Thiamin diphosphate (ThDP)-dependent enzymes and their distribution among the three domains of life. Enzyme homolog detected (+), not detected (n.d.), or low homology (?) as indicated.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"16",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Biomedical Engineering, Trends in Electronics, Communications and Software",title:"Biomedical Engineering, Trends in Electronics",subtitle:"Communications and Software",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Rapid technological developments in the last century have brought the field of biomedical engineering into a totally new realm. Breakthroughs in material science, imaging, electronics and more recently the information age have improved our understanding of the human body. As a result, the field of biomedical engineering is thriving with new innovations that aim to improve the quality and cost of medical care. This book is the first in a series of three that will present recent trends in biomedical engineering, with a particular focus on electronic and communication applications. More specifically: wireless monitoring, sensors, medical imaging and the management of medical information.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-475-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4534-9",doi:"10.5772/549",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"biomedical-engineering-trends-in-electronics-communications-and-software",numberOfPages:750,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"d76a5792507e65ca56715b9661e8a66e",bookSignature:"Anthony N. Laskovski",publishedDate:"January 8th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/16.jpg",numberOfDownloads:122172,numberOfWosCitations:130,numberOfCrossrefCitations:81,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:6,numberOfDimensionsCitations:164,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:6,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:375,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 7th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 5th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 9th 2010",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 9th 2010",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 8th 2010",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"2205",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",middleName:"Nikola",surname:"Laskovski",slug:"anthony-laskovski",fullName:"Anthony Laskovski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/2205/images/1554_n.jpg",biography:"Anthony N. Laskovski completed his Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical) Degree at the University of Newcastle, Australia in 2006 on a UNISS industrial scholarship with the power distributer Energy Australia.\nHis research interests include RF electronics and implantable electronic devices for biomedical applications, with a particular focus on wireless power transmitters, inductive coils and implantable telemetry architecture. His publications include various conference and journal papers and book chapters.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"692",title:"Biotechnology",slug:"engineering-biomedical-engineering-biotechnology"}],chapters:[{id:"12898",title:"Biosignal Monitoring Using Wireless Sensor Networks",doi:"10.5772/12946",slug:"biosignal-monitoring-using-wireless-sensor-networks",totalDownloads:4327,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Carlos Andres Lozano, Camilo Eduardo Tellez and Oscar Javier Rodriguez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/12898",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/12898",authors:[{id:"13529",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Lozano Garzon",slug:"carlos-lozano-garzon",fullName:"Carlos Lozano Garzon"},{id:"13530",title:"Prof.",name:"Oscar Javier",surname:"Rodriguez Riveros",slug:"oscar-javier-rodriguez-riveros",fullName:"Oscar Javier Rodriguez Riveros"},{id:"13531",title:"Prof.",name:"Camilo Eduardo",surname:"Tellez Villamizar",slug:"camilo-eduardo-tellez-villamizar",fullName:"Camilo Eduardo Tellez Villamizar"}],corrections:null},{id:"12899",title:"Wireless Telemetry for Implantable Biomedical Microsystems",doi:"10.5772/12997",slug:"wireless-telemetry-for-implantable-biomedical-microsystems",totalDownloads:5634,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:21,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Farzad Asgarian and Amir M. 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\r\n\tOil crops are an important class of agronomic crops and very important for the human diet. Oil crops not only provide edible oils but some of them have diverse uses like feeds, fuel, medicine, etc. These also contain many other mineral components in significant amounts and that is why the popularity of oil crops has increased in the last few decades. In the last few years, researchers have developed many new varieties and plant types of oil crops which has contributed to total edible oil production in the world. However, agronomic management, other production practices, and processing greatly vary depending on the plant types and the environment. Therefore, understanding the appropriate production and processing of oil crops is important. So, far researchers have gained considerable achievements in this area.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the various aspects of oil crops – their biology, production technologies, and processing.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-171-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-170-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-172-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"010cdbbb6a716d433e632b350d4dcafe",bookSignature:"Prof. Mirza Hasanuzzaman and MSc. Kamrun Nahar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11627.jpg",keywords:"Plant Physiology, Abiotic Stress, Soil Management, Climate Change, Crop Management, Canola, Soybean, Sesame, Sunflower, Water Relations, Photosynthesis, Oil Content",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 24th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 23rd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University in Dhaka whose publications have received about 9,500 citations (h-index 50 on Scopus). Recipient of the World Academy of Sciences Young Scientist Award and Publons Peer Review Award on 2017, 2018, and 2019.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Professor at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka, and expert in Agricultural Botany and Plant Physiology. Dr. Nahar published 100 articles and chapters related to plant physiology and environmental stresses.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"166818",title:"MSc.",name:"Kamrun",middleName:null,surname:"Nahar",slug:"kamrun-nahar",fullName:"Kamrun Nahar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/166818/images/system/166818.png",biography:"Dr. Kamrun Nahar is a Professor of Agricultural Botany at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. She received her Ph.D. in Environmental Stress Physiology of Plants from the United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Dr. Nahar has been involved in research with field crops emphasizing stress physiology since 2006. She has completed several research works and is currently working on a research project funded by Sher-eBangla Agricultural University Research System and the Ministry of Science and Technology, Bangladesh. She is also supervising MS students. Dr. Nahar has published more than 100 articles and book chapters related to plant physiology and environmental stresses. Her publications have received about 9,500 citations with an h-index of 51. She is involved in editorial activities and is a reviewer of international journals. She is an active member of about twenty professional societies. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"61444",title:"Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Metabolism and Regulation in Archaea",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77170",slug:"vitamin-b1-thiamine-metabolism-and-regulation-in-archaea",body:'\nThiamine or vitamin B1 consists of a thiazole/thiazolium ring [5-(2-hydroxyethyl)-4-methylthiazole, THZ] linked by a methylene bridge to an aminopyrimidine ring (2-methyl-4-amino-5-hydroxymethylpyrimidine, HMP) (Figure 1A). Thiamine diphosphate (ThDP) is the best-known form of thiamine, as it is a cofactor. Other natural thiamine phosphate derivatives include: thiamine monophosphate (ThMP), thiamine triphosphate (ThTP), adenosine thiamine triphosphate (AThTP) and adenosine thiamine diphosphate (AThDP) (Figure 1A) [1, 2]. These latter forms have yet to be analyzed in archaea and, thus, will not be a focus of this review.
\nThiamin (vitamin B1) and its natural forms. A) Thiamin and its natural derivatives thiamin monophosphate (ThMP), thiamin diphosphate (ThDP), thiamin triphosphate (ThTP), and adenosine thiamin triphosphate (AdThTP). The aminopyrimidine ring (blue), thiazolium ring (red) and methylene bridge (green) are highlighted with carbon indicated by C or blue balls. B) Thiamin diphosphate and its C2 anion/ylid form (ThDP-). Enzyme bound ThDP is in a V-conformation, which positions the 4′-amino group of the pyrimidine to abstract the C2-H proton of the thiazolium ring when activated by a conserved glutamate residue of the enzyme (in red). The two resonance structures of the anion/ylid are presented.
ThDP is an enzyme cofactor found in all domains of life. In archaea and bacteria, ThDP is considered one of the eight universal cofactors along with NAD, NADP, FAD, FMN, S-adenosyl-methionine (SAM), pyridoxal-5-phosphate (PLP, vitamin B6), CoA and the C1 carrier tetrahydrofolate or tetrahydromethanopterin [3]. The rare exceptions are the bacteria
ThDP-dependent enzymes catalyze the cleavage and formation of C-C, C-N, C-S and C-O bonds in a wide range of catabolic and anabolic reactions [5]. As a coenzyme, ThDP serves as an electrophilic covalent catalyst in the decarboxylation of 2-oxo acids (
ThDP-dependent enzymes are used in pyruvate metabolism, the TCA cycle, the pentose phosphate pathway and branched chain amino acid biosynthesis (Table 1). Archaea commonly use ThDP-dependent 2-oxoacid: ferredoxin oxidoreductases (OFORs) to catalyze the oxidative decarboxylation of 2-oxoacids (
Archaea | \nBacteria | \nEukarya | \nEC | \nEnzyme (Abbreviation and Description) | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|
+ | \n+ | \n+ | \n1.2.4.1 | \nPDH | \nPyruvate dehydrogenase (E1p component) | \n
n.d. | \n+ | \n+ | \n1.2.4.2 | \nOGDH | \n2-Oxoglutarate dehydrogenase (E1o component) | \n
+ (rare) | \n+ | \n+ | \n1.2.4.4 | \nBCOADH | \nBranched chain 2-oxoacid dehydrogenase (E1b component) | \n
+ | \n+ | \n+ | \n2.2.1.1 | \nTK | \nTransketolase (glycolaldehyde transferase) | \n
n.d. | \n+ (rare) | \n+ | \n4.1.-.- | \nHACL | \n2-Hydroxyphytanoyl−/2-hydroxyacyl-CoA lyase | \n
+ | \n+ | \nn.d. | \n1.2.3.3 | \nPOX | \nPyruvate oxidase (phosphate-dependent) | \n
+ | \n+ | \nn.d. | \n1.2.7.1 | \nPFOR | \nPyruvate: ferredoxin oxidoreductase | \n
+ | \n+ | \nn.d. | \n1.2.7.3 | \nKGOR | \n2-Oxoglutarate: ferredoxin oxidoreductase | \n
+ | \n+ | \nn.d. | \n1.2.7.7 | \nVOR | \n2-Oxoisovalerate: ferredoxin oxidoreductase | \n
+ | \n+ | \nn.d. | \n1.2.7.8 | \nIOR | \nIndolepyruvate: ferredoxin oxidoreductase | \n
n.d. | \n+ (rare) | \nn.d. | \n1.2.7.10 | \n— | \nOxalate: ferredoxin oxidoreductase | \n
n.d. | \nn.d. | \n+ | \n2.2.1.3 | \nDHAS | \nDihydroxyacetone synthase (formaldehyde transketolase) | \n
+ | \n+ | \n+ | \n2.2.1.6 | \nAHAS | \nAcetohydroxyacid synthase (acetylacetate synthase) | \n
n.d. | \n+ | \n+ | \n2.2.1.7 | \nDXPS | \n1-Deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase | \n
+ | \n+ | \n+ | \n2.2.1.9 | \nMenD | \n2-Succinyl-5-enolpyruvyl-6-hydroxy-3-cyclohexene-1-carboxylic-acid synthase | \n
n.d. | \n+ | \nn.d. | \n2.5.1.66 | \nCeaS | \nN2-(2-carboxyethyl)arginine synthase | \n
? | \n+ | \n? | \n3.7.1.11 | \n— | \nCyclohexane-1,2-dione hydrolase | \n
? | \n+ | \n+ | \n4.1.1.1 | \nPDC | \nPyruvate decarboxylase | \n
+ | \n+ | \nn.d. | \n4.1.1.7 | \nBFD | \nBenzoylformate decarboxylase | \n
n.d. | \n+ | \nn.d. | \n4.1.1.8 | \nOXC | \nOxalyl-CoA decarboxylase | \n
? | \n? | \n+ | \n4.1.1.43 | \n— | \nPhenylpyruvate decarboxylase | \n
n.d. | \n+ | \nn.d. | \n4.1.1.47 | \nGCL | \nGlyoxylate carboligase (tartronate semialdehyde synthase) | \n
n.d. | \n+ | \nn.d. | \n4.1.1.71 | \nKGD | \n2-Oxoglutarate decarboxylase | \n
+ | \n+ | \nn.d. | \n4.1.1.74 | \nIpdC | \nIndolepyruvate decarboxylase | \n
+ | \n+ | \nn.d. | \n4.1.1.79 | \nComDE | \nSulfopyruvate decarboxylase | \n
+ (rare) | \n+ | \n+ | \n4.1.1.82 | \nPnPyDC | \n3-Phosphonopyruvate decarboxylase | \n
n.d. | \n+ | \n+ | \n4.1.2.9 | \nPHK | \nPhosphoketolase (D-xylulose-5-phosphate phosphoketolase) | \n
? | \n+ | \n? | \n4.1.2.38 | \nBAL | \nBenzaldehyde lyase (benzoin aldolase) | \n
Thiamin diphosphate (ThDP)-dependent enzymes and their distribution among the three domains of life. Enzyme homolog detected (+), not detected (n.d.), or low homology (?) as indicated.
Thiamine is synthesized
ThiC (HMP-P synthase; EC 4.1.99.17) is the major enzyme used by bacteria [40, 41], plant chloroplasts [42] and archaea [43] to synthesize the aminopyrimidine ring of thiamine (Figures 2-4). ThiC converts 5′-phosphoribosyl-5-aminoimidazole (AIR) to 4-amino-5-hydroxymethyl-2-methylpyrimidine phosphate (HMP-P), thus, diverting carbon/nitrogen skeletons of purine metabolism to thiamine biosynthesis. ThiC is a radical SAM enzyme, that initiates this catalytic reaction by use of a [4Fe-4S]+ cluster that reductively cleaves SAM to methionine and an 5′-deoxyadenosyl radical [40], a presumed oxidizing cosubstrate of the reaction [44].
\nThiamin (vitamin B1) biosynthesis in bacteria. Enzymes are discussed in text and colored by phylogenetic distribution (red, restricted to one domain of life; blue, found in all domains of life; green, apparent homologs in all domains of life but no direct evidence). Abbreviations: AIR, 5-aminoimidazole ribotide; SAM, S-adenosyl-methionine; GAP3P, D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate; HMP-P, 4-aminohydroxymethyl-2-methylpyrimidine phosphate; HMP-PP, 4aminohydroxymethyl-2-methylpyrimidine diphosphate; ThMP, thiamin monophosphate; ThDP, thiamin diphosphate; DXP, 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate; cTHZ-P, 2-[(2R,5Z)-2-carboxy-4-methylthiazol-5(2H)-ylidene]ethyl phosphate; THZ-P, 4-methyl-5-(β-hydroxyethyl)thiazolium phosphate; X, electron carrier.
Thiamin (vitamin B1) biosynthesis in eukaryotes. Blue shading indicates restricted to yeast. Abbreviations: ADP-thiazole, ADP-5-ethyl-4methylthiazole-2-carboxylate; PLP, pyridoxal phosphate; R5P, D-ribose 5-phosphate.?, not determined to date. For additional abbreviations and coloring scheme see
Thiamin (vitamin B1) biosynthesis in archaea. For abbreviations and coloring scheme see
THI5 forms the aminopyrimidine ring of thiamine from the substrates PLP and histidine in yeast [45, 46] (Figure 3). Only a subset of THI5 family (IPR027939) proteins have the conserved histidine residue needed for HMP-P synthesis [45] and appear restricted to yeast, fungi, plants (non-chloroplast) and select γ-proteobacteria. Bacterial ABC-type solute binding proteins for HMP precursor (ThiY) [47] and riboflavin (RibY) [48] transport are structurally related to THI5. Thus, the archaeal THI5 family proteins, which are devoid of the conserved histidine residue, are suggested to serve a similar role in transport.
\nThiD domain proteins are used as bifunctional HMP kinase (EC 2.7.1.49)/HMP-P kinase (EC 2.7.4.7) enzymes in thiamine biosynthesis and salvage (Figures 2-4). Bacterial ThiD [49, 50] and yeast THI20 and THI21 (N-terminal ThiD domain proteins) [51] phosphorylate HMP-P to HMP-PP in the
To form the thiazole ring, ThiG uses three substrates: () dehydroglycine, (ii) 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate (DXP) and (iii) thiocarboxylated ThiS [58, 59, 60, 61] (Figure 2).
\n(i) Dehydroglycine is synthesized by either oxygen-dependent (ThiO; EC 1.4.3.19) or SAM radical enzymes (ThiH; EC 4.1.99.19), both of which are broadly distributed in bacteria but generally absent in archaea and eukaryotes. The ThiO glycine oxidase catalyzes the oxidative deamination of glycine to form the dehydroglycine required for thiazole ring synthesis [62, 63, 64, 65]. By contrast, the ThiH tyrosine lyase forms a 5′-deoxyadenosyl radical that initiates cleavage of the C alpha-C beta bond of tyrosine to generate the dehydroglycine (needed for thiamine biosynthesis) and p-cresol (the byproduct) [66, 67, 68].
\n(ii) The 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (Dxs; EC 2.2.1.7) is a ThDP-dependent enzyme that condenses the (hydroxyethyl)-group derived from pyruvate with the C1 aldehyde group of D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP3P) to generate DXP and CO2 [69, 70]. Dxs homologs (IPR005477) are widespread in bacteria, green algae, higher plants and protists but rare in archaea. Dxs generates the DXP precursor of thiamine, pyridoxol and non-mevalonate isoprenoid biosynthesis pathways [69, 70]. DXP is used for thiamine biosynthesis in bacteria but not in eukaryotes or archaea (Figure 2).
\n(iii) The ThiG-dependent pathway uses a protein-based relay system to mobilize sulfur to the thiazole ring. Sulfur is transferred from L-cysteine to an active site cysteine residue of a sulfurtransferase (
The Thi4-pathway used to form the thiazole ring (Figures 3, 4) is distinct from that of ThiG (Figure 2). Key to the pathway is Thi4-mediated formation of ADP-thiazole, which is then hydrolyzed to THZ-P by a presumed NUDIX hydrolase [55]. Thi4 family (IPR002922) proteins are distributed in all domains of life and generally absent from ThiG-containing bacteria. Although initially annotated as ribose-1,5-bisphosphate isomerases (R15Pi) based on indirect assay [77], archaeal Thi4 homologs are found to be distinct from archaeal R15Pi of the e2b2 family [78, 79] and demonstrated to catalyze thiazole synthase activity [56] that is transcriptionally repressed when thiamine and THZ levels are sufficient [43] and is required for thiazole ring formation [57].
Once formed, the thiamine ring precursors (
ThiE-type ThMP synthases are widespread in all domains of life (IPR036206) and are found to catalyze the substitution of the diphosphate of HMP-PP with THZ-P to yield ThMP, CO2 and diphosphate (PPi) in bacteria [82, 83], plants [84] and yeast [85]. ThiE homologs are often bifunctional, fused to an additional catalytic domain such as HMP-P kinase (EC 2.7.4.7) [52, 84, 85]. ThiE serves as a ThMP synthase in certain archaea based on its requirement for growth of haloarchaea in the absence of thiamine, HMP and/or THZ [43].
\nThMP synthases of the ThiN-type are also identified in archaea and bacteria, but absent in eukaryotes. ThiN domain (IPR019293) proteins are of three major types: I) fused to an N-terminal DNA binding domain (ThiR type), II) fused to an N- or C-terminal catalytic domain (
Thiamine diphosphate (ThDP), the biologically active form of thiamine, is produced from ThMP by two routes. ThMP is commonly phosphorylated to ThDP by the ATP-dependent ThiL ThMP kinase (EC 2.7.4.16 of IPR006283) in bacteria [86] and archaea [87]. Alternatively, ThMP is hydrolyzed to thiamine, and thiamine, is converted to ThDP by a Mg2+-dependent thiamine pyrophosphokinase TPK (THI80) that catalyzes thiamine + ATP ⇆ ThDP + AMP (EC 2.7.6.2) in eukaryotes [88, 89, 90, 91]. Consistent with this latter route, TPK is required for the
Thiamine is a micronutrient that is actively transported into cells against a concentration gradient. Transport of thiamine and its precursors alleviates the need for
Bacterial transporters of thiamine and thiamine precursors, conserved in archaea, can be classified into: (i) ABC-type transporters (
Comparison of thiamin transport by ABC and ECF importers. The nucleotide-binding domains that hydrolyze ATP and drive transporter are shown in blue. The ABC-type transmembrane domain protein (ThiP) and ECF-type Tcomponent (EcfT) are in shades of green. The soluble binding protein (ThiB, ThiY) of the ABC importer is in dark orange. The ECF importer S-components of thiamin (ThiT) and biotin (BioY), which can be swapped, are in shades of orange.
Thiamine and its derivatives are salvaged from the outside and inside of a cell to replenish and repair the ThDP cofactor for metabolism. Thiamine salvage pathways are widespread in all domains of life and overcome the need for
Archaea are found to salvage thiamine and its derivatives (HMP and THZ) from the environment [43, 57] and repress the
Thiamin (vitamin B1) salvage in archaea. Abbreviations: Formylaminio-HMP, N-formyl-4-amino5-aminomethyl-2-methylpyrimidine; amino-HMP, 4amino-5-aminomethyl-2-methylpyrimidine; HMP, 4amino-5-hydroxymethyl-2-methylpyrimidine; THZ, 4methyl-5-(2-hydroxyethyl)thiazole. For additional abbreviations and coloring scheme see
Thiamine biosynthesis, salvage and/or transport pathways are regulated by THI-box riboswitches in bacteria [119, 120, 121], eukaryotes [122, 123, 124, 125], and a few archaea (based on Rfam RF00059) [43, 96]. The THI-box riboswitch is a regulatory element of an mRNA/pre-mRNA aptamer that binds a thiamine metabolite and an expression platform that transduces the ligand binding to control gene expression [126]. In bacteria, when ThDP levels are sufficient, ThDP binds the 5′ untranslated region (UTR) of the THI-box and triggers the formation of a stem-loop structure that masks the Shine-Dalgarno (SD) sequence of the mRNA and inhibits translation initiation [119, 120, 121]. The major targets of this regulation are the mRNAs of the thiamine metabolic operons (
Thiamine metabolism is also regulated by transcription factors, as exemplified by organisms that synthesize thiamine
Thiamine is an important vitamin for improving human health [137], is a strategic nutritional supplement [138, 139], is targeted for production in probiotics [140], is useful in drug discovery including developing antimetabolites to treat cancer or fungal infections [141, 142, 143, 144], has potential for use as antitoxic agent in the food industry [145], may improve crop resistance [146], is a starting point for design of novel riboswitches [147], functions in central metabolism and unusual biocatalytic reactions [6, 7, 8, 148, 149, 150, 151], may modulate global nutrient cycles [152], and holds promise for other applications.
\nDiscovery of the metabolic route for the
Archaea also provide an evolutionary perspective on the origins of thiamine biosynthesis pathways. The aminopyrimidine biosynthesis branch, composed of the radical SAM enzyme ThiC and the HMP/HMP-P kinase ThiD, appears ancient based on its functional conservation in all three domains of life. By contrast, thiazole biosynthesis can be divided into two major pathways: ThiG- and Thi4-dependent. Of these two divisions, the Thi4-type is suggested to be fairly ancient as Thi4 depends on Fe for catalytic activity, can use sulfide as a source of sulfur for thiazole ring formation, is functionally conserved in archaea and eukaryotes, and is predicted to function in certain bacteria (including anaerobes) based on genome sequencing.
\nIdentification of genes needed to transport, synthesize, and salvage thiamine (from the three domains of life) improves understanding of how vitamin B1 may be trafficked in the environment. Finding that Thi4 is important for thiazole ring formation in eukaryotes and archaea provides new perspective on defining the organisms that synthesize thiamine
Finally, thiamine is damaged by extreme conditions such as oxidation. Plant and yeast have a hydrolase (Tnr3, YJR142W) that converts the oxy- and oxo-damaged forms of ThDP into monophosphates to avoid misincorporation of the damaged thiamine molecules into the ThDP-dependent enzymes [155]. Many archaea thrive in conditions of extreme thermal and oxidative stress suggesting these microbes use unique mechanisms to avoid and/or repair damaged ThDP for use as a cofactor.
\nFunds for this project were awarded to JM-F through the Bilateral NSF/BIO-BBSRC program (NSF 1642283), the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Basic Energy Sciences, Division of Chemical Sciences, Geosciences and Biosciences, Physical Biosciences Program (DOE DE-FG02-05ER15650) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH R01 GM57498).
\nThe author has no conflict of interest to declare.
In order to provide high data transmission rates, the bandwidth of mobile communication systems is increasing. In fourth generation (4G) long term evolution (LTE), the maximum transmission bandwidth for one component carrier is 20 MHz [1]. In fifth generation (5G) new radio (NR), the frequency bands are divided into two parts: frequency range 1 (FR1) below 6 GHz and frequency range 2 (FR2) above 24.25 GHz. The maximum transmission bandwidth for one component carrier is 100 MHz and 400 MHz in FR1 and FR2 respectively [2]. The increasing system bandwidth brings new problems to the design of the transmitter and the receiver. In this chapter of the book, we focus on the cyclic redundancy check (CRC) implementation in 5G NR.
In 5G NR, there are many physical channels defined in the downlink and the uplink [3]. The downlink physical channels consist of the physical downlink shared channel (PDSCH), the physical downlink control channel (PDCCH), the physical broadcast channel (PBCH), etc. The uplink physical channels consist of physical uplink shared channel (PUSCH), the physical uplink control channel (PUCCH), the physical random access channel (PRACH), etc. The PDSCH and the PDSCH are mainly used to transmit data. The usage scenarios of 5G NR consist of enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), massive machine-type communications (mMTC) and ultra-reliable and low latency communications (URLLC) [4, 5]. The usage scenario of the eMBB requires high data transmission rates. As a consequence, we focus on the PDSCH and the PUSCH in this chapter.
The medium access control (MAC) layer organizes the data into the transport block and transmits it to the physical layer. In 5G NR, the maximum transport block size is 1,277,992 [6]. The processing of the transport block is shown in Figure 1 [7]. If the transport block size is larger than 3824, a 16-bit CRC is added at the end of the transport block. Otherwise, a 24-bit CRC is added at the end of the transport block. The transport block is divided into multiple equal size code blocks when the transport block size exceeds a threshold. For quasi-cyclic low-density parity-check code (QC-LDPC) base graph 1, the threshold is equal to 8448. For QC-LDPC base graph 2, the threshold is equal to 3840. In 5G NR, the maximum code block size number is 8448. An additional 24-bit CRC is added at the end of each code block when there is a segmentation. Due to the difference in the size of the transport block and the code block, the CRC processing scheme suitable for the transport block and that suitable for the code block are different.
The transport block and the code block.
The rest of this chapter is organized as follows. Section 2 describes the system model of the transport block and the code block in 5G NR. Section 3 gives two properties of the CRC. Section 4 presents the overview of the CRC implementation. Finally, Section 5 gives the conclusion.
Let
If
When
When there is no segmentation, the number of code blocks
In the following sections, we mainly consider the case that there is a segmentation. Let
Note that the procedure of the transport block size determination guarantees that
where
At the receiver side, the following steps are carried out for the transport block: code block segmentation, bit de-interleaving, de-rate matching, QC-LPDC decoding, code block concatenation. We need to check whether each code block and the transport block are correctly received. Let
where
In this section, we give two properties of the CRC. These properties are useful in the CRC implementation. Before giving these properties, we define some variables. Let
Property 1 implies that
Property 2 implies that
The proof of the property 1 and the property 2 can be found in Refs. [10, 11]. It is omitted for brevity.
In this section, we give an overview of the CRC implementation. In the following, the received transport block after the hard decision
In this scheme, the CRC of
Figure 2 illustrates an example. The dividend is equal to
The division of polynomial using modulo-2 arithmetic.
The division of polynomial using modulo-2 arithmetic is a computationally intensive operation. In the worst case, it requires a shift operation and an XOR logic operation for each bit of
For example, the CRC implementation for
CRC implementation for
CRC implementation for
In this scheme,
The size of
The CRC of
The above expression explains how
CRC implementation by parallel processing.
As a consequence, the number of variables that needs to be precomputed is
It is clear that the memory that needs to store the variables increases with the transport block size. To reduce the memory,
In this way, the variables that need to be precomputed include
As a consequence, the number of variables that needs to be precomputed is
In this scheme,
The size of
The CRC of
where
CRC implementation by serial processing.
As a consequence, the number of variables that needs to be precomputed is
It is clear that the memory that needs to store the variables increases with the transport block size. To reduce the memory,
In this way, the variables that need to be precomputed include
As a consequence, the number of variables that needs to be precomputed is
Sarwate proposes an algorithm based on the lookup table [19]. The detail and the proof of the algorithm can be found in [19]. The Sarwate algorithm is shown in Figure 7 [20]. The Sarwate algorithm uses a single table of 256 32-bit elements and reads the bits byte by byte. Modern processors usually access 32 bits or 64 bits at a time. As a consequence, the Sarwate algorithm is not efficient. Some schemes have been proposed in the literatures to solve this problem.
The Sarwate algorithm.
Kounavis and Berry propose the slicing-by-4 and slicing-by-8 algorithms based on the lookup table [20]. The detail and the proof of the algorithms can be found in [20]. The slicing-by-4 and slicing-by-8 algorithms are shown in Figures 8 and 9 respectively [20]. The slicing-by-4 algorithm uses four tables of 256 32-bit elements and reads 32 bits at a time. The slicing-by-8 algorithm uses eight tables of 256 32-bit elements and reads 64 bits at a time. The performance of the slicing-by-4 and slicing-by-8 algorithms is improved compared to the Sarwate algorithm.
The slicing-by-4 algorithm.
The slicing-by-8 algorithm.
In 5G NR, the transport block consists of up to million bits and the code block consists of up to 8448 bits. Due to the difference in the size of the transport block and the code block, the scheme of the CRC processing suitable for the transport block and that suitable for the code block are different. This chapter gives an overview of the CRC implementation in 5G NR.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
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\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
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\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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by",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6998",title:"Synucleins",subtitle:"Biochemistry and Role in Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2b4b802fec508928ce8ab9deebd1375f",slug:"synucleins-biochemistry-and-role-in-diseases",bookSignature:"Andrei Surguchov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6998.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"266540",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Surguchov",slug:"andrei-surguchov",fullName:"Andrei Surguchov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:65,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"46296",doi:"10.5772/57398",title:"Physiological Role of Amyloid Beta in Neural Cells: The Cellular Trophic Activity",slug:"physiological-role-of-amyloid-beta-in-neural-cells-the-cellular-trophic-activity",totalDownloads:5886,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:null,book:{id:"3846",slug:"neurochemistry",title:"Neurochemistry",fullTitle:"Neurochemistry"},signatures:"M. del C. Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. Gómez-Virgilio, G. Ramírez-Rodríguez, E. Vera-\nArroyo, R. Fiorentino-Pérez, U. García, J. Luna-Muñoz and M.A.\nMeraz-Ríos",authors:[{id:"42225",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-Muñoz",slug:"jose-luna-munoz",fullName:"Jose Luna-Muñoz"},{id:"114746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Meraz-Ríos",slug:"marco-meraz-rios",fullName:"Marco Meraz-Ríos"},{id:"169616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Cardenas-Aguayo",slug:"maria-del-carmen-cardenas-aguayo",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo"},{id:"169857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Lucero",slug:"maria-del-carmen-silva-lucero",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Silva-Lucero"},{id:"169858",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes-Ortiz",slug:"maribel-cortes-ortiz",fullName:"Maribel Cortes-Ortiz"},{id:"169859",title:"Dr.",name:"Berenice",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Ramos",slug:"berenice-jimenez-ramos",fullName:"Berenice Jimenez-Ramos"},{id:"169860",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Virgilio",slug:"laura-gomez-virgilio",fullName:"Laura Gomez-Virgilio"},{id:"169861",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Rodriguez",slug:"gerardo-ramirez-rodriguez",fullName:"Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez"},{id:"169862",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Arroyo",slug:"eduardo-vera-arroyo",fullName:"Eduardo Vera-Arroyo"},{id:"169863",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorentino-Perez",slug:"rosana-sofia-fiorentino-perez",fullName:"Rosana Sofia Fiorentino-Perez"},{id:"169864",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"ubaldo-garcia",fullName:"Ubaldo Garcia"}]},{id:"58070",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72427",title:"MRI Medical Image Denoising by Fundamental Filters",slug:"mri-medical-image-denoising-by-fundamental-filters",totalDownloads:2564,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Nowadays Medical imaging technique Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays an important role in medical setting to form high standard images contained in the human brain. MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"},{id:"80821",title:"Neuroimmunology and Neurological Manifestations of COVID-19",slug:"neuroimmunology-and-neurological-manifestations-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:41,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103026",abstract:"Infection with SARS-CoV-2 is causing coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID-19). Besides respiratory symptoms due to an attack on the broncho-alveolar system, COVID-19, among others, can be accompanied by neurological symptoms because of the affection of the nervous system. These can be caused by intrusion by SARS-CoV-2 of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) and direct infection of local cells. In addition, neurological deterioration mediated by molecular mimicry to virus antigens or bystander activation in the context of immunological anti-virus defense can lead to tissue damage in the CNS and PNS. In addition, cytokine storm caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection in COVID-19 can lead to nervous system related symptoms. Endotheliitis of CNS vessels can lead to vessel occlusion and stroke. COVID-19 can also result in cerebral hemorrhage and sinus thrombosis possibly related to changes in clotting behavior. Vaccination is most important to prevent COVID-19 in the nervous system. There are symptomatic or/and curative therapeutic approaches to combat COVID-19 related nervous system damage that are partly still under study.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Robert Weissert"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. 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