\r\n\tContaminated water is not suitable for drinking, or use in recreation, agriculture, and industrial activities. These waters cause poisoning of drinking water, deterioration of river and lake ecosystems, decrease in biological diversity as a result of the death of aquatic life, and various environmental problems.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater resources are limited however, the need for water is gradually increasing. Considering that water quality deteriorates increasingly, the importance of preserving existing water resources in terms of quantity and quality is increasing day by day. So, it is important to determine the sources of contamination correctly and to take the necessary precautions.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-010-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-009-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-062-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"74540b33c77cb2a431ca0a4965d0031b",bookSignature:"Prof. Sadik Dincer, Dr. Hatice Aysun Merci̇mek Takci and Associate Prof. Melis Sümengen Özdenefe",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11531.jpg",keywords:"Water Quality Criteria, Hydrocarbons, Pesticides, Nanomaterials, Toxins, Bacteria, Fungi, Viruses, Parasites, Surface Water, Drinking Water, Recreational Water",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 12th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 29th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"10 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher and Director of the Institute of Natural and Applied Science. Prof. Dincer received the Technology Development Award from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) in 2013 and a national study patent in 2019.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Researcher in the field of Microbiology, Biotechnology, Enzymology, Microbial Genetics, and Bacteriology. Dr. Mercimek Takci has 47 manuscripts published in national and international journals and is a winner of the TÜBİTAK Incentive Award.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Associate Professor at Near East University in Northern Cyprus whose teaching interests include industrial microbiology, bacteriology, biotechnology, enzymology, and environmental microbiology.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"188141",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadik",middleName:null,surname:"Dincer",slug:"sadik-dincer",fullName:"Sadik Dincer",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188141/images/system/188141.jpeg",biography:"For the past 35 years, Prof. Sadık Dincer has been involved in teaching, research, and academic work in numerous distinguished universities in Turkey. Currently, he is working at Cukurova University, Biology and Biotechnology Departments, Adana, Turkey. His manuscripts and book chapters have been published in national and international journals and his works has been cited 1018 times. To date he has trained twenty-five MSc and eleven PhD students. He received the Technology Development Award from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) in 2013 and a national study patent in 2019. His research is focused on bacteriology, microbial ecology, industrial biotechnology, and microbial genetics.",institutionString:"Cukurova University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Cukurova University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"423016",title:"Dr.",name:"Hatice Aysun",middleName:null,surname:"Merci̇mek Takci",slug:"hatice-aysun-mercimek-takci",fullName:"Hatice Aysun Merci̇mek Takci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003AAXMDQA5/Profile_Picture_1623738083139",biography:"Associate Prof. Dr. Hatice Aysun Mercimek Takcı received her M.Sc. and PhD. Degrees in Biotechnology and Biology from Cukurova University, Turkey in 2007 and 2011, respectively. Since 2009, she has worked at Kilis 7 Aralik University, Kilis, Turkey. Her teaching interests contain Microbiology, Biotechnology, Enzymology, Microbial Genetics and Bacteriology. She has 47 manuscripts published in national and international journals and her works has been cited 245 times. Her research interests focus on multiple antibiotic and heavy metal resistance in bacteria, production and characterization of bacterial enzymes, bioremediation by bacteria, microbial quality (fecal contamination, bacterial diversity and microbial load) of aquatic environments. Related to these research areas, she has 17 projects supported the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) and coordinatorship of scientific research projects.",institutionString:"Kilis 7 Aralık University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Kilis 7 Aralık University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"292288",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Melis",middleName:null,surname:"Sümengen Özdenefe",slug:"melis-sumengen-ozdenefe",fullName:"Melis Sümengen Özdenefe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/292288/images/14472_n.jpg",biography:"Associate Prof. Dr. Melis Sumengen Ozdenefe received her BSc, MSc, and PhD Degrees in Biology from Cukurova University, Turkey in 2009, 2011, and 2014, respectively. During her MSc, she was at Anhalt University, Germany for six months as an international exchange student and a researcher from 2010 to 2011. She has been working in the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Near East University in Northern Cyprus since 2014. Her teaching interests include Industrial Microbiology, Bacteriology, Biotechnology, Enzymology, and Environmental Microbiology. Her research areas involve enzymes and biosurfactant which are produced from various bacteria and fungi for industrial applications, the production and characterization of bacterial enzymes and bacteriocins, the antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of various plant structures, and multiple antibiotic resistance and heavy metal resistance of Gram-negative bacteria isolated from the aquatic environment. Her works have been published in national-international journals, conferences, congresses, and symposiums and cited 142 times.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Near East University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Cyprus"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"418965",firstName:"Nera",lastName:"Butigan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418965/images/16899_n.jpg",email:"nera@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors.\nFrom chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common diagnosed neurodegenerative disease [1] with a prevalence of about 1% at the age of 65 and of 4–5% by the age of 85 [2]. The clinical manifestations of classical PD are rest tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, and postural imbalance. The loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) together with a distinct decrease in striatal dopamine, and the occurrence of cytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusions called Lewy bodies (LBs) are considered the pathological hallmarks of PD [3]. There are also reports of other neuronal cell losses in locus coeruleus and olfactory lobe during the development of the disease [4]. It has however been identified that the clinical manifestation of motor symptoms appears with the loss of DA neurons in the midbrain [5]. According to Rodriguez-Oroz et al. [6], the anatomical-functional basis of the main clinical manifestations is related to the low level of dopamine concentration in contralateral striatum and the malfunction of dopamine circuits. Current medications for PD supplement dopamine (L-DOPA), or activate DA receptors (DA-receptor agonist), or inhibit the degradation of DA (monoamine oxidase B inhibitor and catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibitor), bringing about temporary abatement of motor symptoms but failing to delay or halt disease progression. The etiology of PD is still unknown: it comprises familial (fPD) forms accounting for less than 10% of all PD cases, and the far more common sporadic (sPD) form. The striking feature in both fPD and sPD is α-synuclein (α-Syn) aggregation with ubiquitin that eventually progresses to form LBs. Three missense mutations (A53T, A30P, and E46K) [7–9] of α-Syn are known to cause autosomal dominant fPD [10], probably through a gain-of-function mechanism. Moreover, overexpression of human α-Syn in mice results in progressive loss of DA terminals in the basal ganglia and accumulation of LB-like structures in neurons [11]. Mechanisms that might control α-Syn aggregation in sPD are not clear, but may include transcription factor dysregulation [12] and the inability of normal degradation pathways to function adequately [13]. El-Agnaf et al. [14] detected α-Syn species in live-human sPD and fPD patient plasma and cerebrospinal fluid.
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2. α-Syn structure and function
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Syn are a vertebrate-specific family of abundant neuronal proteins. They consist of three closely related members, α-,β-,and γ-Syn, of which α-Syn has been the prime focus ever since mutations in it were recognized as a basis for fPD. Syn is a highly conserved protein with a molecular weight of approximately 14 kDa, comprising 140 amino acids [15]. This heat-resistant, soluble, acidic protein is abundant in the presynaptic terminals of central nervous system (CNS) neurons expressed pre-dominantly in the neocortex, hippocampus, SNpc, thalamus, and cerebellum [16–18]. Unlike α- and β-synuclein, γ-Syn is not concentrated in presynaptic terminals [19] and is largely found in the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
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α-Syn is composed of three distinct domains: an N-terminal amphipathic repeat region that can form α-helices; a hydrophobic central segment; and a C-terminal acidic region (Figure 1).The highly conserved N-terminal domain (residues 1–65) includes 6 copies of an unusual 11 amino acid repeat that display variations of a KTKEGV consensus sequence. It is unordered in solution, but can shift to a α-helical conformation [20] comprising two distinct α-helices interrupted by a short break [21]. α-Syn binds strongly to negatively charged phospholipids and becomes α-helical [22, 23], suggesting that the protein may normally be associated with the membrane [24]. This N-terminal domain includes the three sites of the fPD mutations A30P, E46K, and A53T (Figure 1).
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Figure 1.
Schematic representation of α-Syn amino acid amino acid sequence (1–140) with amphipathic NH2-terminal, non-amyloid component (NAC) region and acidic tail –COOH terminal. Arrows in the N-terminal, points to the three pathogenic mutations, and P in a red circle of NAC and C-terminal, points to the sites of phosphorylations.
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The hydrophobic central segment of α-Syn (non-amyloid component (NAC), residues 66–95) (Figure 1) [18] is the second major component of brain amyloid plaques in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) [18, 24]. This region consists of three repeats including the highly amyloidogenic part of the molecule that is responsible for α-Syn’s ability to undergo a conformational change from random coil to β-sheet structure [25] and to form Aβ-like protofibrils and fibrils [24, 25]. These properties differentiate α-Syn from β-Syn and γ-Syn, which fail to form co-polymers with α-Syn [24]. The NAC region carries a phosphorylation site on Ser87 [26].
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The acidic C-terminal domain (residues 96–140) of α-Syn has a strong negative charge composed primarily of acidic amino acids [20], but has no known structural elements. It consists of an acidic domain rich in proline residues (residues 125–140) that seems critical for the chaperone-like activity of α-Syn [27], as demonstrated by deletion mutants of the C-terminal region in which the α-Syn chaperone activity is lost [27–29]. In contrast to the amphipathic N-terminal and hydrophobic NAC regions, which are highly conserved between species, the C-terminal region is variable in size and in sequence [28–31]. This region is also organized in random structure in most conditions and contains several phosphorylation sites: Ser129, Tyr125, Tyr133, and Tyr136 [32] (Figure 1).
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Although the normal functions of α-Syn are still being defined, several studies have shown that this protein has a key role to play in membrane-associated processes at the presynaptic level such as formation and maintenance of synaptic vesicle pools (Figure 2), regulation of lipid metabolism, and Ca2+ homeostasis [31–33]. Greten-Harrison et al. [34] using αβγ-Syn knockout mice has reported that deletion of Syns causes alterations in synaptic structure and transmission, age-dependent neuronal dysfunction, as well as diminished survival. In vivo and in vitro studies showed that abrogation of Syn expression decreased excitatory synapse size by ∼30%, revealing that Syns are important determinants of presynaptic terminal size [34]. Younger synuclein-null mice show better basic transmission in comparison to older mice that showed a pronounced deterioration. Interestingly, it is further reported that the late onset phenotypes in Syn-null mice were not due to a loss of synapses or neurons but rather a reflection of specific changes in synaptic protein composition and axonal structure. Chandra et al. [21] found selective decreases in two small synaptic signaling proteins, complexins, and 14-3-3 proteins, in α,β double-KO mice. In 2000, Abeliovich et al. [2] have shown that mice lacking α-Syn display functional deficits in the nigrostriatal dopamine system. The α-Syn−/− mice were reported to be viable and fertile, exhibited intact brain (Aβ) architecture, and possessed normal complement of DA cell bodies, fibers, and synapses; however they displayed a reduction in striatal DA and an attenuation of DA-dependent locomotor response to amphetamine [2]. Further Drolet et al.’s [35] work showed that mice lacking α-Syn have an attenuated loss of striatal dopamine following prolonged chronic 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) administration. In addition, ultrastructural analysis and imaging studies have shown reduced synaptic vesicle density at the active zone, and imaging further reveals a defect in the re-clustering of synaptic vesicles after endocytosis [36]. Increased levels of α-Syn thus produce specific, physiological defects in synaptic vesicle recycling that precedes detectable neuropathology.
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Figure 2.
Schematic representation of roles of α-Syn under physiological and pathological conditions. In physiological condition, (1) α-Syn maintains synaptic functions by associating with (2) vesicle formation, (3) trafficking and (4) docking. It also associates with (5) recycling of synaptic vesicle and (6) dopamine storage. The post-translational modification of α-Syn such as (7) phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, leads to activation and deactivation of the protein. This protein undergoes (8) lysosome autophagy (9) and (10) proteosomal degradation directed by ubiquitination. However, in pathological conditions (1) due to uncertain stimulus, α-Syn undergoes (2) misfolding, (3) mutation or (4) phosphorylation leading to the (5) aggregation of the protein affecting the (6) vesicle formation, trafficking and docking, (7) impaired lysosomal autophagy, (8) and (9) ubiquitination and inhibition of proteosomal degradation. This in turn results in (10) LB formation and (11) apoptosis.
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α-Syn also has been suggested to function as a chaperone protein in vivo, because it appears capable of interacting with a variety of ligands and cellular proteins apart from lipids [35, 37, 38], thus modifying their activities. The N-terminal portion of α-Syn shares 40% amino acid homology with molecular chaperone 14-3-3 [36], suggesting that the two proteins could sub-serve the same function. Eliezer et al. [23] had showed that the removal of the C-terminal acidic tail of α-Syn abolished its chaperone activity. In contrast, some reports indicate that the C-terminal acidic tail is indeed necessary but not sufficient for the chaperone function of α-Syn [28, 29]. In normal physiological conditions, α-Syn exists in monomeric form and is recognized and cleared via the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) and chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) pathways [39] (Figure 2). In the pathological state, misfolding or mutations of α-Syn (A30P/A53T) lead to the formation of pathologically modified species that bind with several cytoplasmic proteins and ultimately aggregate into LBs in the DA neuronal cells [40] (Figure 2). This aberrant level of α-Syn is also cited in idiopathic PD subjects [41].
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2.1. Phosphorylation of α-synuclein at serine129
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Protein phosphorylation is a reversible post-translational modification of proteins that has an important role in regulating structural and functional properties of proteins in health and disease. It is primarily associated with signaling pathways and cellular processes in all aspects of cell biology such as cell-cycle progression, differentiation, apoptosis, metabolism, transcription, cytoskeletal arrangement, intercellular communication, motility and migration [42–44]. In eukaryotes, the amino acids that are most commonly reported to be phosphorylated are serine, threonine and tyrosine [45, 46] with few reports suggesting phosphorylation at arginine, lysine and cysteine residues [45, 47, 48].
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In PD too, phosphorylation appears to play an important role in fibrillogenesis, LB formation, and neurotoxicity of α-Syn in vivo [26, 49–51]. The majority of α-Syn in inclusions and LBs isolated from patients with PD and other synucleinopathies is phosphorylated at Ser129 (S129-P) [26, 49, 51]. Overexpression of wild-type or mutant α-Syn in in vivo and in vitro models showed expression of immunopositive phospho α-Syn serine129 (pSyn) in their proteinaceous inclusions [52–54]. Mass spectrometric analysis of α-Syn isolated from patients with synucleinopathy lesions has also confirmed that the protein is phosphorylated on Ser129 [49, 50]. More than 90% of α-Syn is phosphorylated in PD patients’ brain as opposed to only 4% of phosphorylated α-Syn detected in brains of healthy subjects. Moreover, the phosphorylated α-Syn in LBs is usually ubiquitinated [50, 51, 55]. The fact that most of the α-Syn is not phosphorylated under physiological conditions in vivo suggests that α-Syn phosphorylation at serine129 contributes to the pathology of the disease [49, 56, 57].
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2.2. Phosphorylation and CNS
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The central processing unit of the human body is its CNS consisting of specialized cells called neurons relaying electrical and chemical signals to all parts of our body [58]. However, the most abundant cell type in the CNS is the glial cells comprising of astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and microglia [59, 60]. In addition, it is interspersed with microvasculature that provides the nutrients and support to these CNS cells. The central theme in CNS function is equilibrium among these various cell types to maintain optimal synaptic strengths, neuronal firing rates, and neurotransmitter release. The regulation of these functions can be either through inside-out or outside-in stimuli and are strongly associated with several signaling pathways within these cells. Virtually every class of neuronal protein is regulated by phosphorylation and most types of extracellular signals, including neurotransmitters, hormones, light, electrical potential, extracellular matrix, neurotrophic factors, and cytokines, can produce diverse physiological effects by regulating the phosphorylation of specific phosphor-proteins in their target cells. These extracellular signals modify the activity of protein kinases and/or phosphatases either directly (e.g. receptors with kinase activity) or via cascades of enzymatic reactions (e.g. receptor → G protein → enzyme ~ second messenger ~ protein kinase).
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2.3. Kinases involved in α-synuclein phosphorylation
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α-Syn phosphorylation can be induced by several kinases. Serine129 of α-Syn can be phosphorylated by G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRK1, GRK2, GRK5, and GRK6) [61–63], casein kinases 1 and 2 (CK1 and CK2) [26, 64–69], and the polo-like kinases (PLKs) [70]. Current studies have shown that, GRKs may also phosphorylate non-receptor substrates, comprising the four members of the Syn family (α-,β-,γ-Syn, and synoretin) in addition to phosphorylating agonist-occupied G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) [62]. Overexpression of GRK2 or GRK5 in COS-1 cells, showed that these kinases phosphorylate α-Syn at serine129 [62]. Endogenous GRK-induced phosphorylation of α-Syn at serine129 was demonstrated in vitro in HEK293 cells, and GRK3 and GRK6 were seen to be playing the main roles in this modification [63]. Post-mortem analysis showed that GRK5 co-localized with α-Syn in the LBs of the SNpc of PD patients, but was not detected in cortical LBs of Dementia with lewy bodies (DLB), or in the glial cytoplasmic inclusions of MSA [61]. Overexpression of α-Syn in SH-SY5Y cells and human α-Syn expressing transgenic mice also showed an increase in GRK5 protein [71]. A genetic association study revealed a haplotype association of the GRK5 gene with susceptibility to sPD in the Japanese population [61]; however, GRK5 polymorphisms in southern Italy failed to correlate with sPD [72]. The knockdown of endogenous GRK5 in SH-SY5Y cells fails to suppress the phosphorylation of α-Syn completely [71], confirming the involvement of other kinases in this phosphorylation.
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The other group of kinases that phosphorylates α-Syn at serine129 is CK1 and CK2. This has been demonstrated in the yeast model [69], in mammalian cells [26, 68] and in rat primary cortical neurons [64]. It has been suggested that phosphorylation of serine129 in α-Syn by CK2 may promote in vitro fibrillation [59] and in situ inclusion formation [73]. Phosphorylation by CK2 and dephosphorylation by PP2C in in vitro model indicate that these may be important enzymes that regulate the phosphorylation of α-Syn [74]. Furthermore, surplus α-Syn can form inclusions that sequester CK1, diminishing CK1 activity and aggravating synaptic defects, generating a vicious toxic cycle. CK1 has been found to co-localize with pS87 in transgenic mice and in LB-like structures in LBD/PD-diseased brains [75, 76], and phosphorylates α-Syn at serine87 as well [26]. Oxidative stress induced by iron is reported to upregulate CK2 that leads to increased phosphorylated α-Syn serine129 with an associated increase in oligomerization and inclusion formation [65]. Smith et al. [66] have shown in SH-SY5Ycells that the increase in α-Syn phosphorylation under oxidative stress is mediated by CK2 and correlates with enhancement of inclusion formation.
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In vitro studies employing kinase assays showed involvement of another family of cellular kinases in the phosphorylation of α-Syn at serine129: PLK1, PLK2, and PLK3 [70, 77]. The PLKs comprise a family of conserved Ser/Thr protein kinases that are known to play a role in cell-cycle regulation and cellular response to stress and carcinogenesis [78]. PLK2 directly phosphorylated α-Syn at serine129 in an in vitro biochemical assay [70]. Inhibitors of PLK kinases inhibited α-Syn phosphorylation both in primary cortical cell cultures and in mouse brain in vivo. Further, using PLK2 KO mouse, Buck et al. [79] too have shown that PLK2 plays a key role in Ser129 α-Syn phosphorylation in mouse brain. Aubele et al. [80] have shown in an in vivo model that brain-permeable Plk-2 inhibitors reduce α-Syn phosphorylation in rat brain. In response to synaptic activation, PLK2 and PLK3 expression is reported that is associated with synaptic plasticity, remodeling, and homeostasis [81, 82], thus suggesting that these kinases could play an important role in modulating the normal physiology of α-Syn. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is also known to pSyn [83], but this remains debatable as there are no other studies confirming this, despite the existence of a clear interaction between the two proteins [83, 84].
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2.4. Phosphorylation at serine129 modulates α-synuclein protein-protein interaction
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The C-terminal domain of α-synuclein (residues 96–140) is an acidic tail of 43AA residues, containing 10 Glu and 5 Asp residues. C-terminal truncations of α-Syn induce aggregation, suggesting that C-terminal modifications might be involved in the pathology of α-Syn [85]. An interaction between the C-terminal domain and the NAC region of α-Syn is postulated to be responsible for the inhibition of α-Syn aggregation. Moreover, there are several studies on the interaction of α-Syn C-terminal tail with different proteins [86–91]. McFarland et al. [92] were the pioneers to address this using targeted functional proteomics [51]. The authors showed that the non-phosphorylated α-Syn peptide primarily interacts with proteins related to the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) (complex I, III, and IV proteins of the ETC) [51]. It was hypothesized that changes in α-Syn phosphorylation could represent a response to biochemical events associated with PD pathogenesis. Among these, mitochondrial complex I dysfunction, oxidative stress, and proteasome dysfunction are processes that are known to be involved in synucleinopathies [93, 94]. The low levels of pSyn under physiological conditions as well as the absence of other phosphorylated residues such as pY39, pS87 and pY125 [26, 49, 50] suggest a faster degradation of this form under normal conditions. In fact, the phosphorylation status of α-Syn was recently correlated with clearance mechanisms [95, 96]. Another group Chau et al. [97] too reported that α-Syn phosphorylation at serine129 is toxic to DA cells and both the levels of serine129 phosphorylated protein as well as its toxicity are increased with proteosomal inhibition, emphasizing the interdependence of these pathways in PD pathogenesis.
\n
However, the pSyn has a greater affinity for certain cytoskeletal and presynaptic proteins associated with synaptic transmission and vesicle trafficking [51]. Yin et al. [98] showed that α-Syn interacts with the switch region of Rab8a, a small guanine nucleotide-binding protein, in a serine129 phosphorylation-dependent manner; thus implicating its role in coordinating vesicle trafficking. Hara et al. [99] reported that serine129 phosphorylation of membrane-associated α-Syn modulates dopamine transporter function in a G protein-coupled receptor kinase-dependent manner. These observations suggest that pSyn could serve as a molecular switch to control α-Syn interaction with different protein partners and therefore may modulate the function of DA neurons. However, further investigations are required to assess the impact and the physiological consequences of serine129 phosphorylation on α-Syn interaction with other proteins, such as SNARE proteins [35, 100], cytoskeletal proteins (i.e. tubulin) [55, 101] and other amyloidogenic proteins (i.e. tau) [19, 102]. Jensen et al. [103] have hypothesized that an interaction between α-Syn and tau could link synaptic vesicles with microtubules. Tau has been shown to co-localize and interact directly with the Src PTK family member, Fyn [104]. It is hypothesized that tau could bring Src PTK family members such as Fyn into closer proximity to α-Syn, thereby enhancing the activity of these kinases for α-Syn. Samuel et al. [105] showed that the membrane binding of α-Syn monomers was differentially affected by phosphorylation depending on the PD-linked mutation. WT α-Syn binding to presynaptic membranes was not affected by phosphorylation, while A30P α-Syn binding was greatly increased and A53T α-Syn was marginally lower, implicating the distal effects of the carboxyl terminal on amino-terminal membrane binding. The un-phosphorylated form of serine129 associates mainly with mitochondrial electron transport proteins, while the phosphorylated form associates with cytoskeletal, vesicular trafficking proteins and enzymes involved in protein serine phosphorylation [92]. Further work by Sugeno et al. [106] using α-Syn-over expressing cells exposed to a low dose of rotenone as an environmental toxin, showed that phosphorylation of α-Syn at serine129 promoted intracellular aggregate-formation and induced ER stress that was followed by mitochondrial damage and apoptosis.
\n
Phosphorylation also seems to play an important role in the regulation of α-Syn axonal transport as the serine129D mutation significantly decreases its rate of transport in neurons, probably due to the modulation of α-Syn interaction with motor and/or accessory proteins involved in this process [107]. Moreover, the interplay between the different phosphorylated residues could increase the diversity in the possible protein interactors. Several differences were observed in the set of proteins that were found to interact with serine129 and Y125-phosphorylated forms of α-Syn [92]. S129 and Y125 residues both residing in the C-terminal region of α-Syn have been implicated in the majority of α-Syn interactions with proteins [103, 108, 109], reinforcing the significance of phosphorylation in these residues in modulating the biological role of α-Syn. All these findings together suggest that phosphorylation of α-Syn at serine129 has a widespread effect on protein-protein interaction of α-Syn.
\n
Phosphorylation also seems to alter the subcellular localization of α-Syn. pSyn was found to be preferentially localized in the nuclei of DA neurons in rat and mouse models of synucleinopathy [67, 100]. In studies using PD rat models, the phospho-resistant S129A was found to be localized in the nucleus at higher levels than the S129D form, and was found to correlate with enhanced toxicity [110, 111]. Our group too demonstrated the nuclear localization of pSyn in SH-SY5Y cells under 6-hydroxydopamine toxicity [112]. Gonçalves and Outeiro [113] showed that S129 phosphorylation modulates the shuttling of α-Syn between nucleus and cytoplasm in human neuroglioma cells, using photo-activatable green fluorescent protein as a reporter. Moreover, the study showed that co-expression of α-Syn with different kinases altered the translocation dynamics of the protein. While G protein-coupled receptor kinase 5 (GRK5) promotes the nuclear localization of α-Syn, PLK2 and three modulate the shuttling of the protein between the nucleus and cytoplasm [114]. This difference reflects different α-Syn phosphorylation patterns in serine129 and/or other residues. Although the function of α-Syn in the nucleus is still unclear, it appears to be related to pathological insults. In particular, nuclear localization of α-Syn increases under oxidative stress conditions [112, 114, 115]. Nuclear α-Syn interacts with histones, inhibits acetylation, and promotes neurotoxicity [116, 117]. Furthermore, α-Syn may act as a transcriptional regulator, binding promoters such as PGC1-α, a master regulator of mitochondrial gene expression [106]. The significance of pSyn in regulating nuclear proteins still needs to be unraveled.
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2.5. Oxidative stress and α-Syn phosphorylation
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Oxidative stress can increase α-Syn phosphorylation [97]. Perfeito et al. [118] showed through an in vitro model that exposure to ferrous iron and rotenone resulted in increase in pSyn. A similar increase was reported by Ganapathy et al. [112] in the presence of the endogenous toxin 6-hydroxydopamine. Proteosomal inhibition by epoxomycin and increased oxidative stress by paraquat treatment has led to increases in pSyn [97]. This may reflect either an increased activity of the kinase responsible or a decrease of phosphatase activity. Under physiological conditions, α-Syn is degraded by chaperone-mediated autophagy [119], and studies suggest that this gets reduced upon oxidation or nitration [12, 106]. α-Syn may also be degraded by proteasomes [120]. The increase in pSyn levels in LBs suggests a change in the turnover or degradation of the phosphorylated protein (Figure 3). It is possible that at elevated levels, this phosphorylated species may be toxic.
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Figure 3.
Schematic representation of suggested pathological role of oxidative stress in the α-Syn phosphorylation and aggregation. Normally genetic mutation, neurotoxins, dopamine auto oxidation in the presence of excess iron and the release of reactive oxygen species (ROS) leads to mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in turn leading to cell death. However, increase in the oxidative stress and direct effect of neurotoxins can lead to phosphorylation of α-Syn and their aggregation which inturn inhibits the lysosomal autophagy and impaired proteosomal degradation resulting in LB formation and cell death.
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2.6. α-Syn phosphorylation at serine129 and cellular events
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The role of α-Syn phosphorylation in the cellular pathogenesis of PD remains debated [92, 110, 111, 121, 122]. This apparent controversy is due to the fact that phosphomimics (S129D/E) do not reproduce the exact properties of the endogenous authentically phosphorylated α-Syn [122–124]. The expression of a variant showing prevention of phosphorylation by site-directed mutagenesis of serine129 to alanine (S129A) caused an increase in α-Syn inclusions and toxicity [110] On the other hand, several investigators have reported that the expression of S129A mutant protein led to fewer inclusions [66, 94, 110]. It has also been reported that the expression of phosphorylation mimicking serine129 to the aspartate (S129D) variant does not show DA deficits [92, 110, 111, 121, 123]. Hence, several groups have sought to address the issue by overexpressing α-Syn and using siRNA for its natural kinases [99, 118, 124]. As discussed in the earlier section, among the kinases primarily responsible for the α-Syn phosphorylation at serine129 are CKs, GRKs, LRRK2, and PLKs. The modulation of phosphorylation of α-Syn has also been reported by targeting the kinases in A53T mutant α-Syn expressing cells [99, 118, 124–126]. siRNA studies targeting kinases such as PLK, GRK2, and CK2 have been used to study the effect of phosphorylated α-synuclein on WT and A53T mutant α-synuclein expressing cells [99, 118, 124, 125, 127]. These studies have shown the effect of α-Syn phosphorylation with respect to ROS generation, mitochondrial alterations, proteasomal changes, and dopamine transport. The work of Perfeito et al. [118] suggest that stimuli that promote ROS formation and mitochondrial alterations highly correlate with mutant α-Syn phosphorylation at serine129, which may precede cell degeneration in PD. Similarly, we have shown in our recent work that at sub-lethal 6-hydroxydopamine concentrations, the decrease in resting vesicles (VMAT2) and vesicular dopamine release are not attributable to apoptotic cell death and occur concomitantly with the phosphorylation of α-Syn [112].
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2.7. α-Syn phosphorylation at serine129 during PD pathogenesis: an early or late event?
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The evidence of pSyn accumulation in the brain has been collected largely from post mortem analysis and it fails to answer if this accumulation occurs during the early or late stages of synucleinopathies. In a recent work, Walker et al. [127] investigated how pSyn levels and solubility change in cingulate and temporal cortex of DLB patients, at different stages of the disease. The authors reported a progressive accumulation of pSyn-immunoreactive species in diseased brains compared to healthy controls, as well as a positive correlation between pSyn levels and the severity of disease symptoms. A similar study using brain samples from PD patients also reported a drastic accumulation of pSyn-positive inclusions in different brain regions at the late stages of the disease [128]. Together, these results suggest that the occurrence of pSyn is linked to the severity of disease progression.
\n
In our recent work, we demonstrated using biophysical and biochemical analysis in an in vitro model that under sub-lethal concentrations of 6-hydroxydopamine, phosphorylation of α-Syn precedes apoptosis and occurs concomitantly with the decrease in vesicular dopamine release [21]. This study provides a new perspective on the occurrence of pSyn even in early stages of the disease that may contribute to the impairment of neuronal function. Another recent work by Takahashi et al. [53] demonstrated increased accumulation of pSyn in the motor cortex of normal aging mice along with early onset motor impairment, which was further ameliorated by coenzyme Q.
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2.8. pSyn in human fluids and PNS of synucleinopathies
\n
Several studies in the field of PD and diagnosis of Parkinsonism are based on the fundamental molecular events associated with or without LBs. Total α-Syn quantification in the CSF of PD, DLB, and MSA patients in comparison to healthy controls has been proposed as a biomarker for α-Syn-related disorders [129–131]. However, an ideal biomarker for a particular disease must be easy to detect, and also reflect disease onset and progression with associated primary changes. A longitudinal study conducted by Foulds et al. [132] in the blood plasma of patients suffering from PD showed that total α-Syn in blood plasma of PD patients remained similar to that in normal individuals, but the level of α-Syn phosphorylated at serine129 was significantly higher in PD patients. Statistical analysis confirmed the usefulness of plasma levels of pSyn in discriminating patients with PD from healthy controls. In addition, pSyn inclusions were also detected in the PNS which might also serve as a useful diagnostic test for PD and related synucleinopathies. Work from two independent groups on skin biopsies showed that the majority of PD patients had accumulation of pSyn in small and large nerve fibers, while no signal was detected in healthy controls and in MSA or essential tremor control subjects [133, 134]. This cutaneous pathology was correlated with the progression of disease symptoms suggesting the use of this peripheral marker as a biomarker for the disease [135]. Presence of pSyn immunoreactivity was detected in gastric, duodenal and colonic biopsies [136, 137]. Hilton et al. [137] further reports that this accumulation of pSyn in the bowels of patients is detected in the pre-clinical phase of PD. Taken together, these reports suggest that accumulation of pSyn might provide a more reliable biomarker to detect PD at early stages and further discriminate between synucleinopathies, compared to total α-Syn.
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3. Conclusion
\n
In comparison to the relatively small number of genes, the large diversity of the proteome is achieved mainly by post-translational protein modifications, phosphorylation being the most widespread. Since the C-terminal region of α-Syn is involved in interaction with proteins [103, 104, 109] and metal ions [138–140], any phosphorylation in this site can alter its interaction capability [77]. The significance of α-Syn phosphorylation at serine129 has gained importance in PD because its accumulation is distinctly enhanced in the diseased condition. The revelation of the involvement of pSyn on α-Syn aggregation, LB formation, and neurotoxicity is crucial to understanding the pathogenesis and progression of PD and related disorders. Since some in vitro and in vivo studies have indicated that the pSyn is an early event preceding apoptosis, some important questions now needs to be explored in reference to the physiological functions regulated by phosphorylation such as dopamine synthesis, vesicle mobilization, and regulation of synaptic proteins, synaptic plasticity, and its subcellular localization. A systemic investigation of the role of each kinase on the phosphorylation of α-Syn and α-Syn clearance also needs to be carried out to identify viable targets for development of new therapeutics. A further in vivo study by Hirai et al. [57] elevates the significance of pSyn as a region-specific phenomenon, and the level of pSyn in response to physiological stimuli is selectively higher in the striatum region in comparison to cortex and hippocampus [57]. The relative sensitivity of this phenomenon in the striatum in reference to PD pathology needs to be assessed to address the increased susceptibility of some brain regions to α-Syn phosphorylation and pathology. In addition, the synergistic association of PD-linked mutations and pSyn in the regulation of α-Syn toxicity needs to be evaluated. Investigation of the possible implications of phosphorylation of α-Syn on cell-to-cell transmission and its pathological propagation in PD-diseased brains is also pending. Thus, the research evidence clearly suggests that the phosphorylation of α-Syn plays a significant and possibly pivotal role both in PD pathogenesis and progression, and that answers to the questions above are crucial for the identification of novel, disease-modifying, therapeutic targets for the treatment of PD and related synucleinopathies.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"α-synuclein, phospho α-synuclein serine129, PD, phosphorylation, kinases, aggregation, biomarker, neurotoxicity, Lewy bodies",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/56691.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/56691.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56691",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56691",totalDownloads:1501,totalViews:591,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:14,impactScoreQuartile:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 27th 2016",dateReviewed:"July 14th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"November 29th 2017",dateFinished:"August 8th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Post-translational protein modifications play an important role in generating the large diversity of the proteome in comparison to the relatively small number of genes; phosphorylation being the most widespread. Phosphorylation of proteins regulates important molecular-switches for several cellular events and abnormal phosphorylation events are associated in many neurodegenerative diseases. In Parkinson’s disease (PD) the main hallmark is the accumulation of cytoplasmic inclusions, Lewy bodies (LBs), consisting of α-synuclein (α-Syn) and ubiquitin. There’s another key observation which is increasingly gaining prominence is a modified-form of α-Syn; the phospho α-Syn serine129 (pSyn). The significance of pSyn has gained importance in PD because its accumulation is distinctly enhanced in the diseased condition. The revelation of the involvement of pSyn on α-Syn aggregation, LB formation and neurotoxicity is crucial to understanding the pathogenesis and progression of PD. Since some in vitro and in vivo studies have indicated that pSyn is an early event preceding apoptosis, some important questions now needs to be explored in reference to the physiological functions regulated by phosphorylation, such as dopamine synthesis, vesicle mobilization, regulation of synaptic proteins, and synaptic plasticity. An investigation of the role of enzymes on the phosphorylation and clearance of α-Syn and region-specific susceptibility is required to be determined; to identify viable targets for new therapeutics.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/56691",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/56691",book:{id:"5855",slug:"protein-phosphorylation"},signatures:"Indrani Datta and Kavina Ganapathy",authors:[{id:"199597",title:"Dr.",name:"Indrani",middleName:null,surname:"Datta",fullName:"Indrani Datta",slug:"indrani-datta",email:"indranidatta.nimhans@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"203147",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kavina",middleName:null,surname:"Ganapathy",fullName:"Kavina Ganapathy",slug:"kavina-ganapathy",email:"kavina.ganapathy@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. α-Syn structure and function",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Phosphorylation of α-synuclein at serine129",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Phosphorylation and CNS",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Kinases involved in α-synuclein phosphorylation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Phosphorylation at serine129 modulates α-synuclein protein-protein interaction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5. Oxidative stress and α-Syn phosphorylation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.6. α-Syn phosphorylation at serine129 and cellular events",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.7. α-Syn phosphorylation at serine129 during PD pathogenesis: an early or late event?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.8. pSyn in human fluids and PNS of synucleinopathies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"3. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'De Lau LM, Breteler MM. Epidemiology of Parkinson\'s disease. 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Acta Neuropathologica Communications. 2015;3(1):7\n'},{id:"B134",body:'Wang Y, Shi M, Chung KA, Zabetian CP, Leverenz JB, et al. Phosphorylated α-synuclein in PD. Science Translational Medicine. 2012;4(121):121\n'},{id:"B135",body:'Doppler K, Ebert S, Uceyler N, Trenkwalder C, Ebentheuer J, et al. Cutaneous neuropathy in PD: A window into brain pathology. Acta Neuropathologica. 2014;128:99-109\n'},{id:"B136",body:'Pouclet H, Lebouvier T, Coron E, Neunlist M, Derkinderen P. Lewy pathology in gastric and duodenal biopsies in PD. Movement Disorders. 2012;27:708\n'},{id:"B137",body:'Hilton D, Stephens M, Kirk L, Edwards P, Potter R, et al. Accumulation of α-synuclein in the bowel of patients in the pre-clinical phase of PD. Acta Neuropathologica. 2014;127:235-241\n'},{id:"B138",body:'Brown DR. Interactions between metals & α-synuclein function or artefact? FEBS Journal. 2007;274(15):3766-3774\n'},{id:"B139",body:'Hyun-Ju SH, Ju-Hyun LE, Chang CS, Jongsun KI. Copper (II)-induced self-oligomerization of α-synuclein. Biochemical Journal. 1999;340(3):821-828\n'},{id:"B140",body:'Paik SR, Shin HJ, Lee JH. Metal-catalyzed oxidation of α-synuclein in the presence of copper (II) & hydrogen peroxide. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 2000;378(2):269-277\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Indrani Datta",address:"indranidatta.nimhans@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Biophysics, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bengaluru, India
Department of Biophysics, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bengaluru, India
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1. Introduction
Wastewater is the water having surplus substances that may be dissolved or suspended solid particles or organic and inorganic substances or other impurities that critically influence its quality and make it unsuitable for use [1]. Wastewater composition varies and is highly dependent on major sources of generation as industries, commercial and residential areas, agricultural sources, etc. [2]. In developing countries, the risk of consumption of contaminated water and its sanitation problem is increasing day by day.
Water covers about 70% of the earth’s shells and is essential for all living organisms to survive and also for various manufacturing industries. About 3% of the total water on earth is fresh water of 0.01% is available for human use. The discharge of untreated contaminants from various industries directly to groundwater hinders the favorable use of water in normal operations of the ecosystem and causes water scarcity. Water deficiency is considered one of the most significant alarms for humanity and sustainable development [3]. According to the UNO report, about 1.2 billion people are affected by severe water scarcity due to the increasing world population and in future, 1.8 billion citizens are predicted to be affected by water insufficiency. Beyond water scarcity, water pollution also poses a greater threat to human health and aquatic life as well as the environment. Several new compounds recently detected in drinking, ground, and surface water have a major effect on water parameters. Water is a universal solvent and water quality is affected due to contamination by toxic substances dissolved in it which causes water pollution [4]. Water requirement is increasing due to adaptation in atmosphere, industrialization, increase in population, and obliteration of the surroundings [5]. The occurrence of organic and inorganic pollutants in wastewater is a major challenge to recycle water sources. To determine small amounts of unknown pollutants in the evaluation of emerging contaminants, the latest modern treatment techniques are still limited [6].
Currently, various analytical methods have been developed for different kinds of emerging pollutants. The separation of these toxic pollutants from water becomes important before the discharge of industrial wastewater into the aquatic environment. For this purpose, the development of proficient techniques has been a major area of environmental research. In general, traditional clean-up methods are classified as biological, physical, and chemical. Biological treatment is of low cost and simple, but not effective for synthetic dyes as they are resistant to aerobic biodegradation. Chemical treatments produce toxic by-products and are low efficient, while physical treatment is usually effective. For treating these organic pollutants present in water, several techniques such as membrane filtration, coagulation-flocculation, solvent extraction, ion exchange, catalytic oxidation, electrochemical oxidation, precipitation, etc. have been tested. However, these techniques are less effective, very expensive, and do not eliminate the contaminants from polluted water which makes this issue more challenging for the researchers. Besides these techniques, adsorption and photocatalytic degradation are considered the most potential approaches to removing wastewater contaminants [7].
The current chapter focuses on classification, potential sources, occurrence, prevention, control, and elimination of emerging contaminants. The major objective of this section is to study available technologies currently used for the removal of ECs from wastewater. This chapter also focuses on selecting the best available technology for removing emerging contaminants from wastewater. A schematic representation of treatment technologies, their principal advantages, performance efficiency, and limitations are discussed in the present study. Furthermore, future research opportunities are examined to provide more suitable and strategic recommendations for ECs removal from the aquatic environment.
2. Emerging contaminants
Emerging contaminants (ECs), termed contaminants of emerging concern, emerging pollutants (EPs), micro-pollutants, or trace organic compounds (TrOCs) are derived from different natural as well as anthropogenic sources that extensively influence water quality [8]. They are termed as emerging not because they are new but due to enhancement in the level of concern. These contaminants are generally in small concentrations, ranging from nano-gram per liter (ng L−1) to micrograms per liter (μg L−1) in the atmosphere. United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) describes ECs as new chemical compounds that have the potential to cause harmful effects on individual health and the surroundings [9]. It is essential to treat and recycle wastewater to an acceptable standard to fulfill water demands.
2.1 Classification of ECs
ECs are classified into organic, inorganic micro-pollutants like pesticides, personal care products (PCPs), pharmaceuticals, synthetic organic dyes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heavy metals ions, plasticizers, per-fluorinated compounds, flame retardants, surfactants, etc. (Figure 1) generated by human activities such as domestic, health care units, agricultural and industrial pathways [10]. These compounds are a source of concern due to their physical and chemical properties because they are widely distributed in the environment which is harmful to humans and wildlife. These pollutants are difficult to detect and have varied activities and miscellaneous sources of production. Their presence in small concentrations causes chronic toxicity, endocrine disruption, and the expansion of pathogen resistance [11].
Figure 1.
Classification of emerging contaminants.
2.1.1 Pesticides
Pesticides, a class of organic contaminants, based on their physical and chemical properties are categorized as fungicides, herbicides, bactericides, and insecticides which are used in the agricultural sector to control dangerous insects, weeds, and microorganisms, etc. Based on their application sites, pesticides are frequently detected in groundwater causing toxicity and may bio-accumulate in humans and plants, or sediments depending on solubility, reactivity, and characteristics of soil and environment. Among the pesticide contaminants, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and hexachlorocyclohexane are commonly used pesticides (about 67%) as compared to other compounds such as phorate, chlorpyriphos, Atrazine, methyl parathione, Bentazone, Diazinon, Cyanazine, Simazine, phosphamidone, Terbuthylazine, Alachlor and Dimethoate [12].
2.1.2 Pharmaceutical industry
Pharmaceuticals are major emerging organic contaminants occurring in small amounts in water resources worldwide [13]. Pharmaceuticals are extensively used on daily basis in human healthcare as well as veterinary medicine such as nutrition, investigative aids, therapy and preventive medicine. Many pharmaceutical products such as drugs (both prescribed and non-prescribed), hormones and antibiotics are extensively detected in the aquatic environment, surface and groundwater and have adverse effects on humans, poultry, livestock and fish farming, etc. Generally, livestock is given medications to reduce diseases and infections. Researchers have examined more than 3000 chemicals used in therapeutic products but only small proportion (ng L−1 doses) has been studied in the field, which possibly will lead to negative effects on human and wildlife. To enhance animal farming, organic fertilizer such as manure and purines as medicines are used which indirectly affect the atmosphere and can reach living organisms through food stuff. Commonly reported pharmaceuticals in wastewater are antibiotics, diclofenac, antacids, clofibric acid, steroids, antidepressants, ciprofloxacin, propranolol, beta blockers, analgesics, salicylic acid, fluoxetine, antipyretics, anti-inflammatory drugs, nitroglycerin, tranquilizers, lipid-lowering drugs and stimulants [14].
Natural or synthetic hormones are also essential ecological contaminants, because of their estrogenic and androgenic impacts on wildlife. Organic and inorganic hormones consist of 17α-estradiol, 17β-estradiol, estrone, equiline, equilenin, estriol, mestranol and norethindrone which can enter atmosphere through farming, and are not completely eliminated from wastewater and harm aquatic life and humans.
2.1.3 Personal care products (PCPs)
Personal care products (PCPs) are household chemicals commonly used for health, odor, beauty, or cleaning. These chemicals are used in personal care products like ornamental cosmetics, soaps, hair and skin care products, lotions, fragrances and sunscreens. PCPs are used in large quantities throughout the world due to which the release of these pollutants in the environment is increasing day by day [15]. Mostly these substances are bioactive and bioaccumulative and harm the environment and humans [16]. The most probable emerging contaminants in PCPs are antiseptics, perfumes pollutants like galaxolide, pest repellants, preservatives diethyl phthalate ultraviolet (UV) filters and Triclosan (TCS) and triclocarban as disinfectant pollutant. Parabens are antimicrobial preservatives used in cosmetic items, pharmaceuticals, and some food stuffs such as benzyl, butyl, ethyl, isobutyl, isopropyl, methyl, and propyl hydroxybenzoates. Polycyclic musks are used in numerous products such as clean-up products, shampoos, hair care and washing products and cosmetic products. Their use on the outside of human skin increases its discharge in environment without any metabolic changes. Among all these products, cosmetics are frequently used, thus its occurrence in air at low quantity may be a source of damage to human beings, wildlife and environment.
2.1.4 Surfactants
Surfactants are synthetic organic compounds used all over the world in making of household products such as emulsifiers, detergents, paints, and pesticides, in addition to personal care products and are harmful to aquatic species [17]. They are classified as cationic, anionic and zwitterionic surfactants. Frequently used surfactants such as fatty alcohol ethoxylates, linear alkyl benzene sulfonates, lignin sulfonates, and alkyl phenol ethoxylates are produced on a large scale. Furthermore, octylphenol and nonyl-phenol ethoxylates, are highly toxic even at low concentrations and must be substituted in all their uses.
2.1.5 Food additives
Numerous artificial sweeteners such as acesulfame, saccharin and sucralose which are extensively used in foodstuff, pharmaceuticals and hygiene products find their way to domestic wastewater via human excretion. These moderately metabolized sweeteners which pollute the environment are usually hard to remove. Though, latest calculated ratio for predicted environmental concentration (PEC) and predicted no effect concentration (PNEC) of compound sucralose for marine system is below 1 indicating limited threat to aquatic system (plants, algae and fish) [18].
2.1.6 Flame retardants (FRs)
Among all flame retardant compounds, organophosphate ester flame retardants (OPEFRs) class of phosphorus-containing flame retardants (FRs) and halogenated FRs such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)) are known FR groups that decrease the flammability of industrial and consumer products. Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) are used in furnishings, textiles, construction materials, electronics and as plasticizers in floor polishes and coatings. The discharge of OPFRs from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) into the surface water polluted marine environment causes toxicity. PBDEs are hydrophobic in nature and are mostly used as FRs in the manufacturing of carpets, computers, polyurethane foams, electronic cables, etc. [19].
2.2 Potential sources of emerging pollutants
Emerging contaminants sources are the same as those of traditionally known contaminants and they are released to environment by agricultural, domestic, mining and industrial activities and hospitals. These sources are categorized as: point sources and non-point sources [20]. Contaminants from point sources are discharged from a particular site in high concentration and enter the ecological system in a spatially distinctive way. Examples are discharges from industrial activities, mineral extraction and sewage treatment plants. While non-point sources also termed as diffuse sources release pollutants from indistinguishable disperse sources usually over large areas in low quantity. Examples are runoff of bio-solids or fertilizer applied to soils and rain overflow in urban or industrial areas (Figure 2) [21].
Figure 2.
Sources and their pathways of emerging contaminants.
Water resources contamination by ECs from Wastewater is taking place all over the world particularly in those areas where wastewater treatment is not properly organized. Frequent use of drugs and personal care products lead to discharge of low quantity of different by-products. For example, triclosan, bisphenol-A and phthalates are significant industrial compounds integrated into several commercial household products. Their existence in water and environment affects their physical and chemical properties. PPCPs and other ECs metabolites are complex and hydrophobic in nature when released in water and settle at water surface. Thousands of these ECs and their metabolites have been discovered in the marine environment and are more noxious and harmful. Basically, wastewater treatment plants are not specifically designed for the effective removal of emerging contaminants [22].
2.3 Toxicological effects of emerging contaminants
The adverse effects of ECs on living bodies have been widely reported which confirm that even small amount of ECs pose negative effects such as chronic toxicity and endocrine disruption in humans and animals. The major route of human contact with endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) is taking of foods and drinks connected to contaminated soil, water and microorganisms leading to bio magnification and bioaccumulation in human body (Figure 3). Currently, researchers are focusing on ECs present in surface waters for many reasons: firstly, surface waters commonly contain high quantity and a diverse range of contaminants particularly when surface water is directly associated with industrial discharges and secondly it is easily monitored as compared to groundwater [23].
Figure 3.
Harmful effects on human health.
3. Traditional wastewater treatment methods
Conventional techniques for the treatment of wastewater consist of physical, chemical and biological techniques for the removal of soluble and insoluble pollutants. Benefits and challenges of wastewater treatment technologies are given in Table 1. Biological treatment is of low cost and simple, but not effective for synthetic pollutants such as dyes as they are resistant to aerobic bio-degradation. Chemical treatments produce toxic by-products and are less efficient, while physical treatment is usually effective. Different phases included in wastewater treatment preliminary, primary, secondary and tertiary [24].
Treatment
Basic methodologies
Benefits
Challenges
Screening
Coarse Screening: removes solid materials with a size below 6 mm.
Minimizes interruption and blockage of the treatment technologies
Not effective in the removal of the ECs
Fine Screening: removal of contaminants in between 0.001 and 6 mm
Efficiency regulated by altering the fineness of the screen openings.
The screen must be cleaned due to the blockage in the small openings
Highly recommended to regulate the temperature of the process
Less expensive and less complex process
Adsorption
Process of removing soluble substances by solid substrates of very specific surface area
Capable of very specific removal of the ECs
Accumulation of cyanotoxin in the adsorbent
Accurate and efficient removal
Difficult to remove the unknown type of contaminants, since adsorbents are highly specific
Can assist other treatment processes
Less complex and less expensive, adopted easy
Regulation of selectivity of the membranous system is difficult
Reverse osmosis requires external energy;
Biosorption
Immobilization of the microbes on absorbents
Efficient treatment
Absorbents need to be cleaned at a certain interval of time
Specific removal of certain ECs
Table 1.
Benefits and challenges of wastewater treatment technologies.
3.1 Preliminary treatment
Preliminary treatment helps in the removal of suspended materials like dead animals, papers, oils, grease, etc., from wastewater. Different components such as screening, accumulation and floatation tanks and skimming reservoir are used in preliminary treatment. The accumulation tank is used for the elimination of sand and grit while oils and greases are removed by floatation units and skimming tanks.
Figure 4.
Various treatment methods used for wastewater.
3.2 Primary treatment
In primary treatment, organic and inorganic components are removed by floatation and sedimentation processes. Throughout this treatment, untreated nitrogen, unrefined phosphorus, and heavy metals related with suspended impurities are drained off. This method reduces biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) ranges by 5–40%, 50–70% of entire floating particles and oil and grease up to 65% from wastewater. In various developed countries, primary treatment is required for the reuse of wastewater irrigation, i.e., for crops not used by humans.
3.3 Secondary treatment
The secondary or biological treatment is used to eliminate organic effluent that escapes from primary treatment. This method modifies organic matter and transforms it into stabilized form by oxidation or nitrification. This treatment method for sewage is divided into two groups known as filtration and activated sludge methods. Different filters such as contact beds, irregular sand and trickling filters are used in this treatment [25].
3.4 Tertiary treatment
Tertiary treatment is employed for the removal of specific effluents which cannot be completely removed by secondary method. During this process, around 99% of all contaminants are eliminated. This process removes inorganic substances such as nitrogen and phosphorous and recovers wastewater quality which can be reused for irrigation and drinking and have no harmful effect when discharged to the environment [25].
4. Available technologies for wastewater treatment
Generally, conventional wastewater treatment plants are not constructed to eliminate emerging contaminants. The occurrence of ECs in the environment affects public health, marine life and produces resistant bacteria, neurotoxin effects, endocrine interruption, and tumors. To eliminate these organic pollutants from water, several techniques such as membrane filtration, coagulation-flocculation, solvent extraction, ion exchange, catalytic oxidation, electrochemical oxidation, and precipitation, etc. have been tested (Figure 4). However, these techniques are less effective, very expensive and do not eliminate the contaminants completely from polluted water which makes this issue more challenging for the researchers. Besides these techniques, adsorption and photocatalytic degradation are considered potential approaches to remove wastewater contaminants [26].
4.1 Membrane filtration
Membrane technology is a physical method implemented to eliminate emerging contaminants from aquatic system. Membranes are formed from substances having filtering properties such as specific surface charge, pore size and hydrophobicity to remove suspended contaminants. Membrane filtration is categorized as ultra-filtration (UF), nano-filtration (NF), microfiltration (MF), forward osmosis (FO) and reverse osmosis (RO). Major membrane processes including forward osmosis, membrane refinement and electro-dialysis of the membrane have the ability to reduce emerging contaminants upto greater than 99% but still have not been executed on large scale [27].
The ultrafiltration technique works at low pressure for the removal of colloidal, suspended or dissolved pollutants depending on the membrane and pollutant type. UF has pore size in range of 0.001–0.1 μm which is larger than dissolved hydrated metals ions, thus easily pass through it. Polymer enhanced ultrafiltration (PEUF) and Micellar enhanced ultrafiltration (MEUF) processes were studied to enhance the removal efficiency of metal ions such as copper, zinc, chromate, arsenate, cadmium, nickel, serinium, and organics like phenol, o-cresol, etc.
Microfiltration has pore size ranges from 0.1 to 10 μm and is commonly operated at atmospheric pressure but cannot effectively remove contaminants of size greater than 1 μm. Reverse osmosis and forward osmosis depend on the osmotic pressure gradients and use semi-permeable membrane to efficiently remove dissolved particles up to 1 nm from water. Nanofiltration membrane possess small pore size ranges from 1 to 10 nm and have high competency for removal of ECs based on type of membrane and contaminant. NF can be used for removal of pharmaceuticals and natural hormones such as anti-inflammatory drugs, sulfonamide and fluoroquinolone antibiotics, testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone [28].
4.2 Coagulation-flocculation
Coagulation-flocculation process is effective for the elimination of larger colloidal or suspended particles of disperse dyes colored wastewater. Coagulation is a procedure in which dye solution systems are dispersed to form flocs and agglomerates while in flocculation aggregated flocs are joined to form larger agglomerates which settle down due to gravity [29]. Coagulation/flocculation is economically feasible and simply operated and commonly used in textile industries to purify wastewater. In this method, coagulants like lime (Ca(OH)2), ferric sulfate (Fe2(SO4)3∙7H2O), aluminum sulfate (Al2(SO4)3∙18H2O), and ferric chloride (FeCl3∙7H2O), combine with the pollutants and remove them by electrostatic interactions or sorption. Use of aluminum sulfate (Al2(SO4)3 for removal of pharmaceuticals such as betaxolol, chlordiazepoxide, bromazepam, warfarin and hydrochlorothiazide by coagulation-flocculation has been reported. This technique diminishes suspended matter, soluble dyes, colloidal particles and coloring agents from wastewater [30].
4.3 Solvent extraction
Solvent extraction is widely used technique for the elimination of organic and inorganic pollutants discharged into wastewater from various industries. It is based on three major operations. First is the extraction/transferring of solute particles to solvent from water. Secondly, the separation of solute from solvent and the third stage is the solvent recovery stage. Solvent extraction is mostly operated for exclusion of phenols, creosols and other phenolic acids from contaminated water containing low quantity of solute arising from petroleum processing plant, coke-oven plants in the steel and plastics manufacturing [31].
4.4 Adsorption
Adsorption is one of the most efficient techniques used for treating wastewater due to its simple design, high competence and ease of operation, capital cost, easy recovery, adaptability and technical feasibility without producing harmful by-products. This technique is not new but is recognized throughout the world because of removal capacity and regeneration of adsorbents. This technique has been broadly applied for both organic inorganic toxins from household and industrial wastewater [32]. Various research efforts have been devoted to discover low-cost adsorbents having large surface area and excellent binding capacity to enhance their adsorption efficiency. Different types of adsorbents, e.g., peat, bamboo dust, chitosan, silica gel, activated carbon,, fly ash, zeolites, metal organic frameworks nano-adsorbents for example carbon nanotubes and graphene have been applied for elimination of emerging contaminants [33, 34]. Activated carbon is widely used as traditional adsorbent because of highly porous surface area, convenient pore composition and thermo stability for removal of dyes and pharmaceutical products, e.g., 17β-estradiol, 17α-ethynylestradiol, bisphenol A, and fluoroquinolonic Caffeine from wastewater [35].
4.5 Advanced oxidation process
Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have been introduced as proficient technology in wastewater treatment. AOPs are based on the generation of hydroxyl (OH) or sulfate radicals for oxidation of ECs while sometimes ozone and UV irradiation are used for enhanced removal efficiency. AOPs methods efficiently remove biologically injurious or non-degradable compounds such as pesticides, aromatics, petroleum essentials and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) rather than transferring these to another phase. AOPs are applicable for the removal of many organic contaminants at the same time without producing any hazardous substance in water, as OH˙ is reduced to form H2O as byproduct. AOPs include ozonation (O3), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), electrochemical oxidation, Fenton process, UV light and photocatalytic process [36].
4.5.1 Non-photochemical processes
Ozonation: Ozone is an extremely efficient oxidizing agent and has the potential for elimination of organic and inorganic compounds from industrial effluents. It is a complex oxidation method. Pre-oxidation processes give significant development in biological degradation while post-oxidation process improves effluent quality. The limitation of ozonation is low solubility, stability and short half-life. O3/H2O2 and catalytic ozonation have been investigated for generation of hydroxyl radical which efficiently removed organic pollutants such as antibiotics, antiphlogistics, beta blockers, lipid regulators and their metabolites, natural estrogen estrone, antiepileptic drug carbamazepine and musk fragrances in wastewaters effluents.
Electrochemical method: Electrochemical procedure is generally applied for removal of toxic contaminants from textile effluents by direct or indirect oxidation. This procedure is commonly applied for elimination of ECs like dye by using either mercury electrode, graphite rod, boron doped diamond electrode, platinum foil or titanium/platinum as anode while SS304 is used as cathode in textile sewage treatment. This process is cost effective as minute amount of chemical is required and stability is easily attained by manipulating the electric current.
Fenton process: Reaction between ferrous iron and hydrogen peroxide is termed as Fenton’s reaction. Fenton method is used for removal of organic pollutants like phenols, reactive dyes and pesticides. Fenton process is of low cost as no energy is required for activating H2O2, environmental friendly, easy to control and efficient for elimination of organic pollutants.
4.5.2 Photolytic chemical process
4.5.2.1 Homogeneous photolytic chemical process
Ultraviolet lamp (UV): In this process oxidizing agent like H2O2 is initiated by UV process to produce OH˙ and can degrade micropollutants efficiently which can be affected by various parameters such as pH, structure of dye, composition of effluent and intensity of UV radiation. Generally, UV process occurs at standard wavelength of 254 nm at low pressure. A pilot plant with UV/H2O2produced hydroxyl radical to treat effluent, achieved 98% removal of mecoprop and diclofenac. O3/H2O2/UV processes were examined in treatment of textile effluent to achieve complete degradation [36].
Photo-fenton process: In this process, formation of hydroxyl radical is improved by UV light in the presence of Fe and competently degrades wastewater effluents. Fenton process and photo-fenton process are similar but in the later process mineralization is much better. Removal of numerous ECs like pharmaceuticals, beta blockers and pesticides excluding triclosan by photo-fenton process is enhanced significantly (95–100%).
4.5.2.2 Heterogeneous photolytic chemical process
Mostly semiconductor consists of two energy bands, high conduction band and low energy valence band and these two are separated by band gap. In heterogeneous processes, semiconductor sensitized photolytic chemical oxidation produces OH radical. Adsorption of photon having energy (≥band gap energy of catalyst) is needed for photocatalytic reaction to occur. ZnO, strontium titanium trioxide and TiO2 have been utilized extensively as photocatalysts for commercial application. Photo-catalysis is commonly used for dyestuff degradation from textile wastewater. Photocatalytic process enhances efficiency in the presence of H2O2 up to 100% for numerous pollutants such as bisphenol A, pesticides, pharmaceuticals [37].
4.6 Application of nanotechnology for ECs removal
Nanomaterials are generally defined as the materials having at least one dimension smaller than 100 nm. Nanomaterials have higher density and larger surface area resulting in increasing adsorption efficiency, surface reactivity, and resolution mobility. Current investigation in the exploitation of nanomaterials has facilitated the application of nanotechnology in wastewater treatment via adsorption, AOPs and filtration. Nanomaterials have been reported to effectively eliminate emerging contaminants from wastewater. A variety of nanomaterials have been reported for wastewater treatment (Figure 5) such as zerovalent metal nanoparticles, metal-oxide nanoparticles, carbon nanomaterials and nanocomposites [38].
Figure 5.
Various groups of nanomaterials.
4.6.1 Zerovalent metal nanomaterials
Zerovalent metal is a significant wastewater treatment nanomaterial which is highly reactive because of small size and high surface area. Recently, several zerovalent metal nanoparticles for example silver, zinc, iron, aluminum and nickel received attention of researchers for contaminant removal. Silver nanoparticles have potential antimicrobial properties and are generally used as disinfectant to eliminate a large amount of microorganisms, like viruses and bacteria, as well as fungi [39]. It is extremely reactive, cost effective, environment friendly and has multiple pathways for wastewater treatment. Iron nanomaterial can proficiently remove contaminants such as cadmium nitrates, colorant and antibiotics from wastewater by adsorption, redox reaction, and co-precipitation technique. Li et al. [40] reported two-step technique to form zero-valent metal nanomaterials covered with silica and polydopamine (nZVI/SiO2/PDA) for use as sorbent which shows high capacity, selectivity and reusability up to 10 cycles.
4.6.2 Metal-oxide nanomaterials
Metal-oxide nanomaterials like ferric oxides, manganese oxides, aluminum oxides and titanium oxides have been effectively utilized in removing noxious waste such as arsenic, uranium, phosphate, and organics. Titanium oxide nanomaterial is a capable photocatalyst having band gap of 3.2 eV with high photostability, low price and outstanding photocatalytic behavior. TiO2 nanomaterials are suitable for degradation of pollutants like organic chlorine, polycyclic aromatic compounds, pigments, phenols, pesticides, and heavy metals [41].
Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanomaterial is competent material for purifying wastewater having a strong oxidizing capacity, wide wavelength and admirable photocatalytic properties. ZnO nanomaterial is environment friendly and captures more light as compared to other metal oxides possessing semiconducting properties. Iron oxide nanoparticles have versatility and are available as potent sorbent material-removing heavy metals from wastewater [42].
4.6.3 Carbon-based nanomaterials
Carbon nanomaterials comprise distinctive structural and electronic properties duet to which they perform complex applications particularly in adsorption [43]. They have high adsorption capacity for removal of various pollutants, high surface area and aromatic selectivity. These nanomaterials are categorized as carbon beads, nonporous carbon, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and carbon fibers. CNTs have well-defined cylindrical structures, stronger physicochemical interactions, porosity, large surface area, adaptable hydrophobic side and high adsorption capacity for dichlorobenzene, ethylbenzene, dyes,Pb2+, Zn2+, Cd2+ and Cu2+ [44].
Another class is graphene-based nanomaterial which is a single carbon atom layer having honeycomb like structure [45]. Graphene oxide is a graphene layer consisting of hydroxyl, epoxy, carboxyl, and carbonyl groups and is identified for eradicating heavy metals such as lead, zinc, copper, cadmium, mercury and arsenic. Graphene hybrid with nanoparticles of manganese ferrite can be exploited to proficiently remove Pb(II), As(III), and As(V) from contaminated water. Rajabi et al. [46] compared the adsorption efficiency of MWCNTs and functionalized CNTs by varying experimental conditions including pH, times, and temperatures. From results it was clear that f-CNTs possess a higher removal capacity than pristine CNTs. The maximum removal capacity (166.7 mg g−1) of methylene blue (MB) with functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes (f-MWCNTs) was higher as compared to MWCNTs, which was 100 mg g−1.
5. Future challenges
Management of ECs in water sources is extremely challenging for humans. World population is increasing considerably every year, which leads to increase of freshwater demand for domestic use and also generate wastewater causing water deficiency. Besides, technological advancement, demand of water from cultivation, urban areas and industries, are main causes of water scarcity, resulting in adverse effects on environment. That is why, a highly efficient and low cost waste water management methods and society alertness is necessary.
Currently wastewater treatment is a difficult challenge as it has considerable effect on bio-physical environment and living organisms and depends on socioeconomic circumstances. Discovery of a general technique for complete elimination of all pollutants from wastewaters is complicated. A number of biological, physical, and chemical technologies for wastewater management have been studied to eliminate emerging pollutants but unable to identify best method to overcome challenges in operational obscurity, ecological impact, efficiency, feasibility, probability, and cost-efficiency. For enhanced removal, two or more techniques are merged to reach favorable water quality at low cost.
To overcome these challenges, some proposed potential directions in future are required as follows:
To incorporate new concepts such as nano-technology and genetic engineering for production of environment friendly and non-hazardous techniques for synthesis of nanoparticles for pollution degradation.
Effective assessment of treatment to select most suitable treatment technique depending on numerous parameters like water quality, environmental compatibility, consistency, elasticity, working and effective costs technique.
Apply green technologies on an industrialized scale like membrane filtration nanotechnology, and microbial fuel cells as competent and cost maintenance solution.
The exploration of cross treatment systems, e.g., combination of photo Vs electro-Fenton, UV photolysis, ozonation and biological treatment technologies is required for the development of the appropriate model.
6. Conclusion
Emerging contaminants are man-made toxic compounds discharged into wastewater. This chapter includes sources of emerging contaminants, their toxicity and treatment techniques. Pharmaceuticals, personal care products and fertilizers are the main sources of ECs. Their presence, even in small concentrations, cause toxic impacts on human health as well as marine organisms. They cannot be successfully eliminated by conventional wastewater treatment methods. Various treatment methods like membrane technology, coagulation-flocculation, solvent extraction, adsorption, advanced oxidation processes and nanotechnology have been discussed. These techniques have their advantages and limitations. Hybrid systems have been found more effective for EC elimination than individual techniques however they have issues regarding time, energy and cost. To overcome these limitations nanotechnology is a promising approach. Thus, comprehensive research on waste water treatment technologies which are technically and economically feasible is required to attain complete and efficient removal of ECs from contaminated water.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to convey their gratitude to National Centre of Excellence in Physical Chemistry, University of Peshawar for providing us necessary support.
\n',keywords:"wastewater treatment, membrane filtration, available technologies, effluents, emerging contaminants, nanotechnology, adsorption, personal care products, pharmaceuticals, aquatic environment",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81623.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81623.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81623",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81623",totalDownloads:12,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 18th 2022",dateReviewed:"March 11th 2022",datePrePublished:"May 12th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"May 3rd 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Emerging contaminants (ECs) include both natural and man-made compounds that have recently been found to be present in wastewater and have a harmful effect on human health and aquatic environment. Several ECs such as pharmaceuticals, antibacterial, hormones, synthetic dyes, flame retardants are directly or indirectly discharged from hospitals, agricultural, industrial and other sources to the environment. Strategies have been developed to overcome the challenges faced by contaminated water treatment technologists. Advanced treatment technologies such as physical, chemical, and biological methods have been studied for ECs removal as well as for reduction of effluents levels in discharged water. Techniques such as membrane filtration, adsorption, coagulation-flocculation, solvent extraction, ion exchange, photodegradation, catalytic oxidation, electrochemical oxidation, ozonation and precipitation, etc., have been investigated. Based on past research, these techniques significantly remove one or more pollutants but are insufficient to remove most of the toxic contaminants efficiently from wastewater. Nanomaterial incorporated technologies may be a proficient approach for removing different contaminants from wastewater. These technologies are costly because of high-energy consumption during the treatment of wastewater for reuse on large scale. Consequently, comprehensive research for the improvement of wastewater treatment techniques is required to obtain complete and enhanced EC removal by wastewater treatment plants.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81623",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81623",signatures:"Tahira Mahmood, Saima Momin, Rahmat Ali, Abdul Naeem and Afsar Khan",book:{id:"11173",type:"book",title:"Wastewater Treatment",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Wastewater Treatment",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Muharrem Ince and Dr. Olcay Kaplan Ince",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11173.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-847-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-846-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-848-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"258431",title:"Prof.",name:"Muharrem",middleName:null,surname:"Ince",slug:"muharrem-ince",fullName:"Muharrem Ince"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Emerging contaminants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Classification of ECs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Pesticides",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Pharmaceutical industry",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3 Personal care products (PCPs)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.4 Surfactants",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.1.5 Food additives",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.1.6 Flame retardants (FRs)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.2 Potential sources of emerging pollutants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.3 Toxicological effects of emerging contaminants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"3. Traditional wastewater treatment methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.1 Preliminary treatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.2 Primary treatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.3 Secondary treatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.4 Tertiary treatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"4. Available technologies for wastewater treatment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.1 Membrane filtration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.2 Coagulation-flocculation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"4.3 Solvent extraction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"4.4 Adsorption",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"4.5 Advanced oxidation process",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"4.5.1 Non-photochemical processes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"4.5.2 Photolytic chemical process",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_4",title:"4.5.2.1 Homogeneous photolytic chemical process",level:"4"},{id:"sec_23_4",title:"4.5.2.2 Heterogeneous photolytic chemical process",level:"4"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"4.6 Application of nanotechnology for ECs removal",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_3",title:"4.6.1 Zerovalent metal nanomaterials",level:"3"},{id:"sec_27_3",title:"4.6.2 Metal-oxide nanomaterials",level:"3"},{id:"sec_28_3",title:"4.6.3 Carbon-based nanomaterials",level:"3"},{id:"sec_31",title:"5. 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National Centre of Excellence in Physical Chemistry, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan
National Centre of Excellence in Physical Chemistry, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan
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All Works published by IntechOpen prior to October 2011 are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license (CC BY-BC-SA 3.0). Works published after October 2011 are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license (CC BY 3.0), the latter allowing for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
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All Works licensed under CC BY-BC-SA 3.0 can be freely translated and used for non-commercial purposes. Works licensed under CC BY 3.0 license can be freely translated and used for both commercial and non-commercial purposes.
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Book Chapters
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All translated Chapters have to be properly attributed in accordance with the requirements included in IntechOpen's Attribution Policy. Besides proper attribution translated sections of Works must include the following sentence: "This is an unofficial translation of a work published by IntechOpen. The publisher has not endorsed this translation".
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Books and all other compilations
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All rights to Books and other compilations are reserved by IntechOpen. The copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a Copyright separate from any that exists in the included Works.
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A Book in its entirety, or a significant part of a Book, cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Requests for permission can be made at permissions@intechopen.com.
All Works licensed under CC BY-BC-SA 3.0 can be freely translated and used for non-commercial purposes. Works licensed under CC BY 3.0 license can be freely translated and used for both commercial and non-commercial purposes.
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Book Chapters
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All translated Chapters have to be properly attributed in accordance with the requirements included in IntechOpen's Attribution Policy. Besides proper attribution translated sections of Works must include the following sentence: "This is an unofficial translation of a work published by IntechOpen. The publisher has not endorsed this translation".
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Books and all other compilations
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All rights to Books and other compilations are reserved by IntechOpen. The copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a Copyright separate from any that exists in the included Works.
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Policy last updated: 2016-06-09
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Radiation treatment of aqueous systems contaminated with organic compounds is a promising method of water and wastewater purification and corresponding technologies are being developed. In this chapter, the following aspects of radiation treatment process are considered: sources of contamination and major contaminants of water and wastewater; primary processes in aqueous systems initiated by ionizing radiation; principal ways of contaminant conversion as consequences of primary processes (complete mineralization of organic compounds, partial decomposition of organic molecules resulted in detoxification, decolorization, disinfection of polluted water, and improvement in biological degradation of contaminant, polymerization of monomers’ contaminants, oxidation-reduction processes, and coagulation of colloids); sources of ionizing radiation; and main equipment applied in radiation technologies of aqueous system purification.",book:{id:"6149",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effects-and-applications",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications"},signatures:"Igor E. Makarov and Alexander V. Ponomarev",authors:[{id:"213652",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Makarov",slug:"igor-makarov",fullName:"Igor Makarov"},{id:"213657",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Ponomarev",slug:"alexander-ponomarev",fullName:"Alexander Ponomarev"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"32842",title:"Sterilization by Gamma Irradiation",slug:"sterilization-by-gamma-irradiation",totalDownloads:74725,totalCrossrefCites:36,totalDimensionsCites:82,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"Kátia Aparecida da Silva Aquino",authors:[{id:"102109",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:"Aparecida Da S.",surname:"Aquino",slug:"katia-aquino",fullName:"Katia Aquino"}]},{id:"32837",title:"Environmental Gamma-Ray Observation in Deep Sea",slug:"environmental-gamma-ray-observation-in-deep-sea-",totalDownloads:2898,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"Hidenori Kumagai, Ryoichi Iwase, Masataka Kinoshita, Hideaki Machiyama, Mutsuo Hattori and Masaharu Okano",authors:[{id:"108174",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidenori",middleName:null,surname:"Kumagai",slug:"hidenori-kumagai",fullName:"Hidenori Kumagai"},{id:"108237",title:"Dr.",name:"Masa",middleName:null,surname:"Kinoshita",slug:"masa-kinoshita",fullName:"Masa Kinoshita"},{id:"137650",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryoichi",middleName:null,surname:"Iwase",slug:"ryoichi-iwase",fullName:"Ryoichi Iwase"},{id:"137656",title:"Dr.",name:"Hideaki",middleName:null,surname:"Machiyama",slug:"hideaki-machiyama",fullName:"Hideaki Machiyama"},{id:"146918",title:"Dr.",name:"Mutsuo",middleName:null,surname:"Hattori",slug:"mutsuo-hattori",fullName:"Mutsuo Hattori"},{id:"146919",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaharu",middleName:null,surname:"Okano",slug:"masaharu-okano",fullName:"Masaharu Okano"}]},{id:"58998",title:"Ionizing Radiation-Induced Polymerization",slug:"ionizing-radiation-induced-polymerization",totalDownloads:1756,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Ionizing radiation can induce some kinds of reactions, other than polymerization, such as dimerization, oligomerization, curing, and grafting. These reactions occur through a regular radical chain causing growth of polymer by three steps, namely, initiation, propagation, and termination. To understand ionizing radiation-induced polymerization, the water radiolysis must be taken into consideration. This chapter explores the mechanism of water molecules radiolysis paying especial attention to the basic regularities of solvent radicals’ interaction with the polymer molecules for forming the crosslinked polymer. Water radiolysis is the main engine of the polymerization processes, especially the “free-radical polymerization.” The mechanisms of the free-radical polymerization and crosslinking will be discussed in detail later. Since different polymers respond differently to radiation, it is useful to quantify the response, namely in terms of crosslinking and chain scission. A parameter called the G-value is frequently used for this purpose. It represents the chemical yield of crosslinks, scissions and double bonds, etc. For the crosslinked polymer, the crosslinking density increases with increasing the radiation dose, this is reflected by the swelling degree of the polymer while being immersed in a compatible solvent. If crosslinking predominates, the crosslinking density increases and the extent of swelling decreases. If chain scission predominates, the opposite occurs. A further detailed discussion of these aspects is presented throughout this chapter.",book:{id:"6149",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effects-and-applications",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications"},signatures:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy",authors:[{id:"212371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamady Ghobashy",slug:"mohamed-mohamady-ghobashy",fullName:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy"}]},{id:"53780",title:"Gamma-Ray Spectrometry and the Investigation of Environmental and Food Samples",slug:"gamma-ray-spectrometry-and-the-investigation-of-environmental-and-food-samples",totalDownloads:2477,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Gamma radiation consists of high‐energy photons and penetrates matter. This is an advantage for the detection of gamma rays, as gamma spectrometry does not need the elimination of the matrix. The disadvantage is the need of shielding to protect against this radiation. Gamma rays are everywhere: in the atmosphere; gamma nuclides are produced by radiation of the sun; in the Earth, the primordial radioactive nuclides thorium and uranium are sources for gamma and other radiation. The technical enrichment and use of radioisotopes led to the unscrupulously use of radioactive material and to the Cold War, with over 900 bomb tests from 1945 to 1990, combined with global fallout over the northern hemisphere. The friendly use of radiation in medicine and for the production of energy at nuclear power plants (NPPs) has caused further expositions with ionising radiation. This chapter describes in a practical manner the instrumentation for the detection of gamma radiation and some results of the use of these techniques in environmental and food investigations.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Markus R. Zehringer",authors:[{id:"311750",title:"Dr.",name:"Markus R.",middleName:null,surname:"Zehringer",slug:"markus-r.-zehringer",fullName:"Markus R. Zehringer"}]},{id:"54118",title:"Gamma Rays from Space",slug:"gamma-rays-from-space",totalDownloads:2005,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"An overview of gamma rays from space is presented. We highlight the most powerful astrophysical explosions, known as gamma-ray bursts. The main features observed in detectors onboard satellites are indicated. In addition, we also highlight a chronological description of the efforts made to observe their high energy counterpart at ground level. Some candidates of the GeV counterpart of gamma-ray bursts, observed by Tupi telescopes, are also presented.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Carlos Navia and Marcel Nogueira de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"189908",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Navia",slug:"carlos-navia",fullName:"Carlos Navia"},{id:"243084",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"marcel-de-oliveira",fullName:"Marcel De Oliveira"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1220",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",slug:"j.-kevin-summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:17,paginationItems:[{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81557",title:"Object Tracking Using Adapted Optical Flow",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102863",signatures:"Ronaldo Ferreira, Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira and António José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"object-tracking-using-adapted-optical-flow",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81558",title:"Thresholding Image Techniques for Plant Segmentation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104587",signatures:"Miguel Ángel Castillo-Martínez, Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes, Blanca E. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. 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Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. 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