux pumps and anti-biofilm effects of crinum asiaticum bulbs. 2021;14(December):1905-1915'},{id:"B78",body:'Sen T, Karmakar S, Sarkar R. Evaluation of Natural Products against Biofilm-Mediated Bacterial Resistance. Elsevier Inc.; 2015'},{id:"B79",body:'Butler MS, Buss AD. Natural products—The future scaffolds for novel antibiotics? Biochemical Pharmacology. 2006;71(7):919-929. DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2005.10.012'},{id:"B80",body:'Roy R, Tiwari M, Donelli G, Tiwari V. Strategies for combating bacterial bio films : A focus on anti-biofilm agents and their mechanisms of action. Virulence. 2018;9(1):522-554'},{id:"B81",body:'Pathogens I. Efficacy and mechanism of traditional medicinal plants and bioactive compounds against clinically important pathogens. Antibiotics (Basel). 2019;8(4):257'},{id:"B82",body:'Danquah CA et al. Analogues of disulfides from allium stipitatum demonstrate potent anti-tubercular activities through drug efflux pump and biofilm inhibition. Scientific Reports. 2018. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-18948-w'},{id:"B83",body:'Hall-Stoodley L, Costerton JW, Stoodley P. Bacterial biofilms: From the natural environment to infectious diseases. Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 2004;2(2):95-108. DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro821'},{id:"B84",body:'Freeman DJ, Falkiner FR, Keane CT. New method for detecting slime production by coagulase negative staphylococci. Journal of Clinical Pathology. 1989;42(8):872-874. DOI: 10.1136/jcp.42.8.872'},{id:"B85",body:'Hassan A, Usman J, Kaleem F, Omair M, Khalid A, Iqbal M. Evaluation of different detection methods of biofilm formation in the clinical isolates. Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases is the official publication of the Brazilian Society of Infectious Diseases. 2011;15(4):305-311'},{id:"B86",body:'Chen J-Q , Healey S, Regan P, Laksanalamai P, Hu Z. PCR-based methodologies for detection and characterization of Listeria monocytogenes and Listeria ivanovii in foods and environmental sources. Food Science and Human Wellness. 2017;6(2):39-59. DOI: 10.1016/j.fshw.2017.03.001'},{id:"B87",body:'Maheaswari R, Kshirsagar JT, Lavanya N. Polymerase chain reaction: A molecular diagnostic tool in periodontology. Journal of Indian Society of Periodontology. 2016;20(2):128-135. DOI: 10.4103/0972-124X.176391'},{id:"B88",body:'Yang Q , Rui Y. Two multiplex real-time PCR assays to detect and differentiate Acinetobacter baumannii and non-baumannii bla OXA-58-like genes. 2016;11(7):e0158958. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0158958'},{id:"B89",body:'Hiltunen A, Skogman M. Exploration of microbial communities using the thermo scientific. BioTechniques. 2017;63:236-237. DOI: 10.2144/000114613'},{id:"B90",body:'Emde B, Heinen A, Gödecke A, Bottermann K, Düsseldorf H. Wheat germ agglutinin staining as a suitable method for detection and quantification of fibrosis in cardiac tissue after myocardial infarction. 2014;58(4):2448. DOI: 10.4081/ejh.2014.2448'},{id:"B91",body:'Abdel Halim RM, Kassem NN, Mahmoud BS. Detection of biofilm producing Staphylococci among different clinical isolates and its relation to methicillin susceptibility. Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences. 2018;6(8):1335-1341. DOI: 10.3889/oamjms.2018.246'},{id:"B92",body:'Darwish SF, Asfour HAE. Investigation of biofilm forming ability in Staphylococci causing bovine mastitis using phenotypic and genotypic assays. Scientific World Journal. 2013;2013:378492. DOI: 10.1155/2013/378492'},{id:"B93",body:'Chakraborty P, Bajeli S, Kaushal D, Radotra BD, Kumar A. Tuberculosis. Nature Communications. 2021. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-21748-6'},{id:"B94",body:'Djordjevic D, Wiedmann M, McLandsborough LA. Microtiter plate assay for assessment of Listeria monocytogenes biofilm formation. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2002;68(6):2950-2958. DOI: 10.1128/AEM.68.6.2950-2958.2002'},{id:"B95",body:'Zegaer BH et al. Detection of bacteria bearing resistant biofilm forms, by using the universal and specific PCR is still unhelpful in the diagnosis of periprosthetic joint infections. Frontiers in Medicine. 2014;1:30. DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2014.00030'},{id:"B96",body:'Shahmoradi M, Faridifar P, Shapouri R, Mousavi SF, Ezzedin M, Mirzaei B. Determining the biofilm forming gene profile of Staphylococcus aureus clinical isolates via multiplex colony PCR method. Reports of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 2019;7(2):181-188'},{id:"B97",body:'Ozioma E-OJ, Antoinette O, Chinwe N. Herbal medicines in African traditional medicine. In: Builders PF editors. Herbal Medicine. 2019. DOI: 10.5772/INTECHOPEN.80348'},{id:"B98",body:'Newman DJ, Cragg GM. Natural products as sources of new drugs over the nearly four decades from 01/1981 to 09/2019. Journal of Natural Products. 2020;83(3):770-803. DOI: 10.1021/ACS.JNATPROD.9B01285/SUPPL_FILE/NP9B01285_SI_009.PDF'},{id:"B99",body:'Ahmad I, Husain FM, Maheshwari M, Zahin M. Medicinal plants and phytocompounds: A potential source of novel antibiofilm agents. Biology. 2014:205-232. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-53833-9_10'},{id:"B100",body:'Melander RJ, Basak AK, Melander C. Natural products as inspiration for the development of bacterial antibiofilm agents. Natural Product Reports. 2020;37(11):1454-1477. DOI: 10.1039/D0NP00022A'},{id:"B101",body:'Khan R, Zakir M, Khanam Z, Shakil S, Khan AU. Novel compound from Trachyspermum ammi (Ajowan caraway) seeds with antibiofilm and antiadherence activities against Streptococcus mutans: A potential chemotherapeutic agent against dental caries. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 2010;109(6):2151-2159. DOI: 10.1111/J.1365-2672.2010.04847.X'},{id:"B102",body:'Maheshwari M, Abul Qais F, Althubiani AS, Abulreesh HH, Ahmad I. Bioactive extracts of Carum copticum and thymol inhibit biofilm development by multidrug-resistant extended spectrum β-lactamase producing enteric bacteria. Biofouling. 2019;35(9):1026-1039. DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2019.1688305'},{id:"B103",body:'D’Abrosca B et al. Spectroscopic identification and anti-biofilm properties of polar metabolites from the medicinal plant Helichrysum italicum against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry. 2013;21(22):7038-7046. DOI: 10.1016/J.BMC.2013.09.019'},{id:"B104",body:'Mozirandi W, Tagwireyi D, Mukanganyama S. Evaluation of antimicrobial activity of chondrillasterol isolated from Vernonia adoensis (Asteraceae). BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2019;19(1):1-11. DOI: 10.1186/S12906-019-2657-7/FIGURES/7'},{id:"B105",body:'Trentin DDS et al. Potential of medicinal plants from the Brazilian semi-arid region (Caatinga) against Staphylococcus epidermidis planktonic and biofilm lifestyles. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2011;137(1):327-335. DOI: 10.1016/J.JEP.2011.05.030'},{id:"B106",body:'Verghese J. Olibanum in Focus | Perfumer & Flavorist. 1988;13(1):1-12'},{id:"B107",body:'Gebremedhin T. Boswellia papyrifera (Del.) hochst. from Western Tigray: Opportunities, constraints and seed germiniation responses. 1997. DOI: 10.3/JQUERY-UI.JS'},{id:"B108",body:'Schillaci D, Arizza V, Dayton T, Camarda L, Di Stefano V. In vitro anti-biofilm activity of Boswellia spp. oleogum resin essential oils. Letters in Applied Microbiology. 2008;47(5):433-438. DOI: 10.1111/J.1472-765X.2008.02469.X'},{id:"B109",body:'Yadav S. antibiofilm formation activity of terminalia bellerica plant extract against clinical isolates of Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sobrinus: Implication in oral hygiene. International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biological Science Archive. 2012;3(4)'},{id:"B110",body:'de Araujo AR et al. Antibacterial, antibiofilm and cytotoxic activities of Terminalia fagifolia Mart. extract and fractions. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials. 2015;14(1):1-10. DOI: 10.1186/S12941-015-0084-2/FIGURES/9'},{id:"B111",body:'Erhabor RC, Aderogba MA, Erhabor JO, Nkadimeng SM, McGaw LJ. In vitro bioactivity of the fractions and isolated compound from Combretum elaeagnoides leaf extract against selected foodborne pathogens. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2021;273:113981. DOI: 10.1016/J.JEP.2021.113981'},{id:"B112",body:'Abrão F et al. Oleoresins and naturally occurring compounds of Copaifera genus as antibacterial and antivirulence agents against periodontal pathogens. Scientific Reports. 2021;11(1):4953. DOI: 10.1038/S41598-021-84480-7'},{id:"B113",body:'Yoshikawa M, Murakami T, Komatsu H, Murakami N, Yamahara J, Matsuda H. Medicinal foodstuffs. IV. Fenugreek seed. (1): Structures of trigoneosides Ia, Ib, IIa, IIb, IIIa, and IIIb, new furostanol saponins from the seeds of Indian Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 1997;45(1):81-87. DOI: 10.1248/CPB.45.81'},{id:"B114",body:'Husain FM, Ahmad I, Khan MS, Al-Shabib NA. Trigonella foenum-graceum (seed) extract interferes with quorum sensing regulated traits and biofilm formation in the strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Aeromonas hydrophila. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2015;2015:879540. DOI: 10.1155/2015/879540'},{id:"B115",body:'Kuete V. Medicinal Spices and Vegetables from Africa: Therapeutic Potential against Metabolic, Inflammatory, Infectious and Systemic Diseases. Medicinal Spices and Vegetables from Africa. Vol. 43. Elsevier Inc.; 2017'},{id:"B116",body:'Quave CL, Plano LRW, Pantuso T, Bennett BC. Effects of extracts from Italian medicinal plants on planktonic growth, biofilm formation and adherence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2008;118(3):418. DOI: 10.1016/J.JEP.2008.05.005'},{id:"B117",body:'Mendes FSF et al. Antibacterial activity of Salvia officinalis L. against periodontopathogens: An in vitro study. Anaerobe. 2020;63:102194. DOI: 10.1016/J.ANAEROBE.2020.102194'},{id:"B118",body:'Ahmed SO, Zedan HH, Ibrahim YM. Quorum sensing inhibitory effect of bergamot oil and aspidosperma extract against Chromobacterium violaceum and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Archives of Microbiology. 2021;203(7):4663-4675. DOI: 10.1007/S00203-021-02455-8'},{id:"B119",body:'Sadeghi Z, Masullo M, Cerulli A, Nazzaro F, Farimani MM, Piacente S. Terpenoid constituents of Perovskia artemisioides aerial parts with inhibitory effects on bacterial biofilm growth. Journal of Natural Products. 2021;84(1):26-36. DOI: 10.1021/ACS.JNATPROD.0C00832'},{id:"B120",body:'Esmaeelian B, Kamrani YY, Amoozegar MA, Rahmani S, Rahimi M, Amanlou M. Anti-cariogenic properties of malvidin-3,5-diglucoside isolated from Alcea longipedicellata against oral bacteria. International Journal of Pharmacology. 2007;3(6):468-474. DOI: 10.3923/IJP.2007.468.474'},{id:"B121",body:'Ngan LTM et al. Antibacterial activity of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. red flower against antibiotic-resistant strains of Helicobacter pylori and identification of the flower constituents. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research. 2021;54(7):e10889. DOI: 10.1590/1414-431X2020E10889'},{id:"B122",body:'Christenhusz MJM, Byng JW. The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase. Phytotaxa. 2016;261(3):201-217. DOI: 10.11646/PHYTOTAXA.261.3.1'},{id:"B123",body:'Balakrishnan S et al. Antiquorum sensing and antibiofilm potential of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles of Myristica fragrans seed extract against MDR Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi isolates from asymptomatic typhoid carriers and typhoid patients. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 2020;27(3):2844-2856. DOI: 10.1007/S11356-019-07169-5'},{id:"B124",body:'Yanti Y, Rukayadi K, Lee H, Hwang JK. Activity of panduratin A isolated from Kaempferia pandurata Roxb. against multi-species oral biofilms in vitro. Journal of Oral Science. 2009;51(1):87-95. DOI: 10.2334/JOSNUSD.51.87'},{id:"B125",body:'Gopu V, Kothandapani S, Shetty PH. Quorum quenching activity of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels and its anthocyanin malvidin against Klebsiella pneumoniae. Microbial Pathogenesis. 2015;79:61-69. DOI: 10.1016/J.MICPATH.2015.01.010'},{id:"B126",body:'Chemsa AE et al. Chemical constituents of essential oil of endemic Rhanterium suaveolens Desf. growing in Algerian Sahara with antibiofilm, antioxidant and anticholinesterase activities. Natural Product Research. 2015;30(18):2120-2124. DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2015.1110705'},{id:"B127",body:'Dettweiler M et al. American civil war plant medicines inhibit growth, biofilm formation, and quorum sensing by multidrug-resistant bacteria. Scientific Reports. 2019;9(1):7692. DOI: 10.1038/S41598-019-44242-Y'},{id:"B128",body:'Acquaviva R et al. Antibacterial and anti-biofilm activities of walnut pellicle extract (Juglans regia L.) against coagulase-negative staphylococci. Natural Product Research. 2021;35(12):2076-2081. DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2019.1650352'},{id:"B129",body:'Uc-Cachón AH et al. Antibacterial and antibiofilm activities of Mayan medicinal plants against Methicillin-susceptible and -resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2021;279:114369. DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2021.114369'},{id:"B130",body:'Mohammed HA et al. Phytochemical profiling, in vitro and in silico anti-microbial and anti-cancer activity evaluations and staph GyraseB and h-TOP-IIβ receptor-docking studies of major constituents of Zygophyllum coccineum L. aqueous-ethanolic extract and its subsequent fractions: An approach to validate traditional phytomedicinal knowledge. Molecules. 2021;26(3):557.DOI: 10.3390/MOLECULES26030577'},{id:"B131",body:'Miao W et al. The impact of flavonoids-rich Ziziphus jujuba Mill. extract on Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies. 2020;20(1):187. DOI: 10.1186/S12906-020-2833-9/FIGURES/5'},{id:"B132",body:'Bocquet L et al. Phenolic compounds from Humulus lupulus as natural antimicrobial products: New weapons in the fight against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Leishmania mexicana and Trypanosoma brucei strains. Molecules. 2019;24(6):1024. DOI: 10.3390/MOLECULES24061024'},{id:"B133",body:'Vijayakumar K, Ramanathan T. Musa acuminata and its bioactive metabolite 5-hydroxymethylfurfural mitigates quorum sensing (las and rhl) mediated biofilm and virulence production of nosocomial pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa in vitro. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2020;246:112242. DOI: 10.1016/J.JEP.2019.112242'},{id:"B134",body:'Minami M, Takase H, Nakamura M, Makino T. Effect of Lonicera caerulea var. emphyllocalyx fruit on biofilm formed by Porphyromonas gingivalis. BioMed Research International. 2019;2019. DOI: 10.1155/2019/3547858'},{id:"B135",body:'Rajendran N et al. Antimicrobial flavonoids isolated from Indian medicinal plant Scutellaria oblonga inhibit biofilms formed by common food pathogens. Natural Product Research. 2016;30(17):2002-2006. DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2015.1104673'},{id:"B136",body:'Tang Y et al. Effect of syringopicroside extracted from Syringa oblata lindl on the biofilm formation of Streptococcus suis. Molecules. 2021;26(5):1295. DOI: 10.3390/MOLECULES26051295'},{id:"B137",body:'Karaca B, Çöleri Cihan A, Akata I, Altuner EM. Anti-biofilm and antimicrobial activities of five edible and medicinal macrofungi samples on some biofilm producing multi drug resistant Enterococcus strains. Turkish Journal of Agriculture—Food Science and Technology. 2020;8(1):69. DOI: 10.24925/turjaf.v8i1.69-80.2723'},{id:"B138",body:'Alves MJ, Ferreira ICFR, Lourenço I, Costa E, Martins A, Pintado M. Wild mushroom extracts as inhibitors of bacterial biofilm formation. Pathogens. 2014;3(3):667-679. DOI: 10.3390/pathogens3030667'},{id:"B139",body:'Čuvalová A, Strapáč I, Handrová L, Kmeť V. Antibiofilm activity of mushroom extracts against Staphylococcus aureus. Annales Universitatis Paedagogicae Cracoviensis Studia Naturae. 2018;3:17-23. DOI: 10.24917/25438832.3supp.2'},{id:"B140",body:'Borges A, Saavedra MJ, Simões M. The activity of ferulic and gallic acids in biofilm prevention and control of pathogenic bacteria. Biofouling. 2012;28(7):755-767. DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2012.706751'},{id:"B141",body:'Lingström P, Zaura E, Ofek I, Wilson M. Function Components in Lentinus edodes mushroom with anti-bio fi lm activity directed against bacteria involved in caries and gingivitis. 2018. DOI: 10.1039/c7fo01727h'},{id:"B142",body:'Bin L, Wei L, Xiaohong C, Mei J, Mingsheng D. In vitro antibiofilm activity of the melanin from Auricularia auricula, an edible jelly mushroom. Annales de Microbiologie. 2012;62(4):1523-1530. DOI: 10.1007/s13213-011-0406-3'},{id:"B143",body:'Kim YG, Lee JH, Lee S, Lee YK, Hwang BS, Lee J. Antibiofilm activity of phorbaketals from the marine sponge phorbas sp. against Staphylococcus aureus. Marine Drugs. 2021;19(6):1-9. DOI: 10.3390/md19060301'},{id:"B144",body:'Paul VJ, Puglisi MP. Chemical mediation of interactions among marine organisms. Natural Product Reports. 2004;21(1):189-209. DOI: 10.1039/b302334f'},{id:"B145",body:'Lee JH, Kim E, Choi H, Lee J. Collismycin C from the micronesian marine bacterium Streptomyces sp. MC025 Inhibits Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation. Marine Drugs. 2017;15(12):387. DOI: 10.3390/md15120387'},{id:"B146",body:'Rizzo C et al. Antibiofilm activity of antarctic sponge-associated bacteria against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 2021;9(3):1-16. DOI: 10.3390/jmse9030243'},{id:"B147",body:'Balasubramanian S et al. Marine sponge-derived Streptomyces sp. SBT343 extract inhibits staphylococcal biofilm formation. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2017;8(Feb):1-14. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.00236'},{id:"B148",body:'Maggs CA, Gilmore BF. Against Clinically Relevant Human Pathogens. 2015. pp. 3581-3605. DOI: 10.3390/md13063581'},{id:"B149",body:'Jun JY, Jung MJ, Jeong IH, Yamazaki K, Kawai Y, Kim BM. Antimicrobial and antibiofilm activities of sulfated polysaccharides from marine algae against dental plaque bacteria. Marine Drugs. 2018;16(9):301. DOI: 10.3390/md16090301'},{id:"B150",body:'Achmad H, Huldani, Ramadhany YF. Antimicrobial activity and sulfated polysaccharides antibiofilms in marine algae against dental plaque bacteria: A literature review. Systematic Reviews in Pharmacy. 2020;11(6):459-465. DOI: 10.31838/srp.2020.6.72'},{id:"B151",body:'Huang CY, Wu SJ, Yang WN, Kuan AW, Chen CY. Antioxidant activities of crude extracts of fucoidan extracted from Sargassum glaucescens by a compressional-puffing-hydrothermal extraction process. Food Chemistry. 2016;197:1121-1129. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.11.100'},{id:"B152",body:'Yunhai H, Eyþórsdóttir A, Scully SM. In vitro antibacterial activity of fucoidan isolated from Ascophyllum nodosum and Laminaria digitata. Fisheries Training Programmes. 2016'},{id:"B153",body:'Ren D, Sims JJ, Wood TK. Ren, 2002 Inhibition of biofilm formation.PDF. 2002;2(Fujikawa 1994):293-299'},{id:"B154",body:'Hentzer M et al. Inhibition of quorum sensing in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm bacteria by a halogenated furanone compound. Microbiology. 2002;148(1):87-102. DOI: 10.1099/00221287-148-1-87'},{id:"B155",body:'Manefield M et al. Halogenated furanones inhibit quorum sensing through accelerated LuxR turnover. Microbiology. 2002;148(4):1119-1127. DOI: 10.1099/00221287-148-4-1119'},{id:"B156",body:'Busetti A, Shaw G, Megaw J, Gorman SP, Maggs CA, Gilmore BF. Marine-derived quorum-sensing inhibitory activities enhance the antibacterial efficacy of tobramycin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Marine Drugs. 2015;13(1):1-28. DOI: 10.3390/md13010001'},{id:"B157",body:'López Y, Soto SM, Sara M. Antibiotics the usefulness of microalgae compounds for of microalgae preventing biofilm infections compounds for preventing biofilm infections. 2020;(i)'},{id:"B158",body:'Adebayo-Tayo B, Salaam A, Ajibade A. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticle using Oscillatoria sp. extract, its antibacterial, antibiofilm potential and cytotoxicity activity. Heliyon. 2019;5(10):e02502. DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02502'},{id:"B159",body:'Vijayan SR, Santhiyagu P, Singamuthu M, Kumari Ahila N, Jayaraman R, Ethiraj K. Synthesis and characterization of silver and gold nanoparticles using aqueous extract of seaweed, turbinaria conoides, and their antimicrofouling activity. Scientific World Journal. 2014;2014. DOI: 10.1155/2014/938272'},{id:"B160",body:'Tofiño-Rivera A, Ortega-Cuadros M, Galvis-Pareja D, Jiménez-Rios H, Merini LJ, Martínez-Pabón MC. Effect of Lippia alba and Cymbopogon citratus essential oils on biofilms of Streptococcus mutans and cytotoxicity in CHO cells. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2016;194(December 2015):749-754. DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2016.10.044'},{id:"B161",body:'Ortega-Cuadros M, Tofiño-Rivera AP, Merini LJ, Martínez-Pabón MC. Antimicrobial activity of Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae) on Streptococcus mutans biofilm and its cytotoxic effects. Revista de Biología Tropical. 2018;66(4):1519-1529. DOI: 10.15517/rbt.v66i4.33140'},{id:"B162",body:'E. Cbd et al., Prevention of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm formation on soft contact lenses by Allium sativum fermented extract (BGE) and cannabinol oil. pp. 1-12'},{id:"B163",body:'Aqawi M, Gallily R, Sionov RV, Zaks B, Friedman M, Steinberg D. Cannabigerol prevents quorum sensing and biofilm formation of Vibrio harveyi. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2020;11(May):1-13. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00858'},{id:"B164",body:'Abdi-Ali A, Mohammadi-Mehr M, Agha Alaei Y. Bactericidal activity of various antibiotics against biofilm-producing Pseudomonas aeruginosa. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 2006;27(3):196-200. DOI: 10.1016/J.IJANTIMICAG.2005.10.007'},{id:"B165",body:'Liu F et al. Carvacrol oil inhibits biofilm formation and exopolysaccharide production of Enterobacter cloacae. Food Control. 2021;119:107473. DOI: 10.1016/J.FOODCONT.2020.107473'},{id:"B166",body:'Gutierrez-Pacheco MM et al. Carvacrol inhibits biofilm formation and production of extracellular polymeric substances of Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum. Food Control. 2018;89:210-218. DOI: 10.1016/J.FOODCONT.2018.02.007'},{id:"B167",body:'Moura MC et al. Multi-effect of the water-soluble Moringa oleifera lectin against Serratia marcescens and Bacillus sp.: Antibacterial, antibiofilm and anti-adhesive properties. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 2017;123(4):861-874. DOI: 10.1111/jam.13556'},{id:"B168",body:'Moura MC, Napoleão TH, Coriolano MC, Paiva PMG, Figueiredo RCBQ , Coelho LCBB. Water-soluble Moringa oleifera lectin interferes with growth, survival and cell permeability of corrosive and pathogenic bacteria. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 2015;119(3):666-676. DOI: 10.1111/jam.12882'},{id:"B169",body:'Feng Y, Song J, Zhao Z, Zhao F, Yang l, Jiao C. A rapid and effective method for purification of a heat-resistant lectin from potato (Solanum tuberosum) tubers. DOI: 10.1007/s10719-018-9836-5'},{id:"B170",body:'Roberto W, Larissa Y, Ferreira A, Macário I, Cavalcanti F. Antibacterial and antibiofilm lectins from plants—a review Lectinas antibacterianas e antibiofilmes de plantas—uma revisão Lectinas antibacterianas y antibiofilms vegetales—una revision. 2021;2021:1-14'},{id:"B171",body:'Costa E, Silva S, Tavaria F, Pintado M. Antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity of chitosan on the oral pathogen Candida albicans. 2014;3(4):908-919. DOI: 10.3390/pathogens3040908'},{id:"B172",body:'Aurestila BJ, Villaver EAM, Tan EY. Anti-biofilm activity of chitosan from crab and shrimp species indigenous to the Philippines on established biofilms of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Pharmacognosy & Natural Products. 2018;04(01):1-5. DOI: 10.4172/2472-0992.1000149'},{id:"B173",body:'Maddocks SE, Jenkins RE, Rowlands RS, Purdy KJ, Cooper RA. Manuka honey inhibits adhesion and invasion of medically important wound bacteria in vitro. Future Microbiology. 2013;8(12):1523-1536. DOI: 10.2217/FMB.13.126/ASSET/IMAGES/LARGE/FIGURE3.JPEG'},{id:"B174",body:'Majtan J, Bohova J, Horniackova M, Klaudiny J, Majtan V. Anti-biofilm effects of honey against wound pathogens Proteus mirabilis and Enterobacter cloacae. Phytotherapy Research. 2014;28(1):69-75. DOI: 10.1002/PTR.4957'},{id:"B175",body:'Lu J et al. Honey can inhibit and eliminate biofilms produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Scientific Reports. 2019;9(1):1-13. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-54576-2'},{id:"B176",body:'Lu J et al. Manuka-type honeys can eradicate biofilms produced by Staphylococcus aureus strains with different biofilm-forming abilities. PeerJ. 2014;2014(1):1-25. DOI: 10.7717/peerj.326'},{id:"B177",body:'Zamora LG et al. An insight into the antibiofilm properties of Costa Rican stingless bee honeys. Journal of Wound Care. 2017;26(4):168-177. DOI: 10.12968/jowc.2017.26.4.168'},{id:"B178",body:'Sindi A et al. Anti-biofilm effects and characterisation of the hydrogen peroxide activity of a range of Western Australian honeys compared to Manuka and multifloral honeys. Scientific Reports. 2019;9(1):1-17. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-54217-8'},{id:"B179",body:'Brogden KA. Antimicrobial peptides: Pore formers or metabolic inhibitors in bacteria? Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2005;3(3):238-250. DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro1098'},{id:"B180",body:'Pompilio A et al. Antibacterial and anti-biofilm effects of cathelicidin peptides against pathogens isolated from cystic fibrosis patients. Peptides. 2011;32(9):1807-1814. DOI: 10.1016/J.PEPTIDES.2011.08.002'},{id:"B181",body:'Blower RJ, Barksdale SM, van Hoek ML. Snake cathelicidin NA-CATH and smaller helical antimicrobial peptides are effective against Burkholderia thailandensis. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2015;9(7):e0003862. DOI: 10.1371/JOURNAL.PNTD.0003862'},{id:"B182",body:'Brancatisano FL et al. Inhibitory effect of the human liver-derived antimicrobial peptide hepcidin 20 on biofilms of polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA)-positive and PIA-negative strains of Staphylococcus epidermidis. Undefined. 2014;30(4):435-446. DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2014.888062'},{id:"B183",body:'Yoshinari M, Kato T, Matsuzaka K, Hayakawa T, Shiba K. Prevention of biofilm formation on titanium surfaces modified with conjugated molecules comprised of antimicrobial and titanium-binding peptides. Journal of Bioadhesion and Biofilm Research. 2009;26(1):103-110. DOI: 10.1080/08927010903216572'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Cynthia Amaning Danquah",address:"cadanq@yahoo.com;, cadanquah.pharm@knust,edu.gh",affiliation:'
Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana
Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana
Global Health and Infectious Disease Research Group, Kumasi Centre for Collaborative Research in Tropical Medicine, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Theresa A. Agana",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana
Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana
Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Vinesh J. Maharaj",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Chemistry, University of Pretoria, South Africa
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"11092",type:"book",title:"Bacterial Biofilms",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Bacterial Biofilms",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Theerthankar Das",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11092.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-796-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-795-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-797-7",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"179493",title:"Dr.",name:"Theerthankar",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"theerthankar-das",fullName:"Theerthankar Das"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"13"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"81603",type:"chapter",title:"Approaches to Enhance Therapeutic Activity of Drugs against Bacterial Biofilms",slug:"approaches-to-enhance-therapeutic-activity-of-drugs-against-bacterial-biofilms",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Sankar Veintramuthu and Selliamman Ravi Mahipriya",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"81741",type:"chapter",title:"Chronic Intraocular Leptospiral Infection Relying on Biofilm Formation inside the Vitreous Cavity Leads to Recurrent Uveitis in Horses",slug:"chronic-intraocular-leptospiral-infection-relying-on-biofilm-formation-inside-the-vitreous-cavity-le",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Bettina Wollanke and Hartmut Gerhards",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"81758",type:"chapter",title:"Growing Environmental Bacterium Biofilms in PEO Cryogels for Environmental Biotechnology Application",slug:"growing-environmental-bacterium-biofilms-in-peo-cryogels-for-environmental-biotechnology-application",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Galina Satchanska",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"81824",type:"chapter",title:"Natural Products as Antibiofilm Agents",slug:"natural-products-as-antibiofilm-agents",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Cynthia Amaning Danquah, Prince Amankwah Baffour Minkah, Theresa A. Agana, Phanankosi Moyo, Michael Tetteh, Isaiah Osei Duah Junior, Kofi Bonsu Amankwah, Samuel Owusu Somuah, Michael Ofori and Vinesh J. Maharaj",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"81571",type:"chapter",title:"Mechanism Involved in Biofilm Formation of Enterococcus faecalis",slug:"mechanism-involved-in-biofilm-formation-of-enterococcus-faecalis",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ajay Kumar Oli, Palaksha K. Javaregowda, Apoorva Jain and Chandrakanth R. Kelmani",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"81543",type:"chapter",title:"Bacterial Biofilm: Contribution to AMR and Approaches to Tackle",slug:"bacterial-biofilm-contribution-to-amr-and-approaches-to-tackle",totalDownloads:18,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Meenakshi Sharma, Pragati Yadav and Deepika Tripathi",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"81405",type:"chapter",title:"Molecular Pathogenesis and Clinical Impact of Biofilms in Surgery",slug:"molecular-pathogenesis-and-clinical-impact-of-biofilms-in-surgery",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Roger Bayston",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"414390",title:"Prof.",name:"Roger",middleName:null,surname:"Bayston",fullName:"Roger Bayston",slug:"roger-bayston"}]},{id:"81323",type:"chapter",title:"Efficacy of Radiations against Bacterial Biofilms",slug:"efficacy-of-radiations-against-bacterial-biofilms",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Salma Kloula Ben Ghorbal, Rim Werhani and Abdelwaheb Chatti",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"81156",type:"chapter",title:"Bacterial Biofilm and the Medical Impact",slug:"bacterial-biofilm-and-the-medical-impact",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Norzawani Jaffar",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"80712",type:"chapter",title:"Antifouling Strategies-Interference with Bacterial Adhesion",slug:"antifouling-strategies-interference-with-bacterial-adhesion",totalDownloads:43,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Zhen Jia",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9665",title:"Pseudomonas aeruginosa",subtitle:"Biofilm Formation, Infections and Treatments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"00e9f0f41cf8cd97ff33fac3bcea14cb",slug:"pseudomonas-aeruginosa-biofilm-formation-infections-and-treatments",bookSignature:"Theerthankar Das",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9665.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179493",title:"Dr.",name:"Theerthankar",surname:"Das",slug:"theerthankar-das",fullName:"Theerthankar Das"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"76707",title:"Introductory Chapter: Understanding Infections Caused by Opportunistic Bacterial Pathogens",slug:"introductory-chapter-understanding-infections-caused-by-opportunistic-bacterial-pathogens",signatures:"Theerthankar Das",authors:[{id:"179493",title:"Dr.",name:"Theerthankar",middleName:null,surname:"Das",fullName:"Theerthankar Das",slug:"theerthankar-das"}]},{id:"74413",title:"Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Diseases, Biofilm and Antibiotic Resistance",slug:"-em-pseudomonas-aeruginosa-em-diseases-biofilm-and-antibiotic-resistance",signatures:"Hussein Al-Dahmoshi, Raad D. Al-Obaidi and Noor Al-Khafaji",authors:[{id:"250698",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein",middleName:null,surname:"O. M. Al-Dahmoshi",fullName:"Hussein O. M. Al-Dahmoshi",slug:"hussein-o.-m.-al-dahmoshi"},{id:"272591",title:"Dr.",name:"Noor S.K",middleName:"Salman",surname:"Al-Khafaji",fullName:"Noor S.K Al-Khafaji",slug:"noor-s.k-al-khafaji"},{id:"338694",title:"MSc.",name:"Raad D.",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Obaidi",fullName:"Raad D. Al-Obaidi",slug:"raad-d.-al-obaidi"}]},{id:"75039",title:"Pseudomonas aeruginosa as a Cause of Nosocomial Infections",slug:"-em-pseudomonas-aeruginosa-em-as-a-cause-of-nosocomial-infections",signatures:"Silvia Labovská",authors:[{id:"311482",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Labovská",fullName:"Silvia Labovská",slug:"silvia-labovska"}]},{id:"74799",title:"Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilm Lung Infection in Cystic Fibrosis: The Challenge of Persisters",slug:"-em-pseudomonas-aeruginosa-em-biofilm-lung-infection-in-cystic-fibrosis-the-challenge-of-persisters",signatures:"Gianmarco Mangiaterra, Mehdi Amiri, Nicholas Cedraro and Francesca Biavasco",authors:[{id:"334557",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Gianmarco",middleName:null,surname:"Mangiaterra",fullName:"Gianmarco Mangiaterra",slug:"gianmarco-mangiaterra"},{id:"335142",title:"BSc.",name:"Nicholas",middleName:null,surname:"Cedraro",fullName:"Nicholas Cedraro",slug:"nicholas-cedraro"},{id:"335143",title:"Prof.",name:"Francesca",middleName:null,surname:"Biavasco",fullName:"Francesca Biavasco",slug:"francesca-biavasco"},{id:"344065",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehdi",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",fullName:"Mehdi Amiri",slug:"mehdi-amiri"}]},{id:"75844",title:"Pseudomonas aeruginosa Secreted Biomolecules and Their Diverse Functions in Biofilm Formation and Virulence",slug:"-em-pseudomonas-aeruginosa-em-secreted-biomolecules-and-their-diverse-functions-in-biofilm-formation",signatures:"Theerthankar Das",authors:[{id:"179493",title:"Dr.",name:"Theerthankar",middleName:null,surname:"Das",fullName:"Theerthankar Das",slug:"theerthankar-das"}]},{id:"75457",title:"Chemotherapy and Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agent",slug:"chemotherapy-and-mechanisms-of-action-of-antimicrobial-agent",signatures:"Rahman Laibi Chelab",authors:[{id:"334102",title:"Prof.",name:"Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Chelab",fullName:"Rahman Chelab",slug:"rahman-chelab"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10",title:"Coherence and Ultrashort Pulse Laser Emission",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e1bd25a76712d1cb8792820acf2ff001",slug:"coherence-and-ultrashort-pulse-laser-emission",bookSignature:"F. J. Duarte",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13752",title:"Dr.",name:"F. J.",surname:"Duarte",slug:"f.-j.-duarte",fullName:"F. J. Duarte"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11",title:"Multi-Robot Systems",subtitle:"Trends and Development",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"multi-robot-systems-trends-and-development",bookSignature:"Toshiyuki Yasuda",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"5669",title:"Dr.",name:"Toshiyuki",surname:"Yasuda",slug:"toshiyuki-yasuda",fullName:"Toshiyuki Yasuda"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12",title:"Numerical Simulations",subtitle:"Examples and Applications in Computational Fluid Dynamics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"numerical-simulations-examples-and-applications-in-computational-fluid-dynamics",bookSignature:"Lutz Angermann",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13342",title:"Prof.",name:"Lutz",surname:"Angermann",slug:"lutz-angermann",fullName:"Lutz Angermann"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"13",title:"Paths to Sustainable Energy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"paths-to-sustainable-energy",bookSignature:"Jatin Nathwani and Artie Ng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/13.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13730",title:"Dr.",name:"Artie",surname:"Ng",slug:"artie-ng",fullName:"Artie Ng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"14",title:"Traveling Salesman Problem",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"traveling-salesman-problem-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Donald Davendra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/14.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2961",title:"Prof.",name:"Donald",surname:"Davendra",slug:"donald-davendra",fullName:"Donald Davendra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"76526",title:"Electrospun Nanofibers: Characteristic Agents and Their Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97494",slug:"electrospun-nanofibers-characteristic-agents-and-their-applications",body:'
1. Introduction
Nanofibers are fabricated thin threads arising from physical processes using synthetic chemicals. Nano, when used as a prefix, restricts the diameter of the thin fibres to nano range i.e., 20–400 nm [1]. Nano being a common term these days has proved it worth in various fields, well known being drug delivery and other biological ones. The high surface to volume ratio serves as the driving factor in most cases for its application. This is also the reason fibres when made in nano-range perform better (form highly porous mesh) and have been universally used [1].
Our purpose here is to highlight the technique, electrospinning, which is used to make nano-fibres with antimicrobial properties. It is a popular technique in tissue engineering that uses polymer solutions and strong electric fields to produce nanofibers as close as the natural extracellular matrix (especially in tissue engineering) [1, 2]. When it comes to industries, scalability is a major issue and electrospinning technique is favoured due to this reason and it has a simple setup [3]. Synthetic fibres are used more often than natural ones. There is no standard size of a nanofiber when it comes to biological usage. This is due to the stability issue and hence the porosity, morphology and shape are all variables and are adjusted to create the best possible product [2]. These products are also affected by the technique used for the production (here electrospinning- electric field, flow rate etc.). Environment and solution used to be the other two affecting parameters. There are a lot of correlations to be taken care of before finalising the nanofiber structure.
As of now, we have an idea of what electrospun nanofibers are, however why these fibres are important is still a mystery to solve. With some basic knowledge of biology in earlier classes, we have concluded that staying away or preventing contact with microorganisms can reduce a lot of biological stress in our body. In short, using antimicrobials is a good option when it is available. Thus, Electro spun nanofibers when incorporate antimicrobial properties, become a great deal of interest even to common population e.g., electro spun nanofibers with essential oils (to prevent the side effect from synthetic compounds) [4], Electro spun nanofibers of zein and PVA have been proposed as carriers and stabilisers of epigallocatechin-gallate (EGCG) [5]. There are few studies on the incorporation and release profile of a drug loaded in biodegradable electro spun nanofibrous membranes, based on the drug-polymer interactions, on top of its ability to hinder bacterial growth. A polymer blend composed of/poly (butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT)/poly (lactic acid) (PLA), loaded with different. Cloxacillin (CLOX) contents were fruitfully produced by using electrospinning technique (as shown in the following Figure 1) [6]. The confirmation for the encapsulation of drug was done using characterisation techniques like Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The effect was measured by the pH when the drug (20% of CLOX) was released (antibacterial activity).
Figure 1.
Antibacterial activity and effect of pH on its release (electrospun nanofibers containing cloxacillin) [6].
Along with antimicrobials, these nanofibers can possess anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties as well. Such properties tend to degrade in terms of effect when not incorporated properly but with a controlled release, this degradation can be avoided [5]. A detailed description of this technique, usage and the flaws will be discussed in the later part of this chapter.
2. Nanofiber’s production
Fibres can be natural - from animals or plants, or synthetic – man made. When fibres come from plants, cellulose is the polymer made from the sugar glucose that makes those fibres well-built. Natural fibres from plants include cotton, jute, hemp, sisal, and flax. Silk is formed from the cocoons of silkworms. Wool is soft hair that is cut from animals like sheep, goats, alpacas, llamas, and even rabbits. Both silk and wool are protein. Cashmere is an extra-soft fur from goats. Mohair is wool from angora goats. Angora rabbits give us angora fibres [7].
A lot of different polymers can be made into fibres. Fibres are formed when polymer chains are all lined up in the same direction [7]. Metallic fibres, Carbon fibres, fibreglass, mineral fibres, and polymer fibres are all subtypes of synthetic fibres [8].
Diverse types of natural and synthetic types of polymers are used to make nanofibers henceforth they exhibit unlike properties and applications. Instances of manmade polymers include poly lactic acid, polyurethane, polycaprolactone, polyethylene-co-vinyl acetate plus poly 3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate. Natural polymers comprise cellulose, collagen, gelatine, keratin, silk fibroin, then alginate and chitosan. Polymer chains are linked via covalent bonds [9].
There are many different methods to make nanofibers, including bicomponent extrusion, drawing, electrospinning, thermal-induced phase separation, self-assembly template synthesis and centrifugal spinning [9, 10]. Electrospinning is an extensively used method of producing nanofibers.
2.1 Electrospinning mechanism
When the electrostatic force is applied on solutions or melts, electro-spinning produces fibres with diameters ranging from micrometre to nano-meter scale. A general electrospinning setup consists of three primary components: a syringe with a metallic needle, a high voltage power supply (usually in the kV range), and a grounded collector. When we consider a typical electrospinning course, high power is applied on melts/solutions. Consequently, suspended droplets are formed. A suspended droplet will collapse into a conical droplet as the electrostatic repulsion starts to overcome the surface tension of the fluid. A fine, charged jet of polymer solution is ejected from the tip of the needle as the electrostatic force overcomes the surface tension of the conical droplet. The action between the electric field and surface tension of the fluid outstretches the jet stream and then it encounters a whipping motion and that results in the evaporation of the solvent. This led to the jet stream to be stretched out continuously as a thin and long filament. Subsequently this filament will harden and will be eventually settled onto a grounded collector, and finally results in the development of a uniform fibre (Figure 2) [11].
Figure 2.
Electrospinning setup [11].
2.2 Electrospun nanofibers with antimicrobial properties
The electro spun nanofibers built-in with antibacterial agents have been fabricated for antimicrobial applications. The electro spun nanofibers exhibit enhanced antimicrobial performance compared to conventional antimicrobial materials. They play significant roles in wound-dressing materials, filtration, tissue scaffolds, protective textiles, and biomedical devices [12].
The electro spun nanofibers with antimicrobial properties fabrication methods are grouped into two categories. Antimicrobial nanofibers can be obtained by one step process or by the following two steps. In one stage process, the suspensions with a mixture of antimicrobial agents and polymer undergo electrospinning. The formulation of this homogeneous mixture is censorious to make up a smooth and continuous nanofiber. The properties of electrospinning solutions are affected by antimicrobial agents. Such vital characteristics that play a significant role in the process and resultant are conductivities and viscosities.
Whereas in the two steps method include, producing an initial electro spun polymeric nanofibers and then post-functionalizing nanofibers with antimicrobial materials. Multiple functionalization approaches have been managed to link the antimicrobial agents onto surfaces of electro spun nanofibers by using various chemical and physical methods [13].
Antimicrobial electro spun nanofibers built-in with different antimicrobial agents: including metallic nanoparticles (silver, zinc, titanium, copper, and cobalt), carbon nanomaterials, antibiotics, and antimicrobial biopolymers.
3. Antimicrobial agents
3.1 Volatile oils
Volatile oils well known as Essential oils are plant derived concentrated hydrophobic and volatile compounds. They are a combination of different compounds such as carvacrol, eugenol, and cymene derived from aromatic plants. The best examples of essential oils are terpenoids and hydrophobic phenolic compounds [14, 15]. The hydrophobic nature of essential oils decides their activity mechanism against microbes. These essential oils break up into the bacterial plasma membrane lipid bilayer and then disrupt its structure. This alters the permeability of membrane to ions and other cellular contents. Consequently, the proton pump collapses and results in cell death [16].
Sadri and his team prepared PEO nanofibers/electro spun chitosan, to which they linked two distinct types of thyme essential oils into this nanofiber. They used broad-leaf and narrow leaf thyme essential oils to their study. The nanofibers/chitosan along with the thyme oils were trialled against P. aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. After 24 hrs, the inhibition of narrow life was reported as 8 and 15 mm were as in case of broad life it was 10 and 19 mm for P. aeruginosa and S. aureus, respectively. Accordingly, the broad leaf resulted in more antibacterial activity than narrow leaf spices in the presence of above-mentioned bacteria’s [17].
3.2 Herbal bioactive components
There are many studies that prove the potent antibacterial property of plants-derived herbal bioactive components against a wide range of food borne pathogens. The widely researched bioactive components with antimicrobial properties are gingerol, allicin, shikonin, asiaticoside, and curcumin etc. Curcumin (Cur) which is derived from the rhizome of Curcuma longa L. is well-known for its valuable properties, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer features [16, 18, 19, 20].
3.3 Silver
Amongst metallic nanoparticles, silver nanoparticles are the most studied and have been demonstrated to be the most effective antimicrobial agents. Ag is a known biocidal agent that is effective against a range of types of fungi, bacteria, and viruses; on the other hand, it is non-hazardous to human cells. The simplest and most frequently used method for combining Ag nanoparticles with electro spun nanofibers is the suspension of Ag nanoparticles directly into the electrospinning polymer solutions [21, 22].
A research team formulated cellulose acetate nanofibers with the use of electrospinning methods. Cellulose acetate nanofibers were transformed into cellulose nanofibers using alkaline hydrolysis. In addition to this, silver nanoparticles were added to the cellulose nanofiber. Developed antibacterial silver cellulose nanofiber activity was examined against E. coli and S. aureus grown on Lysogeny broth [LB] medium. After 18 hrs of contacting 1% silver nanoparticles, the inhibition zone was spotted with 16- and 14.4-mm diameter against E. coli and S. aureus, respectively. Besides, it was also proved that antibacterial activities of the Ag nanofibers were directly influenced by the rising concentration of Ag nanoparticle contents [23].
3.4 Zinc and copper
ZnO appears to restrain the growth of strongly resistant bacteria. There are some reports about the significant antibacterial activity of ZnO, which is credited to the production of reactive oxygen species [ROS], causing the production of oxide substances.
Since olden times, Copper has been used for manufacturing utensils as it is a powerful natural biocidal metal. When bacteria encounter copper, there will be cell wall deformation which causes the death of bacteria. To deal with bacteria, many researchers have developed a method where a polymeric matrix was supported with copper by electro-spinning [24]. Ahire and his research team used electrospinning of Poly-D and PEO, L-lactide method to combine Cu nanoparticles into nanofibers. Due to the presence of copper nanofibers, S. aureus and P. aeruginosa were reduced by 50% and 40%, respectively after two days [25].
3.5 Antibacterial drugs
For wound health, filtration, and active packaging systems antimicrobial nanofibers incorporated with antibacterial drugs have become one of the promising nano-scale materials. A vast range of antibacterial drugs such as peptides and antibiotics have been formulated physically or chemically within electro spun nanofibers or on their surfaces. The polymer degradation, release profile, and release pathway of antibacterial drugs from electro spun nanofibers has a linkage with the release mechanism of antibacterial drugs which may be regulated through the composition of polymer and fibre morphology [26].
Antibacterial drugs encapsulated in electro spun nanofibers have been proved to sustain the antibacterial property over a longer time compared to the un-encapsulated form. A sodium alginate electro spun nanofibers loaded with ciprofloxacin was developed by a team and it was tested for its antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. The minimum inhibitory concentration [MIC] of ciprofloxacin required is found to be 0.125 μg/mL through this study [27]. Similarly, another team worked on developing nisin nanofibers/cellulose acetate which resulted in approx. 99.9% reduction of S. aureus [28].
4. Applications of electro spun nanofibers (ESNF)
Electrospinning offers many advantages like control over morphology, porosity and composition using very simple equipment. Due to its different applications in various fields like filtration products, biomedical applications, and tissue engineering to produce artificial blood vessels, non-woven fabrics, fuel cells, fibre mats etc. [29]. Electrospinning technology has been used for the fabrication and assembly of nanofibers into membranes, which have extended the range of potential applications in the biomedical, environmental protection (Table 1), nano sensor, electronic/optical, protective clothing fields and various other fields [30].
The ESNF have shown great capacity in the human healthcare applications, for tissue or organ repair and regeneration, as biocompatible and biodegradable medical implant devices, in medical diagnostics and instrumentation, as protective fabrics against environmental and infectious agents in hospitals and as vectors to deliver therapeutics and drugs [31].
For drug delivery or bio separation, nanofibers with strong paramagnetic properties prepared by the coaxial technology, such as Gd2O2S, possibly doped with Eu or Dy, were recommended [32].
For controlled delivery of drugs, molecular medicines, body-care supplements and therapeutics nanofibers are used as a promising tool by cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. To give an example such as DNA which is attached covalently to a patterned array of carbon fibre and inserted into cells by centrifuging these cells onto the array will not affect cell’s viability and the expression of genes encoded by the inserted DNA. This could build a way for the development of a ‘smart’ polymeric drug delivery system [31]. After alignment, stacking, mechanical properties, diameter, porosity, and biodegradability optimisation nanofiber-based scaffolds have been explored to enhance the repair or regeneration of various types of tissues, including heart, blood vessel, nerves, skin, musculoskeletal system, and tissue interfaces [33].
4.2 Wound dressing
The naturally extracted bioactive agents using electrospinning technique have been majorly promoted for the development of advanced level of dressings which paves way for rapid and efficient wound repair. Electrospun scaffolds consists of several advantages over the traditional dressings for the treatment of chronic as well as acute wounds, high absorption of exudates from the site of wound, efficient exchange of gases and nutrients for cell’s proliferation, protection of the injured tissue, and the possibility to release functional molecules [34].
The distinctive features of ESNF scaffolds such as their inter-fibre and intra-fibre pores and high surface area stimulate the fibroblastic cells response by rapidly initiating cell signalling pathways. Additionally, electrospinning technique can be used because of its application in the fabrication of cosmetic masks which are used for skin cleansing and skin healing. The high surface area of an electrospun skin mask facilitates the flow of additives from and to the skin (Figure 3) [30].
Figure 3.
Various strategies used to prepare suitable wound dressing [31].
Many crude extracts of plants have been successfully encapsulated into electrospun fibres, such as Centella asiatica, baicalein, green tea, Garcinia mangostana, Tecomella undulata, Aloe vera, Grewia mollis, chamomile, grape seed, Calendula officinalis, Indigofera aspalathoides, Azadirachta indica, Memecylon edule and Myristica andamanica which has been used for wound healing [34].
ESNF has been effectively explored as a wound healing dressing material. By developing nanofibers to provide topographical and biological cues, the migration and infiltration of repairable cells can be improved. Once the nanofiber-based scaffolds have been optimised accordingly in vitro for the promotion of cell migration and/or delivery of biomolecules they will be subjected for wound healing evaluation in vivo using a mouse, rat, or rabbit model [33].
4.3 Tissue engineering
In tissue regeneration, biocompatible and biodegradable fibrous scaffolds are usually preferred over traditional scaffolds because of their uniqueness and capacity to provide the target cells or tissues with a local environment by imitating the extracellular matrix. Hence, the use of ESNF in tissue engineering is increasing day by day [30].
Osteogenic properties in medicinal plants such as Cissus quadrangularis (CQ) and Asian Panax ginseng root have been suggested for regeneration of bone. The combined effect of CQ and hydroxyapatite (HA) has been explored by producing PCL-CQ-HA electrospun scaffolds. Proliferation of human foetal osteoblasts (hFOBs) on the composite scaffolds and increased adhesion was observed. Furthermore, increased levels of mineralisation and osteocalcin expression were detected which are fundamental in bone formation [34].
Bio or natural polymers (hyaluronic acid, alginate, collagen, silk protein, fibrinogen, chitosan, starch, and poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate (PHBV)) have been mainly focused by the researchers until recently for tissue engineering, because these polymers showed excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability. However, in recent years, attempts have been made to utilise a wide range of natural and synthetic polymers for the regeneration of new tissues, specifically cartilage tissue, dermal tissue, and bones.
A synthetic polymer poly (lactic acid-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) is the ideal material for tissue regeneration because of its tuneable and biodegradable nature, easy spinnability, and the presence of multiple focal adhesion points [30].
4.4 Food industry
ESNF is used for the encapsulation of plant extracts with the aim of preserving the integrity and controlling the release of the active ingredients in food processing and packaging. Electrospinning majorly offers the advantage of being a cost-effective manufacturing procedure that operates at room temperature and it is compatible with most edible polymers and materials approved for food contact in these sectors [34].
A hydrophobic prolamin, Zein which can be extracted from corn consists of marvellous film-forming properties with a high thermal resistance. Earlier, zein films were used as edible coatings on tomatoes to delay the colour changes, weight losses, and on nuts to delay rancidity during storage. However, the zein based electrospun mats may provide additional attributes for food packaging [35].
Functional molecules extracted from plants have been exploited for prolonging food shelf-life and avoiding bacteria colonisation in food packaging applications. In one of the modern studies, electrospun mats of β-cyclodextrin (PVA/CEO/β-CD) and PVA containing cinnamon essential oil (CEO) have been developed and tested against S. aureus and E. coli. The combination of CEO with β-CD enhanced the antibacterial action of this essential oil [34].
A cost competitive plant protein which is a soy protein is partially purified and concentrated from soybeans in various forms, such as soy protein concentrate, defatted soy flour, and soy protein isolate (SPI). Though there is a great amount of interest in developing soy protein as an electrospinning matrix, pure soy protein cannot be electrospunned easily.
5. When are electrospun nanofibers not a good option?
Electrospinning is an impressive technique however, the size of the fibres being nano, is a disadvantage when it comes to control. The limited control of the pore size (Electrospun scaffold) is a diameter dependent which reflects on the cellular infiltration (decrease due to smaller average pore size) [36].
Another reason being the degradation effect (introduced in the latter half of the introduction). The rapid degradation of nanofibrous constructs can adversely affect the ability of the scaffolds to support tissue growth. The structure of the nanofibers plays an important role, especially when it comes to nanoscale, the high surface area to volume ratio serves as the reason for its selection. However, in case of degradation effect, due to this property, the nanofibers are prone to hydrolytic degradation. Hence long-term processes should not employ such scaffolds as before the entire process (observation, selection or any other research studies) is completed, the culture will have no support to grow [36]. Crystallinity in polymers can treat this problem however the size of the fibres (diameter) are still a variable with a high probability of variation (purpose dependent and needs a lot of testing before it can be finally put into use). The poor infiltration of cells into scaffolds is still an issue to deal with, especially when we want to add various properties into nanofibers.
As mentioned in the introduction, electrospinning is an easy to setup and scalable technique. The cost parameter is in our favour whereas the volume imposes some difficulties in terms of production. It is quite difficult to produce a large volume scaffold and if the critical factors do not meet the threshold level the final structure might not be at its best form. This will drastically affect the application part. This will also affect special properties like antimicrobial/inflammatory/oxidant. The release of the drug will be questionable in such cases (Table 2).
Diameter
Fibre composition
Application
438 ± 156 nm
Electrospun, aligned, and randomly oriented PCL
In vitro culture of meniscal fibrocartilage cells and human MSCs
519 ± 127 nm
430 ± 170 nm
Electrospun, aligned, and randomly oriented PLLA
In vitro culture of human tendon stem cells
450 ± 110 nm
657 ± 183 nm
Electrospun, aligned PU
In vitro culture of human ligament fibroblasts
300–900 nm
Electrospun PLGA nanofibers on top of microfibers
In vitro culture of porcine MSCs
Table 2.
Variations in polymer nanofibers size in ligament and tendon tissue engineering [36].
The drug loading process when it includes a high amount of drug can result in a burst. When we submerge the fibres in aqueous solution (prone to hydrolytic degradation), the antimicrobial properties (e.g., antibiotics) are released in a short duration (might not last till it’s required). This issue can be solved by using different set-ups. We have learned that electrospinning technique is an easy to set-up one, here if we want to use such nanofibers for a longer duration, a different set-up is required which introduces more complication [37].
When environmental factors are taken into consideration, most frequently relative humidity is studied. When this parameter is a settable, considering higher RH leads to thinner fibre diameter, an appropriate high RH level could be selected. Since high RH levels may lead to beads, too high RH levels cannot be selected. Whereas if an ambient RH cannot be controlled. Then RH is considered a disturbance of the electrospinning process and the required jet diameter, responding to the desired fibre diameter, should change with an ambient RH. The system’s velocity should be adjusted along with the flow rate. This is done to obtain a required jet diameter (the application of electric field in the polymer solution will cause the droplets to take a conical shape) and control the fibre’s diameter. This is where production will become an issue. Such adjustments are difficult and are highly variable. Hence, relative humidity should be studied to decide what type of parameter it is (settable or disturbance) to decide the production rate. The operating regime should be selected to achieve the desired fibre diameter while maximising production rate [38].
Along with relative humidity, temperature should also be taken into consideration. The average diameter of nanofibers produced by electrospinning changes significantly through variation of temperature and humidity. At a relatively higher temperature the solvent evaporation rate will increase and the viscosity of the precursor solution to be electrospun will decrease, and as a result thinner nanofiber would be obtained [39].
6. Limitations
Though there are many reports on the successful presentation of electrospinning as a useful platform technique for the fabrication of nanofibers from a variety of materials, several issues are yet to be explained. Electrospinning process simulation models need to be optimised by considering all the liquid properties for electrospinning and all the processing parameters for better elucidation of the phenomenology of electrified jets. If it is successful, one should be able to analyse the behaviour of the electrified jet for the deterministic fabrication of electrospun nanofibers with well-controlled size, structure, and morphology [33].
Even though there is increase in the usage of natural biopolymers in the electrospinning technique for food packaging has developed a massive growing interest in the recent years but due to lesser flexibility of these materials ultimately leads to difficulty of processing in traditional equipments, and most of them are hydrophilic materials which means that they lack necessary mechanical properties and good barrier properties to moisture and oxygen [35].
7. Conclusion
As discussed above, electrospinning is one of the most efficient techniques used for the synthesis of nanomaterials [30]. It enables the incorporation of unique properties including large surface area, small size, and high activity, which are expected to develop advanced packaging systems for fulfilling consumers’ needs. However, nano or micro sized components may lead to environmental pollution or even health risks due to their migration into food and drinks, whereas our knowledge regarding the potential threats from the used nanomaterials is still relatively lacking [35]. Research and experimentation by various organisations along with academic individuals have stated that the bioactive molecules that were naturally derived were better incorporated into polymeric nanofibers and also improved the membrane and scaffolds manufacturing using such electrospun nanofibers [34].
Although ESN includes antimicrobial and loading other similar agents, the spectrum of this range is limited to some curing agents. The further investigation is to be focused on broadening this spectrum resulting into a diversified product with composite materials [33]. Currently, the control on the deposition deposition, porosity, inter-linkage and intra-linkages made nanofiber accessible in almost all the fields- food industry, wound healing management etc. [30]. Environmental field applications with surface functionalized nanofibers are facing a few challenges that need to be tackled which include capacity reduction and kinetic slowness after surface modifications. The level of research to uplift the current properties for targeted action is not up to the mark, hence needs further investigation by the agricultural and food industries for a real time response. Apart from this, combining the nanofibers with microfluidic systems is still challenging because it requires nanofibers with the well-controlled diameter and orientation, as well as the reproducibility to place them at specific positions and with the right orientation [33].
\n',keywords:"electrospinning, nanofiber, antibacterial agent, metallic nanoparticle, tissue engineering",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76526.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/76526.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76526",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76526",totalDownloads:277,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"October 3rd 2020",dateReviewed:"March 30th 2021",datePrePublished:"June 10th 2021",datePublished:"September 15th 2021",dateFinished:"April 30th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This study aimed to introduce antibacterial nanofibers, produced by electrospinning as a novel technique in constructing nanostructured materials. The large size and less bioavailability due to impenetrable (or partial/improper penetration) membrane has resulted in production of nanofibers. These nano sized Fibers were successful in delivering the active ingredients and served the purpose of using plants for its cause. Some of the active ingredients include antimicrobial compounds that are incorporated into various products to prevent unwanted microbial growth. As higher bioavailability is one of the most crucial parameters when it comes to medical solutions, electro spun nanofibers are highly preferred. This method is preferable for organic polymers as they have high flexibility, high specific surface area and surface functionalization. Electrospinning technology has been used for the fabrication and assembly of nanofibers into membranes, which have extended the range of potential applications in the biomedical, environmental protection, nanosensor, electronic/optical, protective clothing fields and various other fields.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76526",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76526",signatures:"Lingayya Hiremath, O. Sruti, B.M. Aishwarya, N.G. Kala and E. Keshamma",book:{id:"10469",type:"book",title:"Nanofibers",subtitle:"Synthesis, Properties and Applications",fullTitle:"Nanofibers - Synthesis, Properties and Applications",slug:"nanofibers-synthesis-properties-and-applications",publishedDate:"September 15th 2021",bookSignature:"Brajesh Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10469.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-426-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-425-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-427-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"176093",title:"Dr.",name:"Brajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"brajesh-kumar",fullName:"Brajesh Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"288954",title:"Dr.",name:"Lingayya",middleName:null,surname:"Hiremath",fullName:"Lingayya Hiremath",slug:"lingayya-hiremath",email:"lingayah@rvce.edu.in",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"342611",title:"Ms.",name:"O.",middleName:null,surname:"Sruti",fullName:"O. Sruti",slug:"o.-sruti",email:"osruti.bt17@rvce.edu.in",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"342612",title:"Ms.",name:"B.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Aishwarya",fullName:"B.M. Aishwarya",slug:"b.m.-aishwarya",email:"aishwaryabm.bt17@rvce.edu.in",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"342613",title:"Ms.",name:"N.G.",middleName:null,surname:"Kala",fullName:"N.G. Kala",slug:"n.g.-kala",email:"kalang.bt17@rvce.edu.in",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"342614",title:"Dr.",name:"E.",middleName:null,surname:"Keshamma",fullName:"E. Keshamma",slug:"e.-keshamma",email:"keshamma76@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Nanofiber’s production",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Electrospinning mechanism",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Electrospun nanofibers with antimicrobial properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Antimicrobial agents",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Volatile oils",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 Herbal bioactive components",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3 Silver",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.4 Zinc and copper",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.5 Antibacterial drugs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Applications of electro spun nanofibers (ESNF)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.1 Health applications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.2 Wound dressing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.3 Tissue engineering",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.4 Food industry",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"5. When are electrospun nanofibers not a good option?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"6. Limitations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'N. Bölgen, Electrospun materials for bone and tendon/ligament tissue engineering, Editor(s): Tamer Uyar, Erich Kny, Electrospun Materials for Tissue Engineering and Biomedical Applications, Woodhead Publishing, 2017, Pages 233-260, ISBN 9780081010228, doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-101022-8.00004-1'},{id:"B2",body:'Stojanov Spase, Berlec Ales. Electrospun Nanofibers as Carriers of Microorganisms, Stem Cells, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids in Therapeutic and Other Applications, Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, VOL. 8, 2020, Pages 130. Available from: https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fbioe.2020.00130 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00130'},{id:"B3",body:'Seeram Ramakrishna et al. Electrospun nanofibers: solving global issues, Materials Today, Volume 9, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 40-50, ISSN 1369-7021, doi: 10.1016/S1369-7021(06)71389-X'},{id:"B4",body:'Mohammadi MA, Rostami M, Beikzadeh S, Raeisi M, Tabibiazar M and Yousefi M: Electrospun nanofibers as advanced antibacterial platforms: a review of recent studies. Int J Pharm Sci & Res 2019; 10(2): 463-473. doi: 10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.10(2).463-73'},{id:"B5",body:'Wanwei Zhang, Sara Ronca, Elisa Mele, Electrospun nanofibres containing antimicrobial plant extracts, Nanomaterials (Basel) 2017 Feb; 7(2): 42. doi: 10.3390/nano7020042 PMCID: PMC5333027'},{id:"B6",body:'Rodrigo Schneider et al, Biocompatible electrospun nanofibers containing cloxacillin: Antibacterial activity and effect of pH on the release profile, Reactive and Functional Polymers, Volume 132, 2018, Pages 26-35, ISSN 1381-5148, doi: 10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2018.09.001'},{id:"B7",body:'Kids’ Macrogalleria, Fibres; Polymer Science Learning Centre. Available from: https://www.pslc.ws/macrog/kidsmac/fiber.htm'},{id:"B8",body:'Fibre; From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber'},{id:"B9",body:'Nanofibre; From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanofiber#:~:text=Nanofibers%20are%20fibers%20with%20diameters,physical%20properties%20and%20application%20potentials'},{id:"B10",body:'Almetwally, A.A. & El-Sakhawy, Mohamed & Elshakankery, Mahmoud & Kasem, M.H.. (2017). Technology of nano-fibers: Production techniques and properties - Critical review. Journal of the Textile Association. 78. 5-14. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322774945_Technology_of_nano-fibers_Production_techniques_and_properties_-_Critical_review'},{id:"B11",body:'Xiaomin Shi, Weiping Zhou, Delong Ma, Qian Ma, Denzel Bridges, Ying Ma, Anming Hu, “Electrospinning of Nanofibers and Their Applications for Energy Devices”, Journal of Nanomaterials, vol. 2015, Article ID 140716, 2015. doi:10.1155/2015/140716'},{id:"B12",body:'Ziabari, M., Mottaghitalab, V., & Haghi, A. K. (2009). Application of direct tracking method for measuring electrospun nanofiber diameter. Brazilian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 26(1), 53-62. doi:10.1590/S0104-66322009000100006'},{id:"B13",body:'Croisier, F., Sibret, P., Dupont-Gillain, C.C., Genet, M.J., Detrembleur, C., Jerome, C., 2015. Chitosan-coated electrospun nanofibers with antibacterial activity. J. Mater. Chem. B 3, 3508-3517'},{id:"B14",body:'Del Nobile M, Conte A, Incoronato A and Panza O: Antimicrobial efficacy and release kinetics of thymol from zein films. Journal of Food Engineering 2008; 89(1): 57-63'},{id:"B15",body:'Burt S: Essential oils: their antibacterial properties and potential applications in the foods-a review. International journal of food microbiology 2004; 94(3): 223-253'},{id:"B16",body:'Chantarodsakun T, Vongsetskul T, Jangpatarapongsa K, Tuchinda P, Uamsiri S, Bamrungcharoen C, Kumkate S, Opaprakasit P and Tangboriboonrat P: [6]-Gingerol-loaded cellulose acetate electrospun fibers as a topical carrier for controlled release. Polymer bulletin 2014; 71(12): 3163-3176'},{id:"B17",body:'Sadri M, Karimi-Nazari E, Hosseini H and Emamgholi A: New Chitosan/Poly (ethylene oxide)/Thyme Nanofiber Prepared by Electrospinning Method for Antimicrobial Wound Dressing. Journal of Nanostructures 2016; 6(4): 322-328'},{id:"B18",body:'Ranjbar-Mohammadi M, Rabbani S, Bahrami SH, Joghataei M and Moayer F: Antibacterial performance and in-vivo diabetic wound healing of curcumin loaded gum tragacanth/poly (ε-caprolactone) electrospun nanofibers. Materials Science and Engineering: C 2016; 69: 1183-1191'},{id:"B19",body:'Zhu L, Liu X, Du L and Jin Y: Preparation of asiaticoside-loaded coaxially electrospinning nanofibers and their effect on deep partial-thickness burn injury. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 2016; 83: 33-40'},{id:"B20",body:'Han J, Chen T-X, Branford-White CJ and Zhu LM: Electrospun shikonin-loaded PCL/PTMC composite fiber mats with potential biomedical applications. International journal of pharmaceutics 2009; 382(1-2): 215-221'},{id:"B21",body:'Park SW, Bae HS, Xing ZC, Kwon OH, Huh MW and Kang IK: Preparation and properties of silver-containing nylon 6 nanofibers formed by electrospinning. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 2009; 112(4): 2320-2326'},{id:"B22",body:'Yeo SY, Lee HJ and Jeong SH: Preparation of nanocomposite fibers for permanent antibacterial effect. Journal of Materials Science 2003; 38(10): 2143-2147'},{id:"B23",body:'Kalwar K, Hu L, Li DL and Shan D: AgNPs incorporated on deacetylated electrospun cellulose nanofibers and their effect on the antimicrobial activity. Polymers for Advanced Technologies 2018; 29(1): 394-400'},{id:"B24",body:'Raffi M, Mehrwan S, Bhatti TM, Akhter JI, Hameed A, Yawar W and ul-Hasan MM: Investigations into the antibacterial behavior of copper nanoparticles against Escherichia coli. Annals of Microbiology 2010; 60(1): 75-80'},{id:"B25",body:'Ahire JJ, Hattingh M, Neveling DP and Dicks LM: Copper-containing anti-biofilm nanofiber scaffolds as a wound dressing material. PloS one 2016; 11(3): e0152755'},{id:"B26",body:'Qi R, Guo R, Zheng F, Liu H, Yu J and Shi X: Controlled release and antibacterial activity of antibiotic-loaded electrospun halloysite/poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) composite nanofibers. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces 2013; 110: 148-155'},{id:"B27",body:'Liu X, Nielsen LH, Kłodzińska SN, Nielsen HM, Qu H, Christensen LP, Rantanen J and Yang M: Ciprofloxacin-loaded sodium alginate/poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) electrospun fibrous mats for wound healing. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics 2018; 123: 42-49'},{id:"B28",body:'Han D, Sherman S, Filocamo S and Steckl AJ: Long-term antimicrobial effect of nisin released from electrospun triaxial fiber membranes. Acta biomaterialia 2017; 53: 242-249'},{id:"B29",body:'Electrospinning: promising technology for producing nanofibers. Fibre2Fashion. Oct 2008. Available from: https://www.fibre2fashion.com/industry-article/3692/electrospinning-promising-technology-for-producing-nanofiber'},{id:"B30",body:'Adnan Haider, Sajjad Haider, Inn-Kyu Kang. A comprehensive review summarizing the effect of electrospinning parameters and potential applications of nanofibers in biomedical and biotechnology, Arabian Journal of Chemistry, Volume 11, Issue 8, 2018, Pages 1165-1188, ISSN 1878 5352, doi: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2015.11.015'},{id:"B31",body:'Seeram Ramakrishna et al. Electrospun nanofibers: solving global issues, Materials Today, Volume 9, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 40-50, ISSN 1369-7021, doi: 10.1016/S1369-7021(06)71389-X'},{id:"B32",body:'Blachowicz, Tomasz, and Andrea Ehrmann. Most Recent Developments in Electrospun Magnetic Nanofibers: A Review. Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics, (January 2020). doi:10.1177/1558925019900843'},{id:"B33",body:'Jiajia Xue, Tong Wu, Yunqian Dai, Younan Xia Chem Rev. Electrospinning and Electrospun Nanofibers: Methods, Materials, and Applications. 119(8): 5298-5415. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00593. PMCID: PMC6589095'},{id:"B34",body:'Wanwei Zhang, Sara Ronca, Elisa Mele. Electrospun Nanofibres Containing Antimicrobial Plant Extracts. Nanomaterials (Basel) 2017 Feb; 7(2): 42. doi: 10.3390/nano7020042. PMCID: PMC5333027'},{id:"B35",body:'Zhang C, Li Y, Wang P, Zhang H. Electrospinning of nanofibers: Potentials and perspectives for active food packaging. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2020; 19: 479-502. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12536'},{id:"B36",body:'Engineering Rebecca L. Dahlin, F. Kurtis Kasper, Antonios G. Mikos. Polymeric Nanofibers in Tissue, Tissue Eng Part B Rev. 2011 Oct; 17(5): 349-364. doi: 10.1089/ten.teb.2011.0238 PMCID: PMC3179616'},{id:"B37",body:'Nicoletta Ditaranto, Francesco Basoli, Marcella Trombetta , Nicola Cioffi, and Alberto Rainer. Received: 2 August 2018; Accepted: 7 September 2018; Published: 13 September 2018'},{id:"B38",body:'Cai, Y., Gevelber, M. The effect of relative humidity and evaporation rate on electrospinning: fiber diameter and measurement for control implications. J Mater Sci 48, 7812-7826 (2013). doi:10.1007/s10853-013-7544-x'},{id:"B39",body:'De Vrieze, Sander & Camp, Tamara & Nelvig, A. & Hagström, Bengt & Westbroek, Philippe and Clerck, Karen. (2009). The effect of temperature and humidity on electrospinning. Journal of Materials Science. 44. 1357-1362. 10.1007/s10853-008-3010-6'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Lingayya Hiremath",address:"lingayah@rvce.edu.in",affiliation:'
Department of Biotechnology, R.V. College of Engineering, Autonomous Institution Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, India
Department of Biotechnology, Maharani’s Science College for Women, India
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10469",type:"book",title:"Nanofibers",subtitle:"Synthesis, Properties and Applications",fullTitle:"Nanofibers - Synthesis, Properties and Applications",slug:"nanofibers-synthesis-properties-and-applications",publishedDate:"September 15th 2021",bookSignature:"Brajesh Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10469.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-426-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-425-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-427-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"176093",title:"Dr.",name:"Brajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"brajesh-kumar",fullName:"Brajesh Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"349524",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivek Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Garg",email:"garg.vivek85@gmail.com",fullName:"Vivek Kumar Garg",slug:"vivek-kumar-garg",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"76142",title:"Convalescent Plasma: An Evidence-Based Old Therapy to Treat Novel Coronavirus Patients",slug:"convalescent-plasma-an-evidence-based-old-therapy-to-treat-novel-coronavirus-patients",abstract:"Novel Coronavirus (nCoV-2019) is a highly infectious viral outbreak that has so far infected more than 110 million people worldwide. Fast viral transmission and high infection rates have severely affected the entire population, especially the old aged and comorbid individuals leaving significantly less time to find some effective treatment strategy. In these challenging times, convalescent plasma (CP) therapy came as a ray of hope to save humankind. It is a form of passive immunization that has been used to treat various infectious diseases since 1890, including the 1918 Spanish flu, 2002/03 SARS-CoV, 2009 H1N1, 2012 MERS-CoV, and 2014 Ebola outbreak. The transfusion includes administration of CP containing a high value of neutralizing antibodies against the virus in hospitalized patients. This chapter summarizes the potential outcome of CP therapy in the treatment of nCoV-2019 patients.",signatures:"Saurabh Kumar, Chandra Devi, Subhabrata Sarkar, Vivek Kumar Garg, Priyanka Choudhary, Madhu Chopra, Vinit Sharma and Ravi Prakash",authors:[{id:"345069",title:"Mr.",name:"Saurabh",surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Saurabh Kumar",slug:"saurabh-kumar",email:"saurabh.kum1991@gmail.com"},{id:"349522",title:"Ms.",name:"Chandra",surname:"Devi",fullName:"Chandra Devi",slug:"chandra-devi",email:"chandrathakur5@gmail.com"},{id:"349523",title:"Dr.",name:"Subhabrata",surname:"Sarkar",fullName:"Subhabrata Sarkar",slug:"subhabrata-sarkar",email:"subhabrata5426@gmail.com"},{id:"349524",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivek Kumar",surname:"Garg",fullName:"Vivek Kumar Garg",slug:"vivek-kumar-garg",email:"garg.vivek85@gmail.com"},{id:"349526",title:"Ms.",name:"Priyanka",surname:"Choudhary",fullName:"Priyanka Choudhary",slug:"priyanka-choudhary",email:"prinku30dec@gmail.com"},{id:"349527",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhu",surname:"Chopra",fullName:"Madhu Chopra",slug:"madhu-chopra",email:"madhu8608@gmail.com"},{id:"349528",title:"Mr.",name:"Vinit",surname:"Sharma",fullName:"Vinit Sharma",slug:"vinit-sharma",email:"vntsharma58@gmail.com"},{id:"349529",title:"Dr.",name:"Ravi",surname:"Prakash",fullName:"Ravi Prakash",slug:"ravi-prakash",email:"rpvetravi@gmail.com"}],book:{id:"10633",title:"Biotechnology to Combat COVID-19",slug:"biotechnology-to-combat-covid-19",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"35086",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamalesh",surname:"Sarkar",slug:"kamalesh-sarkar",fullName:"Kamalesh Sarkar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"253563",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Rajeev",surname:"Gupta",slug:"rajeev-gupta",fullName:"Rajeev Gupta",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"335282",title:"Dr.",name:"Humphrey",surname:"Simukoko",slug:"humphrey-simukoko",fullName:"Humphrey Simukoko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"336488",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinita",surname:"Chittoor-Vinod",slug:"vinita-chittoor-vinod",fullName:"Vinita Chittoor-Vinod",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stanford University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"341227",title:"Dr.",name:"Basanta",surname:"Bhowmik",slug:"basanta-bhowmik",fullName:"Basanta Bhowmik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"343964",title:"Dr.",name:"Tafirenyika",surname:"Mafugu",slug:"tafirenyika-mafugu",fullName:"Tafirenyika Mafugu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"344035",title:"Prof.",name:"Gyaneshwer Chaubey",surname:"Chaubey",slug:"gyaneshwer-chaubey-chaubey",fullName:"Gyaneshwer Chaubey Chaubey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"344038",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikhil",surname:"Srivastava",slug:"nikhil-srivastava",fullName:"Nikhil Srivastava",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banaras Hindu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"344221",title:"Dr.",name:"Bidisa",surname:"Sarkar",slug:"bidisa-sarkar",fullName:"Bidisa Sarkar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"344351",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Rayan A.",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rayan-a.-ahmed",fullName:"Rayan A. Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"open-access-statement",title:"Open Access Statement",intro:"
",metaTitle:"Open Access Statement",metaDescription:"Book chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0)",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/open-access-statement/",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
Based on your preferences and the stage of your scientific projects, you have multiple options for publishing your scientific research with IntechOpen:
The Open Access publishing model followed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, thus enabling readers to access research at no cost to themselves. In order to sustain these operations, and keep our publications freely accessible, we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee on all manuscripts accepted for publication to help cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books.
Based on your preferences and the stage of your scientific projects, you have multiple options for publishing your scientific research with IntechOpen:
The Open Access publishing model followed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, thus enabling readers to access research at no cost to themselves. In order to sustain these operations, and keep our publications freely accessible, we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee on all manuscripts accepted for publication to help cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books.
IntechOpen is dedicated to ensuring the long-term preservation and availability of the scholarly research it publishes.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6598},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5903},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2400},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12538},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1006},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17561}],offset:12,limit:12,total:132762},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"14"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11121",title:"Crystal Growth - Technologies and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"81f076fab2acb567946aeaa4b7281fc1",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Riadh Marzouki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11121.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"300527",title:"Dr.",name:"Riadh",surname:"Marzouki",slug:"riadh-marzouki",fullName:"Riadh Marzouki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11466",title:"Titanium Alloys - Recent Progress in Design, Processing, Characterization, and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1c89c2e1b5d03b90db5b13d44479baa6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ram Krishna",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11466.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"296477",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram",surname:"Krishna",slug:"ram-krishna",fullName:"Ram Krishna"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11467",title:"Bismuth-Based Nanostructured Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"951c872d9d90e13cfe7d97c0af91845e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. William Wilson Anku",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11467.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"196465",title:"Dr.",name:"William Wilson",surname:"Anku",slug:"william-wilson-anku",fullName:"William Wilson Anku"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11468",title:"High Entropy Alloys - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3b4ef3ce01f8f9b113dc28ac847b8c0d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Yong A Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11468.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"203937",title:"Prof.",name:"Yong",surname:"Zhang",slug:"yong-zhang",fullName:"Yong Zhang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11470",title:"Graphene - Recent Advances, Future Perspective and Applied Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"409e022e3baf48795e816576a6ee66e3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mujtaba Ikram, Dr. Asghari Maqsood and Dr. Aneeqa Bashir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11470.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"286820",title:"Dr.",name:"Mujtaba",surname:"Ikram",slug:"mujtaba-ikram",fullName:"Mujtaba Ikram"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11471",title:"Advanced Cement-Based Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ade4b6eb27dabcb68870dd1d320840cd",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mohsen Mhadhbi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11471.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"228366",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",surname:"Mhadhbi",slug:"mohsen-mhadhbi",fullName:"Mohsen Mhadhbi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11483",title:"Magnetic Materials - Recent Advances and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9df995499c9e30ad3bc64368cde49ef4",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Dipti Ranjan Sahu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11483.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"251855",title:"Prof.",name:"Dipti Ranjan",surname:"Sahu",slug:"dipti-ranjan-sahu",fullName:"Dipti Ranjan Sahu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11484",title:"Thin Film Deposition - Fundamentals, Processes, and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9c10a55203c2f0f7d47c743e6cfa2492",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Dongfang Yang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11484.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"177814",title:"Dr.",name:"Dongfang",surname:"Yang",slug:"dongfang-yang",fullName:"Dongfang Yang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11485",title:"Wetting and Wettability - Fundamental and Applied Aspects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"54b954378e0840f2317b2e94e6c467d6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Volodymyr Shatokha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11485.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"111000",title:"Dr.",name:"Volodymyr",surname:"Shatokha",slug:"volodymyr-shatokha",fullName:"Volodymyr Shatokha"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11758",title:"Glass-Ceramics - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e03ff7760e0aaea457f259ab63153846",slug:null,bookSignature:" Uday M. Basheer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11758.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"182041",title:null,name:"Uday",surname:"Basheer",slug:"uday-basheer",fullName:"Uday Basheer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11759",title:"Copper - From the Mineral to the Final Application",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"afea7aef1cb09fc3a1a5d619152d02a6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Daniel Fernández González and Dr. Luis Felipe Verdeja González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11759.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"211395",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Fernández González",slug:"daniel-fernandez-gonzalez",fullName:"Daniel Fernández González"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11760",title:"Applications and Use of Diamond",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2edcf9a24450d8655e756e1080defe32",slug:null,bookSignature:"Mr. Evgeniy Lipatov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11760.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"21254",title:"Mr.",name:"Evgeniy",surname:"Lipatov",slug:"evgeniy-lipatov",fullName:"Evgeniy Lipatov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:43},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:21},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:62},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:29},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:123},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:12},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:42},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3340,editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11001",title:"Density Functional Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82d53383af78ab41eb982086c02fb2bb",slug:"density-functional-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11001.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1845,editors:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10251",title:"Plankton Communities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e11e441ca2d2d5f631b1b4704505cfb6",slug:"plankton-communities",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira and Ana Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10251.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1096,editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:995,editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"943e56ccaaf19ff696d25aa638ae37d6",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3791,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11752",title:"Natural Drugs from Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a0a83c0822608ef7592bf16a5ed0ada4",slug:"natural-drugs-from-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11752.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2982,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10853",title:"Recent Advances in Polynomials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e8671bae09ccaa8b8e276c639a737fc",slug:"recent-advances-in-polynomials",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10853.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:559,editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10676",title:"Recent Applications in Graph Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900c60742d224080732bd16bd25ccba8",slug:"recent-applications-in-graph-theory",bookSignature:"Harun Pirim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10676.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:546,editors:[{id:"146092",title:"Dr.",name:"Harun",middleName:null,surname:"Pirim",slug:"harun-pirim",fullName:"Harun Pirim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10903",title:"Genetically Modified Plants and Beyond",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d7ed4faab99c92cd4d676dc86501df9",slug:"genetically-modified-plants-and-beyond",bookSignature:"Idah Sithole Niang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10903.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:539,editors:[{id:"90172",title:"Prof.",name:"Idah",middleName:null,surname:"Sithole-Niang",slug:"idah-sithole-niang",fullName:"Idah Sithole-Niang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10904",title:"Fusarium",subtitle:"An Overview of the Genus",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49d9063e43f94bd1517d65fbc58b93c3",slug:"fusarium-an-overview-of-the-genus",bookSignature:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10904.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:535,editors:[{id:"100573",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Mahyar",middleName:null,surname:"Mirmajlessi",slug:"seyed-mahyar-mirmajlessi",fullName:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10251",title:"Plankton Communities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e11e441ca2d2d5f631b1b4704505cfb6",slug:"plankton-communities",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira and Ana Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10251.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10853",title:"Recent Advances in Polynomials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e8671bae09ccaa8b8e276c639a737fc",slug:"recent-advances-in-polynomials",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10853.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10871",title:"Computed-Tomography (CT) Scan",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"966d8cf74fa27eea1b9cbc9a6ee94993",slug:"computed-tomography-ct-scan",bookSignature:"Reda R. Gharieb",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10871.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10903",title:"Genetically Modified Plants and Beyond",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d7ed4faab99c92cd4d676dc86501df9",slug:"genetically-modified-plants-and-beyond",bookSignature:"Idah Sithole Niang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10903.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"90172",title:"Prof.",name:"Idah",middleName:null,surname:"Sithole-Niang",slug:"idah-sithole-niang",fullName:"Idah Sithole-Niang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10904",title:"Fusarium",subtitle:"An Overview of the Genus",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49d9063e43f94bd1517d65fbc58b93c3",slug:"fusarium-an-overview-of-the-genus",bookSignature:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10904.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"100573",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Mahyar",middleName:null,surname:"Mirmajlessi",slug:"seyed-mahyar-mirmajlessi",fullName:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10654",title:"Brain-Computer Interface",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5308884068cc53ed31c6baba756857f",slug:"brain-computer-interface",bookSignature:"Vahid Asadpour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10654.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10676",title:"Recent Applications in Graph Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900c60742d224080732bd16bd25ccba8",slug:"recent-applications-in-graph-theory",bookSignature:"Harun Pirim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10676.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"146092",title:"Dr.",name:"Harun",middleName:null,surname:"Pirim",slug:"harun-pirim",fullName:"Harun Pirim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11196",title:"New Updates in E-Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6afaadf68e2a0a4b370ac5ceb5ca89c6",slug:"new-updates-in-e-learning",bookSignature:"Eduard Babulak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11196.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"10086",title:"Prof.",name:"Eduard",middleName:null,surname:"Babulak",slug:"eduard-babulak",fullName:"Eduard Babulak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1185",title:"Pharmaceutical Industry",slug:"drug-discovery-pharmaceutical-industry",parent:{id:"217",title:"Drug Discovery",slug:"drug-discovery"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:39,numberOfWosCitations:24,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitations:31,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"1185",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"5443",title:"Anti-cancer Drugs",subtitle:"Nature, Synthesis and Cell",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2888331ffb1235482d917e1923088ad0",slug:"anti-cancer-drugs-nature-synthesis-and-cell",bookSignature:"Jasna Bankovic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5443.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"118055",title:"Dr.",name:"Jasna",middleName:null,surname:"Bankovic",slug:"jasna-bankovic",fullName:"Jasna Bankovic"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1519",title:"Promising Pharmaceuticals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1f2de89b02cd16e20983fb2b3246a641",slug:"promising-pharmaceuticals",bookSignature:"Purusotam Basnet",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1519.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"98426",title:"Prof.",name:"Purusotam",middleName:null,surname:"Basnet",slug:"purusotam-basnet",fullName:"Purusotam Basnet"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"37169",doi:"10.5772/37656",title:"Apparent Solubility and Dissolution Profile at Non-Sink Conditions as Quality Improvement Tools",slug:"apparent-solubility-and-dissolution-profile-at-non-sink-conditions-as-quality-improvement-tools",totalDownloads:12703,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"1519",slug:"promising-pharmaceuticals",title:"Promising Pharmaceuticals",fullTitle:"Promising Pharmaceuticals"},signatures:"Stefania Petralito, Iacopo Zanardi, Adriana Memoli, M. Cristina Annesini, Vincenzo Millucci and Valter Travagli",authors:[{id:"113727",title:"Prof.",name:"Valter",middleName:null,surname:"Travagli",slug:"valter-travagli",fullName:"Valter Travagli"},{id:"114210",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefania",middleName:null,surname:"Petralito",slug:"stefania-petralito",fullName:"Stefania Petralito"},{id:"114211",title:"Dr.",name:"Iacopo",middleName:null,surname:"Zanardi",slug:"iacopo-zanardi",fullName:"Iacopo Zanardi"},{id:"114213",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"Memoli",slug:"adriana-memoli",fullName:"Adriana Memoli"},{id:"114214",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Annesini",slug:"m.-cristina-annesini",fullName:"M. Cristina Annesini"},{id:"114733",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Millucci",slug:"vincenzo-millucci",fullName:"Vincenzo Millucci"}]},{id:"52647",doi:"10.5772/65730",title:"Approaches to Endow Ribonucleases with Antitumor Activity: Lessons Learned from the Native Cytotoxic Ribonucleases",slug:"approaches-to-endow-ribonucleases-with-antitumor-activity-lessons-learned-from-the-native-cytotoxic-",totalDownloads:1754,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Typical antitumor drugs disrupt the flow of biochemical information from DNA to proteins with the aim of precluding uncontrolled cell proliferation and inducing cancer cell apoptosis. However, most of the currently used small antitumor drugs are genotoxic because they act over DNA. Pharmaceutical industry is now searching for a new line of cancer chemotherapeutics without genotoxic effects. Ribonucleases (RNases) are small basic proteins, present in all life forms, which belong to this kind of chemotherapeutics. Some of them present with remarkable selective antitumor activity linked to their ability to destroy RNA, a powerful way to control gene expression, leaving DNA unharmed. In the last two decades, the knowledge gained on the cytotoxic mechanism of these RNases has been used to engineer more powerful and selective variants to kill cancer cells. In this chapter, we describe the advances reached in endowing an RNase with antitumor abilities.",book:{id:"5443",slug:"anti-cancer-drugs-nature-synthesis-and-cell",title:"Anti-cancer Drugs",fullTitle:"Anti-cancer Drugs - Nature, Synthesis and Cell"},signatures:"Jessica Castro, Marc Ribó, Antoni Benito and Maria Vilanova",authors:[{id:"190354",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Vilanova",slug:"maria-vilanova",fullName:"Maria Vilanova"},{id:"194690",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessica",middleName:null,surname:"Castro",slug:"jessica-castro",fullName:"Jessica Castro"},{id:"194691",title:"Dr.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Ribó",slug:"marc-ribo",fullName:"Marc Ribó"},{id:"194692",title:"Dr.",name:"Antoni",middleName:null,surname:"Benito",slug:"antoni-benito",fullName:"Antoni Benito"}]},{id:"52561",doi:"10.5772/65365",title:"SHetA2, a New Cancer-Preventive Drug Candidate",slug:"sheta2-a-new-cancer-preventive-drug-candidate",totalDownloads:1715,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"SHetA2 (NSC 721689) is a novel synthetic flexible heteroarotinoid that has promising cancer-preventive activity, and has exhibited growth inhibition on 60 cancer cell lines in vitro, along with ovarian, lung, and kidney cancers in vivo. It binds and interferes with the function of a molecular chaperone, mortalin, leading to mitochondrial swelling and mitophagy that induce apoptosis in cancer cells without harming normal cells. It showed minimal toxicity in preclinical studies and thus is now in Phase-0 clinical trial. This chapter summarizes its evolution, synthesis, structure-activity relationship, mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, and potential clinical applications in last 12 years. It also provides insights into designing more potent and safer SHetA2 analogs for future cancer-preventive drug development.",book:{id:"5443",slug:"anti-cancer-drugs-nature-synthesis-and-cell",title:"Anti-cancer Drugs",fullTitle:"Anti-cancer Drugs - Nature, Synthesis and Cell"},signatures:"Shengquan Liu, Guangyan Zhou, Sze Ngong Henry Lo, Maggie\nLouie and Vanishree Rajagopalan",authors:[{id:"188702",title:"Dr.",name:"Shengquan",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"shengquan-liu",fullName:"Shengquan Liu"},{id:"194823",title:"Dr.",name:"Guangyan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"guangyan-zhou",fullName:"Guangyan Zhou"},{id:"194824",title:"Mr.",name:"Sze Ngong Henry Lo",middleName:null,surname:"Lo",slug:"sze-ngong-henry-lo-lo",fullName:"Sze Ngong Henry Lo Lo"},{id:"194825",title:"Dr.",name:"Maggie",middleName:null,surname:"Louie",slug:"maggie-louie",fullName:"Maggie Louie"},{id:"194826",title:"Dr.",name:"Vanishree",middleName:null,surname:"Rajagopalan",slug:"vanishree-rajagopalan",fullName:"Vanishree Rajagopalan"}]},{id:"37167",doi:"10.5772/36675",title:"Pharmacognostic Methods for Analysis of Herbal Drugs, According to European Pharmacopoeia",slug:"pharmacognostic-methods-for-analysis-of-herbal-drugs-according-to-european-pharmacopoeia",totalDownloads:15259,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"1519",slug:"promising-pharmaceuticals",title:"Promising Pharmaceuticals",fullTitle:"Promising Pharmaceuticals"},signatures:"Duţu Ligia Elena",authors:[{id:"109325",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ligia Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Dutu",slug:"ligia-elena-dutu",fullName:"Ligia Elena Dutu"}]},{id:"37166",doi:"10.5772/38948",title:"Drug Designing, Discovery and Development Techniques",slug:"drug-designing-discovery-and-development-techniques",totalDownloads:12685,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"1519",slug:"promising-pharmaceuticals",title:"Promising Pharmaceuticals",fullTitle:"Promising Pharmaceuticals"},signatures:"Elvis A. Martis and Rakesh R. Somani",authors:[{id:"60279",title:"Dr.",name:"Rakesh",middleName:null,surname:"Somani",slug:"rakesh-somani",fullName:"Rakesh Somani"},{id:"117258",title:"Mr.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Adrian",surname:"Martis",slug:"elvis-martis",fullName:"Elvis Martis"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"37165",title:"Modern Medicine and Pharmaceutics",slug:"modern-medicine-and-pharmaceutics",totalDownloads:4447,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"1519",slug:"promising-pharmaceuticals",title:"Promising Pharmaceuticals",fullTitle:"Promising Pharmaceuticals"},signatures:"Purusotam Basnet",authors:[{id:"98426",title:"Prof.",name:"Purusotam",middleName:null,surname:"Basnet",slug:"purusotam-basnet",fullName:"Purusotam Basnet"}]},{id:"37170",title:"Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) for Medicinal Products",slug:"good-manufacturing-practices-gmp-for-medicinal-products",totalDownloads:32600,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"1519",slug:"promising-pharmaceuticals",title:"Promising Pharmaceuticals",fullTitle:"Promising Pharmaceuticals"},signatures:"Jaya Bir Karmacharya",authors:[{id:"155087",title:"Mr.",name:"Jaya",middleName:"Bir",surname:"Karmacharya",slug:"jaya-karmacharya",fullName:"Jaya Karmacharya"}]},{id:"37166",title:"Drug Designing, Discovery and Development Techniques",slug:"drug-designing-discovery-and-development-techniques",totalDownloads:12685,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"1519",slug:"promising-pharmaceuticals",title:"Promising Pharmaceuticals",fullTitle:"Promising Pharmaceuticals"},signatures:"Elvis A. Martis and Rakesh R. Somani",authors:[{id:"60279",title:"Dr.",name:"Rakesh",middleName:null,surname:"Somani",slug:"rakesh-somani",fullName:"Rakesh Somani"},{id:"117258",title:"Mr.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Adrian",surname:"Martis",slug:"elvis-martis",fullName:"Elvis Martis"}]},{id:"37168",title:"Biological Products: Manufacturing, Handling, Packaging and Storage",slug:"biological-products-manufacturing-handling-packaging-and-storage",totalDownloads:20824,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"1519",slug:"promising-pharmaceuticals",title:"Promising Pharmaceuticals",fullTitle:"Promising Pharmaceuticals"},signatures:"Nahla S. Barakat",authors:[{id:"105765",title:"Prof.",name:"Nahla",middleName:"Salah",surname:"Barakat",slug:"nahla-barakat",fullName:"Nahla Barakat"}]},{id:"53278",title:"Natural Products for Treatment of Chronic Myeloid Leukemia",slug:"natural-products-for-treatment-of-chronic-myeloid-leukemia",totalDownloads:4092,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is a hematological malignancy that arises due to reciprocal translocation of 3′ sequences from c-Abelson (abl) protooncogene on chromosome 9 with 5′ sequence of truncated break point cluster region (bcr) to chromosome 22. The fusion gene product BCR-ABL, a functional oncoprotein p210, is a constitutively activated tyrosine kinase that activates several cell proliferative signaling pathways. BCR-ABL-specific tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) such as imatinib, nilotinib and ponatinib potently inhibit CML progression. However, drug resistance owing to BCR-ABL mutations and overexpression is still an issue. Natural products are chemical compounds or substances produced by living organisms. They are becoming an important research area for cancer drug discovery due to their low toxicity and cost-effectiveness. Several lines of evidence show that many NPs such as alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, polyketides, lignans and saponins inhibit CML cell proliferation and induce apoptosis. NPs not only differentiate CML cells into monocyte/erythroid lineage but also can reverse the multi-drug resistance (MDR) in CML cells. In this chapter, we review the anti-CML activity of various NPs.",book:{id:"5443",slug:"anti-cancer-drugs-nature-synthesis-and-cell",title:"Anti-cancer Drugs",fullTitle:"Anti-cancer Drugs - Nature, Synthesis and Cell"},signatures:"Kalubai Vari Khajapeer and Rajasekaran Baskaran",authors:[{id:"190496",title:"Dr.",name:"Baskaran",middleName:null,surname:"Rajasekaran",slug:"baskaran-rajasekaran",fullName:"Baskaran Rajasekaran"},{id:"190512",title:"Mr.",name:"Kalubai Vari",middleName:null,surname:"Khajapeer",slug:"kalubai-vari-khajapeer",fullName:"Kalubai Vari Khajapeer"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1185",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 19th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:'Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the "new normal". Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.',institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. Since 2015 he heads the research department Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development (Sandec) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology (Eawag).",institutionString:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Switzerland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290571/images/system/290571.jpg",biography:"Rui Alexandre Castanho has a master\\'s degree in Planning, Audit, and Control in Urban Green Spaces and an international Ph.D. in Sustainable Planning in Borderlands. Currently, he is a professor at WSB University, Poland, and a visiting professor at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Dr. Castanho is a post-doc researcher on the GREAT Project, University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal. He collaborates with the Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (ARAM), University of Extremadura (UEx), Spain; VALORIZA - Research Center for the Enhancement of Endogenous Resources, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal; Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation (CITUR), Madeira, Portugal; and AQUAGEO Research Group, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil.",institutionString:"University of Johannesburg, South Africa and WSB University, Poland",institution:{name:"University of Johannesburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"81297",title:"Legumes Cropping and Nitrogen Fixation under Mediterranean Climate",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104473",signatures:"Fernando Teixeira",slug:"legumes-cropping-and-nitrogen-fixation-under-mediterranean-climate",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81493",title:"Rust Disease Classification Using Deep Learning Based Algorithm: The Case of Wheat",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104426",signatures:"Shivani Sood, Harjeet Singh and Suruchi Jindal",slug:"rust-disease-classification-using-deep-learning-based-algorithm-the-case-of-wheat",totalDownloads:37,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81428",title:"Observatory of Sustainable Development in Postgraduate Study Programs in Baja California",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104641",signatures:"Rodolfo Martinez-Gutierrez, Maria Marcela Solis-Quinteros, Maria Esther Ibarra-Estrada and Angel Ernesto Jimenez-Bernardino",slug:"observatory-of-sustainable-development-in-postgraduate-study-programs-in-baja-california",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81235",title:"Global Food System Transformation for Resilience",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102749",signatures:"Jasper Okoro Godwin Elechi, Ikechukwu U. Nwiyi and Cornelius Smah Adamu",slug:"global-food-system-transformation-for-resilience",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"11669",title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",hash:"9117bd12dc904ced43404e3383b6591a",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 3rd 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"415310",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Erik",surname:"Froyen",slug:"erik-froyen",fullName:"Erik Froyen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11672",title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",hash:"c00855833476a514d37abf7c846e16e9",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 6th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"14794",title:"Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Şentürk",slug:"murat-senturk",fullName:"Murat Şentürk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11674",title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",hash:"5d7d49bd80f53dad3761f78de4a862c6",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 6th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"238047",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaia",surname:"Favero",slug:"gaia-favero",fullName:"Gaia Favero"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11670",title:"Chitin-Chitosan - Isolation, Properties, and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11670.jpg",hash:"69f009be08998711eecfb200adc7deca",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"May 26th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"176093",title:"Dr.",name:"Brajesh",surname:"Kumar",slug:"brajesh-kumar",fullName:"Brajesh Kumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11673",title:"Stem Cell Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11673.jpg",hash:"13092df328080c762dd9157be18ca38c",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"June 8th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana Kitala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"81821",title:"Pneumococcal Carriage in Jordanian Children and the Importance of Vaccination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104999",signatures:"Adnan Al-Lahham",slug:"pneumococcal-carriage-in-jordanian-children-and-the-importance-of-vaccination",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81813",title:"Schistosomiasis: Discovery of New Molecules for Disease Treatment and Vaccine Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104738",signatures:"Andressa Barban do Patrocinio",slug:"schistosomiasis-discovery-of-new-molecules-for-disease-treatment-and-vaccine-development",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81644",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ethics of Using Placebo Controlled Trials for Covid-19 Vaccine Development in Vulnerable Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104776",signatures:"Lesley Burgess, Jurie Jordaan and Matthew Wilson",slug:"perspective-chapter-ethics-of-using-placebo-controlled-trials-for-covid-19-vaccine-development-in-vu",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"80546",title:"Streptococcal Skin and Skin-Structure Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102894",signatures:"Alwyn Rapose",slug:"streptococcal-skin-and-skin-structure-infections",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10795",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:"Perspectives in Agriculture",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10795.jpg",slug:"plant-stress-physiology-perspectives-in-agriculture",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman and Kamran Nahar",hash:"c5a7932b74fe612b256bf95d0709756e",volumeInSeries:11,fullTitle:"Plant Stress Physiology - Perspectives in Agriculture",editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7999",title:"Free Radical Medicine and Biology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7999.jpg",slug:"free-radical-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 15th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Kusal Das, Swastika Das, Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar, Varaprasad Bobbarala and S. Subba Tata",hash:"083e5d427097d368a3f8a02bd6c76bf8",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Free Radical Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8762",title:"Melatonin",subtitle:"The Hormone of Darkness and its Therapeutic Potential and Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8762.jpg",slug:"melatonin-the-hormone-of-darkness-and-its-therapeutic-potential-and-perspectives",publishedDate:"June 24th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marilena Vlachou",hash:"bfbc5538173f11acb0f9549a85b70489",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Melatonin - The Hormone of Darkness and its Therapeutic Potential and Perspectives",editors:[{id:"246279",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Marilena",middleName:null,surname:"Vlachou",slug:"marilena-vlachou",fullName:"Marilena Vlachou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246279/images/system/246279.jpg",institutionString:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",institution:{name:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8002",title:"Tumor Progression and Metastasis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8002.jpg",slug:"tumor-progression-and-metastasis",publishedDate:"April 8th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Ahmed Lasfar and Karine Cohen-Solal",hash:"db17b0fe0a9b6e80ff02b81a93bafa4e",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Tumor Progression and Metastasis",editors:[{id:"32546",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Lasfar",slug:"ahmed-lasfar",fullName:"Ahmed Lasfar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32546/images/system/32546.png",institutionString:"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey",institution:{name:"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6897",title:"Biophysical Chemistry",subtitle:"Advance Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6897.jpg",slug:"biophysical-chemistry-advance-applications",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohammed A. A. Khalid",hash:"0ad18ab382e2ffb9ff202d15282297eb",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Biophysical Chemistry - Advance Applications",editors:[{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8430",title:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disorder",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8430.jpg",slug:"neurodevelopment-and-neurodevelopmental-disorder",publishedDate:"November 27th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michael Fitzgerald",hash:"696c96d038de473216e48b199613c111",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disorder",editors:[{id:"205005",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Fitzgerald",slug:"michael-fitzgerald",fullName:"Michael Fitzgerald",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205005/images/system/205005.jpg",institutionString:"Independant Researcher",institution:{name:"Trinity College Dublin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8008",title:"Antioxidants",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8008.jpg",slug:"antioxidants",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Emad Shalaby",hash:"76361b4061e830906267933c1c670027",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Antioxidants",editors:[{id:"63600",title:"Prof.",name:"Emad",middleName:null,surname:"Shalaby",slug:"emad-shalaby",fullName:"Emad Shalaby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63600/images/system/63600.png",institutionString:"Cairo University",institution:{name:"Cairo University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8797",title:"Adipose Tissue",subtitle:"An Update",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8797.jpg",slug:"adipose-tissue-an-update",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leszek Szablewski",hash:"34880b7b450ef96fa5063c867c028b02",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Adipose Tissue - An Update",editors:[{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6924",title:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6924.jpg",slug:"adenosine-triphosphate-in-health-and-disease",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Gyula Mozsik",hash:"04106c232a3c68fec07ba7cf00d2522d",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",editors:[{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6925",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6925.jpg",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Angel Català",hash:"a9e90d2dbdbc46128dfe7dac9f87c6b4",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7264",title:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7264.jpg",slug:"calcium-and-signal-transduction",publishedDate:"October 24th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"John N. Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Plant Physiology",value:13,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Human Physiology",value:12,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell Physiology",value:11,count:8}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:5},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:617,paginationItems:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. His research interests include biochemistry, oxidative stress, reactive species, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation, inflammation, reproductive hormones, phenolic compounds, female infertility.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"41",type:"subseries",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11969,editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",slug:"yizi-shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yizi Shang is a pioneering researcher in hydrology and water resources who has devoted his research career to promoting the conservation and protection of water resources for sustainable development. He is presently associate editor of Water International (official journal of the International Water Resources Association). He was also invited to serve as an associate editor for special issues of the Journal of the American Water Resources Association. He has served as an editorial member for international journals such as Hydrology, Journal of Ecology & Natural Resources, and Hydro Science & Marine Engineering, among others. He has chaired or acted as a technical committee member for twenty-five international forums (conferences). Dr. Shang graduated from Tsinghua University, China, in 2010 with a Ph.D. in Engineering. Prior to that, he worked as a research fellow at Harvard University from 2008 to 2009. Dr. Shang serves as a senior research engineer at the China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research (IWHR) and was awarded as a distinguished researcher at National Taiwan University in 2017.",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"216491",title:"Dr.",name:"Charalampos",middleName:null,surname:"Skoulikaris",slug:"charalampos-skoulikaris",fullName:"Charalampos Skoulikaris",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRMsbQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-04-21T09:31:55.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"300124",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Shahady",slug:"thomas-shahady",fullName:"Thomas Shahady",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002kuIgmQAE/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:32:10.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lynchburg College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"81644",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ethics of Using Placebo Controlled Trials for Covid-19 Vaccine Development in Vulnerable Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104776",signatures:"Lesley Burgess, Jurie Jordaan and Matthew Wilson",slug:"perspective-chapter-ethics-of-using-placebo-controlled-trials-for-covid-19-vaccine-development-in-vu",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"8977",title:"Protein Kinases",subtitle:"Promising Targets for Anticancer Drug Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8977.jpg",slug:"protein-kinases-promising-targets-for-anticancer-drug-research",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rajesh Kumar Singh",hash:"6d200cc031706a565b554fdb1c478901",volumeInSeries:24,fullTitle:"Protein Kinases - Promising Targets for Anticancer Drug Research",editors:[{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9742",title:"Ubiquitin",subtitle:"Proteasome Pathway",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9742.jpg",slug:"ubiquitin-proteasome-pathway",publishedDate:"December 9th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Xianquan Zhan",hash:"af6880d3a5571da1377ac8f6373b9e82",volumeInSeries:18,fullTitle:"Ubiquitin - Proteasome Pathway",editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Infectious Diseases",id:"6"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/349524",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"349524"},fullPath:"/profiles/349524",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()