Key volatile compounds present in some fruits largely consumed worldwide.
\r\n\tHealth and mental health issues of both children and adults and evidence-based treatments will be included. The types of sexual violence that occur and prevention efforts that have – or have not – been made to address the occurrence of these types of violence will be covered.
\r\n\r\n\tCultural and governmental policies, as well as legal and jurisdiction issues to address victims of these crimes, will also be incorporated in the book. For instance, Meagan’s Law and its worthiness in protecting children will be incorporated as well as the Federal program to reimburse victims of online child pornography and the legal entanglements and ramifications of that program.
\r\n\r\n\tThe typology of offenders and the effectiveness of treatment will also be addressed.
\r\n\tFinally, the direction of prevention strategies, treatment needs for both victims and offenders, and policy issues to move the field forward, particularly in terms of research, will be presented. The field of sexual violence has made significant strides in the past 45 years in terms of understanding sexually deviant behavior, the impact on children who then experience the symptoms of that trauma in adulthood, how to effectively interview sexually victimized children, and finally, treatment and social mores that make disclosure possible and recovery hopeful.
Quality in horticulture can be defined as the traits of a given commodity, regardless of its yield [1]. Here, we not only include visual appearance, ability to endure postharvest processing but also chemical and nutritional composition and flavour. Great advances have been made in horticultural breeding, obtaining fruits with characteristics that are those that growers (e.g. yield, resistance to pests and diseases, appearance), distributors (handling and processing resistance) and retailers (handling and processing resistance, appearance) desire but, most of the times, failing to achieve top nutritional and flavour characteristics [2]. In parallel to this increase in breeding, knowledge regarding chemical composition and flavour traits has too been rising, also followed by insights on physiological, metabolic and biochemical pathways taking place in plants. However, increasing flavour of fruits by breeding is still not an easy task, due to the multitude of factors affecting the compounds responsible for this characteristic, like climate, production systems and pre- and postharvest processing [3]. Flavour is the interaction between taste, orthonasal and retronasal olfaction perceptions, commonly denominated as ‘taste and aroma’, which is one of the major quality traits of fruits and together with texture is responsible for repeated purchases of a given commodity [4]. The aroma fraction of flavour can even influence the perception of other traits, as recorded for sweetness and sourness [5]. Furthermore, flavour, which is the interaction of taste and aroma, hence dependent on chemical traits, is strongly linked to the individual preferences of consumers and can be seen as the ‘modern concept of quality’ [6]. Knowing the preferences of consumers and aiming to fulfil those expectations regarding the flavour of fruits, besides increasing the probability of producers to easily sell their commodities, they will also be linked to an expected improvement in nutritional uptake, as better-tasting fruits will likely replace less healthy snack foods [1]. New tools, namely those related to molecular techniques, allow the identification of genes responsible for biosynthesis of compounds and open new perspectives for the improvement of flavour, by cloning those genes, increasing that specific pathway or silencing the expression of a gene responsible for an undesired compound [2].
\nIn this chapter, we will review the aroma and flavour compounds of the major fruits (fresh fruits and nuts) and, finally, review the latest advances in genomics, biochemistry and biotechnology of aromas and flavour compounds.
\nVolatile compounds are produced as indicators of fruit ripening, and they can be classified as primary (present in intact tissues) or secondary compounds (result of tissue disruption) [7]. Different fruits produce different volatile compounds, although their precursors are phytonutrients and the resulting volatile compounds are usually esters, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, lactones and terpenoids [8].
\nThe volatile compounds responsible for the aroma and/or flavour of the fruits are affected by several factors, starting with the genetic factors, environmental conditions, production practices, maturity degree and ending with postharvest handling and storage settings. These factors should be taken into account when comparing fruits’ volatile profiles, since they can explain differences between species and cultivars. Furthermore, they can lead to modifications in the pathways involved in volatile biosynthesis. Volatiles with critical importance in aroma and flavour characteristics are biosynthesized from amino acids, lipids and carbohydrates, via a limited number of major biochemical pathways [9]. The first limiting step for volatile formation is the availability of primary precursors, including fatty acids and amino acids, compounds highly regulated during fruit development in terms of amount and composition [10]. This limiting step has been studied and the formation of volatile compounds can be significantly increased, both qualitatively and quantitatively, if fruits are incubated in vitro with adequate metabolic precursors [11].
\nSome of the fruits with a higher amount of production and more commonly consumed worldwide are apples, bananas, cherries, oranges and grapes, which are shortly addressed here. In apples, over 300 volatile compounds were described [12], although they can be considered cultivar specific [13] and maturation dependent, from aldehydes to alcohols and esters [14]. The latter chemical class is predominant in ripe apples, and straight and branched esters can be found, namely ethyl, butyl and hexyl acetates, butanoates and hexanoates [15]. There is a clear increase of volatile compound production in apple skin, rather than in the internal tissues, due to a higher abundance of fatty acid substrates or increased metabolic activity [16]. The relative amount of each compound is, as referred earlier, linked to a specific cultivar and cannot only be used for cultivar discrimination but also to monitor ripening of fruits [17]. In apples, branched chain esters are produced from the breakdown of leucine, isoleucine and valine, while straight chain esters are synthesised from membrane lipids [18]. The hydroperoxides that result from these reactions are converted to aldehydes, then to alcohols and finally to esters. This sequence leads to the flavour of immature apples (‘green notes’) due to C6 aldehydes and alcohols to the ‘fruity notes’ given by the increased ester production [19]. For banana, about 250 volatile compounds have been described, although the really odorant are less than 40 [20]. Olfactometric methods have described several aromas and linked those to some compounds, namely ‘banana’ to 3-methylbutyl esters and acetate esters, ‘grassy’ to aldehydes and alcohols and ‘spicy’ to phenols [20, 21]. Major volatile compounds that contribute to banana aroma are volatile esters, such as isoamyl acetate and isobutyl acetate [22] but also isoamyl alcohol, butyl acetate and elemicine [23]. As for other fruits, the ripening process changes the volatile profile, with increased concentration of acetates and butanoates [24] and is cultivar dependent [25]. Recently, Bugaud and Alter [26] have found that 3-methybutyl esters were the most abundant volatile compounds, with 2-methylpropyl butanoate and 3-methylbutyl butanoate linked to ‘banana’ note; the presence of 3-methyl acetate to ‘fermented’ and ‘chemical’ notes, while the presence of ‘grassy’ (freshly cut green grass) aroma decreased as the total amount of volatiles increased with ripening, namely esters. For cherries, over 100 volatile compounds have been identified, including free and glycosidically volatile compounds, belonging to the chemical classes of carbonyls, alcohols, acids, esters, terpenes and norisoprenoids [27]. Major compounds include hexanal, (E)-2 hexenal and benzaldehyde and are associated with green/grassy notes. For some cultivars, other minor compounds gain increased importance, due to their low odour detection threshold such as (Z)-3-hexenal, decanal, nonanal, (E,Z)-2,6-nonadienal and (E,E)-2,4-nonadienal in ‘Lapins’, ‘Rainier’, ‘Stella’, ‘Hongdeng’ and ‘Zhifuhong’ cultivars [28, 29]. Some ketones have also been found in cherries, although they have relatively low importance in overall aroma [28], while alcohols, being the most abundant benzyl alcohol, 1-hexanol and (E)-2-hexen-1-ol, are responsible for green notes and the fresh green odour. Additionally, 1-Octen-3-ol has been described as one of the most predominant volatile compound in ‘Hongdeng’, ‘Hongyan’ and ‘Rainier’ sweet cherry cultivars [29]. The content of esters in cherries increases during ripening, but their relative abundance is low. The most common are ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, hexyl acetate, (Z)-2-hexenyl acetate and (E)-2-hexenyl acetate, with methyl benzoate described as among the most powerful volatiles in some cultivars, such as ‘Rainier’ [28]. Terpenoid compounds are also present in cherries at low levels, limonene, linalool and geranylacetone being the most common [30]. However, when analysing the glycosidically bound aroma compounds in three sweet cherry cultivars (‘Hongdeng’, ‘Hongyan’ and ‘Rainier’), Wen et al. [29] show that terpenoids are the second major class, after alcohols. In oranges, more than 300 volatile compounds have been reported, the major ones being limonene, β-myrcene and linalool [31], but valencene can also be of great importance, depending on the cultivar [32]. However, these compounds, although representing the large majority of the volatiles, are not the ones more responsible for the aroma, as their contribution is limited due of high odour-detection thresholds. Other minor compounds, like aldehydes (octanal, decanal, undecanal, (Z)-3-hexenal and (E)-2-decenal), esters (ethyl butanoate, ethyl 2-methylbutanoate and ethyl isobutyrate) and other terpenes (β-sinensal, geranial and neral) are those with a significance for the overall flavour of oranges [31]. Most of the grape cultivars have no scent, although the wines obtained from them are full of aromas [33, 34]. A great number of compounds have been recorded, including monoterpenes, C13 norisoprenoids, alcohols, esters and carbonyls [35, 36]. If linalool and geraniol have been identified as major aroma compounds in both red and white grapes [37], the volatile profile can be useful for the discrimination of grape cultivars [36]. Major free volatile compounds are hexanal, (E)-2-hexenal [36] while glycosidically bound include terpene and benzenic glycosides [34]. In more aromatic grape cultivars, like Muscat, major free compounds include linalool, geraniol, citronellol, nerol, 3,7-dimethyl-1,5-octadien-3,7-diol and 3,7-dimethyl-1,7-octadien-3,6-diol while those glycosidically bound were geraniol, linalool, citral, nerol, citronellol, α-terpineol, diendiol I, diendiol II, trans-furan linalool oxide, cis-furan linalool oxide, benzyl alcohol and 2-phenylethanol. Other monoterpenes that can also add to Muscat aroma were rose oxide, citral, geraniol, nerol and citronellol [38]. As for the other fruits, the volatile profile of grapes changes during ripening, and apparently a greater number of volatile compounds exist pre-veraison than post-veraison, as recorded for Riesling and Cabernet Sauvignon grapes, that also recorded differences (esters and aldehydes were the major class of compounds from Riesling grapes and alcohols for Cabernet Sauvignon) at veraison (Table 1) [39].
\nFruit | \nMain volatile compounds | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|
Apple | \nAcetaldehyde, ethyl butanoate, ethyl methyl propanoate, 2-methyl butanol, ethyl 2-methyl butanoate, 2-methyl butyl acetate, hexyl acetate, butyl acetate, hexyl butanoate, hexyl hexanoate, (E)-2-hexenal, (Z)-2-hexenal | \n[42, 43, 44] | \n
Banana | \n(E)-2-hexenal, acetoin, 2, 3-butanediol, solerol, hexanal, isoamyl acetate, 3-methylbutyl acetate, 3-methylbutyl butanoate | \n[44, 45] | \n
Cherry | \nHexanal, (E)-2 hexenal, benzaldehyde, (E)-2-hexen-1-ol | \n[27, 28, 29] | \n
Orange | \nLimonene, β-myrcene, linalool, hexanal, ethyl butanoate | \n[32, 46, 47] | \n
Grape | \nLinalool, geraniol, (E)-2-hexenal, hexanal, phenylethyl alcohol, octanoic acid | \n[36, 37] | \n
Key volatile compounds present in some fruits largely consumed worldwide.
Although the flavour of fruits is the interaction of taste and aroma, the chemical composition of fruits (organic acids, sugars, amino acids, pro-vitamins, minerals and salts) can also influence aroma perception and ultimately, flavour. For sugars, glucose, sucrose and fructose are the most important sugars affecting the perception of sweetness (ranking fructose > sucrose > glucose) [40] and their proportion in a given fruit will change flavour. However, this relationship is not completely understood, as measurement of sugars as soluble solids, in orange, does correlate to sweetness but in mango does not [4]. The main organic acids in fruits are malic, citric and tartaric, citric being the most sour and tartaric the least [40]. Citric acid is linked to citrus fruits, tartaric to grapes and malic to apples, and they are responsible for the sour flavour detected on those fruits. Other fruits, like melon or banana, have reduced acidity [41]. The presence of minerals and salts can change the perception of acidity, by combining with organic acids, influencing the buffering capacity [40]. Many research studies on the flavour of fruits give us a good overview of this particular trait of these commodities. However, much is still to be done, since many cultivars are yet still less studied. Furthermore, the link between taste and aroma compounds and the consumer perception of those is still not well understood, and this should be the ultimately goal to achieve consumer-oriented commodities.
\nGlobal consumption of nuts grew in the last years and it is expected to grow continuously on a yearly basis [48]. In 2015, almonds, cashews, walnuts and hazelnuts were the most preferred nuts by the consumers [49] but other nuts, such as pine nuts, pecans, chestnuts, Brazil nuts, macadamias and pistachios, are also an appreciated food, especially in the regions where they are regularly produced. They are generally consumed as whole nuts (fresh, roasted or salted) or used in a variety of commercial products and processed food [50]. Europe and North America are the largest nut consumer regions, accounting for almost 50% of the worldwide consumption [48]. Nuts have been a regular part of the human diet since pre-agricultural times [51] due to their nutritional value, sensory properties [49] and potential health properties [50, 52], and their consumption can reduce cardiovascular disease risk, the incidence of cancer and type 2 diabetes mellitus [53], as well as obesity and ageing effects [54].
\nNut quality related to consumer purchase decisions is based on nut appearance such as size, colour, cleanness and freedom from decay and defects [55] but textural properties [54, 56] such as aroma and flavour also play an important role in consumer acceptability [57]. Sweetness, oiliness and roasted flavour are commonly associated with good overall nut sensory attributes [55], some compounds generated during the roasting process responsible for the typical nut flavour [58]. Roasting is a common practice used by the nut industry and involves several physical-chemical processes [59], which can modify the odour, flavour and quality of the final product [60], including negative effects, such as rancidity [61].
\nIn general, nuts are characterised by their high content in unsaturated fatty acids [49, 50, 57] which make them highly sensitive to oxidation during the roasting process leading to the formation of harmful free radicals [61], which are responsible for undesirable odours and flavours [62]. As a result, the roasting process negatively affects the nutritional quality of nuts but also may influence both the formation of health-promoting components and those with potentially adverse health effects [63]. So, selecting the appropriate roasting conditions, mainly temperature and time, is crucial for achieving higher nut quality [55], which is also dependent on the genotype. For example, in walnuts, roasting treatments under 180°C, for 20 min, produced 17 times higher levels of compounds that indicated oxidation, when compared to raw walnuts [63]. In comparison, the compounds that indicated oxidation only increased by 1.8 times for hazelnuts and 2.5 times for pistachios [63]. According to the same authors [63], the roasting process at low/middle temperatures (120–160°C) preserves constitutional compounds and sensory properties of different nuts (macadamia nuts, hazelnuts, almonds, pistachios and walnuts). Nevertheless, as it occurs with other foods, the characteristic flavour of nuts is dependent on the volatile compounds.
\nDuring roasting and other heat processes, additional volatile compounds are formed from reactions among food compounds. In roasted nuts, a wide range of volatiles contribute to the typical and desirable roast flavour. According to Xiao et al. [64], in raw almonds, a total of 41 volatile compounds were identified, including aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, pyrazines and other volatile compounds. The benzaldehyde was the predominant volatile compound present in the raw samples and is associated with a marzipan-like flavour [64]. Roasting resulted in about a 90% decrease in the benzaldehyde level and in the formation of up to 17 new volatile compounds that were not found in raw almonds. Many of these compounds are typically generated during the complex and well-known Maillard (non-enzymatic browning) reaction that occurs during roasting. Volatile compounds like pyrazines, furans and pyrroles have been previously identified as key compounds of roasted almond aroma and concentration of many of these volatile compounds increased with roasting time [64]. It was theorised that one of the reasons for the uncertainty surrounding the characterisation of the ‘nutty’ term is that nuts have aroma qualities that may be typical to only their own species and that there is no common aroma quality present among all nuts [65]. In a research conducted by Clark and Nursten [66], over 200 aroma compounds were identified as having nutty aromas. This work indicated benzaldehyde, 3,4-methylenedioxybenzaldehyde and 4-methylbenzaldehyde as responsible for nutty aromas in almonds, while 2,4-octadienal and 4-pheynyl-4-pentenal were linked to the same attribute in walnuts and 2-ethyl-3-methylpyrazine in roasted peanuts. In the harvest year, edaphoclimatic conditions of orchards and storage conditions have also been mentioned as key factors determining overall nut quality. In order to evaluate the influence of time and temperature conditions on the oxidative degradation of hazelnuts, Ghirardello et al. [63] observed that storage of nuts at low temperatures reduced the effects of lipid oxidation during 8 months, but refrigeration was necessary to preserve high nut quality for up to 1 year.
\nGrapes belong to the large group of fleshy fruits [67]. According to Peynaud and Riberéau-Gayon [68], grapes were classified as: (1)
In grapes, volatile aroma compounds are found both as ‘free’ and as ‘bound’ to a sugar moiety, if ‘bound’, they are not odour active, but, upon hydrolysis of the glycoside, they may then be volatilised [77]. The amount of ‘free’ volatile aroma compounds makes it possible to classify the grape cultivars into neutrals or aromatic [78, 79]. The aromatic grape cultivars presented a varietal character resulting from higher concentration in the amount of ‘free’ volatile aroma compounds, namely terpenes, norisoprenoids and isoprenoids [80]. The importance of these ‘free’ volatile aroma compounds is related not only to their high concentrations but also to their lower perception thresholds. Therefore, grape flavour depends on the content and composition of several groups of compounds [81]. Among the compounds responsible for the aromatic quality are monoterpenes and C13-norisoprenoids. These compounds are indigenous from the grape and responsible for intense fruity and floral attributes in wines, contributing to the wine varietal aroma [82, 83, 84]. Other volatile compounds present in grapes are terpene hydrocarbons, pyrazines [38, 85, 86, 87] and some C6−aldehydes and alcohols [88].
\nDuring ripening, grapes develop a characteristic flavour and/or aroma by synthesising volatile compounds [89, 90]. For example, linalool and geraniol have been shown to contribute to the aroma of ‘Concord’ grapes, closely resembling the aroma of methyl anthranilate [91, 92]. The aroma compounds, which are secondary metabolites of the plant metabolism, are distributed between the pulp and skin of the grape berry, with the highest concentration in the grape skin [92, 93]. Wu et al. [94] characterised the aromas of table grapes, and they found that in 20 grape cultivars, a total of 67 volatile compounds, 61 in the mesocarp and 64 in the skin and the total contents of volatiles of mesocarp and skin largely depended on the levels of esters and terpenes, respectively (Figure 1).
\nGrape berry flavours compounds localization.
Fruit flavours in the red and white wine.
As already mentioned, the flavour of fruits is a complex set of interactions between two main sensations: taste and aroma [2]. Taste is mainly a set of sweet and sour sensations linked to the presence of sugars and organic acids (although other minor compounds affect bitterness, astringency or saltiness). However, the aroma is usually the predominant sensation, surpassing taste [98]. Indeed, if taste sensations, detected in mouth, are recognised by six classes of receptors (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami and fat-taste), for flavour complexity, where the olfactory system is essential, 350 olfactory receptor genes are known in humans [1].
\nThe known decrease in flavour of fruits is strongly connected to the pressure on the producers: they are usually paid depending on physical characteristics of fruits (size, shape and colour) but not to chemical traits, so the selection of cultivars is performed to enhance those qualities; the ripening of fruits is delayed as much as possible to make sure that they are able to withstand harvest, handling, storage and shipping without damages, but without a normal ripening, flavour sensations decreased [99]. Considering that flavour perception relies on the interaction of a considerable amount of compounds, it makes it one of the most challenging quality attributes to manipulate, which has led to a reduced attention given to this theme [40]. However, consumers’ pressure is growing to bring back the typical flavour of old horticultural commodities, where the flavour sensations were almost instantly detected by odour, followed by the recognition of taste.
\nTo achieve the goal of horticultural commodities of full flavour, some strategies can be followed, including changes in agricultural practices but also genetics tools, using the information on the known pathways of formation of those compounds linked to taste and aroma. Considering the first approach, one should cite the preharvest factors such as genome or growing conditions, harvest maturity or postharvest storage like those important in the final flavour of any horticultural commodity [40]. Some of them are somewhat easy to control (growers are able to choose the cultivar, cultural practices and postharvest procedures), while others, such as climate conditions, are outside human influence. The choice of the cultivar to grow and its link to flavour and how chemical components in the plant tissue are expressed are connected to genetic backgrounds [99]. Indeed, recent works comparing cultivars of sweet cherry [100], peach [101], gooseberry [102], fig [103] or pear [104], to cite a few, show how genetic backgrounds can influence chemical composition and ultimately flavour, recognised by sensory evaluation. However, although genetics have a major role when determining the flavour of freshly harvested fruits, the gene expression can be modified by pre- and postharvest factors [105] (Figure 3), as recently reported for peach [106]. Included in those preharvest factors are weather, soil preparation and cultivation, soil type, irrigation, fertilisation practices and crop loads, while for postharvest, it should be mentioned that storage temperature management, packaging under controlled or modified atmosphere, the use of edible coating, heat or physicochemical treatments are the factors [107]. The next step on flavour research was given when information on biosynthesis was obtained by using molecular and biochemical approaches. Knowing the metabolic pathways, namely the genes involved and the associated enzymes but also the regulatory elements (hormones and transcription factors) or which mechanisms are implicated in the storage or sequestration of volatile precursors, is key in allowing a biotechnological approach to their manipulation [108]. The genes that are linked to flavour can be mostly divided into two categories: those encoding for enzymes and those responsible for factors regulating pathway output [1]. If the knowledge for synthesis pathways and genes for those enzymes responsible has been increasing rapidly, the regulation of metabolic pathway output is not well understood, and the number of genes involved may be quite large, as found for strawberry, where 70 quantitative trait loci (QTLs) affecting volatiles and their precursors have been identified [109] or mandarin (206 QTLs) [110], for instance. As referred earlier, the compounds responsible for aroma can be divided in several classes, the most important being monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, lipids-, sugars- and amino acid-derived compounds. Knowing how they are biosynthesized and what is involved, when and how are key steps to allow their manipulation. In fact, several steps of aroma volatile biosynthesis for which genes have been characterised and used as targets for genetic transformation are presented in Figure 4 (adapted from [108]). The large part of the available research on the manipulation of flavour has been conducted on tomato, as it is a plant easy to transform, with an associated high economic importance [111] and information regarding this fruit is readily available (e.g. [1]). However, some data regarding other horticultural commodities are available, and some are cited here. For instance, modulation of the soluble sugar content in strawberry has been achieved, by an antisense cDNA of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase) small subunit (FagpS), a key regulatory enzyme for starch biosynthesis. The down-regulation of the AGPase gene led to an increase of the soluble sugar content, which primarily changed the taste sensation of strawberries but can ultimately also change aroma and flavour, as soluble sugars may be converted into volatile compounds [112]. For orange, the down-regulation of the D-limonene synthase (important as D-limonene is the most abundant volatile component of all commercially grown citrus fruits) did not affect negatively fruit and juice intensity and discrimination but provided a clear insight to how the combined presence of several volatiles can influence fruit flavour [113]. Considering the compounds that are precursors of aromatic compounds, several strategies can be developed to modify their amounts, and will be shortly addressed, providing few but key examples. For fatty acids are derived into saturated and unsaturated short-chain alcohols, aldehydes and esters by the lipoxygenase (LOX) pathway. The first way to manipulate the volatile composition using fatty acids is to change their amounts present in plant organs. Recently, it was observed in pear that if incubated in vitro with metabolic precursors of volatile compounds, the formation of those was significantly increased, both qualitatively and quantitatively [11]. Some of the enzymes involved in the fatty acid conversion to volatiles can also be tuned to modify the final aroma. For desaturases, they have been identified in strawberry as being responsible for the production of lactones, a group of fatty acid-derived volatiles in peach, plum, pineapple and strawberry [114]. Another group of enzymes, phospholipases, are involved in the formation of polyunsaturated free fatty acids, the substrates for lipoxygenases [115]. The expression of phospholipases can be modified by the use of hexanal-based formulations [116] or by the application of chilling [117, 118]. Hydroxyperoxide lyase (HPL) forms very unstable hemiacetals from hydroperoxides generated by LOX, leading to the formation of aldehydes. HPL silencing in potato plants have reduced the content of the C6 compounds in the leaves, while increasing that of C5 [119]. Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) catalyses the interconversion of aldehydes and their corresponding alcohols and is a key enzyme in volatile ester biosynthesis [13]. Recent works show that the overexpression of an alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) from mango led to a change in alcohols and aldehydes related to flavour [120], with previous works also showing that overexpression of an ADH increased the level of alcohols [121]. Alcohol acyl-transferases (AAT) catalyse the transfer of an acyl-CoA to an alcohol, resulting in the synthesis of a wide range of esters [122]. The reduction of AAT expression in apples resulted in reduced levels of key esters in ripe fruit, altered ratios of biosynthetic precursor alcohols and aldehydes, changing in a perceptible way, by sensory analysis, the ripe fruit aroma [123], and recent works show that they may be linked to the volatile ester and phenylpropene production in many different fruits [124]. The volatile formation pathway from amino acids is mainly due to the decarboxylases activity, but few are known to date. The catabolism of melon amino acid aminotransferase and branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase (BCAT) is connected to the amino acid-derived aroma compound formation [125]. Terpenoids are structurally diverse and the most abundant plant secondary metabolites, being of great significance, as they have vast applications in the pharmaceutical, food and cosmetics industries [126], with information regarding volatile terpenoids having been recently reviewed [127]. For carotenoid-derived compounds, the major enzymes involved are carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases (CCD), and the suppression of one gene encoding for CCD leads to the reduction of the production of β-ionone, geranylacetone and pseudoionone [128, 129]. Finally, for sugar-derived compounds, information is also available. One of the enzymes responsible for their conversion into volatiles is O-methyltransferase. This enzyme has been overexpressed in strawberries and a reduced expression of its encoding gene (FaOMT) changed furaneol to the 2,5-dimethyl-4-methoxy-3(2H)-furanone (DMMF) ratio, ultimately changing the aroma of the fruit [130]. Many other works have been looking to gain insights into this specific theme, providing important information on how to manipulate aroma and flavour components, and some of those can be found reviewed by Aragüez and Valpuesta Fernández [44] or Dudareva et al. [131].
\nFactors affecting flavour formation in horticultural crops.
Representation of the steps of major groups of aroma volatiles biosynthesis. FaQR—
The quality of horticultural commodities can be assessed in many ways, including by their aroma and flavour. This chapter overviews the large amount of information available regarding these characteristics in fruits. However, all this information is still not enough to fully understand the processes behind the formation of compounds, the interaction of those compounds with each other, but, more importantly, how they will finally influence the consumers’ perception of aroma and flavour, and, ultimately, their tendency to buy such commodities. This is true to not only all fruits referred in this chapter but also to those not included here, and a continuous effort to identify volatile and non-volatile compounds for flavour and aroma in understudied species or cultivars must be undertaken. Furthermore, the improvement of flavour and aroma by adequate cultural practices must be achieved without a decline in other quality traits of crops. This must also be the goal of gene manipulation focused in metabolic and regulatory pathways of compound formation. The future appears to be bright concerning flavour in horticultural commodities, as we are likely to see multidisciplinary approaches, from genetic engineering to biochemical and metabolic characterisation, linked to sensory evaluations, which will result in flavour-rich and healthier fruits, with increased interest for both producers and consumers.
\nThe authors have no conflicts of interest.
Object tracking is defined as a problem of estimating the object’s trajectory, done by means of a video image. There are several tools for tracking objects and are used in various fields of research, such as computer vision, digital video processing, and autonomous vehicle navigation [1]. With the emergence of high-performance computers, high-resolution cameras, and the growing use of so-called autonomous systems that, in addition to these items, require specialized tracking algorithms, increasingly accurate and robust for automatic video analysis, has currently been the target of numerous research on the development of new object tracking techniques [2, 3].
Object tracking techniques are applicable to motion-based reconnaissance cases [4], automatic surveillance systems [5], pedestrian flow monitoring in crosswalks [6], traffic control [7], and autonomous vehicular navigation [8]. Problems of this type are highly complex due to the characteristics of the object and the environment, generating many variables, which impairs performance and makes the application of tracking algorithms unfeasible to real-world situations. Some approaches seek to resolve this impasse by simplifying the problem, reducing the number of variables [9]. This process, in most cases, does not generate good results [10, 11], making it even more difficult to identify the main attributes to be selected to perform a task [12, 13].
Most of the object tracking problems occur in open environments, so-called uncontrolled [14]. The complexity of these problems has attracted the interest of the scientific community and generated numerous applied research in various fields of research. Current approaches, such as the ones that use convolutional neural networks—CNN, deal well with the high number of variables of these types of problems, providing space–temporal information of the tracked objects, through three-dimensional convolutions [15, 16, 17]. This ends up creating an enormous number of learnable parameters, which ends up generating an overfitting [11]. A solution to reduce this number of learnable parameters was combining space–time data, extracted using the optical flow algorithm, used in the Two-Stream technique [18, 19, 20]. However, this technique presents good results only for large datasets, showing itself to be inefficient for small datasets [15, 21].
In recent years, research using machine learning has been applied to tracking problems, gaining notoriety due to the excellent results obtained in complex environments and attribute extraction [21, 22, 23]. Deep learning stands out among these techniques for presenting excellent results to unsupervised learning problems, [24], object identification [25], semantic segmentation [26]. Random trees are also examples of machine learning techniques, and their excellent results, due to their precision and great capacity to handle a large volume of data and low overfitting tendency [27, 28], and widely used in research areas such as medicine, in the prediction of hereditary diseases [29], agriculture to increase the productivity of a given plantation crop and in astronomy, acting on the improvement of images captured by telescopes, in the spectrum electromagnetic radiation not visible to the human eye [30]. The possibilities of applications, and new trends and research related to machine learning techniques, with particular attention to random trees, allow the development of algorithms that can be combined with existing ones, in the case of optical flow algorithms, (belonging to computational field of view) taken advantage of in this way, the advantages of each [31, 32, 33].
Developing an algorithm whose objective is to track objects, using the particular advantages of these techniques in a combined way, justifies creating a tracking algorithm that combines the optical flow technique, adapted in this work in terms of the Gaussian curvature associated with a minimal surface, with a random trees waiting for it to capture on this surface a minimum number of optical flow vectors that characterize the moving object, accurately and with low computational cost, contributing not only in the fields of computational vision but in other branches of science, such as in medicine, it can help in the early identification of infarctions.
Due to the large number of studies related to the technique of object tracking, only a small number surrounding this theme will be addressed. The focus of this project is not to make a thorough study on the state of the art. With this in this item, the main works in the literature, associated with the tracking of objects, will be presented. Among the various approaches used for this context, we highlight those focused on the techniques of optical flow, and others belonging to machine learning, such as those that use identifications of patterns, which allow relating, framing, and justifying the development of this proposal and its importance, through its contribution, to the state of the art.
Object tracking is defined as a process that allows you to uniquely estimate and associate the movements of objects with consecutive image frames. The objects considered can be from one, the set of pixels belonging to a region of the image. The detection of pixels is done by a motion detector or objects, which allows to locate objects with similar characteristics that move, between consecutive frames.
These characteristics of the object to be tracked are compared with the characteristics of a reference object modeled by a classifier over a limited region of the so-called region of interest frame, where the probability of detection of the object is greater. Thus, according to [33], the detector of traced objects, locate several objects on the different parts of the region of interest and performs the comparison of these objects with the reference object. This process is performed for each frame and each object detected, candidate to be recognized as the greatest possible similarity, to the reference object can be represented, through a set of fixed-size characteristics, extracted from this region containing a set of pixels, which can be represented by a numerical array of data.
Thus, mathematically, the region containing a set of pixels belonging to the regions of the object of interest, where the characteristics that allow to test whether the region of the frame, in which the object to be traced is, is given by:
where,
According to the works of [34, 35], learning methods are used to adapt the changes of movement and other characteristics such as geometric aspect and appearance of the tracked object. These methods are usually used adaptive tracked object trackers and detectors. The following will be presented other types of object trackers, found in the literature.
According to [36], a classifier can be defined with a
The classifier aims to determine the best way to discriminate the data classes, on the space of characteristics. The test data form a set containing the characteristics of the candidate objects, which have not yet been classified. The position of the object to be tracked in the frame is defined as the position corresponding to the highest response of the detector of the object to be tracked on the
where the variable
Offline-trained classifiers are generally employed in object detectors designed to detect all new objects of interest that enter the camera’s field of view [37]. The training set
In [38], trackers that use the detection tracking technique deal with object tracking, as a binary classification problem whose goal is to find the best function
In [39], were developed trackers that used detectors of objects to be tracked, formed by classifiers in committee formed by binary classifiers said weak. For [40], a binary classifier is defined as a classifier, used in problems where the class
A classifier is said to be weak, when it has a probability of “hitting” a given data class, only slightly higher than a random classifier. The detector of the object to be tracked must separate the crawled object from the other objects and the environment. Its purpose and determine the position of the tracked object, according to the equations (1)–(3)
For [43], the term monitoring system, refers to the process of monitoring and autonomous control, without human intervention. This type of system has the function of detecting, classifying, tracking, analyzing, and interpreting the behavior of objects of interest. In [44, 45], this technique was used combined with statistical techniques for controlling people’s access to a specific location. It was also observed the use of intelligent monitoring systems, applied to building, port, or ship security [46, 47].
The functions comprised by a monitoring system are so-called low- and high-level tasks. Among some high-level tasks, we highlight the analysis, interpretation and description of behavior, the recognition of gestures, and the decision between the occurrence or not of a threat. Performing high-level tasks require that for each frame, the system needs to perform low-level tasks, which involve direct manipulation of the image pixels [48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56]. As an example, we highlight the processes of noise elimination, detection of connected components, and obtain information on the location and geometric aspect of the object of interest.
A monitoring system consists of five main components, which are presented in Figures 9. Some monitoring systems may not contain all components. The initial detector aims to detect the pixel regions of each frame that have a significant probability of containing an object to be tracked. This detector can be formed by a motion detector that detects all moving objects based on models of objects previously recorded in a database or based on characteristics extracted offline [40, 41]. The information obtained by the initial detector is processed by an image processor], which will have the function of eliminating noise, segmenting, and detecting the connected components.
The regions containing the most relevant pixels are analyzed and then classified as objects of interest by the classifier [50, 51, 52, 53, 54]. Objects of interest are modeled and are now called reference objects so that the tracker determines its position frame by frame [55, 56]. The information obtained by the initial detector is processed by an image processor], which will have the function of eliminating noise, segmenting, and detecting the connected components.
A tracker, an integral part of a detector, is defined as a function that allows estimating the position of objects at each consecutive frame, through and defines the region of the object of interest, for each
Main component of a monitoring.
Several techniques that allow the calculation to have been developed in recent years to calculate the optical flow vector [57]. These methods are grouped according to their main characteristics and the approach used for the calculation of the optical flow. Thus, the differential methods performed in the studies in [56], the methods d and calculation of the optical flow through the frequency domain [46] the phase correlation methods [58], and the method of association between regions [59].
The method proposed in [56], allows the calculation of the optical flow for each point around a neighborhood of pixels. In [60], it is also considered a neighborhood of pixels, but in this case, the calculation of the optical flow is performed geometrically. In the work presented by [61] it is adding of the restrictions of regularization. In [62] turn active compare performance analyses were performed between the various algorithms and optical flow present in the literature.
This technique is considered robust for detaining and tracking moving objects from your images, both those captured by fixed or mobile cameras. This gives this technique, but high computational cost makes most practical applications unfeasible. Thus, to reduce this complexity, techniques of increasing resolutions were adopted in [63]. Also, for the same purpose, we used the techniques of subsampling on some of the pixels belonging to the object of interest to obtain optical flow [52].
Other authors also use a point of interest detector to select the best pixels for tracking and calculate the optical flow on these points [52, 64]. The reduction in the number of points to be tracked is associated with a decrease in computational complexity, so in [52] the points of interest were selected using the FAST algorithm [64].
The method developed by Lucas-Kanade [56], it is a differential method and widely used in the literature and having variations modifications. It allows you to estimate the optical flow for each point
where
New variations of the techniques were being proposed to make the calculation of the optical flow faster and faster. In [65] a tracker was proposed based on the algorithm of [56]. The translation of a point represented by a grid of rectangular sized pixels 25 × 25, was calculated and its validity is evaluated by calculating the SSD1 in the grid pixels in
In [51] objects were detected by subtracting the image from the environment and removed the movement of the camera with the calculation algorithm of the optical flow vector proposed by [56]. In the studies carried out in [66, 67], they showed that the reliability of the estimated optical flow reduced the case of some points of the object of interest whose optical flow cannot be represented by the same matrix given by the related transformation
In [67] they also modified Lucas - Kanade’s algorithm [56] by inserting the Hessian matrix in the calculation of the value of the variation of the related transformation
Already in the proposal presented in [68] was the development of algorithm to detect people in infrared images that combines the information of the value of pixels with a method of motion detection. The algorithm forms a relevant pixel map by applying thresholding segmentation. While the camera is still, an image
The method for tracking swimmers presented in [46], uses the information of the movement pattern by the optical flow and the appearance of the water that is modeled by a MoG.2 This allows you to calculate an optical flow vector for each pixel of the video independently of the other, through
In [69], a method was presented that incorporated physical restrictions to the calculation of optical flow. The tracker uses the constraints to extract the moving pixels with a lower failure rate. The calculation can be impaired when occlusions occur or when the environment has low light. The operator defines the physical constraints and selects the points of the
In [70], the points that are tracked with the optical flow are defined by applying the Canny edge detector on the pixels of the reference pixel map. Pixels that produce a high response to the Canny detector are the selected points.
In [43], optical flow is used as a characteristic for tracking the contour of the object. The contour is shifted in small steps until the position in which the optical flow vectors are homogeneous is found.
In [64], they performed an estimate of the translation and orientation of the reference object by calculating the optical flow of the pixels belonging to its silhouette. The coordinates of the centroid position are defined by minimizing the Hausdorff distance between the mean of the optical flow vectors of the reference object and the candidate object to be chosen as the object of interest.
Optical flow is defined as a dense vector field associated with the movement and apparent velocity of an object, given by the translation of pixels from consecutive frames in an image region. It can be calculated from the brightness restriction, considered constant, from the corresponding pixels in consecutive frames.
Mathematically be a pixel
So that equation (7) is called optical flow restriction and where the terms
The number of variables in equation (6) is greater than that of equations, which does not allow estimating components and vector, and determining a single solution for the optical flow restriction equation. With this, Lucas and Kanade proposed a solution to solve this problem. The solution method proposed by them considers the constant flow in a region formed by a set of pixels
Passing the set of equations given by equation (8) to the matrix form we have:
Using the least squares method, in the system of equations (9) in the form of matricial, the same can be solved. Therefore, the optical flow
Where:
Therefore, one has that:
Thus:
This method has a reduced computational cost to determine optical flow estimation when compared to other methods because it is simple, that is, it is since the region in which the variation of light intensity between pixels is minimal has a size
To calculate the optical flow over the size region
Where the terms
In view of the small variations present and accumulated along the vector field associated with the optic flow, which cause an additional error in equation (13), a regularization adjustment was made, given by equation (14):
Thus, combining equations (13) and (14), the error
where
where
and replacing the coefficients
whereas
It is possible to reduce the data system by (17), such as:
where the term
Where
Therefore, isolating terms
The Algorithm 1 is a pseudocode to generate the proposed optical flow vector, through equations (24) and (25) and that allow estimating the speed and position of an object, through a sequence of video images.
Begin
For I = 1…N do
Convert images to a gray tone
Calculate the partial derivatives of 1°and 2°orders of
Calculate constants
Calculate the discretized Laplacians of
Calculating Gaussian curvature
Calculate flow components (
End For
End
Developed by Breiman [63] in the mid-2000s, and later revised in [71] random trees are considered one of the best-supervised learning methods used in data prediction and classification. Due to its simplicity, low computational cost, great potential to deal with a large volume of data, and still present great accuracy of results, currently this method has become very popular being applied in various fields of science as data science [72]. Bioinformatics, Ecology, in real-life systems and recognition of 3D objects. In recent years, several studies have been conducted with the objective of making the technique more elaborate and seeking new practical applications [73, 74, 75].
Many studies were carried out with the aim of narrowing the existing gap between theory and practice can be seen in [58, 76, 77, 78]. Among the main components of random tree forests, one can highlight the bagging method [63], and the criterion of classification and regression called cart
Bagging (a bootstrap-aggregating contraction) is an aggregation scheme, which generates samples through the bootstrap method, from the original dataset. These methods are nonparametric and belong to the Monte Carlos method class [80], treating the sample as a finite population. Still, these methods are used when the distribution of the target population is not specified, and the sample is the only information available. How in this way a predictor of each sample is constructed, so that the decision is made through an average, and is more effective computational procedures to improve the indexable estimates, especially for large sets of high-dimensional data, where finding a good model in one step is impossible due to the complexity and scale of the problem. As for the cart-split criterion, it originates from the CART program [63], and is used in the construction of individual trees to choose the best cuts perpendicular to the Axes. However, while bagging and the CART division scheme are key elements in the random forest, both are difficult to mathematically analyze and are a very promising field for both theoretical and practical research.
In general, the set of trees is organized in the form of {
The methodology employed consisted of combining the optical flow algorithm in terms of Gaussian curvature, developed in this work together with the technique of random forest. The language used for the development of this algorithm was the MATLAB programming language, executed on a 64-bit 8th generation notebook, CORE i7. The input data is a video extension Avi, lasting 5 min of a vehicle and two cyclists, circulating in the vicinity of the beach of Costa Nova, in the locality of Ilhavo, in Aveiro, Portugal. The video was fragmented into a set of frames, analyzed two by two by the algorithm for the generation of the vector field of optical flow. After that, the resulting image associated with the flow and a minimal surface region, given by the Gaussian curvature. Next on this surface, the random trees analyzed which vectors presented important characteristics to characterize in an “optimal” way, the movement of the object (see Figure 2).
Representative model of operation of a random forest.
After finishing the process of analysis of the movement of the objects, the execution times and accuracy of the results obtained by the proposed algorithm were compared in relation to the algorithms of Lucas Kanade, Horn and Shunck, Farneback and Lucas Kanade with or without Gaussian filter, allowing to validate the results obtained. After that, the implementation of the developed algorimo began.
Figure 3 shows the vehicle and the two cyclists that were used to collect the image to which the results proposed in this work were obtained so that the choice was random on the right side. A graphical representation of the vector field of optical flow generated by the sequence of two consecutive frames, over 5 minutes of video is shown.
(a) Left side: vehicle shift between moments
On the right side of Figure 3, the optical flow associated with the movement of the vehicle between the time intervals from
The region with the highest horizontal vector density in Figure 3 is located on the left side, in blue. It is also observed that the number of vectors in this region, despite being spaced, starting from the center to the left, is greater in relation to the number of vectors on the right side. It is also possible, through it, to visually evaluate the movement behavior of the considered objects. This region, containing a higher vector density, corresponds to the current direction in which the object is heading and its predicted displacement. It is also possible to observe that this vector density increases towards the left side, passing through the central part, coming from the right, clearly indicating the direction of movement of the object, that is, the object moves to the left. In Figure 4, this process can be understood more clearly.
Prediction and actual displacement of the object obtained through the optical flow.
In a similar way to the one mentioned in Figure 3, on the right side of Figure 5, the optical flow generated by the displacement of the moving vehicle is represented, between the instants
Object remains on the right side, but with a medium offset to the right and displacement estimate still to the left.
It is possible to observe a small increase in the vector density to the left, but that has a great influence on the determination of the real and predicted position of the object in the considered time intervals. The Object continues with its actual movement to the left, as well as the predicted movement of the object to the left. However, he showed a slight movement to the left (direction where the cyclists are).
In Figure 6, a small variation of the optical flow is observed again in the associated movement between the instants
Object remains on the right side, but with a slight shift to the right and offset estimate to the left.
In Figure 7, there was no optical flow variation in the associated movement between the time intervals
Object moving and keeping on the left for consecutive frames.
In Figure 8, the vehicle can be seen completely overtaking the two cyclists and approaching another vehicle in the opposite direction in the upper part of the image (left). The variation of the optical flow vector field remains the same. This indicates that the vehicle continues its trajectory, on the left side to the cyclists, however without posing a danger of collision for the other vehicle in the opposite direction.
Object with unchanged offset pattern.
This item will show how the performance evaluation of the proposed algorithm and accuracy was performed in relation to the Algorithms of Luca and Kanade, with or without Gaussian filter, Horn and Schunck, and Farneback.
The algorithm allowed to show on the display in real-time the displacement of the object on the right side and the set of vectors capable of representing the movement of the real-time or accumulated indicating the tendency, in this case, of the direction that the object should perform. This process was carried out in a similar way, using the other algorithms to make it possible to compare them. The behavior of the proposed algorithm and the other will be graphically shown.
The technique developed in this work allowed to generate an optical flow considering important geometric properties allowing to identify similar categories of moving objects and same characteristics. These geometric properties are intrinsically associated with the curvature of the object’s surface in three-dimensional space, called Gaussian curvature, in this case in a 2D image.
The modified optical flow, considering these properties, generated a dense optical flow, allowing the generation of a band, describing a track on the 2D plane. This allowed tracking the movement of the considered object. In the same Figure 8, it is possible to observe that at each time interval in which the object was monitored, the dispositions of the vectors for the left and right sides, as shown in Figures 3–7 were responsible for drawing the track associated with the displaced and that allowed tracking the object as it moves.
Figure 9 shows the vehicle that, when moving, generated the optical flow. In Figures 10 and 11, the variations of the optical flow between two-time intervals,
Variation of the optical flow of the moving object.
Vehicle movement.
Object moving to the left side.
In the following items, the implementations of the Lucas and Kanade algorithms without or with a Gaussian filter, Horn and Schunck, and Farneback will be shown, using as input data the same sequence of video images used in the algorithm developed in this work. For each, the performance and accuracy obtained will be verified.
For each of the 5 algorithms, 1 frame is shown containing 4 figures, with 2 upper and 2 lower. In each frame, the figure at the top left shows the variation of the vector field between two frames. The right frame, on the other hand, corresponds to the variation of the object’s movement in real-time. The lower ones, except for the proposed algorithm, correspond to the number of points on the right or the left, and with this, the movement will occur to the side that has the greatest number of points. In the case of the proposed algorithm, the process will take place through the analysis of vector density. So, to the side where there is greater vector density, this is the side to which the movement will be occurring (see Figures 12–20).
Object moving to the right side.
Variation of the optical flow of the moving object.
Vehicle movement.
Object moving to the left side.
Object moving to the right side.
Variation of the optical flow of the moving object.
Vehicle movement.
Object moving to the left side.
Object moving to the right side.
Comparing the results presented by the algorithms, it is observed that in the developed model, it was possible to see a dense vector trail of the object, with a slight tendency of displacement to the left, as it continues its movement. In the other models, this was not possible, and it is necessary to resort to a score of points, in the lower table. This process is also possible in the proposed model, but not necessary, which means a reduction in computational cost (see Figures 21–28).
Variation of the optical flow of the moving object.
Vehicle movement.
Object moving to the right side.
Object moving to the left side.
Variation of the optical flow of the moving
Vehicle movement.
Object moving to the left side.
Object moving to the left side.
Comparing the results, it is observed that the Farneback algorithm also presents high vector density. But the proposed model, as previously said, presents a well-defined vector trail which suggests the non-use of the point count in the lower frame, which does not occur for the Farneback algorithm, indicating higher computational cost, which can affect the accuracy of this algorithm when compared to the proposed algorithm.
Comparing the Horn and Schunck algorithm, a low vector density is observed when compared to the proposed algorithm, which indicates lower accuracy when compared to the proposed algorithm.
Although the two techniques of Lucas and Kanade, are faster applications, indicating low computational cost when compared to the proposed algorithm, the factor of low vector density results in low precision in relation to the proposed method.
The proposed method presented good results, showing to be accurate and reasonable speed. This allows this application to be used in critical problems, i.e., to real-world problems. However, it presented limitations that could be verified when compared to the model with Lucas and Kanade, with a Gaussian filter, which is faster and presents good accuracy.
The proposed Method reached only approximately 50% execution speed in relation to the Lucas and Kanade Method, which motivates further improvements to the Method. The technique presented can be applied to other fields of research as in cardiology due to presenting great precision when submitted to small region, which is important because it can be applied with the objective of predicting infarctions and as a current contribution, for the state of the art is to characterize the optical flow in terms of Gaussian curvature, that makes it possible to highlight fields of research such as computational vision and differential geometry.
The authors of this work would like to thank the Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro, the Telecommunications Institute of Aveiro, and the University of Aveiro for the financial, technical-administrative, and structural support provided that allowed the accomplishment of this work.
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Renes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5773.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158868",title:"Dr.",name:"Susan",middleName:null,surname:"Renes",slug:"susan-renes",fullName:"Susan Renes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1990",title:"International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e9f445b89a42e6221004f529ac247127",slug:"international-perspectives-of-distance-learning-in-higher-education",bookSignature:"Joi L. Moore and Angela D. Benson",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1990.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"102403",title:"Dr.",name:"Joi L.",middleName:null,surname:"Moore",slug:"joi-l.-moore",fullName:"Joi L. Moore"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:9,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"32519",doi:"10.5772/33745",title:"Self-Regulated Learning Activities: Supporting Success in Online Courses",slug:"self-regulated-learning-activities-supporting-success-in-online-courses-",totalDownloads:2697,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"1990",slug:"international-perspectives-of-distance-learning-in-higher-education",title:"International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education",fullTitle:"International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education"},signatures:"Maureen Snow Andrade",authors:[{id:"96902",title:"Dr.",name:"Maureen",middleName:null,surname:"Snow Andrade",slug:"maureen-snow-andrade",fullName:"Maureen Snow Andrade"}]},{id:"32516",doi:"10.5772/32879",title:"Open and Distance Learning in Dual Mode Universities: A Treasure Unexploited",slug:"open-and-distance-learning-in-dual-mode-universities-a-treasure-unexploited",totalDownloads:5394,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"1990",slug:"international-perspectives-of-distance-learning-in-higher-education",title:"International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education",fullTitle:"International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education"},signatures:"Paul Birevu Muyinda",authors:[{id:"93065",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Birevu Muyinda",slug:"paul-birevu-muyinda",fullName:"Paul Birevu Muyinda"}]},{id:"69651",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89841",title:"Parental Engagement in Children’s Learning: A Holistic Approach to Teacher-Parents’ Partnerships",slug:"parental-engagement-in-children-s-learning-a-holistic-approach-to-teacher-parents-partnerships",totalDownloads:1394,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"This study presents the standpoint of parental engagement, conceptualized by Janet Goodall and collaborators, as a framework that is coherent to the principles of the holistic approach of pedagogy to teacher-parents’ partnerships. We bring forward the evolution of the concept of parental engagement and its main standpoints, in relation to more traditional theories on parental involvement. We also discuss previous findings about teachers’ and parents’ roles in education and teacher-parents’ partnerships, as well as how do changes in educational paradigms challenge home-school collaboration. Finally, the article highlights the need to implement research-based parental engagement practices in educational systems around the world.",book:{id:"9040",slug:"pedagogy-in-basic-and-higher-education-current-developments-and-challenges",title:"Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education",fullTitle:"Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges"},signatures:"Cristiana Levinthal de Oliveira Lima and Elina Kuusisto",authors:null},{id:"65030",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83417",title:"Lack of Qualified Teachers: A Global Challenge for Future Knowledge Development",slug:"lack-of-qualified-teachers-a-global-challenge-for-future-knowledge-development",totalDownloads:2057,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"A major challenge for teacher education in the twenty-first century is to provide society with qualified teachers to teach and prepare the next generation of citizens. The situation in, for example, Sweden and South Africa faces huge issues concerning an increased lack of teachers in the future, as well as difficulties with teacher attrition. Examples from the USA show that up to 50% of new teachers quit working as teachers within 5 years. The difficulties with knowledge transfer to new generations, are a global threat. In this chapter, the deficiency of examined teachers is addressed in Section 1. This is followed by an overview of two key aspects of teachers’ professional development, namely bridging the gap between practice and theory to enhance teaching quality as well as the importance of practice-based professional development to maintain teachers to work as teacher in a long-term perspective. The results of a case study of students’ views on theories are presented, showing a strong experienced dichotomy between theory and practice, and difficulties to see how theories could be used to better understand classroom situations. Finally, a proposal of how to bridge the gap between theory and practice with designed modules is presented.",book:{id:"7804",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century"},signatures:"Mona Holmqvist",authors:[{id:"275455",title:"Dr.",name:"Mona",middleName:null,surname:"Holmqvist",slug:"mona-holmqvist",fullName:"Mona Holmqvist"}]},{id:"70433",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90502",title:"The Moral Role of Pedagogy as the Science and Art of Teaching",slug:"the-moral-role-of-pedagogy-as-the-science-and-art-of-teaching",totalDownloads:1129,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The purpose of this chapter is to present the key concepts and actors in pedagogy and didactics in the context of institutional teaching. We present a holistic approach to education and view human beings as lifelong learners who need to be educated comprehensively to actualize their full potential. In this chapter we discuss how pedagogy, the science and art of teaching, can promote the educational goals identified in the curriculum. In this chapter we adhere to the Didaktik curriculum tradition in which values and morals are emphasized in guiding the teaching-studying-learning process. This means that pedagogy is moral in nature, and the teacher’s main task is to reflect the values underlying her teaching and the purposes she wants to advance in her teaching. We also discuss the current pedagogical challenges in both basic and higher education in educating students for the twenty-first century.",book:{id:"9040",slug:"pedagogy-in-basic-and-higher-education-current-developments-and-challenges",title:"Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education",fullTitle:"Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges"},signatures:"Kirsi Tirri and Auli Toom",authors:[{id:"234399",title:"Prof.",name:"Kirsi",middleName:null,surname:"Tirri",slug:"kirsi-tirri",fullName:"Kirsi Tirri"},{id:"298433",title:"Dr.",name:"Auli",middleName:null,surname:"Toom",slug:"auli-toom",fullName:"Auli Toom"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69139",title:"Formative Assessment in Mathematics Education in the Twenty-First Century",slug:"formative-assessment-in-mathematics-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",totalDownloads:1277,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Assessment does not always have to involve paper and pencil but can instead be a project, an observation, or a task that shows a student has acquired the concept and can make sound connections and linkages with other related concepts. Learning is meaningful when the student comprehends the relationship of what is being learned to other knowledge. Furthermore, concept map measures aspects of learning, which conventional tests cannot measure such as students’ misconceptions. As such, the chapter shall focus on formative assessment in mathematics classroom mediated by a method of teaching (concept mapping) that promotes critical thinking, which assists teachers to teach and assess students’ understanding and make connections between concepts explicitly.",book:{id:"8039",slug:"theorizing-stem-education-in-the-21st-century",title:"Theorizing STEM Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Theorizing STEM Education in the 21st Century"},signatures:"Benard Chigonga",authors:[{id:"298587",title:"Dr.",name:"Benard",middleName:null,surname:"Chigonga",slug:"benard-chigonga",fullName:"Benard Chigonga"}]},{id:"68547",title:"The Role of Mathematical Modeling in STEM Integration and Education",slug:"the-role-of-mathematical-modeling-in-stem-integration-and-education",totalDownloads:1246,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"With the rapidly developing technology, the labor force of the society has changed direction, and in the age of informatics, creative engineering applications have come to the forefront. Accordingly, the education levels of the labor force were also changed. The science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education model in most countries aims to teach science, mathematics, technology, and engineering in relation to primary, secondary, high school, and higher education. STEM education, which has an impact in our country in recent years, has an important role in acquiring new skills, supporting creativity, innovation, and entrepreneurship, gaining the ability to transition between professions and adapting to new occupations. Nowadays, technology is expected to have different skills from individuals who will work in different fields with rapid development. Also, different teaching strategies play a major role in STEM integration and training. One of them, mathematical modeling, is the process of analyzing real-life or realistic situation using mathematical methods in the most general sense. The idea that mathematical modeling cycles should be used in STEM education at all levels from primary to tertiary education has gained importance in recent years, since it increases the students’ motivation towards the lesson and they learn better by concentrating their attention.",book:{id:"8039",slug:"theorizing-stem-education-in-the-21st-century",title:"Theorizing STEM Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Theorizing STEM Education in the 21st Century"},signatures:"Murat Tezer",authors:[{id:"299964",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Tezer",slug:"murat-tezer",fullName:"Murat Tezer"}]},{id:"66203",title:"Including Students with Disabilities in a Physical Education Teacher Preparation Program: An Institutional Perspective",slug:"including-students-with-disabilities-in-a-physical-education-teacher-preparation-program-an-institut",totalDownloads:1943,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The increasing number of students with disabilities who have the goal of becoming a teacher in either elementary or high school is one of the challenges we are currently facing at the academic colleges of education in Israel. In this chapter, we address the inclusion challenge, namely how we have taken up the challenge to modify one existing teacher preparation program (TPP) in physical education (PE) to enable students with disabilities to study at the same level as the other students who are enrolled in the program. The chapter is composed of four sections. In the first section, we introduce the term inclusive education, elaborate upon its concepts, and highlight a number of developmental phases associated with this term. In the second section, we present the theoretical background and the practical frameworks of an inclusive pedagogy. In the third section, we describe a number of actions taken in one college that enabled students with disabilities to enroll in a PE TPP. In the fourth section, we conclude our discussion and provide a number of ideas for future research, in order to strengthen the understanding of how to integrate students with disabilities in PE TPP.",book:{id:"7804",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century"},signatures:"Ronnie Lidor and Yeshayahu Hutzler",authors:[{id:"293567",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronnie",middleName:null,surname:"Lidor",slug:"ronnie-lidor",fullName:"Ronnie Lidor"},{id:"293600",title:"Prof.",name:"Yeshayahu",middleName:null,surname:"Hutzler",slug:"yeshayahu-hutzler",fullName:"Yeshayahu Hutzler"}]},{id:"69651",title:"Parental Engagement in Children’s Learning: A Holistic Approach to Teacher-Parents’ Partnerships",slug:"parental-engagement-in-children-s-learning-a-holistic-approach-to-teacher-parents-partnerships",totalDownloads:1389,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"This study presents the standpoint of parental engagement, conceptualized by Janet Goodall and collaborators, as a framework that is coherent to the principles of the holistic approach of pedagogy to teacher-parents’ partnerships. We bring forward the evolution of the concept of parental engagement and its main standpoints, in relation to more traditional theories on parental involvement. We also discuss previous findings about teachers’ and parents’ roles in education and teacher-parents’ partnerships, as well as how do changes in educational paradigms challenge home-school collaboration. Finally, the article highlights the need to implement research-based parental engagement practices in educational systems around the world.",book:{id:"9040",slug:"pedagogy-in-basic-and-higher-education-current-developments-and-challenges",title:"Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education",fullTitle:"Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges"},signatures:"Cristiana Levinthal de Oliveira Lima and Elina Kuusisto",authors:null},{id:"55240",title:"Challenging Performativity in Higher Education: Promoting a Healthier Learning Culture",slug:"challenging-performativity-in-higher-education-promoting-a-healthier-learning-culture",totalDownloads:1789,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The nature and context of education have changed dramatically in recent decades. The increased prioritisation of standardisation, performance indicators and metrics often means that holistic, affective and wellbeing education are seen as less important in the educational endeavour. The value of education for education's sake is under siege. Previous emphasis on the education of the whole person (i.e., moral and creative aesthetic development) is often replaced by a more functionalist perspective of education as servicing economic need and global capitalist interests. Marketization of education has increased at an exponential rate and has had an adverse impact on the health and well‐being of both educators and students. This chapter elucidates how the triad of assessment, student well‐being and academic well‐being intersects in the ever increasing performative and neo‐liberalist cultures of higher education. It demonstrates the reciprocal dynamic of stress that is becoming more and more evident among educators and students. The chapter makes the case for more empowering and human‐centred educative contexts in order to facilitate better educational outcomes for students and healthier outcomes for all involved in the educational endeavour.",book:{id:"5773",slug:"global-voices-in-higher-education",title:"Global Voices in Higher Education",fullTitle:"Global Voices in Higher Education"},signatures:"Christine Deasy and Patricia Mannix‐McNamara",authors:[{id:"198284",title:"Dr.",name:"Christine",middleName:null,surname:"Deasy",slug:"christine-deasy",fullName:"Christine Deasy"},{id:"198290",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Mannix McNamara",slug:"patricia-mannix-mcnamara",fullName:"Patricia Mannix McNamara"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1316",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81937",title:"Socialization Experiences among Undergraduate Students in Higher Learning Institutions (HLI)",slug:"socialization-experiences-among-undergraduate-students-in-higher-learning-institutions-hli-",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99007",abstract:"This work portrays the problems of socialization among undergraduate students in higher learning institutions. The socialization processes in higher learning institution are significant for the successful navigation of students in the academic programs and university environment in preparing the next generation of professional practitioners and scholars. But the undergraduate student socialization experiences of students at university environment are overlooked. To navigate in the higher learning institutions, students should be socialized effectively to the normative contexts of the higher learning institutions. The normative contexts of the higher learning institutions are generally categorized into social and academic contexts, because these context academic and social context integration have been linked to student retention and success. Social integration involves interpersonal relationships, support, interactions with others, and a sense of belonging at a university, which stems from extracurricular activities, informal dealings with peer groups, and interactions with faculty and staff, whereas academic integration is described through grade performance and intellectual development that reflects an ability to meet the standards of the academic system; intellectual development involves a student valuing their education as a process of development in which they gain knowledge and ideas. Students’ background is also the contributing factor for students’ socialization in the University.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Mulusew Birhanu Ayalew"},{id:"80280",title:"Adoption of Online Learning during the Covid19 Pandemic Lockdown by Universities in Garowe",slug:"adoption-of-online-learning-during-the-covid19-pandemic-lockdown-by-universities-in-garowe",totalDownloads:88,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99941",abstract:"In response to the Covid-19 outbreak the world closed and therefore countries like Somalia have not been exceptional. The government of Somalia and all higher education institutions adopted crisis intervention measures on implementation of blended learning approaches like online teaching and learning. In this chapter we explore the process and challenges of adopting online learning in response to the world wide lockdown due to the pandemic. Given that this was an abrupt requirement, the survey was interested in finding out whether universities adopted and adapted easily. Researchers compared findings from previous studies and theoretical inclinations on online learning. Results indicate that the adoption of online learning among universities in Garowe was as a matter of crisis management whereby administration, lecturers and students were all not ready and had no prior grounding in this pedagogical learning platform. Just like previous studies online learning implementers have continued to encounter several challenges like intermittent internet network, cost of gadgets and facilities, inadequate skills of both the instructors and students, aspects of communication and satisfaction from stakeholders. With the research survey in Garowe, results show that this is still pervading and therefore need for more rigorous contextualised research on this subject.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Tumwebaze Alicon Auf and Omer Abdi Hamdi"},{id:"78597",title:"Public-Private Participation in Funding University Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Nigerian Case-Study for Sustainable Development",slug:"public-private-participation-in-funding-university-education-in-sub-saharan-africa-a-nigerian-case-s",totalDownloads:134,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99940",abstract:"The developing countries in Africa still cannot withstand the pressure of the highly competitive global education market. Together with the large numbers of people who make a living in various innovative companies, these countries have solved key contemporary issues affecting global education. For this reason, it is necessary to actively respond to current technological innovation and educational challenges and to eliminate new technology graduates who can effectively interact with students through the responsive expansion of education and training. Expansion of education can produce effective expansion that promotes educational development, but due to budget constraints, most African governments cannot successfully and sustainably implement such educational programs. This is difficult. However, public-private partnership efforts provide a way out of this financial dilemma. The Sub-Saharan Africa initiative has achieved important educational objectives, such as: ensuring relevance for quality; secure funding for sustainability and establish resource mobilization partnerships and connections; and promote international cooperation. This discussion is relevant to the basic conditions for a successful public-private partnership with educational institutions and extended education and sheds light on the impact, lessons, and challenges. The public is increasingly concerned about the importance of higher education in the 21st century. This chapter explores some of the key functions of an innovative education system that supports the development of education in Nigeria and enhances people’s ability to use information. Nigeria’s education system re-emphasizes the importance of public and private universities, but the country does not have a sustainable education system and well-equipped educational institutions to support people’s ability to use information, learning, education, and research activities.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Lawrence Jones-Esan"},{id:"79197",title:"University Teachers’ Conceptions of What University Is: Implications for the Future of Higher Education",slug:"university-teachers-conceptions-of-what-university-is-implications-for-the-future-of-higher-educatio",totalDownloads:107,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100813",abstract:"This chapter presents the perception of university teachers about the university, the most recent changes and how they have influenced their activity. The phenomenographic study was conducted with 10 university teachers, nine females and one male with more than 15 years of professional activity. The perception of the university emerges, in the teachers’ voice, focused on the description of its mission, namely as a context for the production and diffusion of knowledge to society, as a space for creative and critical thinking about the world, as an interdisciplinary space and as a system focused on teaching and research. It also includes characteristics related to its structure and functioning, such as the level of hierarchization, bureaucratization, competitiveness, dehumanization and bibliometrics overvaluation. Regarding the perceived changes, they are related to the structural reforms resulting from the Bologna Process, diverse student populations, research and internationalization, new technologies, institutional cooperation, bureaucratization and relationship with the community. Teachers also revealed some dissatisfaction in the way they are experiencing university life due to the overwork resulting from the multiple tasks required in the four activity strands (teaching, research, management and extension) with an impact on quality and innovation, but in line with what the institution demands.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Elisa Chaleta"},{id:"78595",title:"Globalization and Education: Trends towards Sustainability",slug:"globalization-and-education-trends-towards-sustainability",totalDownloads:58,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99974",abstract:"Higher Education Institutions (IES) have a very relevant role in the path towards sustainability. The problem of the implementation of curricular sustainability is the disparity of solutions that can be adopted depending on the political and economic situation of each country. The study of a practical case in the south of Honduras allows the student to approach key decisions in a real scenario to bring improvements to a very disadvantaged population, lacking basic services, such as water and electricity, under the premise of sustainability, facing aspects as relevant such as sustainable mobility, water resources management, energy and construction models, in a context where globalization and technological innovation play a very important role. It is essential to know in depth the real context where structural changes will be applied to understand that there is no single reality, that actions are built adapting to specific situations and that the effectiveness of the measures that can be adopted to establish models that prioritize that part of sustainability that best weighs the balance between the environment, society and the economy for each case.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Maria Olga Bernaldo and Gonzalo Fernandez-Sanchez"},{id:"79255",title:"Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Africa Embracing the “New Normal” for Knowledge Production and Innovation: Barriers, Realities, and Possibilities",slug:"higher-education-institutions-heis-in-africa-embracing-the-new-normal-for-knowledge-production-and-i",totalDownloads:128,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101063",abstract:"If Africa is to remain relevant and competitive in today’s knowledge-based economy, it has to rely on higher education institutions (HEIs) as centers of excellence for knowledge production. HEIs nurture and sustain the production of highly-skilled individuals to support Africa’s growing economies. Among all possible ways, this could be achievable through strategic curricula innovation driven by emerging mobile technologies. Consequently, Africa’s HEIs need to embrace the ‘New Normal’ by optimizing online teaching and learning in their pursuit to expand information and communications technology (ICT) literacy as a means to increase students’ opportunities in higher education (HE). However, Africa’s ability to embrace the ‘New Normal’ has been marred by inadequate ICT infrastructures, low connectivity, unreliable power supply, and national budget constraints that may undermine Africa’s HEIs’ potential to augment knowledge production and innovation.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Christopher B. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. 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Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. 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She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"28",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",keywords:"Animal Reproduction, Artificial Insemination, Embryos, Cryopreservation, Conservation, Breeding, Epigenetics",scope:"The advances of knowledge on animal reproductive biology and technologies revolutionized livestock production. Artificial insemination, for example, was the first technology applied on a large scale, initially in dairy cattle and afterward applied to other species. Nowadays, embryo production and transfer are used commercially along with other technologies to modulate epigenetic regulation. Gene editing is also emerging as an innovative tool. This topic will discuss the potential use of these techniques, novel strategies, and lines of research in progress in the fields mentioned above.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11417,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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