\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9902",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Service Robotics",title:"Service Robotics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"We feel the impact of robots on our lives more and more every day. Service robots constitute the broadest and the most exciting applications in this field, such as; personal care and assistance, agriculture, logistics, mobility, medical, and defense-oriented robots. Since service robotics contains many different types of robots, the variety of problems to be solved is also large. Many popular robotic problems, ranging from mechanism design to simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM), from motion planning to system security, can be examined in this context. You will find various examples and solutions for this critical area of robotics in this book. We hope that researchers interested in the subject will benefit from this book.",isbn:"978-1-78984-429-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-428-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-030-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87712",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"service-robotics",numberOfPages:162,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9b42f533ea14906bcd1e07df74b33ac2",bookSignature:"Volkan Sezer, Sinan Öncü and Pınar Boyraz Baykas",publishedDate:"November 26th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9902.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4792,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:15,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 11th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 10th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 9th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 28th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 26th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"268170",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"volkan-sezer",fullName:"Volkan Sezer",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268170/images/system/268170.jpg",biography:"Volkan Sezer is currently an Associate Professor in the Control and Automation Engineering Department of Istanbul Technical University. He received his B.Sc. in Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering from Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey in 2005, his M.Sc. in Mechatronics Engineering and his Ph.D. in Control and Automation Engineering from Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey in 2008 and 2012 respectively. After his PhD. he did research in Singapore as an MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) researcher in the Future Urban Mobility (FM) group. His research interests are based on the artificial intelligence for robotics and automotive technology. More specifically autonomous/semi-autonomous ground vehicles, active safety, robot autonomy and energy efficiency of hybrid electric vehicles are the main subjects of his research.",institutionString:"Istanbul Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Istanbul Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"1364",title:"Mr.",name:"Sinan",middleName:null,surname:"Öncü",slug:"sinan-oncu",fullName:"Sinan Öncü",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1364/images/system/1364.jpg",biography:"Sinan Öncü received his B.Sc. degree in electronics and telecommunications engineering and his M.Sc. degree in mechatronics engineering from Istanbul Technical University (ITU), in 2005 and 2008, respectively, and his Ph.D. degree in mechanical engineering from the Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), in 2014. From 2013 to 2016, he was a research scientist at the Integrated Vehicle Safety Department, Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO) Technical Sciences. Since 2019, he has been an assistant professor in the Mechanical Engineering Department at Boğaziçi University where he is also the Director of Smart and Autonomous Mobility Research Lab. His research focuses on cooperative localization, sensing, control, and coordination of automated air and ground vehicles with a particular focus on automotive and mobile robotics applications.",institutionString:"Boğaziçi University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Boğaziçi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"314054",title:"Dr.",name:"Pınar Boyraz",middleName:null,surname:"Baykas",slug:"pinar-boyraz-baykas",fullName:"Pınar Boyraz Baykas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314054/images/system/314054.png",biography:"Pinar Boyraz received double-major B.Sc. degrees in mechanical and textile engineering from Istanbul Technical University (ITU), İstanbul, Turkey, in 2003 and 2004 and a Ph.D. degree in mechatronics from the Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, U.K., in 2008. From 2008 to 2010, she was a Post-doctoral RA in the Erik Jonsson School of Engineering and Computer Science, University of Texas at Dallas, USA, focusing on driver behavior modeling and active safety system development. From 2010 to 2014, she was an Assistant Professor and from 2014 to 2018, an Associate Professor of the Mechanical Engineering Department, ITU, conducting research in applied robotics. Since March 2018, she has been an Associate Professor with the Mechanics and Maritime Sciences Department, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden. Her research interests broadly include applications of mathematical modeling, mechatronics, signal processing, and control theory. She was awarded by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation with Experienced Researcher Fellowship during her research in applied robotics at Leibniz Universität Hannover, Germany, in 2016 and 2017.",institutionString:"Chalmers University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Chalmers University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1272",title:"Service Robot",slug:"service-robot"}],chapters:[{id:"72482",title:"Safe Human-Robot Interaction Using Variable Stiffness, Hyper-Redundancy, and Smart Robotic Skins",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92693",slug:"safe-human-robot-interaction-using-variable-stiffness-hyper-redundancy-and-smart-robotic-skins",totalDownloads:626,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In service robotics, safe human-robot interaction (HRI) is still an open research topic, requiring developments both in hardware and in software as well as their integration. In UMAY1 and MEDICARE-C2projects, we addressed both mechanism design and perception aspects of a framework for safe HRI. Our first focus was to design variable stiffness joints for the robotic neck and arm to enable inherent compliance to protect a human collaborator. We demonstrate the advantages of variable stiffness actuators (VSA) in compliancy, safety, and energy efficiency with applications in exoskeleton and rehabilitation robotics. The variable-stiffness robotic neck mechanism was later scaled down and adopted in the robotic endoscope featuring hyper-redundancy. The hyper-redundant structures are more controllable, having efficient actuation and better feedback. Lastly, a smart robotic skin is introduced to explain the safety support via enhancement of tactile perception. Although it is developed for a hyper-redundant endoscopic robotic platform, the artificial skin can also be integrated in service robotics to provide multimodal tactile feedback. This chapter gives an overview of systems and their integration to attain a safer HRI. We follow a holistic approach for inherent compliancy via mechanism design (i.e., variable stiffness), precise control (i.e., hyper-redundancy), and multimodal tactile perception (i.e., smart robotic-skins).",signatures:"Pinar Boyraz Baykas, Ertugrul Bayraktar and Cihat Bora Yigit",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72482",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72482",authors:[{id:"228382",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Pinar",surname:"Boyraz",slug:"pinar-boyraz",fullName:"Pinar Boyraz"},{id:"228388",title:"Dr.",name:"Ertugrul",surname:"Bayraktar",slug:"ertugrul-bayraktar",fullName:"Ertugrul Bayraktar"},{id:"316567",title:"Dr.",name:"Cihat Bora",surname:"Yigit",slug:"cihat-bora-yigit",fullName:"Cihat Bora Yigit"}],corrections:null},{id:"73486",title:"Application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Prosthetic and Orthotic Rehabilitation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93903",slug:"application-of-artificial-intelligence-ai-in-prosthetic-and-orthotic-rehabilitation",totalDownloads:1258,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Technological integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and machine learning in the Prosthetic and Orthotic industry and in the field of assistive technology has become boon for the Persons with Disabilities. The concept of neural network has been used by the leading manufacturers of rehabilitation aids for simulating various anatomical and biomechanical functions of the lost parts of the human body. The involvement of human interaction with various agents’ i.e. electronic circuitry, software, robotics, etc. has made a revolutionary impact in the rehabilitation field to develop devices like Bionic leg, mind or thought control prosthesis and exoskeletons. Application of Artificial Intelligence and robotics technology has a huge impact in achieving independent mobility and enhances the quality of life in Persons with Disabilities (PwDs).",signatures:"Smita Nayak and Rajesh Kumar Das",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73486",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73486",authors:[{id:"204704",title:"Mrs.",name:"Smita",surname:"Nayak",slug:"smita-nayak",fullName:"Smita Nayak"},{id:"321308",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",surname:"Das",slug:"rajesh-das",fullName:"Rajesh Das"}],corrections:null},{id:"73718",title:"Development of a Versatile Modular Platform for Aerial Manipulators",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94027",slug:"development-of-a-versatile-modular-platform-for-aerial-manipulators",totalDownloads:455,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The scope of this chapter is the development of an aerial manipulator platform using an octarotor drone with an attached manipulator. An on-board spherical camera provides visual information for the drone’s surroundings, while a Pan-Tilt-Zoom camera system is used to track targets. A powerful computer with a GPU offers significant on-board computational power for the visual servoing of the aerial manipulator system. This vision system, along with the Inertial Management Unit based controller provides exemplary guidance in confined and outdoor spaces. Coupled with the manipulator’s force sensing capabilities the system can interact with the environment. This aerial manipulation system is modular as far as attaching various payloads depending on the application (i.e., environmental sensing, facade cleaning and others, aerial netting for evader-drone geofencing, and others). Experimental studies using a motion capture system are offered to validate the system’s efficiency.",signatures:"Nikolaos Evangeliou, Athanasios Tsoukalas, Nikolaos Giakoumidis, Steffen Holter and Anthony Tzes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73718",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73718",authors:[{id:"242670",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",surname:"Tzes",slug:"anthony-tzes",fullName:"Anthony Tzes"},{id:"320159",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolaos",surname:"Evangeliou",slug:"nikolaos-evangeliou",fullName:"Nikolaos Evangeliou"},{id:"320160",title:"Dr.",name:"Athanasios",surname:"Tsoukalas",slug:"athanasios-tsoukalas",fullName:"Athanasios Tsoukalas"},{id:"320161",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikolaos",surname:"Giakoumidis",slug:"nikolaos-giakoumidis",fullName:"Nikolaos Giakoumidis"},{id:"320162",title:"Mr.",name:"Steffen",surname:"Holter",slug:"steffen-holter",fullName:"Steffen Holter"}],corrections:null},{id:"71614",title:"Guidance-Based Motion Planning of Autonomous Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91830",slug:"guidance-based-motion-planning-of-autonomous-systems",totalDownloads:522,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Motion planning is a significant stage in the control of autonomous systems. As an alternative method, guidance approach is proposed for the motion planning of those systems. In guided munitions, guidance laws determine the success of the guidance systems designed to steer systems such as missiles and guided bombs towards predefined targets. The guidance laws designated according to determinative agents such as the firing position of the munition, target type, and operational requirements try to provide the munition with arriving at the target point even under the disturbing effects. In this study, the applicability of the guidance laws to autonomous systems is investigated in a manner similar to the approach for the guided munitions. For this purpose, the motion planning of the selected robotic arm, tracked land vehicle, and quadrotor is tried to be performed in order to move them to predefined target points. Having designed the control systems compatible to the selected guidance laws for the considered systems, the corresponding guidance scheme is constructed. Eventually, after conducting the relevant computer simulations, it is observed that the desired target chase can be made in a successive manner for all cases.",signatures:"Bülent Özkan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71614",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71614",authors:[{id:"315942",title:"Dr.",name:"Bülent",surname:"Özkan",slug:"bulent-ozkan",fullName:"Bülent Özkan"}],corrections:null},{id:"72660",title:"Conversion of a Conventional Wheelchair into an Autonomous Personal Transportation Testbed",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93117",slug:"conversion-of-a-conventional-wheelchair-into-an-autonomous-personal-transportation-testbed",totalDownloads:490,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Personal transportation is the act of transporting an individual by using a small, low-speed vehicle. It is a very hot research topic both in industry and academia. There are many different types of personal transportation vehicles, and wheelchairs are one of them. Autonomous driving is another very popular subject that is applicable to the personal transportation vehicles. Autonomous personal transportation vehicles are good examples of service robotics applications. In this study, conversion procedure of a conventional electric wheelchair into an autonomous personal transportation testbed and the application of some basic autonomous driving algorithms on the developed testbed are explained. In literature, there are several studies providing information on wheelchairs’ autonomy but not deep information about the conversion itself. In this paper, the conversion process is investigated in detail, under two main sections. The first part is by-wire conversion, which allows the wheelchair to be controlled via computer commands. The second part includes the studies on sensors, computational system, and human interface. After making such modifications on wheelchair, fundamental algorithms required for autonomy, such as mapping and localization, are implemented successfully. The results are promising for the usage of the developed system as a testbed for examining new autonomous algorithms and evaluating the performance of the perceptional/computational components.",signatures:"Volkan Sezer, Rahman Salim Zengin, Hosein Houshyari and Murat Cenk Yilmaz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72660",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72660",authors:[{id:"268170",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",surname:"Sezer",slug:"volkan-sezer",fullName:"Volkan Sezer"},{id:"323515",title:"Dr.",name:"Hosein",surname:"Houshyari",slug:"hosein-houshyari",fullName:"Hosein Houshyari"},{id:"323516",title:"Dr.",name:"Rahman",surname:"Salim Zengin",slug:"rahman-salim-zengin",fullName:"Rahman Salim Zengin"},{id:"323517",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",surname:"Cenk Yılmaz",slug:"murat-cenk-yilmaz",fullName:"Murat Cenk Yılmaz"}],corrections:null},{id:"69847",title:"Embedded Devices Security Based on ICMetric Technology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89240",slug:"embedded-devices-security-based-on-icmetric-technology",totalDownloads:379,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"An intelligent wheelchair application is required which is equipped with the MEMSs which are magnetometer, gyroscope, and accelerometer sensors. The generated process of ICMetrics number is heavily based on magnetometer, gyroscope, and accelerometer sensors. In addition, this number can be utilised to provide the identification of device. Our proposed system passed through three phases. The first phase is bias reading that was extracted from MEMSs (gyroscope, magnetometer, and accelerometers) sensors; whereas, in the second phase, ICMetric number is generated by using the sensor bias readings that was extracted in the first phase. Therefore, this number is non-stored and can be utilised to provide identification of device. In the third phase, the security system is tested/evaluated to measure its effectivity. In other words, it is tested with dataset that was extracted from the trace file of ns-2. In this phase, performance metrics are calculated, which are rate of error, confused metrics, and accuracy.",signatures:"Khattab M. Ali Alheeti, Duaa Al_Dosary and Salah Sleibi Al-Rawi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69847",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69847",authors:[{id:"259265",title:"Dr.",name:"Khattab M",surname:"Ali Aheeti",slug:"khattab-m-ali-aheeti",fullName:"Khattab M Ali Aheeti"},{id:"309892",title:"Dr.",name:"Salah",surname:"Sleibi Alrawi",slug:"salah-sleibi-alrawi",fullName:"Salah Sleibi Alrawi"},{id:"309949",title:"Ms.",name:"Duaa",surname:"Al_Dosary",slug:"duaa-al_dosary",fullName:"Duaa Al_Dosary"}],corrections:null},{id:"72250",title:"Manipulating Complex Robot Behavior for Autonomous and Continuous Operations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92254",slug:"manipulating-complex-robot-behavior-for-autonomous-and-continuous-operations",totalDownloads:603,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Service robot control faces challenges of dynamic environment and complex behavior, which mainly include eye-hand coordination and continuous operations. However, current programming scheme lacks the ability of managing such tasks. In this chapter, we propose a methodology of software development paradigm for the continuous operation of the dual-arm picking robot. First, a dual-arm robot is built for picking with the purpose of selectively harvesting in plant factory. Second, a hierarchical control software is framed by means of “Sense Plan Act” (SPA) paradigm. Third, based on the previous design, programming concept, and the ROS system, the sub-node programming of visual module, motion module, eye-hand coordination module, and task planning module are implemented with a state machine-based architecture. The experimental results show that if total number of targets within the visual field is not more than three, the average picking time is less than 35 s. The fluency of concurrent task management shows the feasibility of manipulating complex robot behavior for autonomous and continuous operations with the finite state machine model and task level architecture.",signatures:"Chengliang Liu, Liang Gong and Wei Zhang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72250",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72250",authors:[{id:"135507",title:"Prof.",name:"Chengliang",surname:"Liu",slug:"chengliang-liu",fullName:"Chengliang Liu"},{id:"183226",title:"Dr.",name:"Liang",surname:"Gong",slug:"liang-gong",fullName:"Liang Gong"},{id:"318241",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",surname:"Zhang",slug:"wei-zhang",fullName:"Wei Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"73270",title:"Robotization and Welfare Trends in Future",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93346",slug:"robotization-and-welfare-trends-in-future",totalDownloads:460,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There are concerns over the present and possible future impact of new advancements like robots and artificial intelligence on welfare. Experts from different fields including science and business have been concentrating on how new developments may affect the job market, and more broadly how new advancements will influence the society. It would be easy to get support for the use of robots for the tasks which are too difficult or too dangerous for humans. What is the capital owners’ focus at that point? What are the economic and social consequences of robotization? In this chapter, literature review including the recent thoughts on how developments in robotics may cause major changes in welfare distribution and revolutionary economic changes is presented.",signatures:"Belma Kencebay",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73270",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73270",authors:[{id:"316105",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Belma",surname:"Kencebay",slug:"belma-kencebay",fullName:"Belma Kencebay"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5809",title:"Service Robots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"24727d51a5f26cb52694ad979bbbc1f8",slug:"service-robots",bookSignature:"Antonio J. R. 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In the meantime, traditional operational management of power systems is transformed by taking into consideration this fluctuating and intermittent resource. Smart grids and storage systems have been developed to overcome these challenges.
For wind power plants, storage is a straightforward solution to reduce renewable variability. It can be used to store electricity in hours of high production and inject electricity in the grid later on. The performance of the operational management can be therefore improved by considering simple charge-discharge plans based on short-term forecasts of the renewable production [1]. For instance, optimal management of wind farms associated with hydropower pumped storage showing economic benefit and increasing the controllability have been studied in [2, 3, 4]. Other examples are the sizing of a distributed battery in order to provide frequency support for a grid-connected wind farm [5] and the optimal operation of a wind farm equipped with a storage unit [6, 7].
For the specific case of isolated systems, which is the aim of our paper, it is necessary to think about distributed energy storage as battery [8], ultra-capacitors [9], or flywheels [10]. In this setting, the question of economic viability in isolated islands without additional reserves arises. Here, the storage unit allows wind farms to respect the scheduled production.
The storage costs will represent a large part of the overnight capital costs and motivate the different researches on storage. Generally the sizing of the storage device is reduced to a minimization problem of the fixed and variable costs of the storage and its application (see [11, 12], for a complete analysis of the cash flow of the storage unit).
In this paper, we present a simplified model in discrete time, in which the commitment is for the next period. We solve an optimal control problem to define the optimal bidding decision. The mathematical setting of the problem is described in Section 2. The main result is detailed in Section 3. Application on a real dataset is described in Section 4. The continuous version of the problem is also described in Section 5. A conclusion ends the paper.
In our problem, the manager has to announce an energy production to be delivered to the next period. Considering the
In fact,
In the language of stochastic control, the decision
Indeed, the available energy at the end of the
We want now to write the payoff to be optimized. During the period
In our set up, the pair
The value function is defined by
Writing
we get also
We can then write Bellman equation
It is convenient to make the change of variables
with final equation
We have
We state the following proposition:
Consider the function
then, for
We have, for
and
and
Consider now the function
For
and
and thus cannot reach a maximum for
Again, this function is concave and
and the property (8) is proven with
The proof is completed.
We define by
The recursion (10) writes
It is worth emphasizing that the function
We describe in this section an application on a wind farm project financed by EREN on a French island with national tender process. First we set the energy price
In the sequel, we have chosen the penalty
Some analysts would prefer the penalty
The production over a period of 30 min is presented on Figure 1. It is worth mentioning that we used directly the data proposed from July 26, 2005 to March 9, 2008 captured by a measurement mast.
Histogram of the production over a period of 30 min.
For this first application, stationary law is considered as Gaussian. Mean and variance of the model are similar to those of the empirical distribution in Figure 1. This model allows to construct closed-form cumulative distribution function
But this process does not take into account the stylized facts of the production on a period of 30 min (positive values below nominal power limit, atom for zero production, intraday seasonality, etc.). Consequently, in the optimal control problem, we use the corresponding truncated Gaussian distribution (between 0 and 7 MWh).
Finally, the penalty is fixed (geometrically) to
With these assumptions, the payoff with respect to the size of the storage is given in Figure 2 for an empty storage
On the left, daily payoff
In the last section, we present a continuous version of the aforementioned problem. This new problem exhibits interesting questions in control theory when there is a delay between the decision and the application of the decision.
We model the wind speed by a diffusion
where
The energy produced per unit of time at time
Define
which represents the excess of production of energy over the delivery on the interval
Because of the delay, we cannot consider the pair
and the standard reasoning of dynamic programming will become applicable. The first transformation concerns the term
We have
and we need to compute
The function
Then by stationarity of the Markov process
Therefore
The next transformation concerns
The first integral does not depend on the control and is
We note that
Recalling the definition of
with
The argument
We can also write
so we have
We can give a similar formula for the second penalty term
We introduce the function
and we can write
Combining results, we obtain the formula
or
with
The stochastic control problem becomes
which is a standard stochastic control problem. To avoid singularities, we impose a bound on the control
in which
Let us define the value function
Then it is easy to write the Bellman equation for the value function, namely,
A priori
The case
The optimal feedback is then
so (32) becomes
The solution for
For
The functions
This allows to compute
The problem of the optimal delivery for wind energy in some future time with a storage facility (a battery for instance) is considered. We solve an optimal control problem to define the optimal bidding decision in a simple discrete stochastic problem and apply it to real data. Optimal size of the battery and the overnight costs are discussed.
The research is supported by EREN-GROUPE, the grant NSF-DMS 161 2880 and the grant ANR-15-CE05-0024.
The chromatographic separation is based on the differences in the retention of the components of a sample dissolved in a mobile phase when passing through a stationary phase typically contained in a chromatographic column. In HPLC, the mobile phase is a liquid and the characteristics of high performance (of the separation) and high pressure (used for the mobile phase) lead to the acronym HPLC. Although cartridges and micro-fluidic chips can be used to contain the stationary phase, a column is much more frequently utilized for this purpose [1, 2]. The external body of the column is a tube made from stainless steel or a strong polymer (e.g., polyether ether ketone or PEEK). This tube is filled with the stationary phase. Stationary phase can be in the form of particles or as monoliths. Both particles and the monoliths usually have a rigid porous support that may also act as the active phase, but more frequently the support has on the surface a chemically bonded or physically coated active phase used for the separation. The progress in the making of chromatographic columns is very important for the development of HPLC. A large body of information describes the progress in column construction including peer reviewed papers, books, and information on the Internet [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. Present chapter describes some of the more recent progress in column construction and indicates potential for new developments. This progress takes place into two main directions: 1) the improvement of mainstream-type columns that are widely used in everyday work for practical analyses and 2) the development of exploratory new materials for the stationary phase and miniaturization.
In a chromatographic separation, the components of a mixture are eluting from the column, then are detected, and the detection electric signal is converted into a graphic output as
In formula (1),
The separation in a chromatographic process between two compounds
In formula (2) parameter
Parameter
For achieving a good separation, the value of
In formula (4),
In addition to
In formula (5),
The column physical dimensions are its length and internal diameter (i.d.). The common column lengths are between 30 mm and 250 mm with typical lengths of 50, 100, 150, 250 mm. The i.d. of the column is used to classify the columns as standard (3.0–4.6 mm i.d.), minibore (2.0–3.0 mm i.d.), microbore (0.5–2.0 mm i.d.), capillary (0.2–0.5 mm i.d.), and nanoscale (0.05–0.2 mm i.d.). The tendency of modern columns is to have them shorter and narrower leading to shorter run times and the use of less solvent. However, for a given
The use of narrower columns leads to higher linear flow rate
The tendency to use shorter and narrower column in order to achieve shorter run times and use of less volume of mobile phase will continue in the future [15]. The production of columns with smaller
The most common type of stationary phase in HPLC and UPLC is made from small particles (typically 1.7–10.0 μm in diameter), which are packed in the body of the column. Monolithic columns are also utilized and are made from a single rod of a solid porous material. Because hydrated porous silica can have a very large surface and can be derivatized to bind an active phase, it is the most common material used as solid support to make the particles and also some monoliths for HPLC. This silica usually has a bonded, grafted, or coated layer of organic material. This organic layer is the active part of stationary phase involved in the separation process, but the silanol groups from the uncovered surface of silica also participate in the separation. In case of hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) and in normal phase chromatography (NPC), bare silica can be used as active phase without additional coverage due to its polar character.
Not only silica can be used as support for the active stationary phase. Materials such as hybrid organic–inorganic still based on a hydrated silica but containing organic groups such as -CH2-CH2- in its structure can be used as support. Also hydrated zirconia, titania, ceramic hydroxyapatite, or organic polymers can be used as solid support. The progress regarding the solid support is made in two directions, one being the physical characteristics of the support and the other its chemical properties. These characteristics are further discussed separately.
For particles used as solid support, one first characteristic is the physical type, which can be fully porous, core-shell, or pellicular. Porous particles (1.7–10 μm in diameter) have a porous structure for the entire particle, core-shell have a solid nonporous core 1.5–3 μm in diameter surrounded by a porous outer shell 0.3–0.5 μm in depth. Pellicular particles are solid nonporous spheres covered with a thin layer of stationary phase. Fully porous and core-shell particles are widely utilized in common HPLC practice, while pellicular particles are less common because of their reduced loading capacity. Core-shell particles offer better peak shape (lower
The particles are also characterized by (average) diameter
In formula (6),
At the same time with increasing
Regarding particle shape, spherical particles show lower
Another physical characteristic of the stationary phase is its surface area [18]. For silica, common values for surface area are between 100 m2/g and 300 m2/g. The trend for modern stationary phases is to have particles with larger surface area since they can be coated with more active phase (increased
The pore size of the porous solid support is commonly characterized as small pores (with diameter below 60 Å), medium (in the range 60–150 Å), and large (of about 300 Å or larger). Common silica pore size is around 100 Å. However, the selection of the pose size depends on the type of molecules to be separated on the stationary phase. For small molecules (with
Monoliths have a porous structure characterized by mesopores (pores between 2 and 50 nm in diameter) and macropores (about 4000–20,000 nm in diameter). For silica monoliths, the silica skeleton is 1–2 μm thick and has a void volume of almost 80% of the entire column volume. Polymeric monoliths have similar void volume. Since monolithic columns produce a lower pressure drop as compared with columns containing particles with similar characteristics, the monoliths are a promising material to be used as support for chromatographic columns. Monoliths are also successfully utilized in the construction of capillary and nano-LC columns [20].
The two main aspects of the chemical characteristics of solid support, which are of interest, include: 1) its internal chemical composition and 2) the chemical functionalities allowing the binding of the active phase (in cases when the solid support does not act itself as the active phase). Regarding the internal chemical composition, the solid support can be made from silica, ethylene or propylene bridged silica, hydrated zirconia, hydrated alumina, aluminosilicates, porous graphitic carbon, zeolites, or various organic polymers such as polystyrene cross-linked with divinylbenzene (PS-DVB) [21], methacrylates, etc. More recently, metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) were experimentally evaluated as support for HPLC stationary phases [22].
The most common support material is hydrated silica, which is obtained in principle from a chemical reaction that generates silicic acids followed by condensation reaction of the type:
The resulting material contains numerous silanol groups that are further used for bonding the active phase. The purity of resulting hydrated silica is very important since the presence of metal ions in its structure leads to undesired effects such as peak tailing in chromatography. Very high purity silica (indicated as
Ethylene bridge silica is an excellent material to be used as solid support for the stationary phase in HPLC, and its use will continue probably becoming even more common.
Regarding the other materials, columns based on hydrated zirconia are commercially available, but in general, they have lower chromatographic performance compared with those based on silica mainly due to numerous Lewis acid sites present on the stationary phase. Commercially available are also porous graphitic carbon columns. In order to achieve a large surface area, graphitic stationary phases are made using silica as template on which a layer of an organic material is applied followed by pyrolysis in an inert atmosphere to generate graphite. This is followed by the dissolution of silica template [24]. This type of column has a strong hydrophobic character, but some problems with surface homogeneity remain to be solved.
For the organic polymers, various procedures are used to obtain porous materials [21]. In some cases, these porous polymers may also act as the active phase, and in other cases they contain reactive groups on which an active phase is further bound. Among the problems with organic polymers as support material are the limitation of their structural rigidity and propensity to swelling in certain mobile phase compositions. Although for some types of HPLC (e.g., reversed phase or HILIC), the use of silica-based support is by far more common, organic polymers are frequently used in ion exchange chromatography and in size exclusion chromatography. Also, organic polymers are frequently used for making monolith-type columns. [25].
The second important property of the stationary phase support is its capacity to react with a derivatization reagent with the goal of attaching a desired type of functionality such as aliphatic chains of 8 or 18 carbon atoms (C8 or C18) typically used in reversed phase (RP) type of HPLC. For silica support, the reacting capacity is assured by the presence of numerous silanol groups on the silica surface. The number of OH groups per unit mass of silica is characterized by silanol density
In formula (9),
A different type of phase support still based on silica but with different active groups is hydride-based silica (known as type C silica [26]). This material is obtained using a reaction of the type indicated below:
This type of silica can be used as normal phase without further derivatization or can react to attaching further organic groups that will operate as active phase.
Reactive groups used for further derivatization can also be present in various organic polymers. For example, many acrylate-type polymers are synthesized to contain glycidyl groups. These act as reactive sites on the porous polymer surface on which the desired functionalities can be bound. The use of organic polymers as solid support is an attractive alternative in particular related to the efforts toward miniaturization of HPLC columns, where 3D printing technology can be applied to make capillary and nano columns [27].
As described in this section, the most common stationary phase support is based on silica. Although numerous other types of support are continuously evaluated, significant progress is also being made in generating silica with better properties. One of the most promising directions is the preparation of ethylene-bridge silica, which offers an excellent stationary phase support, with good reactivity for binding the desired functional groups and with high resilience to the mobile-phase extreme pH values or composition. The use of ethylene-bridge silica in combination with core-shell type phase will continue to expand, and further progress is likely to continue for this type of phases.
In many types of chromatographic columns, the active phase intended to be involved in the separation is bound or coated on a porous solid support with a large surface area. In some types of HPLC/UPLC, the solid support acts as the active phase without being further chemically modified, and some details about this type of phases will also be further presented, but this section is dedicated to bonded active phases. The bonded phase on a solid support is a key part of the type of chromatography for which the phase is made. For example, for RP-HPLC, which is the most common type of chromatography, the bonded phase is made to have a hydrophobic character. For this purpose, hydrocarbon moieties with different number of carbon atoms are attached to the porous support. The most common such groups contain 18 aliphatic linear carbon chains (C18) or eight carbons chains (C8), but other hydrophobic groups can be bound. For HILIC-type columns, organic fragments containing diol groups, amide, amino, sulfonylethyl, etc., can be bound. For ion-exchange-type chromatography, the bonded groups can be -COO−, -SO3−, or -NH3+,- N(CH3)3+, etc.
Various chemical reactions are utilized for derivatizing the solid porous support of a stationary phase. The active phase can be directly attached to the silica surface, but variants of this procedure including the use of a pre-derivatization followed by a second one are also used. A typical derivatization reaction can be written as follows:
The reactive substituent X can be Cl, but also OCH3, OC2H5, etc. The substituent
As the sensitivity of detection in HPLC/UPLC is becoming higher and higher in particular with the development of mass spectrometric (MS) and MS/MS detectors, one important quality of the chromatographic columns is to have a very low background that may be caused by small molecule “leaking” into the mobile phase left from the manufacturing process of the stationary phase. The use of trifunctional reagents and new procedures to achieve the derivatization of the solid support (usually of silica) led to chromatographic columns with very low bleed, higher resilience to a wide range of composition for the mobile phase and good reproducibility of the separation.
After derivatization, silica surface (and also the surface of hydrated zirconia or alumina) still remains with a considerable number of underivatized OH groups (silanols in case of silica). These silanol groups interact with the analytes from the mobile phase such that not only the
The process of silica surface derivatization offers numerous possibilities to generate stationary phases with different properties [31]. A large variety of columns is commercially available, and they are tailored for specific utilization. Derivatization and endcapping are used to obtain stationary phases with higher resistance to extreme pH of the mobile phase (e.g., controlled surface charge or CSH type columns), with extra dense bonding (XDB) of the active phase, with different degrees of hydrophobicity, with polar endcapping groups (e.g., CH2OH), or with embedded polar groups in the hydrophobic chain of the active phase [32, 33]. Besides the procedures summarily indicated above to derivatize the solid support, various other derivatization procedures are reported in the literature [34]. Also, alternative procedures to obtain the active phase such as direct synthesis of silica materials with an active bonded phase surface [35] can be used. Progress in the synthesis of monoliths, as well as of stationary phases based on organic polymers, is also being made [36]. One such example is the production of latex-agglomerated ion exchangers.
A variety of other procedures are available for producing the active phase for HPLC and UPLC columns (e.g., [37]). Some of these procedures are kept undisclosed by the column manufacturers and some are reported in the literature. Also, a variety of novel procedures for attaching the active phase on the solid support are developed, such as grafting of pre-synthesized polymers [38, 39], or direct synthesis of the stationary phase containing the desired functionalities [40, 41].
Stationary phases with better performance including better resolution
The modern columns have various benefits from the improvements in the synthesis of the active phase. For example, from the derivatization with trifunctional reagents, the active phase is more homogeneous and stable, with reduced access of the analytes to the free silanols and more reproducible chromatography. The horizontal polymerization (derivatization) has the advantage of higher homogeneity and reduced presence of free silanols, while vertical polymerization leads to phases with a higher mass of active phase (larger
Besides the making of columns with improved characteristics, the increased variety of available columns is another direction in which considerable progress is being made. This variety of columns allows a better selection for a specific task, and also, as bidimensional HPLC is sometimes needed for the separation of complex samples, the column variety offers choices for orthogonal separations [42].
Under the acronyms HPLC or UPLC are included a number of similar techniques that have significant differences regarding the mechanism involved in the separation. According to the separation mechanism, a specific type of chromatographic column is used. Some of HPLC techniques are common, and some are more special having lower utilization. One main type of common HPLC/UPLC is RP-HPLC, which is used for the separation of molecules having in their structure hydrophobic moieties but frequently additional polar groups. Other common HPLC types are HILIC used for the separation of strongly polar molecules, ion exchange HPLC used for the separation of molecules capable to ionize, chiral HPLC used for the separation of enantiomeric molecules, size exclusion HPLC used for the separation of molecules based on their molecular size (more precisely hydrodynamic volume), and affinity/immunoaffinity HPLC. Various other techniques less frequently utilized are derived from the main types, and examples of such techniques are ion pair chromatography, hydrophobic interaction, normal phase, ion moderated, etc. The active stationary phase for each of those techniques has specific structures. Regardless of the column type, all modern columns benefit from the progress in the solid support in particular by using high-purity silica and ethylene bridge silica, from the use of core-shell particle construction and the advances in the making of monoliths. Some specific aspects for different types of HPLC/UPLC are further discussed.
Frequently used for the analysis of a large range of compounds, from small molecules to proteins and from highly hydrophobic to rather polar ones, RP-HPLC is the most commonly applied HPLC technique. To this extensive use is associated a significant number of RP type columns many of them commercially available. For RP-HPLC the active stationary phase contains hydrophobic groups, the most common being C18 and C8 phases. The hydrophobic character of the stationary phase in RP-HPLC can be modified by using the active phase with specific groups. Besides C18 and C8 that are very common, aliphatic C2, C4, C12, C14, C20, C22, C27, C30, cyclohexyl, phenyl, diphenyl, C6-linked phenyl, pentafluorophenyl, cyanopropyl, etc., can be used to create a hydrophobic surface. The hydrophobic character of these phases represents one criterion to differentiate them. However, even for columns containing the same type of phase, such as C18, many variations in the active phase structure are possible. The variations may include the type of bonding (mono, di, or trifunctional), the type of polymerization (horizontal or vertical), the carbon load, the density and uniformity of the coverage of solid support (e.g. of silica), and the variations in endcapping. Some hydrophobic stationary phase may contain polar imbedded groups [43]. Various imbedded groups in aliphatic chains were reported in the literature [32], and some are present in commercially available columns. Some of these groups include ether, amide, urea, carbamate, sulfone, thiocarbamate, etc. These groups are used to modulate separation of many types of organic compounds that have in their molecule polar groups. In addition, the imbedded polar groups “shield” the silica residual silanols for interacting with the analytes (in particular with highly basic ones) leading to a reduced silanol activity of the stationary phase (as in Symmetry Shield type columns) and also to better resilience to extreme pH values of the mobile phase.
Evolution of stationary phases in RP-HPLC (and RP-UPLC) took place in two directions: 1) perfecting common columns such as C18 or C8 columns and 2) exploring the binding of various less common groups on the solid support. Perfection of common columns is being done by working with either fully porous or core-shell particles, using special substrates usually high-purity silica or ethylene bridged silica, controlling the derivatization to be very homogeneous, and using special endcapping. By endcapping with TMS groups, the polarity of the silanols is reduced, but the extent of this process can vary from column type to column type, and some C18 columns are intentionally left with some silanol activity for interacting with polar molecules. The use of endcapping with small polar groups also brings distinctive properties to the RP-type columns. Adding special procedures such as CSH or XDB technologies, the variety of RP columns becomes even larger. CSH technology takes advantage that the silica surface is usually slightly negatively charged due to the dissociation of silanols. This charge can be neutralized by adding specific reagents such that the surface reactivity is decreased. The technology is applied to ethylene bridge particles by incorporating a low level of surface charges on stationary phase particles. Also, the construction of phases with C18 or C8 active phase but based on silica with specifically larger pores (e.g., 250 Å) is a promising path for the separation of large molecules such as proteins.
Regarding the binding of various less common groups on the solid support, special phases with bonded cholesterol or fullerene moieties were made, as well as columns with aliphatic chains having an unusual number of carbons (e.g., C3 or C4 for lower hydrophobicity or C30 for intended higher hydrophobicity) [44]. However, these types of experimental bonded phases did not generate columns with much different hydrophobic properties. The intimate mechanism of hydrophobic interactions caused by the “rejection” of the molecules containing hydrophobic moieties from a polar solvent and their “acceptance” in a hydrophobic stationary phase leads to a non-unique process of separation, as long as the accepting phase is less polar than the mobile phase (e.g., [12]). As a result, the choice of mobile phase composition in RP-HPLC plays an important role in the separation, and the differences in the properties of columns used in RP-HPLC are basically obtained by modulating the ratio of hydrophobicity and residual polar interactions and less by changing the phase hydrophobicity.
The use of hydrated zirconia as solid support, the use of coating of a silica base and not binding it, the use of organic polymers to make phases for RP-HPLC, or the use of porous graphitic carbon as stationary phase, although leading to a variety of columns to be used in RP-HPLC remained with a relatively limited utilization. Both trends of improving columns with common stationary phase such as C18, C8, phenyl, cyanopropyl, and experimenting with new active phases are likely to continue in the future. However, a considerably more impact for the progress is still expected from the improvements of common stationary phases.
Important progress has been made in the construction of columns dedicated to HILIC separation. The active phase for these columns must be polar, and it is used with a mobile phase less polar than the stationary phase and containing water plus an organic solvent. Similar phases are used for NPC, but in this case the mobile phase is non-aqueous. Bare silica can be used as stationary phase in HILIC, and the improvements in the silica purity and homogeneity of silanol coverage made these columns rather common. Bonded phases with groups such as diol, ether embedded+diol, amide terminal, polyamide, cyano (also used in RP HPLC) are common. Propylamine, diethylamine, or triazole groups are used to generate weak anionic active phases, sulfonylethyl groups are used to generate weak cationic active phase, and amino+sulfonic, amino+carboxylic groups are used to generate zwitterionic phases. Various other types of phases for HILIC applications were synthesized [45]. These phases have various polarities, but the spacer (handle) molecular fragment connecting the polar group with the silica base plays an important role in the separation. The same features as for RP-HPLC columns, including the coverage of support with the bonded phase, the pH resilience, the preparation procedure using mono-, bi-, or tri-functional reagents, the phase ratio are important for the column quality. Since in the HILIC separations not only the polar interactions are important in the separation, but also the hydrophobic interactions play a role, the carbon load (caused by the spacer) also influences the separation characteristics. Some HILIC columns are also endcapped, and this process changes the stationary phase characteristics in a similar manner as for the RP-HPLC. Besides common phases used in HILIC separations, special stationary phases were also known. Such phases were made with bonded cyclodextrin, bonded perhydroxyl-cucurbit[6]uril, polyhydroxyethyl-aspatamide, polysuccinimide [46], etc. One example of a structure of a zwitterionic stationary phase containing sulfonylalkylbetaine groups used in HILIC separations is indicated below:
Because of the proximity of the positive and negative charged groups in the structure, the phase is not used as a zwitterionic ion exchanger.
Stationary phases based on organic polymers are also used for HILIC separations [47]. However, more common are still the silica-based columns.
Ion exchange (IC) stationary phases are classified as cation exchange phases (weak, medium, and strong), anion exchange phases (also weak, medium, and strong), zwitterionic, and amphoteric. The phases contain groups attached through a handle on silica or on an organic polymeric support. Specific groups such as -COO−, -PO3H−, -SO3−, etc., generate cationic phases, groups such as -NH3+, -NH2(CH3)]+, -N(CH3)3]+, −[N(CH3)2(CH2CH2OH)]+, −[N(C2H5)(CH3)2]+ generate anionic phases, and groups such as -N(CH3)2+-(CH2)n-SO3− or -CH(SO3−)-(CH2)n-N(CH3)3+ generate zwitterionic phases. While for RP-HPLC and HILIC phases, the use of organic polymeric support is less common, for ion exchange phases the use of polymeric support is more common. A specific type of polymeric support is the latex agglomerated type. The latex agglomerated ion exchange particles contain an internal core that has ionic groups on its surface. On this surface is attached a monolayer of small diameter particles that carry functional groups having bonded ions with an opposite charge with those of the support. The groups of the outer particles have the double role of attaching the small particles to the support and also to act as an ion exchanger for the ions in the mobile phase. The advantages of this type of phase include its stability to a wide range of pH of mobile phase and resilience to higher column backpressure compared with common polymeric columns. This is possible because the cross-linking of the polymer from the core particles can be very high.
Because the loading capacity for the same amount of stationary phase is typically larger for IC columns compared with RP or HILIC columns, and because the separation mechanism is based on ionic interactions, which is different from that in RP-HPLC and HILIC, the capillary columns in IC are more successfully utilized. Such columns are used with a low flow rate (e.g., 0.01–0.02 mL/min) that increases the sensitivity of the conductivity detector used frequently in IC separations [48, 49].
Ion chromatography is extensively used in the separations of proteins and nucleic acids [50], and continuous progress is being made with new phases of IC type. Many such new phases are commercially available [10].
Special ion chromatographic columns are also applied in ion-moderated and ligand exchange chromatography. These types of columns are used for the separation of carbohydrates, sugar acids, as well as lipids. For example, difficult separation such as those between cis and trans lipids and fatty acids can be achieved using an ion-moderated columns containing Ag+ ions [51]. In spite of the need for ion-moderated chromatography for the separation of important types of analytes, some of the existent columns dedicated for ion-moderated chromatography require relatively long run times for the separation. For this reason, development of new ion-moderated type columns would be highly desirable.
The ion exchange stationary phases and columns are in continuous development, and in particular mixed mode phases containing ion exchange type moieties are demonstrated to be very useful in separations. A discussion dedicated to mixed mode phases is also included in this chapter.
The increased demand of analysis of a variety of pharmaceutical drugs, many of them with chiral character, required constant development of chiral columns. Other fields of chemical analysis also required chiral separation. For example, the increased use of vaping and the proliferation of companies producing synthetic nicotine required the development of sensitive methods for the analysis of nicotine enantiomers [52]. Active stationary phase for chiral separation can be of different types, which include: brush or “Pirkle” type, cellulose based, cyclodextrin or cyclofructan-based, amylose-based, crown-ether-based, macrocyclic antibiotic type, protein based, ligand exchange type, chiral synthetic polymer type [53, 54], etc. All these phases contain various types of chiral centers. In spite of the existence of such a variety of columns, the need for stationary phases offering better enantioresolution is still actual. Many chiral columns must be used in non-aqueous mobile phase (NPC type chromatography), and fewer phases allow the use of water in the mobile phase for RP, HILIC, or IC-type utilization. However, many chiral compounds are highly polar and some are even insoluble in non-aqueous media. In addition, the widespread electrospray type of MS detection (ESI-MS) generates weak or no response when a mobile phase with no water is used for the separation. For these reasons, continuous effort is made to develop chiral columns that work in RP, HILIC, or IC mode.
The improvements of stationary phases for chiral separations follow the same lines as the one utilized for other types of columns. The use of core-shell type particles (e.g., [55]), smaller particle size, monoliths, various types of phases containing chiral centers such as glicopeptides, and macrocyclic antibiotics, as well as more common ones such as derivatized polysaccharides [56, 57] is providing important tools for obtaining better, more efficient types of chiral chromatographic columns [58].
Size exclusion HPLC (SEC) is a technique used for the separation of analytes according to their molecular size (hydrodynamic volume), and it is applied for the separation of macromolecules of different sizes and of macromolecules from small molecules. Ideally, only the size of the molecule should contribute to the separation, but it is common that some energetic interactions (e.g., of polar type) also take place between the stationary phase and the analytes. These energetic effects can modify the intended purpose in which only the size affects the separation. As the molecular size is usually proportional with the molecular weight
Among the requirements for a good stationary phase in SEC is to have homogeneous pores, to be as inert as possible and have minimal energetic interactions with the analytes, and to be resilient to high HPLC-type backpressure. These requirements are not very simple to achieve. The control of pose size such that they are as uniform as possible can pose difficulties during manufacturing. Silica-based SEC columns can be made using bare silica, but also bonded phases containing, for example, diol groups on silica are produced. The use of silica with large pores leads to lower resilience to the backpressure. In addition, the reduction of energetic interactions with the silanol groups on silica is not simple. For the polymeric phases, the problem of resilience to higher backpressure is even more stringent than it is for the silica-based phases. The use of special cross-linked polymers alleviates this problem. Also, SEC columns usually require long run times for separations, but new developments such as making core-shell type stationary phases shorten the separation time. Also, as the pressure resistance of the used materials is better, the reduction in the particle size of the phase contributes to improvements in SEC chromatography [60]. New stationary phases use all those procedures to improve the chromatographic columns for SEC.
In affinity/immunoaffinity chromatography (IAC), the stationary phase contains on its surface an immobilized biological complement of the analytes from the mobile phase [61]. Examples of pairs of biological complement and the analytes are antigens and their antibody, lectins and glycoproteins, metal ions and proteins containing amino acid residues that have affinity for the ion (e.g. histidine), biotin and avidin, etc. The solid support for the stationary phase can be silica, synthetic organic polymers, agarose (the neutral gelling fraction of the complex natural polysaccharide agar), cross-linked agarose, cross-linked dextrans (sepharose, sephacryl), cellulose, etc. It is typical for the solid support in affinity chromatography to have large pores, between 300 Å and 500 Å because the technique is used for the separation of large molecules (e.g., proteins and nucleic acids). The stationary phase particles can be porous] or nonporous [62] and also can be monolithic [63]. A variety of techniques are used to make stationary phases for IAC, using different procedures for the immobilization of biological complement ranging from covalent attachment to adsorption-based methods. For example, the immobilization of antibodies can be done through their amine groups by using a support that has been activated with reagents such as N,N′-carbonyldiimidazole, cyanogen bromide, N-hydroxysuccinimide, or tresyl chloride/tosyl chloride [64]. New phases are continuously reported for this technique, with a variety of active phases including different types of proteins, aptamers [65], and dye ligands [66]. Continuous progress is also made regarding stationary phases for biomimetic LC that mimic the interactions in natural biological systems [67, 68].
Preparation of stationary phases with mixed-mode active groups in which the separation is based on two or more types of main interactions is currently an important direction of development in HPLC [11]. Mixed-mode phases offer special separation capabilities and could be a simpler alternative to bidimensional separations that use orthogonal columns [69]. These phases may have reversed-phase and HILIC capabilities, reversed-phase and ion exchange capability, HILIC and ion exchange, or even more than two types of capability allowing for example reversed-phase/hydrophilic interaction/ion-exchange-type separations [70]. Some of the mixed mode phases also have chiral centers such that can be used for special chiral separations [71]. Porous or core-shell silica can be used for the preparation of mixed mode phases, and common functionalities such as C18, NH2, diol, SO3−, etc., that are specific for one type of phase are used to obtain the mixed-mode phases. The main difference from single type of phase is that multiple functionalities are simultaneously present on the solid support. Synthesis of such phases frequently requires a sequence of derivatizations and strict control of the quality of the final product [72, 73]. The preparation of mixed-mode phases with organic polymers support, in the form of monoliths or using covalent organic frameworks, has also been described in the literature [74, 75]. Mixed-mode stationary phases can also be made as having the active functionality based on ionic liquids moieties [71, 76].
The chromatographic column is a key component of HPLC instrumentation, and the extensive use of HPLC promoted the effort for obtaining better columns. These columns provide better separations in a shorter time, generating reproducible chromatography, have minimal bleed avoiding background for the detectors, are resilient to a wide pH range of the mobile phase, can be used with the mobile phase having 100% water, and have a longer utilization life. Progress in making the chromatographic columns has been achieved by various procedures such as the optimizing the chromatographic column dimensions, the use of smaller particles for the stationary phase, the use of monoliths, the use of core-shell type particles. Significant progress was also made in chemistry of stationary phase, both regarding the solid support and the active phase bonded on it. Future progress is expected on the same lines of development for columns used in routine analyses. At the same time, experimental columns for HPLC miniaturization and enhanced efficiency are experimented and reported in the literature (e.g., [20, 77]). The parallel progress regarding the pumping system of HPLC instrumentation that can provide higher backpressure and well-controlled low flow rates, the precision of injecting systems (autosamplers), as well as the unprecedent increased sensitivity of detection in particular of MS and MS/MS type, were key for making possible some of the improvements in chromatographic column construction.
These Terms and Conditions outline the rules and regulations pertaining to the use of IntechOpen’s website www.intechopen.com and all the subdomains owned by IntechOpen located at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom.
',metaTitle:"Terms and Conditions",metaDescription:"These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of IntechOpen Website at https://intechopen.com and all its subdomains owned by Intech Limited located at 7th floor, 10 Lower Thames Street, London, EC3R 6AF, UK.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
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\n\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\n\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\n\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\n\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\n\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\n\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\n\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\n\nWe employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\n\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\n\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
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\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. 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Oliveira"},{id:"36612",title:"Dr.",name:"Farah",middleName:"Drumond",surname:"Chequer",slug:"farah-chequer",fullName:"Farah Chequer"},{id:"88318",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Junqueira Dorta",slug:"daniel-junqueira-dorta",fullName:"Daniel Junqueira Dorta"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68157",title:"Introductory Chapter: Textile Manufacturing Processes",slug:"introductory-chapter-textile-manufacturing-processes",totalDownloads:4348,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:null,book:{id:"8892",slug:"textile-manufacturing-processes",title:"Textile Manufacturing Processes",fullTitle:"Textile Manufacturing Processes"},signatures:"Faheem Uddin",authors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}]},{id:"41411",title:"Textile Dyes: Dyeing Process and Environmental Impact",slug:"textile-dyes-dyeing-process-and-environmental-impact",totalDownloads:20512,totalCrossrefCites:93,totalDimensionsCites:299,abstract:null,book:{id:"3137",slug:"eco-friendly-textile-dyeing-and-finishing",title:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing",fullTitle:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing"},signatures:"Farah Maria Drumond Chequer, Gisele Augusto Rodrigues de Oliveira, Elisa Raquel Anastácio Ferraz, Juliano Carvalho Cardoso, Maria Valnice Boldrin Zanoni and Danielle Palma de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"49040",title:"Prof.",name:"Danielle",middleName:null,surname:"Palma De Oliveira",slug:"danielle-palma-de-oliveira",fullName:"Danielle Palma De Oliveira"},{id:"149074",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Valnice",middleName:null,surname:"Zanoni",slug:"maria-valnice-zanoni",fullName:"Maria Valnice Zanoni"},{id:"153502",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Farah",middleName:null,surname:"Chequer",slug:"farah-chequer",fullName:"Farah Chequer"},{id:"153504",title:"MSc.",name:"Gisele",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"gisele-oliveira",fullName:"Gisele Oliveira"},{id:"163377",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliano",middleName:null,surname:"Cardoso",slug:"juliano-cardoso",fullName:"Juliano Cardoso"},{id:"163393",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ferraz",slug:"elisa-ferraz",fullName:"Elisa Ferraz"}]},{id:"70564",title:"Fundamentals of Natural Dyes and Its Application on Textile Substrates",slug:"fundamentals-of-natural-dyes-and-its-application-on-textile-substrates",totalDownloads:2854,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"The meticulous environmental standards in textiles and garments imposed by countries cautious about nature and health protection are reviving interest in the application of natural dyes in dyeing of textile materials. The toxic and allergic reactions of synthetic dyes are compelling the people to think about natural dyes. Natural dyes are renewable source of colouring materials. Besides textiles it has application in colouration of foods, medicine and in handicraft items. Though natural dyes are ecofriendly, protective to skin and pleasing colour to eyes, they are having very poor bonding with textile fibre materials, which necessitate mordanting with metallic mordants, some of which are not eco friendly, for fixation of natural dyes on textile fibres. So the supremacy of natural dyes is somewhat subdued. This necessitates newer research on application of natural dyes on different natural fibres for completely eco friendly textiles. The fundamentals of natural dyes chemistry and some of the important research work are therefore discussed in this review article.",book:{id:"9203",slug:"chemistry-and-technology-of-natural-and-synthetic-dyes-and-pigments",title:"Chemistry and Technology of Natural and Synthetic Dyes and Pigments",fullTitle:"Chemistry and Technology of Natural and Synthetic Dyes and Pigments"},signatures:"Virendra Kumar Gupta",authors:[{id:"305259",title:"Dr.",name:"Virendra",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar Gupta",slug:"virendra-kumar-gupta",fullName:"Virendra Kumar Gupta"}]},{id:"49647",title:"Fiber Selection for the Production of Nonwovens",slug:"fiber-selection-for-the-production-of-nonwovens",totalDownloads:10441,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"The most significant feature of nonwoven fabric is made directly from fibers in a continuous production line. While manufacturing nonwovens, some conventional textile operations, such as carding, drawing, roving, spinning, weaving or knitting, are partially or completely eliminated. For this reason the choice of fiber is very important for nonwoven manufacturers. The commonly used fibers include natural fibers (cotton, jute, flax, wool), synthetic fibers (polyester (PES), polypropylene (PP), polyamide, rayon), special fibers (glass, carbon, nanofiber, bi-component, superabsorbent fibers). Raw materials have not only delivered significant product improvements but also benefited people using these products by providing hygiene and comfort.",book:{id:"5062",slug:"non-woven-fabrics",title:"Non-woven Fabrics",fullTitle:"Non-woven Fabrics"},signatures:"Nazan Avcioglu Kalebek and Osman Babaarslan",authors:[{id:"119775",title:"Prof.",name:"Osman",middleName:null,surname:"Babaarslan",slug:"osman-babaarslan",fullName:"Osman Babaarslan"},{id:"175829",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazan",middleName:null,surname:"Kalebek",slug:"nazan-kalebek",fullName:"Nazan Kalebek"}]},{id:"41409",title:"Surface Modification Methods for Improving the Dyeability of Textile Fabrics",slug:"surface-modification-methods-for-improving-the-dyeability-of-textile-fabrics",totalDownloads:7011,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:null,book:{id:"3137",slug:"eco-friendly-textile-dyeing-and-finishing",title:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing",fullTitle:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing"},signatures:"Sheila Shahidi, Jakub Wiener and Mahmood Ghoranneviss",authors:[{id:"58854",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Shahidi",slug:"shahidi",fullName:"Shahidi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"296",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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