Types of flavonoids.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8361",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Applied Geophysics with Case Studies on Environmental, Exploration and Engineering Geophysics",title:"Applied Geophysics with Case Studies on Environmental, Exploration and Engineering Geophysics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book provides a general introduction to the most important methods of applied geophysics with a variety of case studies. These methods represent a primary tool for investigation of the subsurface and are applicable to a very wide range of problems. Applied geophysics is based on physics principles that collect and interpret data on subsurface conditions for practical purposes, including oil and gas exploration, mineral prospecting, geothermal exploration, groundwater exploration, engineering applications, archeological interests, and environmental concerns. The depth of investigation into applied geophysics is shallow, typically from the ground surface to several kilometers deep, where economic, cultural, engineering, or environmental concerns often arise. Applied geophysics uses almost all of the current geophysical methods, including electrical, magnetic, electromagnetic, gravimetric, geothermal, seismic, seismoelectric, magnetotelluric, nuclear, and radioactive methods. In applied geophysics, geophysicists are usually required to have a good understanding of math and physics principles, knowledge of geology and computer skills, and hands-on experience of electronic instruments. A geophysicist's routine job includes survey designs, data acquisition, data processing, and data interpretation with detailed explanation of the study. Applied geophysics consists of three main subject and interest areas, which are exploration geophysics, engineering geophysics, and environmental geophysics.",isbn:"978-1-83880-741-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-740-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-742-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78490",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"applied-geophysics-with-case-studies-on-environmental-exploration-and-engineering-geophysics",numberOfPages:150,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"788c034eec48a4e2f1f6a2f1788d3346",bookSignature:"Ali Ismet Kanlı",publishedDate:"June 5th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8361.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9216,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:26,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:47,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 6th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 27th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 26th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 14th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 13th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"243975",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali Ismet",middleName:null,surname:"Kanlı",slug:"ali-ismet-kanli",fullName:"Ali Ismet Kanlı",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243975/images/system/243975.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Ali Ismet Kanlı received his undergraduate degree in 1989 from Istanbul University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Geophysical Engineering. In 1994, he graduated from Istanbul University, Institute of Science with an MSc, and in 1998, he completed his doctorate at the same institute. He began his academic career in 1992 as a research assistant in Istanbul University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Geophysical Engineering, Division of Applied Geophysics. He became an assistant professor in 2001, an associate professor in 2010, and a full professor in 2016 for the same division. Dr. Kanli is the head of the Applied Geophysics Division of the Geophysical Engineering Department. He has carried out and directed many international and national projects and has several national and international scientific publications to his credit. He is an editorial board member of ten international journals and a reviewer for many international and national journals. He has also been a referee in many international and national projects. Dr. Ali is a member of three national and eight international scientific associations. His areas of scientific interest include applied and near-surface geophysics, engineering and environmental geophysics, engineering seismology, exploration seismology, structural geophysics, earthquake engineering, geotechnical geophysics, borehole geophysics and well logging, alternative energy, and geothermal exploration.",institutionString:"Istanbul University Cerrahpaşa",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Istanbul University Cerrahpaşa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"654",title:"Seismology",slug:"seismology"}],chapters:[{id:"64060",title:"Advance Wave Modeling and Diffractions for High-Resolution Subsurface Seismic Imaging",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81164",slug:"advance-wave-modeling-and-diffractions-for-high-resolution-subsurface-seismic-imaging",totalDownloads:1196,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Seismic modeling and Imaging for the small-scale feature in a complex subsurface geology such as salt deposit, fracture reservoir, and Carbonate is not casual because of propagated wave affected by many objects once it hits the geologic structure in the subsurface. The principal goal of newly developed seismic modeling & imaging is to get a subsurface image of structural features with greatest sharpness or resolution. Using model dataset the Sigsbee and Marmousi, we illustrate the accuracy of conventional and advance wave modeling techniques. However, in conventional a Finite difference (FD) algorithm is used to generate the data and in advanced wave modeling, the low-rank (LR) approximation is used to acquire zero-offset configuration data. A field dataset from Malaysian basin is re-processed and imaged using diffraction imaging which shows an enhancement in structural interpretation. Furthermore, the results gained from the proposed modeling and imaging approach significantly enhance the bandwidth of the imaged data. Finally, a frequency spectrum shows a recovery of low-frequency from 0 to 60 Hz which is an optimal resolution of seismic imaging.",signatures:"Yasir Bashir and Deva Prasad Ghosh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64060",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64060",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63394",title:"Radiometric Mapping of Hydrothermal Alterations in Isla Isabel, Mexico",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80530",slug:"radiometric-mapping-of-hydrothermal-alterations-in-isla-isabel-mexico",totalDownloads:991,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Isla Isabel is a small island of volcanic origin about 29 km west of Nayarit’s coast, Mexico, exhibiting phreatomagmatic activity (maars). In a nearby (8 km), ocean located, exploration well reaching 3157 m geothermal gradients of 73°C/km were recorded, which are among the largest in the world. These features, plus gravimetric anomalies in the area, suggest that the region may become an important source of geothermal energy. Direct hydrothermal alteration mapping in the island is difficult since it is a National Park and a bird sanctuary where various bird species thrive. We used remote sensing techniques to identify hydrothermally altered sections in the island, including radiometric spectrum determinations in the 350–1050 nm wavelength interval and Landsat 8 satellite imagery. The island is mainly composed of basalt but large portions contain vegetation, posing a challenge to satellite hydrothermal alteration detection. Four pixel-classification schemes are used for oxides, hydroxyls, and vegetation; shallow underwater basalt flow detection was possible.",signatures:"Román Alvarez and Gerardo Figueroa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63394",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63394",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"67103",title:"Rock Physics Interpretation of Tomographic Solutions for Geothermal Reservoir Properties",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81226",slug:"rock-physics-interpretation-of-tomographic-solutions-for-geothermal-reservoir-properties",totalDownloads:991,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We present the basic theory of rock physics, laboratory studies, and field observations that can be applied to interpreting tomographic solutions from microearthquakes for reservoir properties. These properties include location of fluids, fractures, porosity, and permeability. We obtain 3D tomographic solutions for isotropic velocity (Vp and Vs) and attenuation (Qp and Qs), and derived solutions for elastic moduli (lambda, bulk and Young’s), and Poisson’s ratio. We show that a relatively high density of recording stations, about one each km2, and relatively few microearthquakes (∼300) can provide solutions at sufficient resolution and in a relatively short amount of time to be useful for reservoir exploration and management. We provide a case study for The Geysers, California, USA.",signatures:"Lawrence Hutchings, Brian Bonner, Seth Saltiel, Steve Jarpe and Mariel Nelson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67103",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67103",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66999",title:"Resistivity and Induced Polarization Application for Urban Waste Disposal Site Studies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81225",slug:"resistivity-and-induced-polarization-application-for-urban-waste-disposal-site-studies",totalDownloads:1338,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Environmental impacts caused by urban and industrial waste disposal are one of the greatest worldwide concerns, since contaminants may migrate to the local environment and contaminate soils and groundwater. Geophysical investigations have been widely used in environmental investigations of waste disposal contaminated sites, not only imaging the affected area but also evaluating the evolution of contamination plume in a timeframe. Geophysical studies in contaminated sites consist of detecting and mapping the area affected by a contamination source and providing information related to the groundwater flow and depth of saturated zone and bedrock. Particularly, electrical methods, such as resistivity and induced polarization, can identify the presence of contaminant and help to map and delineate the contaminated area and provide information related to contaminant mobilization and attenuation. Therefore, these methods are a powerful tool for noninvasive long-term monitoring of waste disposal contaminated sites. In this chapter, we will show case studies conducted in Brazil, over different types of municipal waste disposal sites.",signatures:"Andréa Ustra and Vagner R. Elis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66999",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66999",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63425",title:"Analysis of Seismic Responses of Rock Massif to Explosive Impacts with Using Nonlinear Methods",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80750",slug:"analysis-of-seismic-responses-of-rock-massif-to-explosive-impacts-with-using-nonlinear-methods",totalDownloads:659,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"When conducting mining operations in high-stress rock massive, technogenic seismicity is manifested, with forecasting and prevention issues being given much attention in all countries with a developed mining industry. An important role here belongs to the short-term forecast; the methodology for identifying criteria for it is still a problem, both in mining and in seismology. From the point of view of the paradigm of physical mesomechanics, which includes a synergetic approach for changing the state of rock massive of material with different compositions, this problem can be solved with the help of monitoring methods tuned to the study of hierarchical structural media. Changes in the environment, leading to short-term precursors of dynamic phenomena, are explained within the framework of the concept of self-organized criticality, for which the central moments are heterogeneity and nonlinearity. Introduction of the proposed integrated passive and active geophysical monitoring, aimed at studying the transient processes of redistribution of the stress–strain and phase states, can contribute to the prevention of catastrophic dynamic manifestations during the development of deep-lying deposits. Methods of active geophysical monitoring should be tuned to a model of a hierarchical heterogeneous medium and provided with new results of propagation of wave fields in layered block media with inclusions of a hierarchical structure.",signatures:"Olga Hachay and Oleg Khachay",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63425",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63425",authors:[{id:"150801",title:"Prof.",name:"Olga",surname:"Hachay",slug:"olga-hachay",fullName:"Olga Hachay"},{id:"263300",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleg",surname:"Khachay",slug:"oleg-khachay",fullName:"Oleg Khachay"}],corrections:null},{id:"64321",title:"Application of Seismic Tomography and Geotechnical Modeling for the Solution of Two Complex Instability Cases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81876",slug:"application-of-seismic-tomography-and-geotechnical-modeling-for-the-solution-of-two-complex-instabil",totalDownloads:822,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The geotechnical instability of sites and artificial structures is a widespread problem that particularly affects heavily anthropized areas and historical cities, and often this instability is linked to human activities and to interventions carried out without adequate preliminary geotechnical studies. The most common procedure for assessing unstable sites includes base studies such as drilling boreholes, shallow excavations, and engineering geology studies. However, more and more often, some geophysical techniques are associated to the above intervention, represent the first phase of assessment, and allow optimizing the possible campaign of excavations and boreholes. Compared to direct surveys, the geophysical ones provide extensive and continuous information, are moderately invasive, and have a remarkably advantageous information-to-cost ratio. In this chapter, we illustrate two examples of characterization of unstable sites. The first case concerns the ancient walls of an Italian city, and the second one deals with the instability of a road slope. In both cases, the geotechnical modeling is also based on the results of preliminary geophysical surveys.",signatures:"Roberto Balia and Pier Paolo Manca",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64321",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64321",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"64562",title:"Electrical Resistivity Tomography: A Subsurface-Imaging Technique",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81511",slug:"electrical-resistivity-tomography-a-subsurface-imaging-technique",totalDownloads:3219,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is a popular geophysical subsurface-imaging technique and widely applied to mineral prospecting, hydrological exploration, environmental investigation and civil engineering, as well as archaeological mapping. This chapter offers an overall review of technical aspects of ERT, which includes the fundamental theory of direct-current (DC) resistivity exploration, electrode arrays for data acquisition, numerical modelling methods and tomographic inversion algorithms. The section of fundamental theory shows basic formulae and principle of DC resistivity exploration. The section of electrode arrays summarises the previous study on all traditional-electrode arrays and recommends 4 electrode arrays for data acquisition of surface ERT and 3 electrode arrays for cross-hole ERT. The section of numerical modelling demonstrates an advanced version of finite-element method, called Gaussian quadrature grid approach, which is advantageous to a numerical simulation of ERT for complex geological models. The section of tomographic inversion presents the generalised standard conjugate gradient algorithms for both the l1- and l2-normed inversions. After that, some synthetic and real imaging examples are given to show the near-surface imaging capabilities of ERT.",signatures:"Bing Zhou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64562",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64562",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8909",title:"Slope Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9be2d5801074590ab1d79845ee5c47e9",slug:"slope-engineering",bookSignature:"Ali Ismet Kanlı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8909.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"243975",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali Ismet",surname:"Kanlı",slug:"ali-ismet-kanli",fullName:"Ali Ismet Kanlı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2227",title:"Tectonics",subtitle:"Recent 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Free radicals are chemical species such as atoms or group of atoms with an odd (unpaired) number of electrons. They are produced due to splitting weak bonds. The biological free radicals, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), are usually produced in our bodies. It is known that free radicals are very reactive and may quickly react with other chemical entities (atoms or molecules) by capturing the required electron to gain stability. There are two types of biologically important reactive species. The first type contains oxygen and is known as reactive oxygen species (ROS), while the second type contains nitrogen and is known as reactive nitrogen species (RNS). Both ROS and RNS can be classified into radicals and non-radical species.
ROS can be classified into two types, radical species and non-radical species. The most important ROS radicals are: superoxide anion radical (O2.–), hydroxyl radical (.OH), alkoxyl radical (RO.), lipid peroxide radical (ROO.), and hydroperoxy radical (HOO.). While the non-radicals ROS are: hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), singlet oxygen (1O2), ozone (O3), organic peroxide (ROOH), and hypochlorous acid (HOCl).
It is important to emphasize that the mitochondria is the main source of the most active biological ROS [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] such as superoxide anion radical (O2.−), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and hydroxyl radical (.OH). Thus, the initial reactive oxygen species (O2.−) is produced due to the reduction of free oxygen by some electrons leaking out from the electron transport chain during the process of oxidative phosphorylation. This particle is relatively stable intermediate and considered as the precursor for most important ROS. The reduction of free oxygen by electrons in mitochondria can be illustrated as follows: O2 + e− → O2.−. In addition, the superoxide anion radical may be produced in a process of oxygen reduction by enzymatic systems in mammalian cells as follows [6]:
The superoxide anion radical and hydrogen peroxide are formed in vivo, in the brain, and the central nervous system (CNS). It is known that several areas in the brain contain high amount of iron which stimulates free radical reactions.
The superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide can be converted rapidly to hydroxyl radical (.OH), which is known as the most reactive and destructive radical in biological system. This radical is quickly produced via Fenton [7] and Haber-Wiess reactions as follows [8, 9]:
The reaction of H2O2 with Fe+2 and Cu+ metal ions which are typically complexed with certain intracellular proteins such as ferritin and ceruloplasmin, respectively [7], occurs due to stress conditions, which means an excess of superoxide anion radical (O2.−). This phenomenon releases free ions (Fe+2) from ferritin which in turn reacts with H2O2 according to Fenton reaction to produce hydroxyl radical (.OH). This free radical can strongly react with biomolecules such as DNA, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates and cause severe damage to the cells than any other ROS [10]. The. OH is the most destructive free radical and can more easily penetrate the phospholipid bilayer than O2.−, which is negatively charged. When ·OH is generated by Fenton reaction, the extent of its formation is largely determined by the availability and location of the metal ion catalyst. One feature of ·OH is that it leads to the generation of another radical, so when it reacts with a molecule, a new free radical is generated. However, the new free radical usually has lower reactivity than the hydroxyl radical (·OH). The ·OH attacks all proteins, DNA, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in membranes, and almost any biological molecule it encounters [10]. The hydroxyl radical (·OH) can be obtained by another reaction in neutrophils, where HOCl reacts with superoxide anion radical [11, 12] as follows:
The hydroxyl radical (.OH) is the strongest oxidant produced in biological systems. It reacts very rapidly and indiscriminately with most biological targets present at its site of formation.
Peroxy radicals (ROO.) and alkoxy radicals (RO.) are moderately strong oxidants. Lipid peroxidation starts with abstraction of H-atom by .OH, or by RO. to form alkyl radical (R.), then oxygen (O2) is added to alkyl radical to generate peroxyl radical (ROO.). Lipid peroxidation or the oxidative destruction of PUFA containing methylene groups (-CH2-) comprise the main targets [13]. This process can be illustrated in three steps as follows:
Then, peroxyl radical reacts with another polyunsaturated fatty acid (RH) to remove H-atom:
Finally, to terminate lipid peroxidation, the following reaction takes place:
It is clear that lipid peroxidation leads to the formation of alkyl (R.), peroxyl (ROO.), and alkoxyl (RO.) radicals. Generally, lipid hydroperoxide (ROOH) is relatively stable, but in the presence of Fe and Cu ions, it causes the formation of alkoxy and peroxy radicals [14, 15].
The reactivity of RO. and ROO. is related to the presence of substituents at the α-carbon. As a result, the presence of an electron-withdrawing group increases the reactivity, while the presence of an electron-donating group decreases it. Thus, aromatic ROO. and RO. must be less reactive because of single electron delocalization. These free radicals react with biomolecules by abstracting H-atom [16, 17].
Hydroperoxyl radical, also known as perhydroxyl radical (HOO.), is formed due to the reversible reaction occurring between superoxide anion radical and proton. This reaction takes place in cells as follows:
The pKa of this radical is 4.88 [18]. At pH 7.2 in the cytoplasm, a small amount of this radical (1% of O2•−) exists as HOO. [19]. Perhaps for this reason, many researchers presumed that HOO• has little or no role in initiation of lipid peroxidation [20]. In comparison with other oxidants, HOO• shows high specificity in reaction with PUFA, linoleic (C18:2), and linolenic (C18:3) acids [21].
The singlet oxygen (1O2) is a potent oxidizing agent, because it can react with different macromolecules such as DNA [22], and is responsible for lipid peroxidation of membrane and other tissues [23]. It is generated in cells, specifically in neutrophils and eosinophils [24, 23]. In addition, this particle can be formed by enzymatic reactions [25, 26, 27]. This reactive particle is produced due to the activation of molecular oxygen to two excited states. In the first excited state, oxygen has two electrons with opposite spins in the same ᴨ* orbital, while in the second excited state oxygen has one electron in each of two degenerate ᴨ* orbitals. However, singlet oxygen in the first excited state is extremely reactive in comparison with other excited states like the triplet state. Allen [28] suggested the mechanism for the production of singlet oxygen from H2O2 and Cl− in the presence of the myeloperoxidase (MPO) enzyme as follows:
Hydrogen peroxide is generated via an enzymatic reaction where the reactive superoxide anion radical is rapidly converted by an antioxidant enzyme called superoxide dismutase (SOD). The new formed oxygen species H2O2 is less reactive. Thus, hydrogen peroxide is formed as follows by SOD:
It is clear that, in the dismutation reaction (an oxidation–reduction process), two superoxide anion radicals are involved. In this reaction, one superoxide anion radical is oxidized to oxygen while the other is reduced to hydrogen peroxide [29]. The latter (H2O2) is relatively stable and membrane permeable so this non-radical species can diffuse inside the cell and can be removed by mitochondrial antioxidant enzymatic systems such as catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) [30, 31].
As illustrated, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) removes hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) by oxidizing two glutathione molecules (GSH) to produce oxidized glutathione disulfide (GSSG). It is clear that the three SOD, CAT, and GPx enzymes show synergistic effect in the scavenging of superoxide anion radical (O2˙−). The in vivo destruction effects of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) result due to the presence of transition metals or enzymes, such as heme-peroxidase. The destruction of H2O2 leads to the formation of other more reactive oxidants such as.OH, NO., and HOCl. Thus, reaction of hydrogen peroxide with Cu1+ and Fe2+ leads to the production of. OH. On the other hand, in phagocytic cells, myeloperoxidase uses its substrate H2O2 to generate HOCl. The release of MPO during phagocytosis may play an important role in microbial elimination [32].
Ozone gas (O3) exists in polluted atmosphere and the inhalation of this gas by human may lead to lung injury and inflammation. In living organisms, ozone is thought to be formed due to oxidation of H2O to H2O2 in the presence of antibodies [33]. Thus, antibodies use H2O as an electron source, facilitating its addition to 1O2 to generate dihydrogen trioxide (H2O3), which is converted to ozone [34].
Ozone reacts with fatty acids, cholesterol, amino acids and DNA. The lung is the most affected organ due to exposure to ozone. The effect of ozone on tissues occurs via free radical mechanisms [35, 36, 37]. The ozone radical anion then reacts with a proton to form the hydroxyl radical and oxygen as follows [36].
This species (HOCl) is generated in neutrophils by the reaction of Cl − with H2O2, which is catalyzed by the enzyme myeloperoxidase [38]. It is illustrated as follows:
The hypochlorous acid is considered to be a very reactive oxidizing agent. So, it may affect different biomolecules and may destroy phagocytized pathogens by causing oxidative damage to their biomolecules which include proteins [39], DNA [40], and lipids [41]. On the other hand, the overproduction of HOCl can lead to many health problems such as atherosclerosis and cancer [42, 38].
Reactive nitrogen species (RNS) can be found in biological systems as free radical species and non-radical species. However, the most common RNS radical is nitric oxide radical (NO.) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). On the other side, the important non-radical RNS is peroxynitrite ion (ONOO−). Generations of these reactive species is discussed below.
Nitric oxide free radical (NO.) is an endogenous free radical synthesized in the presence of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) that oxidizes L-arginine to L-citrulline [43]. In this reaction, one of the guanidino nitrogen atoms is oxidized to form NO.. This process is shown below:
The NO. radical can diffuse easily and has the ability to reach many intracellular targets and cause biological damage [44]. The enzyme nitric oxide synthase (NOS) is found in different cells such as vascular endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, platelets, neuronal cells, macrophages, and neutrophils [45]. In addition, this radical plays an important role in biological tissues such as vasodilation, memory, neuronal response, among others [46, 47, 48, 49, 50].
This nitrogenous species is generated due to reaction of superoxide anion radical (O2−.) with nitrogen oxide radical (NO.) radical as follows:
It is noted that at physiological pH (7.4), peroxynitrite exists in equilibrium with peroxynitrous acid, ONOOH [51].
Then, peroxynitrous acid (ONOOH) is subjected to homolysis to produce hydroxyl radical (OH•) and nitrogen dioxide radical (NO2.), which may rearrange to form nitrate (NO3−).
The ONOO− is a very reactive anion, even more so than the particle (NO. and O2•−) from which it is formed [52, 53, 54]. The peroxynitrite anion can cross biological membranes and interact with most critical biomolecules [55]. Thus, it can cause oxidation of lipids, and proteins via oxidation of methionine and tyrosine residues and can oxidize DNA to generate nitroguanine [56]. Under most biological conditions, ONOO- and ONOOH exist in equilibrium [57]:
Indeed, protonation weakens the O–O bond in ONOOH and leads to homolytic cleavage to generate hydroxyl radicals (.OH) and nitrogen dioxide (.NO2), two strongly oxidizing/hydroxylating and nitrating species, respectively.
As a nucleophile, a central reaction of peroxynitrite in biology is the addition of the anion to carbon dioxide (CO2) to yield a nitrosoperoxocarboxylate adduct (ONOOCO2) that undergoes fast homolysis to NO2 and [58, 59, 60].
An antioxidant is any substance that has the ability to prevent, inhibit, or delay the oxidation of other substances. In biological systems, antioxidants play a very important roles in removing free radicals such as ROS and RNS, and consequently reduce oxidative stress. Antioxidant molecules can be classified based on the type of mechanistic defense they offer:
These are endogenous antioxidant enzymes like superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). These enzymes efficiently suppress or prevent the formation of free radicals and other ROS in tissues. Thus, SOD removes superoxide anion radical as follows:
On the other hand, CAT reduces formed H2O2 to water and oxygen:
The GPx enzyme system detoxifies H2O2 by catalyzing its reduction using glutathione (GSH) as a sacrificial reductant to produce one molecule of oxidized glutathione (GSSG). Thus, the enzymes SOD, CAT, and GPx, work collectively to prevent the effect of O2˙−.
In addition, Fe and Cu ions are included to this type of defense, since these ions bind proteins such as transferrin and caeruloplasmin and prevent them from free radical formation. Generally, any chemical compound having two or more of the following functional groups: –OH, –SH, –COOH, –PO3H2, C=O, –NR2, –S– and –O– may have chelating activity [61]. The mechanism of metal ion chelation with some natural phenolics such as protocatechuic acid and anthocyanins is shown in Figure 1.
Mechanism of metal ion chelation with some natural phenolics.
Transition metal ions (Fe+2 and Cu+) make complex species with different types of phenolic compounds such as flavonoids containing multiple hydroxyl groups (polyhydroxylated). The involvement of these ions in the formation of complexes prevents the Fenton reaction which leads to the formation of hydroxyl radical (.OH) which is considered as the most dangerous ROS.
This type of antioxidants are enzymes which are involved in repairing damage due to the effects of free radicals on biomolecules (DNA, proteins, lipids and carbohydrates). These enzymes prevent the accumulation of toxic substances resulting from destruction of biomolecules in body tissues. Examples of this type of enzymatic antioxidants include the DNA repair enzyme systems (polymerases, glycosylases and nucleases), and proteolytic enzymes (proteinases, proteases and peptidases) located in both, cytosol and mitochondria of mammalian cells.
This type of antioxidants use the signals, which are required for the formation of free radicals. As a result, the signal generated from the formed free radical causes the formation and transport of the appropriate antioxidant to the appropriate and required site [62].
This type of scavenging antioxidants can directly neutralize free radicals by two mechanisms, either by donating a hydrogen free radical (H.) or donating an electron (e−). These mechanisms can be illustrated as follows:
In the preceding mechanism, the antioxidant donates a hydrogen free radical (H.) to scavenge free radicals, and the antioxidant (Ar-OH) itself becomes a free radical, though not as biologically harmful.
The second mechanism involves one-electron transfer where the antioxidant donates an electron to the free radical and becomes itself a radical cation. Generally, the new radicals are more stable and can be easily neutralized and made completely harmless and removed easily from biological systems. Many antioxidants such as ascorbic acid, uric acid, glutathione, vitamin E, and other natural compounds like polyhydroxyphenolic compounds belong to this class. This type of antioxidants are usually small molecules containing hydroxyl groups either of natural or synthetic origin. The importance of these compounds prompted us to review them in details.
There are many studies that have shown the biological effectiveness of phenolic compounds as natural antioxidants. They play very important roles in the prevention of dangerous diseases such as cancers, heart diseases, diabetes and others. There is a need for simple molecules capable of neutralizing free radicals responsible for what is known as oxidative stress, the lead cause of dangerous diseases like cancers, heart disease, diabetes and others. Antioxidants play a critical role in biological systems in getting rid of free radicals and work to prevent the phenomenon of oxidative stress. The most available natural antioxidants exist in plants such as fruits, vegetables, and medicinal plants. Herein, we present an overview of the natural and synthetic phenolic compounds acting as antioxidants.
Simple phenols are known as compounds containing at least one hydroxyl group attached to an aromatic ring which comprises the basic skeleton. The most important compounds under this class are: phenol, catechol, resorcinol, and phloroglucinol. Generally, phenols are widely distributed in plants and play very important roles in human health because of their ability to neutralize free radicals due to their hydroxyl groups. It is considered that these simple phenols along with other phenolic compounds can inhibit and prevent cancer diseases in humans (Figure 2) [63].
Natural phenolic antioxidants containing hydroxyl groups.
The study by Spiegel et al. [64] has shown that the most active of simple natural phenols as antioxidants were those containing more than one hydroxyl group in the
Mechanism of action of natural phenolic antioxidants by transfer of hydrogen free radical (H•).
Phenolic acids are also known as phenol carboxylic acids (Figure 4). There are two important groups of natural phenolic acids which are hydroxybenzoic acids and hydroxycinnamic acids. These are derived from benzoic and cinnamic acid, respectively. The molecular structural features of phenolic acids, such as the numbers and positions of the hydroxyl groups in relation to the carboxyl functional group, esterification, and glycosylation great impacts their antioxidant properties. Many studies [68, 69] have shown that the antioxidant activity of phenolic acids and their esters was enhanced substantially when the number of hydroxyl (-OH) and methoxy (-OCH3) groups increased. On the other hand, the carboxyl group has an electron withdrawing effect, making the H-atom less available to be donated. However, the antioxidant activity of hydroxylated cinnamates are greater than that of benzoates [70, 71, 72]. The antioxidant activities of different hydroxybenzoic acids such as 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, and 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid were shown to be dependent on the number and position of attached hydroxyl groups to the aromatic ring [73]. Based on bond dissociation energy of O-H group, the dihydroxybenzoic acid has greater antioxidant activity than monohydroxybenzoic acid. It was observed that the BDE for -OH at 3-position is greater than the BDE of -OH at 4-position, as a result the abstraction of H-atom from the 4-position becomes easier than abstraction from the 3-position. Thus, it can be concluded that in 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, the ability to abstract H-atom from the 4-position is easier than the 3-position. On the other hand, gallic acid (3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid) showed lower antioxidant activity than that of 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid. This phenomenon could be attributed to the formation of a weak intramolecular H-bond between the -OH at 4-position and -OH at 5-position [74]. The obtained theoretical BDE of the -OH groups in gallic acid were in the order 4-OH ≤ 5-OH ˂ 3-OH, which indicates that the removal of H-atom is easier from 4-OH and 5-OH. Both of these values in gallic acid become lower than that of 4-hydroxybenzoic acid. Thus, the introduction of two hydroxyl groups at 3-position and 5-position significantly increases the antioxidant activity [73].
Benzoic acid and the related hydroxybenzoic acids.
Similarly, the antioxidant activities of hydroxycinnamic acids (Figure 5) are related to their hydroxyl groups. The study of relationship between antioxidant activities and structures of hydroxycinnamic acids was carried out by Chen and Ho [74]. The BDE value of O-H group is a good indicator to evaluate the antioxidant activity of an antioxidant. Thus, the weaker the O-H bond, the greater the ability of an antioxidant to neutralize free radicals. In addition, phenolic molecules bearing two hydroxyl groups in
Cinnamic acid and hydroxycinnamic acids.
The flavonoids consist of a large group of low-molecular weight polyphenolic substances, benzo-γ-pyrone derivatives (Figure 5). The basic structural feature of all flavonoids is the flavane (2-phenyl-benzo-γ-pyran) nucleus, a system of two benzene rings (A and B) linked by an oxygen-containing pyran ring (C). According to the degree of oxidation of the C ring, the hydroxylation pattern of the nucleus, and the substituent at carbon 3, flavonoids can be categorized into the following subclasses: flavones, isoflavones, flavanols (catechins), flavonols, flavanones, anthocyanins, and proanthocyanidins. Flavonols differ from flavanones by a hydroxyl group at the C3 position and by a C2–C3 double bond. Anthocyanidins differ from the other flavonoids by possessing a charged oxygen atom in the C ring (Table 1).
Types of flavonoids.
Flavonoids are secondary metabolites and mainly distributed in the plant kingdom such as green and black tea, coffee, vegetables, fruits, olive oil, red wine, white wines, and chocolate [82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92]. They are consumed in milligrams per serving of these plant sources. Many researchers have shown that flavonoids possess different biological activities which include vasodilating, anti-allergenic, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory actions [93, 94, 95]. However, the antioxidant activity of these compounds attracted the most interest because, in addition to their ability to scavenge free radicals, they also reduce or prevent free radical formation.
The capability of antioxidant activities of flavonoids is mainly related to their chemical structures. Many previous investigations attributed the high antioxidant activities of these compounds to the presence and positions of hydroxyl groups attached to the A and B rings and/or to the C2 = C3 double bond in conjugation with the carbonyl group at 4-position, and the -OH group at 3-position [93, 94, 96]. On the other hand, the replacement of hydrogen atom by a saccharide at 3-position to form a glycosidic bond, the antioxidant activity decreases. The radical scavenging efficiency of flavonoids is related to their phenolic hydroxyl groups which follow the mechanism of H-atom transfer or the single electron transfer followed by sequential electron transfer-proton transfer (SETPT) [97, 98, 99, 100]. As in the case of phenolic acids, the antioxidant activity of flavonoids, is based on the value of the dissociation energy of the O-H bond [67, 97, 101]. The study by Quan et al. [102] showed that the dissociation energy of C-H at 3-position in some flavonoids appeared to be lower than that of the dissociation energy of O-H. As a result, the antioxidant activity might be due the donation of H-atom from C-H at 3-position. However, the mechanism of antioxidant activity via H-atom transfer from the -OH group appeared to be the most significant [102]. Generally, flavonoids as antioxidants may act by different mechanisms such as hydrogen atom transfer, single electron transfer, and transition metal chelation. These mechanisms are shown below in Figures 6–9. Figure 6 shows the proposed mechanism of radical scavenging activity of cyanidin by Nimse and Palb [103] following HAT mechanism.
Proposed mechanism of radical scavenging activity of cyanidin by Nimse and Palb [
Proposed mechanism of superoxide anion radical scavenging activity of quercetin by Nimse and Palb [
Proposed mechanism of single electron transfer by Leopoldini et al. [
Proposed metal–quercetin chelation by Leopoldinia et al. [
The flavonoid quercetin is found in many plants and foods and in notable quantities especially in onions, red wine, green tea, apples, berries, and others. The proposed mechanism of superoxide anion radical scavenging activity of quercetin by Nimse and Palb [103] is shown in Figure 7.
The proposed mechanism of single electron transfer by Leopoldini et al. [104] for single electron transfer (SET) and transition metal chelation (TMC) are shown in Figures 8 and 9.
Flavonoids with their multiple hydroxyl groups and the carbonyl group at the 4 position on ring C may offer several available sites for metal chelation. The ability of flavonoids to chelate Fe and Cu ions is related to their indirect antioxidant activities. This property of flavonoids is attributed to their multiple hydroxyl groups and the carbonyl group at 4-position [104].
The Stilbene family includes several compounds [105] among which resveratrol, pterostilbene, and piceatannol are the main representatives, characterized by a
Stilbene and its related polyphenolic derivatives.
Stilbene compounds are part of a group of natural polyphenols occurring in plant kingdom such as grapes [106], peanuts [107], and berries [108]. Resveratrol (3, 5, 4′-trihydroxy-trans-stilbene), which is found in grapes, showed different biological activities including antidiabetic, antiobesity, and neuroprotective properties against Alzheimer’s disease (AD) [109]. In addition, other stilbenes have shown additional activities as antimicrobials and antioxidants [110]. Different studies have shown that piceatannol (4′, 5′, 3, 5-tetrahydroxystilbene) expresses a wide spectrum of biological activities: anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, antiviral, antioxidative, neuroprotective and estrogenic properties, and antioxidant activities [111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117]. A study by Hussein [118] demonstrated the strong ability of resveratrol to scavenge free radicals using different tests. The mechanism of antioxidant activity of resveratrol was proposed to be as follows (Figure 11).
Proposed mechanism of resveratrol antioxidant activity [
Synthetic antioxidants are usually used as food preservatives to prevent lipid oxidation [119]. The well-known synthetic antioxidants are butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), and
Antioxidant action of
The progressively more sterically hindered BHT and the related BHA operated as radical terminators in a similar fashion to TBHQ (Figure 13).
Oxidation of BHT and BHA via donation of a hydrogen radical from a phenolic hydroxyl group.
Another type of radical quencher is shown in Figure 14 where the generated phenoxy radical is stabilized by intramolecular hydrogen bond.
Generation of a phenoxy radical with intramolecular hydrogen bond shown.
The presence of a bulky group introduces steric hindrance in proximity to the radical center, decreasing the rate of further propagation reactions. Another example which illustrates the increase in antioxidant activity is the presence of an extra hydroxyl group at the ortho or para position of the hydroxyl group of phenol. The stability of the phenoxy radical in this case is enhanced by the formation of an intramolecular hydrogen bond. Other studies [121, 122, 123] described the synthesis of different compounds like aromatic Schiff bases and aromatic hydrazones containing hydroxyl groups attached to different positions in the aromatic rings. These compounds were designed to mimic as much as possible natural phenolic compounds such as stilbene and chalcones. The number of hydroxyl groups and their locations in the aromatic rings play an important role in the antioxidant activity. The mechanism of antioxidant activity can be illustrated as follows and involves the donation of hydrogen radical (Figure 15).
Proposed mechanism for the action of aromatic hydrazones via H radical donation.
Oxidative stress is a phenomenon occurring in living systems and is related to the presence of free radicals (oxidants) and antioxidants (reductants). When we talk about free radicals in biological systems, we mean two types: reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS). Imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants (endogenous and exogenous) in biological systems creates a state know as oxidative stress. In this case, the present antioxidants cannot remove the ROS and RNS from living species. As a result, excess free radicals can negatively impact different biological processes, leading to the destruction of cell membrane, blocking pathways of major enzymes, stopping cell division, destruction of DNA, and halting energy production [124, 125, 126]. On the other hand, free radicals appear to be necessary for some processes in living organisms since they destroy bacteria by phagocytes (granulocytes and macrophages). In addition, ROS can be beneficial for the maintenance of homeostasis as well as other cellular functions [125, 127]. Again, it is important to remember that the primary free radicals are superoxide anion radicals O2. − and hydroxyl radical. OH which are derived from molecular oxygen (O2). High levels of these radicals may cause different biological problems which may lead to cancer, stroke (Reuter et al., 2010) [126], myocardial infarction, diabetes, and other significant conditions [128].
It is not easy to avoid the exposure of free radicals and consequently oxidative stress. However, the increase of consumption of natural antioxidants through diet may help to decrease the production of free radicals. In other words, to prevent oxidative stress, it is highly recommended to consume enough amounts of vegetables, fruits, medicinal plants, and honey to ensure sufficient supplementation of natural antioxidants [129, 130, 131, 132, 133].
To maintain normal health and avoid incurable diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancer diseases, diabetes, among other, it is necessary to protect the existing balance between free radicals and antioxidants in biological systems. Naturally the human body has means of internal defense to neutralize free radicals. These means of defense are represented by a group of biological molecules known as antioxidant enzymes. In addition, there are a number of small molecules such as urea, bilirubin, vitamin E, vitamin A, and others. These simple molecules play a positive role in eliminating free radicals. However, when the internal system fails to get rid of free radicals, a supply of external antioxidants, especially those from natural sources, is needed to remove excess free radicals. There are many antioxidants in nature especially those that contain hydroxyl groups such as phenolic compounds, such as phenolic acids (derivatives of hydroxybenzoic and hydroxy cinnamic acids), flavonoids, stilbenes, chalcones and others. These compounds are found in fruits, vegetables and medicinal herbs. There are some chemically prepared antioxidants in laboratories which use is almost limited to the food and pharmaceutical industries. However, there are many attempts to manufacture antioxidants that mimic those found in nature, especially those containing hydroxyl groups, in the hope of obtaining compounds at the lowest cost, safe to use, and in large quantities.
Dr. Ziad Moussa is grateful to the United Arab Emirates University (UAEU) of Al-Ain and to the Research Office for supporting the research developed in his laboratory (Grant no. G00003291/Fund no.31S401/Project #852).
Reject brine from desalination plants can have twice as high salinity as seawater [1] as well as high concentrations of other contaminants such as anti-fouling agents, anti-scalants, products of corrosion, etc., which can be harmful to benthic organisms. Thus, brine is usually discharged as a dense submerged jet which provides rapid mixing with ambient water. However, at locations that are characterized by shallow water depth and mild tidal currents, such as the north-western Arabian Gulf [2], diffusers with multiple jets are preferred as they can generate the required amount of mixing in smaller water depths.
Various options have been proposed for better management of reject brine from seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination plants [3, 4]. Processes such as pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) [3, 5] and reverse electrodialysis (RED) [6, 7] utilize the salinity difference between brine and treated wastewater effluent (TWE) to recover energy. On the other hand, processes such as electrodialysis (ED) [8] and ion-concentration polarization (ICP) [9] concentrate brine further to increase freshwater recovery [4] or lead to a zero discharge scenario. These options for brine management (pre-dilution with TWE or concentration) affect the discharge concentrations of contaminants present in brine, and can affect the design of outfall used to discharge brine.
Coastal desalination plants are often co-located with power plants which provide them with low-grade heat, used in the distillation of seawater (for multistage flash desalination plants) [10], or electricity (for reverse osmosis plants). Brine is often blended with condenser cooling water (CW) from the power plant before being discharged. TWE can also be used for pre-dilution (mixing with brine before discharge) if a treatment plant is nearby. Pre-dilution helps in reducing concentrations of salt and other contaminants present in brine as well as contaminants in the pre-diluting stream (e.g., condenser cooling water or treated wastewater effluent). It also results in increased discharge flow rate (due to blending of the two streams) and reduced discharge salinity which, in turn, reduces the density of the blended effluent. This leads to progression towards shallow or vertically mixed conditions [11].
If treated wastewater effluent from a treatment plant or condenser cooling water from a coastal power plant are not utilized for pre-dilution, they are usually discharged separately and need an outfall. Thus, in addition to the reduction in discharge concentrations of contaminants, pre-dilution also leads to a reduction in total outfall cost by eliminating the need for two separate outfalls which would cost more than one outfall for the blended stream. Thus, blending of brine with cooling water or wastewater is often recommended [12].
While concentration of brine prior to discharge using submerged outfalls (which result in dilution) is not environmentally desirable in its own right, brine can be concentrated to increase freshwater recovery or harvest salts. In order to increase freshwater recovery, brine can be desalinated in two steps involving ICP and reverse osmosis (RO) [4]. ICP is used to separate brine into two streams: 1) a lighter stream with salinity of about 35 ppt, which is then desalinated using RO; and 2) a concentrated brine stream, which is either used to harvest salts or discharged using an outfall. The concentrations of contaminants present in brine increase due to concentration. Due to the high concentrations of contaminants in concentrated brine, the near-field mixing required to dilute contaminants to desirable levels is also high.
From an environmental standpoint, one is interested in reducing concentrations of contaminants in receiving water beyond a certain mixing zone. Environmental regulations usually specify the size of a mixing zone and require outfall designs that ensure that contaminant concentrations at the edge of the mixing zone are lower than specified threshold concentrations. To dilute a contaminant to a desired concentration, the outfall needs a certain water depth. At a location with offshore sloping bottom, this means going offshore to a certain distance which has an associated capital cost. Also, the cost for pumping the effluent constitutes an operating cost. The design parameters can be optimized to achieve the right balance of these two costs and design an outfall which provides desired dilutions at the end of the mixing zone with minimum cost.
We look at the effects of four brine management strategies – pre-dilution with seawater, power plant cooling water, treated wastewater effluent and pre-concentration on the design of submerged single and multiport outfalls. Outfall design variables (discharge velocity, number of ports, receiving water depth, etc.) are optimized for four different designs such that contaminants can be diluted to satisfy environmental objectives. Effect of brine management strategies on outfall cost is investigated and discussed using examples. Recommendations regarding the cost-effectiveness of different brine management options are presented.
High velocity submerged jets are often used for the discharge of brine from desalination plants as they induce rapid mixing with ambient water and lead to reduction of contaminant concentrations. Inclined jets located near the sea floor are commonly used to discharge dense effluents as they increase the jet trajectory (and, in turn, dilution). Such jets rise to a maximum (terminal rise) height equal to
The receiving water is considered “deep” if its depth is sufficiently large and the dense effluent does not interact with the surface. “Shallow” conditions occur if the effluent interacts with the surface but it forms a bottom layer in the vicinity of the discharge. If the depth is small enough, the effluent can be mixed over the entire water column for large distances. Such a situation is categorized as being “vertically mixed”. Increase in the value of
In deep water, the impact point dilution, which is the minimum dilution along the seafloor, of an inclined submerged jet is proportional to
A unidirectional (or tee) diffuser is an outfall which consists of an array of submerged jets (number of jets
In deep water (
In shallow water (
In vertically mixed conditions (
For a unidirectional diffuser discharging in quiescent shallow or vertically mixed conditions, proximity to shoreline can result in a reduction in dilution [21]. However, the reduction in dilution is less than 15% if the separation between the diffuser and the shoreline (in constant water depth) is more than 60% of the diffuser length. At a location with uniformly sloping bottom, this is roughly equivalent to an offshore distance equal to 1.2 times the diffuser length [21]. In the presence of moderate to high crossflow, Shrivastava and Adams [22] observed no significant reduction in dilution if the separation between the diffuser and the shoreline is at least 15% of the diffuser length for a diffuser discharging in uniform water depth. This corresponds to a shoreline separation of 30% or more of the diffuser length at a location with uniformly sloping bottom.
Several studies have examined outfall optimization for brine disposal. Jiang and Law [23] provided semi-analytical solutions for the combination of port diameter (
Maalouf et al. [24] provided a simulation-optimization framework to optimize SWRO outfall design. They used a regression model, calibrated using results from an initial mixing model (CORMIX), to quantify the effects of various parameters on dilution. Using this regression model for dilution, they optimized the design variables to minimize the total cost. The total cost was assumed to be a linear function of outfall pipe length (
The above studies only considered linear cost functions and have not been compared to cost functions in the real world.
Recently proposed brine management options [3, 4] include pre-dilution with a lighter effluent and pre-concentration, and can cause significant changes to contaminant concentrations and, in turn, the required dilution. Contaminants of concern for the discharge of pre-diluted brine can be categorized into three categories [26]. First, there are contaminants similar to salt which are present in ambient water but get concentrated due to the desalination process. Thus, the discharge concentrations are higher than ambient concentrations and these contaminants need to be diluted. Examples include salts and metals. Second, there are contaminants that are introduced by the desalination process, such as anti-scalants and cleaning chemicals [27]. Third, there are contaminants that are present in the pre-dilution stream. Examples include biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), nutrients etc. present in TWE and excess temperature from CW. While some of the contaminants of concern degrade with time (e.g., ammonia), most of them are conservative and require mixing with ambient water to reduce their concentrations below harmful levels.
For the case of pre-dilution, reject brine from a typical reverse osmosis (RO) plant (having double the salinity as ambient seawater and with flow rate
Reject Brine | TWE | CW | SW | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Salinity | ||||
Temperature | ||||
Reduced gravity |
Properties of brine and various pre-dilution streams.
Pre-dilution with TWE leads to a rapid reduction in discharge salinity as the salinity deficit of TWE (with respect to ambient water) cancels out some of the salinity excess of brine. Similarly, the reduced gravity of the effluent when brine is blended with TWE decreases rapidly. On the other hand, SW and CW do not have any salinity excess or deficit (with respect to ambient water), and thus the reduction in discharge salinity (and, in turn, reduced gravity) is less than that for the case of pre-dilution with TWE. As CW is positively buoyant with respect to ambient water, the decrease in
For the case of pre-concentration, it is assumed that brine (with initial flow rate
Since the salinity of brine is double the salinity of seawater and the salinity of TWE is assumed to be zero, the blended effluent has the same salinity as ambient seawater when the flows (of brine and TWE) are blended in a 1:1 ratio (
Optimization of the design of outfalls discharging pre-diluted or pre-concentrated brine is considered here such that regulatory requirements on contaminant concentrations can be met at the end of the mixing zone with minimum cost. The end of the mixing zone is assumed to be at the impact point of the jets. Thus, the expressions for impact point dilution of a single port outfall and a multiport (unidirectional) diffuser can be used to calculate the “physical” dilution induced by the outfall.
The location of an outfall depends on many factors, such as the availability of deep water, absence of natural submerged sills, spits, and manmade jetties, and knowledge of the offshore bathymetry; hydrodynamic modeling is often utilized to test a proposed design before it is adopted. In addition, detailed analysis of the forces exerted on the outfall due to oceanographic conditions is also carried out to ensure its stability. These factors are site-specific and beyond the scope of this chapter. Here, we are considering generic outfall designs and calculating values of design variables, such as receiving water depth, discharge velocity, number of ports, etc., that result in minimum cost. For this calculation, the outfall is considered to be located at a place with uniformly sloping bottom in the offshore direction.
Optimization of outfall design requires identification of outfall cost, desired dilution and design alternatives, which are discussed below.
One of the major components of outfall cost is the cost of the conveyance system to carry brine to the offshore discharge location. Depending on the oceanographic conditions and the discharge location, this can be done by running a pipe through a tunnel or a trench, or laying a pipe on the seabed secured using ballast weights [28]. Here, we have assumed that high density polyethylene (HDPE) pipes are used.
The capital cost is considered to be composed of four major components. The first is the cost of laying the HDPE pipe to the required offshore distance. The cost per unit length of HDPE pipes was found to be proportional to the pipe diameter (
The most common way to secure HDPE pipes to the sea bed is to attach concrete ballast weights [28]. The cost of concrete weights per unit length of the pipe was found to increase with pipe diameter [29] and a linear fit was used. Thus, the total cost of anchor blocks was proportional to the product of pipe diameter and length. Combining the cost of the HDPE pipe and the concrete anchor blocks, the cost of laying the outfall pipe is:
At a location with uniformly sloping bottom (with slope
Correlation between outfall pipe diameter and flow rate.
The cost of the outfall pipe is then given by:
where
The second component is the cost of the diffuser manifold. Assuming that the diffuser manifold has the same diameter as the outfall pipe (
This component of cost is only considered for a multiport diffuser, i.e.,
The third component is the cost of nozzles. A linear fit to the cost per nozzle data, reported in [29, 30], was used to estimate the total cost of nozzles as:
The fourth component is the cost of pumps required to pump the effluent to the offshore location of the outfall. The cost of pumps increases with the flow rate and the total head loss in the outfall. Based on the cost of pumps for pumping product water reported by [29], this cost was found to be proportional to the product of effluent density, flow rate and total head loss (
The first three cost components (
The total cost of the outfall also includes an operating cost which mainly consists of the cost of electricity for pumping the effluent, and operation and maintenance cost. It is assumed that the available pressure and elevation head before discharge are negligible and thus pumping is required to discharge the effluent with high velocity. The pumping cost is proportional to the product of effluent density, flow rate and total head loss. Thus, the pumping cost over the life of the plant is:
where
Malcolm Pirnie [29] reported values of operation and maintenance cost for different scenarios which suggest that it is independent of design variables. Therefore, a constant value was used for the operation and maintenance cost.
Table 2 provides a summary of the cost functions and typical values of cost coefficients (for costs in USD, as per May 2016 ENR index).
Costs | Expression | Cost coefficients |
---|---|---|
Cost of outfall pipe | ||
Cost of diffuser manifold | ||
Cost of nozzles | ||
Cost of pumps | ||
Pumping costa,b | ||
Operation and maintenance costb |
Break-down of total outfall cost.
Assuming cost of electricity = 0.10 USD/kWh.
Assuming discount rate of 10% and plant lifetime of 20 years.
An estimation of head loss is required to calculate the total cost. Head loss is estimated by considering the components listed in Table 3. Here,
Component | Description | Expression | Coefficient value |
---|---|---|---|
Conveyance to offshore location of the outfall | Friction loss in a pipe of length | ||
A T-junctiona | |||
Diffuser manifold | Friction loss in a pipe of length | ||
Entry lossa | Loss incurred while entry into the riserc | ||
Sudden contractionb | Contraction from pipe diameter to nozzle diameter | ||
A | For the nozzles pointing at | ||
Exit loss |
Components of total head loss.
Only for the design with a unidirectional diffuser.
Only for a single port design.
Assuming riser diameter equal to the nozzle diameter.
From Davis [33].
Assumed to vary linearly with the ratio of cross-sectional areas of the two pipes from 0.45 to 0.16 for area ratio (ratio of smaller cross-sectional area to larger cross-sectional area) from 0.04 to 0.64.
Environmental regulations usually specify threshold concentrations for various contaminants. These are maximum acceptable concentrations in the water body that are considered to be safe for aquatic organisms. Thus, outfalls are required to reduce contaminant concentrations to threshold levels within a regulatory mixing zone. Here, the impact point of the jets is assumed to be the end of the mixing zone.
Threshold concentrations can be different at different locations as they are based on the toxicological adaptability of the marine species thriving in that location. Also, regulatory requirements vary from country to country, with international guidelines also referring to local regulations [34, 35]. In addition, source stream concentrations vary depending on the quality of feed water, desalination process etc., resulting in a range of values of the desired dilution. For simplicity, salinity is assumed to be the most constraining contaminant. The threshold concentration of salt is assumed to be 2 ppt in excess of ambient salinity [36] and outfall designs which dilute salinity to an excess of 2 ppt at impact point are discussed.
Effective dilution for a contaminant is defined as the ratio of its excess concentration in the source stream (e.g., brine for salinity) to its excess concentration at a given location. Thus, if the excess salinity of the diluted effluent at the impact point is equal to 4 ppt (in excess of ambient salinity), then the effective dilution of salinity at impact point is equal to
Unlike the desired effective dilution, the desired physical dilution at the impact point also depends on the amount of pre-dilution or pre-concentration (the value of
Brine can be discharged through an outfall in two ways – the discharge can be such that the plume stays below the water surface or it can be allowed to hit the surface. The former design would be implemented if the regulations require the plume to not be visible at the surface. However, the latter design usually costs less and should be preferred when there are no restrictions on plume visibility.
For a jet inclined at
These design parameters do not minimize the total cost as they require a large capital cost. Specifically, in locations with very small bottom slope, such as the Arabian Gulf [2], the capital cost can be several orders of magnitude larger than the pumping cost and the total cost can be very high. To reduce the capital cost, it is beneficial to achieve the desired dilution with smaller ambient depth by reducing the port diameter or to employ a multi-port diffuser. Using a single, smaller diameter port will result in an increase in discharge velocity, and thus the pumping cost. The optimum design will be the one that minimizes the total cost (capital cost + pumping cost). The design variables for this design are denoted using the subscript ‘sh’, for shallow. Similarly, for a multiport diffuser, optimum design variables can be computed for the two designs, one with the diffuser plume submerged and the other with surfacing plume. A schematic of the four designs is shown in Figure 2.
Schematic showing the plan view (top) and elevation view (bottom) of the four designs considered.
The optimum values of water depth, diameter and discharge velocity needed to dilute a contaminant with excess concentration of
Figure 3 shows the variation of
Variation of
When brine is pre-diluted, the desired physical dilution reduces with an increase in
This section explores the optimum design with no restriction on plume visibility, i.e., the design which minimizes total cost without any constraint. For most cases, this design results in a plume which hits the surface. But for some cases, the design with a submerged plume is also the one which minimizes the total cost and should be adopted. This design optimization results in non-linear equations which are solved using the ‘fsolve’ function in MATLAB.
Figure 4 shows the variation of
Variation of
The design optimization for a unidirectional diffuser also results in non-linear equations which are solved using the ‘fsolve’ function in MATLAB. Optimum design variables are calculated which achieve desired dilution and minimize total cost. However, in some cases the optimized design variables need to be adjusted. For example, to ensure uniform flow through all the ports, the aggregate cross-sectional area of the nozzles should be less than two-thirds of the cross-sectional area of the diffuser manifold [31]. Since the manifold diameter is assumed to be related to the discharge flow rate (Eq. (6)), this requires the discharge velocity to be at least equal to
For certain cases, the design with a single port is the one which minimizes cost, i.e., any design with multiple ports will have higher total cost than the design with one port. This is observed for cases which require a submerged plume and for which the desired physical dilution is small. The optimum discharge velocity (not adjusted for uniform flow) for such cases is small and adjustment for uniform flow results in a design with total cost higher than the cost of the single jet design. For these cases, the single port design is accepted as the optimum design.
Once the optimum design variables are calculated (which satisfy all constraints),
Figure 5 shows the variation of
Variation of
An optimum design with multiple ports (which has lower cost than a single port design) can be found for all cases when the effluent plume is allowed to hit the surface. Figure 6 shows the variation of
Variation of
For the multiport diffuser designs calculated here, the ratio of offshore distance of the diffuser (
Figure 7 shows the comparison of total costs for the four designs (single jet and unidirectional diffuser with submerged and surfacing plume) with
Total costs of the four design alternatives to achieve desired excess salinity of 2 ppt at the impact point with
Figure 7 shows that for most of the pre-dilution cases, the design with a single jet is the optimum design when the regulations require the plume to be submerged. Thus, for these cases, the ‘
For the discharge of brine without pre-dilution or pre-concentration, the total costs (in million USD) of the four designs are
When brine is concentrated, the desired physical dilution increases rapidly with increase in
Design | Capital cost (million USD) | Operating cost (million USD) | Total cost (million USD) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Single jet with submerged plume | 1 | 11.9 | 17.7 | 3.6 | 2.6 | 6.2 |
Unidirectional diffuser with submerged plume | 39 | 2.7 | 8.5 | 1.4 | 1.7 | 3.1 |
Example showing calculated design variables for the discharge of concentrated brine (
Pre-concentration of brine increases the concentrations of contaminants present in brine. Thus, the total cost of discharging concentrated brine increases with
The costs in Figure 7 are calculated for salinity as the contaminant of concern. However, the relative importance of different types of contaminants (present in brine, TWE or CW) depends on the blending ratio (for pre-dilution with TWE and CW). At low blending ratio, the contaminants present in brine require higher dilution and are likely to be the constraining contaminants whereas contaminants present in TWE or CW require higher dilution at high blending ratio. Thus, the designs and the associated costs calculated above need to be adjusted at high blending ratio.
Since the outfall design depends on desired physical dilution, which in turn, depends on the threshold concentrations, it is important to analyze the effect of threshold concentrations on the optimum design. This is illustrated through an example in Figure 8 in which the threshold concentration of salinity (
Variation of
The required depths and total costs (for designs with submerged and surfacing plume) decrease with increase in threshold concentrations (for discharge through a single jet) because the additional mixing required to achieve those concentrations is less. For a design with multiple ports which requires the plume to be submerged and has the discharge velocity fixed to ensure uniform flow, the required depth is proportional to the inverse of desired dilution, i.e., the depth is proportional to
The optimum design at a location with a mild bottom slope, such as the Arabian Gulf which has bottom slopes as little as about
Comparison of total costs at locations with
A comparison of optimum design variables at locations with different bottom slopes is shown in Table 5 for discharge of brine without pre-dilution or pre-concentration. For this example, two bottom slopes (
Design | Variables | ||
---|---|---|---|
Single jet with submerged plume | 10.1 | 10.1 | |
5.4 | 5.4 | ||
TC (Million USD) | 5.2 | 35.9 | |
Single jet with surfacing plume | 8.2 | 5.2 | |
8.3 | 20.8 | ||
TC (Million USD) | 4.9 | 23.3 | |
Unidirectional diffuser with submerged plume | 2.8 | 1.4 | |
2.8 | 2.0 | ||
26 | 150 | ||
TC (Million USD) | 3.1 | 8.2 | |
Unidirectional diffuser with surfacing plume | 2.2 | 0.8 | |
4.8 | 8.2 | ||
29 | 174 | ||
TC (Million USD) | 3.0 | 6.4 |
Example showing calculated design variables for discharge of brine (without pre-dilution or pre-concentration) at two locations with
For the unidirectional diffuser designs in Table 5, the required water depths are 1.4 m and 0.8 m (for
As shown in Figure 7, the cost of discharging brine blended with TWE is less than the cost of discharging brine without pre-dilution for
Unlike TWE and CW, SW does not need a separate outfall. In fact, intake of seawater for pre-dilution adds an extra cost. Also, as shown in Figure 7, the total cost increases with increase in
For the calculations in this paper, a wide range of
Brine management strategies cause changes to the discharge flow rate, discharge concentrations of contaminants and the density difference between the effluent and seawater, and thus require changes to the outfall design. It is shown that pre-dilution with seawater is less economical than the discharge of brine without any pre-dilution. Thus, seawater should only be used for pre-dilution if there are restrictions on discharge concentrations of contaminants and other effluents (TWE or CW) are not available for pre-dilution. Concentration of brine is also not viable from an environmental standpoint. On the other hand, pre-dilution with TWE or CW is likely to be economically beneficial.
For the design of a new outfall for a desalination plant with known amount of pre-dilution or pre-concentration, design variables are calculated for both a single port and a multiport outfall. Depending on the environmental regulations which might have restrictions on plume visibility, design parameters are evaluated for a submerged plume or a surfacing plume. It is shown that when the plume is allowed to hit the water surface (no restrictions on plume visibility), the required water depth and total cost of the outfall can be significantly reduced. For such cases, the required water depth and the offshore distance decrease as the blending ratio increases. At locations which require the plume to be submerged, the design with a single jet is found to have lower cost than a design with multiple ports (for most values of the blending ratio). However, for locations with no restrictions on plume visibility, use of a multiport diffuser is recommended as it can result in much lower cost than a single jet.
The effect of bottom slope and threshold concentrations on outfall design is also explored. Locations with mild bottom slope encourage the use of outfalls with multiple ports which can reduce the required water depth and, in turn, the offshore distance of the outfall from the shoreline. An increase in threshold concentrations usually leads to a reduction in outfall cost as the outfall needs to achieve a smaller dilution. Similarly, more stringent regulations (smaller threshold concentrations) can lead to a rapid increase in outfall cost.
This work was supported by Kuwait-MIT Center for Natural Resources and the Environment (CNRE), which was funded by Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Sciences (KFAS).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Cabanelas"}]},{id:"53973",doi:"10.5772/66927",title:"Phenolic Compounds in Water: Sources, Reactivity, Toxicity and Treatment Methods",slug:"phenolic-compounds-in-water-sources-reactivity-toxicity-and-treatment-methods",totalDownloads:7311,totalCrossrefCites:77,totalDimensionsCites:166,abstract:"Phenolic compounds exist in water bodies due to the discharge of polluted wastewater from industrial, agricultural and domestic activities into water bodies. They also occur as a result of natural phenomena. These compounds are known to be toxic and inflict both severe and long‐lasting effects on both humans and animals. They act as carcinogens and cause damage to the red blood cells and the liver, even at low concentrations. Interaction of these compounds with microorganisms, inorganic and other organic compounds in water can produce substituted compounds or other moieties, which may be as toxic as the original phenolic compounds. This chapter dwells on the sources and reactivity of phenolic compounds in water, their toxic effects on humans, and methods of their removal from water. Specific emphasis is placed on the techniques of their removal from water with attention on both conventional and advanced methods. Among these methods are ozonation, adsorption, extraction, photocatalytic degradation, biological, electro‐Fenton, adsorption and ion exchange and membrane‐based separation.",book:{id:"6029",slug:"phenolic-compounds-natural-sources-importance-and-applications",title:"Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Natural Sources, Importance and Applications"},signatures:"William W. Anku, Messai A. Mamo and Penny P. Govender",authors:[{id:"195237",title:"Dr.",name:"Messai",middleName:"A.",surname:"Mamo",slug:"messai-mamo",fullName:"Messai Mamo"},{id:"196465",title:"Dr.",name:"William Wilson",middleName:null,surname:"Anku",slug:"william-wilson-anku",fullName:"William Wilson Anku"},{id:"196466",title:"Dr.",name:"Penny",middleName:null,surname:"Govender",slug:"penny-govender",fullName:"Penny Govender"}]},{id:"36184",doi:"10.5772/36186",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy in the Analysis of Building and Construction Materials",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-cementitious-materials",totalDownloads:7810,totalCrossrefCites:77,totalDimensionsCites:157,abstract:null,book:{id:"1591",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Infrared Spectroscopy - Materials Science, Engineering and Technology"},signatures:"Lucia Fernández-Carrasco, D. Torrens-Martín, L.M. Morales and Sagrario Martínez-Ramírez",authors:[{id:"107401",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia J",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",slug:"lucia-j-fernandez",fullName:"Lucia J Fernández"}]},{id:"53128",doi:"10.5772/66368",title:"Phenolic Compounds: Functional Properties, Impact of Processing and Bioavailability",slug:"phenolic-compounds-functional-properties-impact-of-processing-and-bioavailability",totalDownloads:9381,totalCrossrefCites:77,totalDimensionsCites:148,abstract:"In this chapter, we discuss the influence of the processing methods on the content of phenolic compounds in fruits and vegetables. The intake of fruits and vegetables based‐foods are associated with delayed aging and a decreased risk of chronic disease development. Fruits and vegetables can be consumed in natura, but the highest amounts are ingested after some processing methods, such as cooking procedures or sanitizing methods. These methods are directly methods are directly related to alteration on the phenolic content. In addition, the postharvest conditions may modify several phytochemical substances. Phenolic compounds are referred to as phytochemicals found in a large number of foods and beverages. The relative high diversity of these molecules produced by plants must be taken into account when methods of preparation are employed to obtain industrial or homemade products. Phenolic compounds comprise one (phenolic acids) or more (polyphenols) aromatic rings with attached hydroxyl groups in their structures. Their antioxidant capacities are related to these hydroxyl groups and phenolic rings. Despite the antioxidant activity, they have many other beneficial effects on human health. However, before attributing health benefits to these compounds, absorption, distribution, and metabolism of each phenolic compound in the body are important points that should be considered.",book:{id:"5609",slug:"phenolic-compounds-biological-activity",title:"Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Biological Activity"},signatures:"Igor Otavio Minatel, Cristine Vanz Borges, Maria Izabela Ferreira,\nHector Alonzo Gomez Gomez, Chung-Yen Oliver Chen and\nGiuseppina Pace Pereira Lima",authors:[{id:"146379",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppina",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",slug:"giuseppina-lima",fullName:"Giuseppina Lima"},{id:"194002",title:"MSc.",name:"Cristine",middleName:null,surname:"Vanz Borges",slug:"cristine-vanz-borges",fullName:"Cristine Vanz Borges"},{id:"194003",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor Otavio",middleName:null,surname:"Minatel",slug:"igor-otavio-minatel",fullName:"Igor Otavio Minatel"},{id:"194004",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"maria-izabela-ferreira",fullName:"Maria Izabela Ferreira"},{id:"194005",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Gomez",slug:"hector-gomez-gomez",fullName:"Hector Gomez-Gomez"},{id:"194006",title:"Prof.",name:"Chung-Yen Oliver",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chung-yen-oliver-chen",fullName:"Chung-Yen Oliver Chen"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55500",title:"Interpretation of Mass Spectra",slug:"interpretation-of-mass-spectra",totalDownloads:12503,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"The chapter includes an introduction to the main ionisation techniques in mass spectrometry and the way the resulting fragments can be analysed. First, the fundamental notions of mass spectrometry are explained, so that the reader can easily cover this chapter (graphs, main pick, molecular ion, illogical pick, nitrogen rule, etc.). Isotopic percentage and nominal mass calculation are also explained along with fragmentation mechanism. A paragraph emphasises the ionisation energy issues, the basics of ionisation voltage, the developing potential and the energy balance. A frame time of the main theoretical milestones in both theory and experimental mass spectrometry is highlighted here. In the second part of the chapter, the molecular fragmentation for alkanes, iso-alkanes, cycloalkanes, halogen, alcohols, phenols, ethers, carbonyl compounds, carboxylic acids and functional derivatives, nitrogen compounds (amines, nitro compounds), sulphur compounds, heterocycles and biomolecules (amino acids, steroids, triglycerides) is explained. Fragmentation schemes are followed by the simplified spectra, which help the understanding of such complex phenomena. At the end of the chapter, acquisition of mass spectrum is discussed. The chapter presented here is an introduction to mass spectrometry, which, we think, helps the understanding of the mechanism of fragmentation corroborating spectral data and molecular structures.",book:{id:"5735",slug:"mass-spectrometry",title:"Mass Spectrometry",fullTitle:"Mass Spectrometry"},signatures:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu",authors:[{id:"196775",title:"Dr.",name:"Teodor Octavian",middleName:"Octavian",surname:"Nicolescu",slug:"teodor-octavian-nicolescu",fullName:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu"}]},{id:"57909",title:"Validation of Analytical Methods",slug:"validation-of-analytical-methods",totalDownloads:6989,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Method validation is a key element in the establishment of reference methods and within the assessment of a laboratory’s competence in generating dependable analytical records. Validation has been placed within the context of the procedure, generating chemical data. Analytical method validation, thinking about the maximum relevant processes for checking the best parameters of analytical methods, using numerous relevant overall performance indicators inclusive of selectivity, specificity, accuracy, precision, linearity, range, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), ruggedness, and robustness are severely discussed in an effort to prevent their misguided utilization and ensure scientific correctness and consistency among publications.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Tentu Nageswara Rao",authors:[{id:"220824",title:"Dr.",name:"Tentu",middleName:null,surname:"Nageswara Rao",slug:"tentu-nageswara-rao",fullName:"Tentu Nageswara Rao"}]},{id:"55440",title:"Solubility Products and Solubility Concepts",slug:"solubility-products-and-solubility-concepts",totalDownloads:3090,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The chapter refers to a general concept of solubility product Ksp of sparingly soluble hydroxides and different salts and calculation of solubility of some hydroxides, oxides, and different salts in aqueous media. A (criticized) conventional approach, based on stoichiometry of a reaction notation and the solubility product of a precipitate, is compared with the unconventional/correct approach based on charge and concentration balances and a detailed physicochemical knowledge on the system considered, and calculations realized according to generalized approach to electrolytic systems (GATES) principles. An indisputable advantage of the latter approach is proved in simulation of static or dynamic, two-phase nonredox or redox systems.",book:{id:"5891",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",fullTitle:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds"},signatures:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk, Aneta Spórna-Kucab and\nTadeusz Michałowski",authors:[{id:"35273",title:"Prof.",name:"Tadeusz",middleName:null,surname:"Michalowski",slug:"tadeusz-michalowski",fullName:"Tadeusz Michalowski"},{id:"203867",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk",slug:"anna-maria-michalowska-kaczmarczyk",fullName:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk"},{id:"203868",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneta",middleName:null,surname:"Spórna-Kucab",slug:"aneta-sporna-kucab",fullName:"Aneta Spórna-Kucab"}]},{id:"62736",title:"Radioisotope: Applications, Effects, and Occupational Protection",slug:"radioisotope-applications-effects-and-occupational-protection",totalDownloads:4543,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"This chapter presents a brief introduction to radioisotopes, sources and types of radiation, applications, effects, and occupational protection. The natural and artificial sources of radiations are discussed with special reference to natural radioactive decay series and artificial radioisotopes. Applications have played significant role in improving the quality of human life. The application of radioisotopes in tracing, radiography, food preservation and sterilization, eradication of insects and pests, medical diagnosis and therapy, and new variety of crops in agricultural field is briefly described. Radiation interacts with matter to produce excitation and ionization of an atom or molecule; as a result physical and biological effects are produced. These effects and mechanisms are discussed. The dosimetric quantities used in radiological protection are described. Radiological protections and the control of occupational and medical exposures are briefly described.",book:{id:"5903",slug:"principles-and-applications-in-nuclear-engineering-radiation-effects-thermal-hydraulics-radionuclide-migration-in-the-environment",title:"Principles and Applications in Nuclear Engineering",fullTitle:"Principles and Applications in Nuclear Engineering - Radiation Effects, Thermal Hydraulics, Radionuclide Migration in the Environment"},signatures:"Sannappa Jadiyappa",authors:[{id:"239626",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Sannappa J.",slug:"sannappa-j.",fullName:"Sannappa J."}]},{id:"58596",title:"Linearity of Calibration Curves for Analytical Methods: A Review of Criteria for Assessment of Method Reliability",slug:"linearity-of-calibration-curves-for-analytical-methods-a-review-of-criteria-for-assessment-of-method",totalDownloads:8095,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:44,abstract:"Calibration curve is a regression model used to predict the unknown concentrations of analytes of interest based on the response of the instrument to the known standards. Some statistical analyses are required to choose the best model fitting to the experimental data and also evaluate the linearity and homoscedasticity of the calibration curve. Using an internal standard corrects for the loss of analyte during sample preparation and analysis provided that it is selected appropriately. After the best regression model is selected, the analytical method needs to be validated using quality control (QC) samples prepared and stored in the same temperature as intended for the study samples. Most of the international guidelines require that the parameters, including linearity, specificity, selectivity, accuracy, precision, lower limit of quantification (LLOQ), matrix effect and stability, be assessed during validation. Despite the highly regulated area, some challenges still exist regarding the validation of some analytical methods including methods when no analyte-free matrix is available.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi and Sussan Ghassabian",authors:[{id:"216099",title:"Dr.",name:"Sussan",middleName:null,surname:"Ghassabian",slug:"sussan-ghassabian",fullName:"Sussan Ghassabian"},{id:"216101",title:"Mr.",name:"Seyed Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Moosavi",slug:"seyed-mojtaba-moosavi",fullName:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"8",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83005",title:"Catalytic Behavior of Extended π-Conjugation in the Kinetics of Sensitizer-Mediator Interaction",slug:"catalytic-behavior-of-extended-conjugation-in-the-kinetics-of-sensitizer-mediator-interaction",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106511",abstract:"This chapter discusses the catalytic effect of extended π-conjugation on the electron transfer process between ferricyphen-ferrocyanide and ferricypyr-ferrocyanide in an aqueous medium. Ferricyphen and ferricypyr may be feasible options for the sensitizer in dye-sensitized solar cells due to their high reduction potential, stability, capability as an outer-sphere oxidant, and photosensitivity. Meanwhile, ferrocyanide could be used as a mediator in DSSCs instead of iodide to avoid iodate production and achieve a similar reduction potential and stability. This chapter compared the ability of competent putative sensitizers to oxidize the likely mediator in water. In contrast to the 2,2′-dipyridyl chelate, the extended π-conjugation in 1,10-phenanthroline accelerated the redox process by increasing the electron affinity of ferricyphen as compared to ferricypyr. The reactions had the same kinetics but different rate constants, indicating that the ferricyphen-ferrocyanide reaction was several times faster than the ferricypyr-ferrocyanide reaction, revealing and confirming the catalytic influence of extended π-conjugation on the redox process.",book:{id:"11217",title:"Recent Advances in Chemical Kinetics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11217.jpg"},signatures:"Rozina Khattak"},{id:"83004",title:"Pyridine Heterocycles in the Therapy of Oncological Diseases",slug:"pyridine-heterocycles-in-the-therapy-of-oncological-diseases",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106406",abstract:"Oncological diseases pose a major challenge for modern medicine. Heterocyclic compounds play a vital role in modern medical and pharmaceutical science as most medicinal substances incorporate them. Nitrogen-containing heterocycles serve as the basis of numerous drugs and, therefore, are deeply involved in the design and synthesis of promising new therapeutic agents. Pyridine or pyrimidine scaffolds, with a number of substituents attached, comprise a large portion of FDA-approved drugs. They are chemically stable in the human body, manifest an affinity for DNA via hydrogen bonding, and present an opportunity for the development of novel anticancer agents. A large number of pyridine-based molecules are synthesized and tested for anticancer activity each year. The present chapter aims to introduce the most current synthetic approaches, published in scientific literature, and would also elaborate on structure-activity relationships described therein.",book:{id:"11562",title:"Chemistry with Pyridine Derivatives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11562.jpg"},signatures:"Lozan T. Todorov and Irena P. Kostova"},{id:"82969",title:"Utilizing Photocatalysts in Reducing Moisture Absorption in Composites of Natural Fibers",slug:"utilizing-photocatalysts-in-reducing-moisture-absorption-in-composites-of-natural-fibers",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106543",abstract:"Due to growing environmental consciousness and the depletion of oil supplies, numerous efforts have been made to replace synthetic fibers in fiber-reinforced composites with natural fibers (NFr). The low cost and abundance of NFr and its biodegradability and low density have encouraged researchers worldwide to study their potential applications in several industrial sectors. However, NFr has several disadvantages: excessive moisture absorption and subsequent swelling and degradation, low chemical and fire resistance, and insufficient interfacial interactions with polymers. Consequently, there is great interest in modifying the surface of NFr using a variety of methods. This chapter presents an overview of the NFr, its characterization, the problems associated with adding NFr to polymer composites. This literature survey suggests an in-depth review of photocatalysis by utilizing photocatalysts nanoparticle (PHNPs) aimed at increasing the hydrophobicity and interfacial bonding between the NFr and the matrix Using a photo-induced oxidation mechanism to disassemble water molecules, pollutants, and bacteria in a wet environment. Additionally, we reviewed the effects of these PHNPs on the moisture absorption, mechanical characteristics, and dimensional stability of NFr composites. As a result, this review article may make a valuable contribution to researchers interested in coating and treating NFr to further enhance their surface characteristics.",book:{id:"11559",title:"Photocatalysts - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11559.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammed Mohammed and Rozyanty Rahman"},{id:"82853",title:"Revealing Retention Mechanisms in Liquid Chromatography: QSRR Approach",slug:"revealing-retention-mechanisms-in-liquid-chromatography-qsrr-approach",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106245",abstract:"One-factor-at-a-time experimentation was used for a long time as gold-standard optimization for liquid chromatographic (LC) method development. This approach has two downsides as it requires a needlessly great number of experimental runs and it is unable to identify possible factor interactions. At the end of the last century, however, this problem could be solved with the introduction of new chemometric strategies. This chapter aims at presenting quantitative structure–retention relationship (QSRR) models with structuring possibilities, from the point of feature selection through various machine learning algorithms that can be used in model building, for internal and external validation of the proposed models. The presented strategies of QSRR model can be a good starting point for analysts to use and adopt them as a good practice for their applications. QSRR models can be used in predicting the retention behavior of compounds, to point out the molecular features governing the retention, and consequently to gain insight into the retention mechanisms. In terms of these applications, special attention was drawn to modified chromatographic systems, characterized by mobile or stationary phase modifications. Although chromatographic methods are applied in a wide variety of fields, the greatest attention has been devoted to the analysis of pharmaceuticals.",book:{id:"11557",title:"Chemometrics - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11557.jpg"},signatures:"Jovana Krmar, Bojana Svrkota, Nevena Đajić, Jevrem Stojanović, Ana Protić and Biljana Otašević"},{id:"82796",title:"A Revisit of the Underlying Fundamentals in the Laser Emission from BODIPYs",slug:"a-revisit-of-the-underlying-fundamentals-in-the-laser-emission-from-bodipys",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106334",abstract:"This chapter aims to provide a comprehensive assessment of the laser performance of commercially available laser dyes based on the boron-dipyrromethene (BODIPY) chromophore in a liquid state, as well as to remark the main underlying photophysical signatures triggering such photonic behavior. First, we describe their light absorption and fluorescence properties in solution. This spectroscopic study is supplemented with quantum mechanics calculations and electrochemical measurements. Afterward, the dyes are tested as active media of tunable lasers under transversal pumping. The recorded laser efficiencies and photostabilities are correlated with the registered photophysical properties identifying the main structural guidelines and photonic parameters, which rule the laser bands’ position, intensity, and stability. As a result, we provide a comparative dataset of the laser performance, not available hitherto. Besides, the unraveling of the complex molecular structure-photophysics-laser relationship should help in the rational design of new tunable dye lasers with an improved photonic response along the entire visible region and reaching eventually the near infrared.",book:{id:"12081",title:"Dyes and Pigments - Insights and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12081.jpg"},signatures:"Alaitz Peñafiel, Ainhoa Oliden-Sánchez, Edurne Avellanal-Zaballa, Leire Gartzia-Rivero, Rebeca Sola-Llano and Jorge Bañuelos"},{id:"82706",title:"Applications of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) in Fish Value Chain",slug:"applications-of-near-infrared-spectroscopy-nirs-in-fish-value-chain",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105736",abstract:"Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) has undergone a significant evolution in the last years due to the numerous scientific studies that revealed its potential for industrial applications, attracting a growing interest in the food sector. Furthermore, new advances have allowed the reduction in size and cost of the NIR devices, making them appropriate for on-site determinations. The complex structure of the fish value chain, combined to its high market value, makes this sector particularly vulnerable to fraud and adulteration practices. Also, the perishable nature of fish and fish products, as well as the lack of traceability, arises the urgent need for a fast, reliable and portable tool capable of precisely characterizing the quality and authenticity of the product while also ensuring its safety. In this chapter, the capabilities of NIRS combined to several chemometric techniques for quality, authenticity and safety applications are presented through an extensive review of the most recent research works.",book:{id:"11564",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy - Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11564.jpg"},signatures:"Sonia Nieto-Ortega, Rebeca Lara, Giuseppe Foti, Ángela Melado-Herreros and Idoia Olabarrieta"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:58},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"19",title:"Animal Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11415,editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11417,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). 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Portugal",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82903",title:"Walking Accessibility to Primary Healthcare Services: An Inequity Factor for Olders in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area (Portugal)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106265",signatures:"Eduarda Marques da Costa, Ana Louro, Nuno Marques da Costa, Mariana Dias and Marcela Barata",slug:"walking-accessibility-to-primary-healthcare-services-an-inequity-factor-for-olders-in-the-lisbon-met",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Social Aspects of Ageing - Selected Challenges, Analyses, and Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11479.jpg",subseries:{id:"90",title:"Human Development"}}},{id:"82622",title:"Contemporary Geographical Gerontology: Reconciling Space and Place in Population Ageing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105863",signatures:"Hamish Robertson",slug:"contemporary-geographical-gerontology-reconciling-space-and-place-in-population-ageing",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Hamish",surname:"Robertson"}],book:{title:"Social Aspects of Ageing - 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Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",value:4,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:3,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:5,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:10,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10843",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",subtitle:"Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Pollution",value:38,count:1}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:250,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. 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Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11419,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim 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