Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
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Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10237",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Innovation in the Food Sector Through the Valorization of Food and Agro-Food By-Products",title:"Innovation in the Food Sector Through the Valorization of Food and Agro-Food By-Products",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book presents an integrated and multidisciplinary approach to quality and innovation in the food sector with particular emphasis on consumer perception of quality. Chapters cover such topics as identification of environmental variables, practices crops, and cultivars to improve nutritional and functional quality of different food matrices; increased preservation of biodiversity through the use of genetic resources; nutritional and functional characterization of food matrices; and evaluation of the main bioactive substances that give food its functional qualities.",isbn:"978-1-83880-683-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-682-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-690-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91078",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"innovation-in-the-food-sector-through-the-valorization-of-food-and-agro-food-by-products",numberOfPages:302,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"c3a5a3c7f7999d68f04ae49ff0553f3d",bookSignature:"Ana Novo de Barros and Irene Gouvinhas",publishedDate:"July 14th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10237.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5549,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:19,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:25,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 29th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 20th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 19th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 7th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 6th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"260510",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Novo de Barros",slug:"ana-novo-de-barros",fullName:"Ana Novo de Barros",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260510/images/system/260510.png",biography:"Ana Novo de Barros is an assistant professor with habilitation in the Chemistry Department, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal where she is also the director of the Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB). She is the author of more than eighty-five international peer-reviewed papers and holder of eight national and international patents. She has supervised eight Ph.D. theses and forty master’s theses. Her main research area is the valorization of by-products of different industries, giving an added-value for the circular economy and industrial symbiosis. She has been working in the evaluation of antimicrobial activity against gastrointestinal and diabetic foot wound bacteria of hospital patients, in the concept of One Health.",institutionString:"CITAB - Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"260130",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Irene",middleName:null,surname:"Gouvinhas",slug:"irene-gouvinhas",fullName:"Irene Gouvinhas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260130/images/system/260130.jpg",biography:"Irene Gouvinhas is a full-time integrated researcher at the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), Portugal, where she is collaborating on several R&D projects. She works in the areas of agrarian sciences and natural sciences with emphasis on the valorization of the major agrifood industrial by-products and waste for the recovery of compounds for several industrial applications. In her relatively short research career, she has already participated in several research projects funded by both national and European funds. She is the author of twenty-five JCR-indexed papers in specialized journals and two book chapters.",institutionString:"Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"36",title:"Food Science",slug:"food-science"}],chapters:[{id:"76797",title:"Winery By-Products as Source of Bioactive Compounds for Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Industries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97881",slug:"winery-by-products-as-source-of-bioactive-compounds-for-pharmaceutical-and-cosmetic-industries",totalDownloads:251,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It is well established in the scientific community that agro-food wastes represent economic advantages and contribute to circular economy. For instance, wine industries of Região Demarcada do Douro involve the production of large quantities of by-products, such as stem, pomace, trimmed vine shoots, or wine lees, presenting a remarkable valuable composition in phytochemicals with putative health-promoting qualities. Nevertheless, the bioactive compounds obtained from these natural sources depends on the extraction process employed. In order to reduce production costs and optimize processes, new technologies—such as ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE)—have been employed to decrease energy consumption and increase the product or process safety/control and quality. This work aims to characterize the phenolic compounds extracted from winery by-products (WBPs), namely grape stems, grape pomace, and wine lees of two grape (Vitis vinifera L.) varieties (Sousão and Tinta Barroca) from the same geographical site, as well as the antioxidant capacity. Wine lees and grape stems presented the highest concentration of phenolic compounds and the highest antioxidant capacity for Tinta Barroca variety, while grape pomace presented the highest values of these parameters for Sousão variety, demonstrating the high influence of the variety studied. Furthermore, wine lees revealed to be the winery by-product with the lowest antioxidant capacity and content of phenolics. These by-products revealed to be a rich source of phenolic compounds with high antioxidant capacities reveling to be of interest for pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.",signatures:"Irene Gouvinhas and Ana Barros",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76797",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76797",authors:[{id:"260510",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana",surname:"Novo de Barros",slug:"ana-novo-de-barros",fullName:"Ana Novo de Barros"},{id:"260130",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Irene",surname:"Gouvinhas",slug:"irene-gouvinhas",fullName:"Irene Gouvinhas"}],corrections:null},{id:"77164",title:"Food Waste and Agro By-Products: A Step towards Food Sustainability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96177",slug:"food-waste-and-agro-by-products-a-step-towards-food-sustainability",totalDownloads:576,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Utilization of food/agricultural waste is having challenge and necessity in day to day life. It’s an important aspect for all the industries (food) for the process of modification and recovery. The main aim is to minimize deterioration and maximize utilization of food which will lead to less problems in waste management and environment pollution. In some of the meat packaging and food processing industries, waste utilization treatment has been implemented for successful and substantial processing. In need of growing demands of high nutritive and cheap price foods, requirements are getting high simultaneously with increasing world population. So, there is urgent need of nutrient recovery from wasted utilization and sources of food/feed will help to reduce the shortage of world food supplies to the coming generation.",signatures:"Ajita Tiwari and Roshna Khawas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77164",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77164",authors:[{id:"219288",title:"Dr.",name:"Ajita",surname:"Tiwari",slug:"ajita-tiwari",fullName:"Ajita Tiwari"},{id:"351854",title:"Dr.",name:"Roshna",surname:"Khawas",slug:"roshna-khawas",fullName:"Roshna Khawas"}],corrections:null},{id:"74342",title:"Valorization Technologies of Marine By-Products",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95031",slug:"valorization-technologies-of-marine-by-products",totalDownloads:367,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Generally, in different countries, strategies to improve food security have focused on increasing food production, which contributes to climate pollution and increases stress on scarce natural resources such as water and land. Due to the increase of world population (estimated to be 9 milliards in 2050), to the limited biological resources and to the increase of environmental pollution, there is a need in innovation in food industry. This can be done by improving food quality through new technologies for valorization of food and food by-products. According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), one third of world food production is lost or wasted along the food supply chain. In the sector of fisheries and aquaculture, 35% of the world’s harvest is lost or wasted each year. Thus, the valorization of marine by-products should be an obligation to assure the world food security and to satisfy the growing demand for fishery products. The objectives of this study are: First to review the sources of by-products and their characteristics and second to describe and evaluate the different technologies that are or can be used to valorize marine by-products in production of marine oils and concentrated fatty acids.",signatures:"Amar Kaanane and Hind Mkadem",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74342",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74342",authors:[{id:"321353",title:"Prof.",name:"Amar",surname:"Kaanane",slug:"amar-kaanane",fullName:"Amar Kaanane"},{id:"328100",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Hind",surname:"Mkadem",slug:"hind-mkadem",fullName:"Hind Mkadem"}],corrections:null},{id:"74479",title:"Animal Waste and Agro-by-Products: Valuable Resources for Producing Fish at Low Costs in Sub-Saharan Countries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95057",slug:"animal-waste-and-agro-by-products-valuable-resources-for-producing-fish-at-low-costs-in-sub-saharan-",totalDownloads:279,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Animal and crop production throughout the world generate high amounts of wastes or by-products annually that may possess added value compounds with high functionality. These wastes and by-products may cause negative environmental impacts and significant expenses if not well managed and or controlled. Much of these wastes and by-products is valuable and cheaper source of potentially functional compounds such as proteins, lipids, starch, micronutrients, bioactive compounds, and dietary fibbers. In aquaculture, feed is expensive, and the existing body of literature has shown that animal manure and its extracts can be successfully incorporated into fishpond to increase fish production at a low cost. In addition, crop residues such as rice bran, maize bran, and seed cakes are commonly used as pond inputs in small-scale aquaculture. Animal waste and crop residues are added in a fishpond that filter-feeding fish can use directly as feed, and these may form a major proportion of the detritus in the pond. These resources also stimulate the growth of phytoplankton that are rich in protein and are the basis of the food web that can support the growth of a range of herbivorous and omnivorous fish. Therefore, technically, wastes are used as direct feed, a source of minerals for autotrophic production and a source of organic matter for heterotrophic production. In this context, animal manure and crop residues have been used to provide great opportunities to improve food security. The purpose of this review is to project the potential of animal waste and agro-by-products as a sustainable alternative as aquaculture inputs to reduce poverty, malnutrition, and hunger in developing countries.",signatures:"Renalda N. Munubi and Hieromin A. Lamtane",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74479",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74479",authors:[{id:"321709",title:"Dr.",name:"Renalda N.",surname:"Munubi",slug:"renalda-n.-munubi",fullName:"Renalda N. Munubi"},{id:"321966",title:"Dr.",name:"Hieromin A.",surname:"Lamtane",slug:"hieromin-a.-lamtane",fullName:"Hieromin A. Lamtane"}],corrections:null},{id:"76309",title:"Innovation in Food Products Using Ozone Technology: Impact on Quality Assurance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96681",slug:"innovation-in-food-products-using-ozone-technology-impact-on-quality-assurance",totalDownloads:349,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ozone application is a non-thermal technology used in food preservation, which is a powerful oxidant agent used in water and air treatment specially in disinfection processes for agriculture and food industry. The objective of this revision work is to publicize ozone applications in the growing, harvest, and postharvest handling of fruit and vegetables (F & V) across México. Ozonated water by foliar spraying and irrigation were proved to be effective in the control of pathogens, bacteria, and bugs. The use of Ozone was effective to heighten quality parameters of F & V, such as color, flavor, and soluble solids in mango, sugarcane, citric fruits, and nopal, increasing shelf life of fresh products up to 15 days after harvesting. Several protocols mentioned to fulfill the requirements of the producer were developed by TRIO3. The methodology proposed and the designed equipment by the company suggest a wider approach of this green technology in agriculture.",signatures:"Carlos Martín Enríquez-Castro, Manuel Pérez-Nafarrate and Jesús Enrique Gerardo Rodríguez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76309",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76309",authors:[{id:"321378",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Manuel",surname:"Pérez Nafarrate",slug:"manuel-perez-nafarrate",fullName:"Manuel Pérez Nafarrate"},{id:"328180",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Martín",surname:"Enriquez Castro",slug:"carlos-martin-enriquez-castro",fullName:"Carlos Martín Enriquez Castro"},{id:"352013",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús",surname:"Gerardo",slug:"jesus-gerardo",fullName:"Jesús Gerardo"}],corrections:null},{id:"76866",title:"Advanced Optical Technologies in Food Quality and Waste Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97624",slug:"advanced-optical-technologies-in-food-quality-and-waste-management",totalDownloads:265,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Food waste is a global problem caused in large part by premature food spoilage. Seafood is especially prone to food waste because it spoils easily. Of the annual 4.7 billion pounds of seafood destined for U.S. markets between 2009 and 2013, 40 to 47 percent ended up as waste. This problem is due in large part to a lack of available technologies to enable rapid, accurate, and reliable valorization of food products from boat or farm to table. Fortunately, recent advancements in spectral sensing technologies and spectroscopic analyses show promise for addressing this problem. Not only could these advancements help to solve hunger issues in impoverished regions of the globe, but they could also benefit the average consumer by enabling intelligent pricing of food products based on projected shelf life. Additional technologies that enforce trust and compliance (e.g., blockchain) could further serve to prevent food fraud by maintaining records of spoilage conditions and other quality validation at all points along the food supply chain and provide improved transparency as regards contract performance and attribution of liability. In this chapter we discuss technologies that have enabled the development of hand-held spectroscopic devices for detecting food spoilage. We also discuss some of the analytical methods used to classify and quantify spoilage based on spectral measurements.",signatures:"John Chauvin, Ray Duran, Stanley Ng, Thomas Burke, Kenneth Barton, Nicholas MacKinnon, Kouhyar Tavakolian, Alireza Akhbardeh and Fartash Vasefi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76866",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76866",authors:[{id:"218045",title:"Dr.",name:"Fartash",surname:"Vasefi",slug:"fartash-vasefi",fullName:"Fartash Vasefi"},{id:"321891",title:"Dr.",name:"Kouhyar",surname:"Tavakolian",slug:"kouhyar-tavakolian",fullName:"Kouhyar Tavakolian"},{id:"323020",title:"Dr.",name:"Ray",surname:"Duran",slug:"ray-duran",fullName:"Ray Duran"},{id:"323021",title:"Mr.",name:"John",surname:"Chauvin",slug:"john-chauvin",fullName:"John Chauvin"},{id:"323022",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanley",surname:"Ng",slug:"stanley-ng",fullName:"Stanley Ng"},{id:"323023",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicholas",surname:"MacKinnon",slug:"nicholas-mackinnon",fullName:"Nicholas MacKinnon"},{id:"415078",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Burke",slug:"thomas-burke",fullName:"Thomas Burke"},{id:"415079",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenneth",surname:"Barton",slug:"kenneth-barton",fullName:"Kenneth Barton"}],corrections:null},{id:"74619",title:"Innovation in the Seafood Sector through the Valorization of By-Products",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95008",slug:"innovation-in-the-seafood-sector-through-the-valorization-of-by-products",totalDownloads:342,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Aquatic, marine and algae, is reservoir of bioactive compounds, which have considerable potential to supply novel ingredients toward the development of commercial functional food products. Meanwhile, several valuable by-products generate during the manufacturing process. Seafood is still an intact reservoir of valuable compounds with significant potential to provide unique compounds applicable in functional food development. Seafood, as an important part of the diet all around the world, can be used as a source of functional components that are positively affecting the human health. Annually, 50–80 percent of the seafood processing is discarded as waste every year. Algae are also the novel natural resources for their biological and pharmacological properties. This chapter will be discussing the innovations in seafood and algae sector through the valorization of their by-products. Firstly, protein production, its characterization and the protein hydrolysates derived from seafood will be reviewed. Subsequently, bioactivity of the peptides obtained from these protein hydrolysates and other bioactive compounds such as carotenoid compounds derived from seafood including fish, shrimp, alga, and so on will be included. Finally, the main components of algae including sulfated polysaccharides, pigments and proteins will be surveyed.",signatures:"Marzieh Moosavi-Nasab, Najme Oliyaei, Jong-Bang Eun and Armin Mirzapour-Kouhdasht",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74619",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74619",authors:[{id:"23669",title:"Prof.",name:"Jong Bang",surname:"Eun",slug:"jong-bang-eun",fullName:"Jong Bang Eun"},{id:"140271",title:"Prof.",name:"Marzieh",surname:"Moosavi-Nasab",slug:"marzieh-moosavi-nasab",fullName:"Marzieh Moosavi-Nasab"},{id:"285671",title:"Mr.",name:"Armin",surname:"Mirzapour-Kouhdasht",slug:"armin-mirzapour-kouhdasht",fullName:"Armin Mirzapour-Kouhdasht"},{id:"327651",title:"Dr.",name:"Najme",surname:"Oliyaei",slug:"najme-oliyaei",fullName:"Najme Oliyaei"}],corrections:null},{id:"74287",title:"Valorization of Native Nuts from Brazil and Their Coproducts",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95056",slug:"valorization-of-native-nuts-from-brazil-and-their-coproducts",totalDownloads:323,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The consumption of nuts as part of a healthy diet and active lifestyle has long been associated with chronic disease prevention. Nuts and their coproducts such as oil, cake, plant-based milk substitutes, flour, and shell are rich in lipids, proteins, phenolics, and other bioactive compounds. Nut flour also presents interesting physical properties, such as water or oil holding capacity, foam properties, emulsifying activity, and emulsion stability. These biological and physical properties make these products commercially attractive as organic ingredients in several foods such as spreads, bakery products, and cereal bars. In this chapter, the nutritional and bioactive profiles, as well as the evidenced health-promoting effects of nuts originating from Brazil, will be discussed. The focus will be on commercial nuts such as cashews, pecan, and Brazil nuts, along with some underexplored and relatively unknown indigenous species, such as sapucaia, chichá, monguba, and pracaxi. The knowledge of these Brazilian native nuts and their coproducts is important for stimulating their consumption among the population and their large-scale commercialization.",signatures:"Renan Danielski, Gabriela Polmann and Jane Mara Block",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74287",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74287",authors:[{id:"321864",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane Mara",surname:"Block",slug:"jane-mara-block",fullName:"Jane Mara Block"},{id:"321885",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabriela",surname:"Polmann",slug:"gabriela-polmann",fullName:"Gabriela Polmann"},{id:"321886",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Renan",surname:"Danielski",slug:"renan-danielski",fullName:"Renan Danielski"}],corrections:null},{id:"74237",title:"Bioactive Peptides from Agriculture and Food Industry Co-Products: Peptide Structure and Health Benefits",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94959",slug:"bioactive-peptides-from-agriculture-and-food-industry-co-products-peptide-structure-and-health-benef",totalDownloads:230,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Co-products from food processing are typically disposed or turned into low value animal feed. Proteinaceous co-products can be converted to bioactive peptides exerting health benefits, which can lead to development of nutraceuticals and functional foods. This is an effective means for valorization of these co-products. The release of encrypted peptides exhibits various bioactivities, including antihypertension, antioxidant, immunomodulatory activities among others, in vitro, and some activities have been demonstrated in vivo. Structure modification of bioactive peptides occurring under gastrointestinal digestion and cellular transport remains the important factor determining the health benefits of bioactive peptides. Understanding peptide transformation in gastrointestinal tract and in blood circulation before reaching the target organs would shed some lights on its bioavailability and subsequently ability to exert physiological impact. In this chapter, the potential health promoting properties of peptides encrypted in various sources of co-products will be reviewed based on evidence on in vitro, in vivo and clinical trial studies. Structural changes of bioactive peptides under physiological condition will also be discussed in relation to its bioactivities.",signatures:"Jirawat Yongsawatdigul and Ali Hamzeh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74237",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74237",authors:[{id:"321395",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jirawat",surname:"Yongsawatdigul",slug:"jirawat-yongsawatdigul",fullName:"Jirawat Yongsawatdigul"},{id:"327672",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Hamzeh",slug:"ali-hamzeh",fullName:"Ali Hamzeh"}],corrections:null},{id:"74962",title:"The Potential of Lutein Extract of Tagetes erecta L. Flower as an Antioxidant and Enhancing Phagocytic Activity of Macrophage Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95965",slug:"the-potential-of-lutein-extract-of-em-tagetes-erecta-em-l-flower-as-an-antioxidant-and-enhancing-pha",totalDownloads:291,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Marigold flower (Tagetes erecta L.) produces lutein compounds which present biological activities such as antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antimutagenicity, and immunomodulatory effects. The study was to investigate the antioxidant activity of the lutein of T. erecta L. and the effect of lutein on the activity and phagocytic capacity of macrophage cells. The antioxidant screening was carried out using diphenyl picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2′-and-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging assay with serial concentrations and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) method. For the observation of activity and phagocytic capacity of peritoneal macrophages, twenty-eight mice were used and divided into seven groups each comprising four replicates, i.e., Group (I) normal controls, mice were untreated (II) a negative control, mice were induced by Staphylococcus aureus (III) positive control, mice were induced by S. aureus and treatment of meniran extract (Phyllanthus niruri). The treatment group (IV-VII) mice were induced by S. aureus and treated crude lutein, respectively: 0.15 mg, 0.30 mg, 0.60 mg, and 0.90 mg. 20 g−1 of body weight. The lutein extracted from T. erecta shows an antioxidant activity against DPPH radical with an IC50 value of 53.58 μg.ml−1, while the antioxidant activity against ABTS has an IC50 value of 72.91 μg.ml−1. The antioxidant activity test results by the FRAP method at each lutein concentrations of 10, 25, 50, and 75 ppm were obtained respectively of 33, 88, 185.5, and 288.5 μmol Fe2+/g extract. The data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA and Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) after. The phagocytic activity was 45.5%; 54.75%; 57.50% and 67.0%, respectively, while the phagocytic capacity values were 355; 519; 611 and 767 S. aureus bacterial cells per 50 macrophage cells. The lutein from marigolds (T. erecta L.) is capable of scavenging free radicals and reducing oxidants. Lutein can increase the activity and capacity of phagocytic of peritoneum macrophage cells in mice.",signatures:"Kusmiati Kusmiati, Fifi Afiati, Chrisna Widhiani, Alpinna Aditia, Destia D. Elviani and Atit Kanti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74962",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74962",authors:[{id:"280616",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Kusmiati",surname:"Kusmiati",slug:"kusmiati-kusmiati",fullName:"Kusmiati Kusmiati"},{id:"280619",title:"Dr.",name:"Fifi",surname:"Afiati",slug:"fifi-afiati",fullName:"Fifi Afiati"}],corrections:null},{id:"74286",title:"Utilization of Starch in Food and Allied Industries in Africa: Challenges and Prospects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95020",slug:"utilization-of-starch-in-food-and-allied-industries-in-africa-challenges-and-prospects",totalDownloads:398,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The shortage of food supply has affected the food situation in most developing tropical countries, resulting into a high incidence of hunger and malnutrition. This has also affected the attainment of self sufficiency in starch production for food, pharmaceutical and industrial usage. The review critically appraised the challenges that food and allied industries are facing on the utilization of starch as their major raw material. Information on various conventional and non conventional starch sources were provided, starch forms, properties and recent advances in starch modification methods were discussed. Starch applications in food and allied industries were mentioned and various challenges facing common starch sources were stated. Possibly, utilization of unconventional lesser known crops as starch sources might broadening the present narrow commonly cultivated starch sources, while value addition and good agricultural practices might improve the productivity of conventional starch sources.",signatures:"Akeem Olayemi Raji",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74286",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74286",authors:[{id:"321702",title:"Dr.",name:"Akeem Olayemi",surname:"Raji",slug:"akeem-olayemi-raji",fullName:"Akeem Olayemi Raji"}],corrections:null},{id:"71124",title:"Genes Involved in Lipid Metabolism in Coconut",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90998",slug:"genes-involved-in-lipid-metabolism-in-coconut",totalDownloads:208,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L) is an economically important monocot plant grown in tropical and subtropical regions. Coconut oil is stored in a solid endosperm and has 47.48–50.5% fatty acid component as lauric acid (C12:0). Present research showed that acyl-acyl carrier protein thioesterases (FatA/B) and lysophosphatidic acid acyltransferase (LAAPT) are key enzymes determining medium-chain fatty acid accumulation in coconut oil. Among five CnFatB genes, CnFatB3 expressed specifically in endosperm and in vitro experiment showed that this gene made mainly lauric acid (C12:0) and tetradecenoic acid (C14:1). Overexpression of CnFatB3 in Arabidopsis increased the amounts of C12:0 and C14:0 in transgenic plant. CnLPAAT gene that is expressed specifically in coconut endosperm showed a preference for using acyl-CoAs containing C10:0, C12:0, and C14:0 acyl groups as acyl-donor substrates. Coconut and oil palm are closely related species with approximately 50% lauric acid (C12:0) in their endosperm. The two species have a close evolutionary relationship between predominant gene isoforms and high conservation of gene expression bias in the lipid metabolism pathways. Moreover, since no stable transformation system has been constructed in coconut palm, gene function validations have been done in vitro, or genes transformed into a heterologous system.",signatures:"Wei Xia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71124",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71124",authors:[{id:"301933",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",surname:"Xia",slug:"wei-xia",fullName:"Wei Xia"}],corrections:null},{id:"74425",title:"Gums—Characteristics and Applications in the Food Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95078",slug:"gums-characteristics-and-applications-in-the-food-industry",totalDownloads:746,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Gums, or polysaccharides, are complex carbohydrates, soluble in water, which can form gels and mucilages. They have high molar mass and can be formed by galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, xylose, galacturonic acid, among others. They have gelling characteristics, thickening, moisture retention, emulsification and stabilization. Polysaccharides are widely used in the formulation of food products, due to their wide versatility. Its diversity of applications is closely linked to its chemical structures. The characterization of structural molecules allows the knowledge of the properties of polysaccharides or glycoconjugates. In this sense, this chapter addresses knowledge about chemical, molecular, rheological, thermodynamic characteristics that are extremely important to identify the use and applications of polysaccharides in the context of elaboration and innovation in the food industry.",signatures:"Diego Aires da Silva, Giselle Cristine Melo Aires and Rosinelson da Silva Pena",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74425",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74425",authors:[{id:"325075",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Diego",surname:"Aires da Silva",slug:"diego-aires-da-silva",fullName:"Diego Aires da Silva"},{id:"329221",title:"MSc.",name:"Giselle Cristine",surname:"Melo Aires",slug:"giselle-cristine-melo-aires",fullName:"Giselle Cristine Melo Aires"},{id:"339855",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosinelson",surname:"Da Silva Pena",slug:"rosinelson-da-silva-pena",fullName:"Rosinelson Da Silva Pena"}],corrections:null},{id:"74285",title:"A Review on Effects of Pseudo Cereals Flour on Quality Properties of Biscuit, Cookies and Cake",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94972",slug:"a-review-on-effects-of-pseudo-cereals-flour-on-quality-properties-of-biscuit-cookies-and-cake",totalDownloads:336,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Gluten free products are currently highly demandable by those with different gluten intolerances. Pseudo cereals are a category of non-grass seeds used to manufacture various gluten free products, including bread, biscuits, cakes, and cookies. Pseudo cereal seeds contain high-quality proteins, rich quantities and unique characteristics of starch, vast amounts of micronutrients such as minerals, vitamins along with diverse bioactive compounds. This chapter is focused on other resentful research work on the characteristics of pseudo cereals seeds and pseudo cereals flour. It also reveals different effects of pseudo cereal flour on physical-chemicals properties of biscuit, cake, and cookie. We think that this study will have a significant influence on product developers and customers on the use of pseudo cereal seeds and pseudo cereals flour.",signatures:"Abu Saeid and Maruf Ahmed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74285",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74285",authors:[{id:"262702",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Maruf",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"dr.-maruf-ahmed",fullName:"Dr. Maruf Ahmed"},{id:"321524",title:"Mr.",name:"Abu",surname:"Saeid",slug:"abu-saeid",fullName:"Abu Saeid"}],corrections:null},{id:"73436",title:"Valorization Options of Strawberry Extrudate Agro-Waste. A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93997",slug:"valorization-options-of-strawberry-extrudate-agro-waste-a-review",totalDownloads:596,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This review summarizes and critically analyzes the different types of potential valorization options for strawberry extrudate in order to have a broader overview of the potential management of this waste. Animal feed is commonly used as a management option for the strawberry extrudate; however, most of the strawberry extrudate is disposed in landfills. Strawberry extrudate contains different bioactive compounds that encourage the use of an alternative management approach than landfilled. The present review offers a complete comparative, including the advantages and drawbacks of each reviewed technique, to facilitate the selection of the most suitable technology for the different valorization scenarios. This review has been structured in three sections: 1. Composition of the strawberry extrudate and strawberry especially focused on their content in bioactive compounds. 2. The different techniques of extraction and purification of bioactive compounds. 3. The handling and management of the resulting biomass after the extraction process of bioactive compounds.",signatures:"Juan Cubero-Cardoso, Antonio Serrano, Ángeles Trujillo-Reyes, Denys K. Villa-Gómez, Rafael Borja and Fernando G. 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In his initial model (Correa et al., 1975), Correa postulated that both deleterious and protective exposures could modulate the progression towards intestinal type cancers, by acting in different stages of the pathway. With the rediscovery of Helicobacter pylori in 1984 (Marshall & Warren, 1984) and the gradual recognition of its role as a carcinogen, the model was redefined to accommodate the causal relation between H. pylori infection and gastric cancer (Correa, 1992), assuming that its effects were exerted at the early phases of gastric carcinogenesis (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Gastric carcinogenesis model for the carcinomas of Laurén intestinal type, according to the proposed by Pelayo Correa (Correa, 1992)+ positive associations (increase the risk of gastric cancer); – negative associations (decrease the risk of gastric cancer).
The models proposed by Pelayo Correa more than 15 years ago still provide the essential framework for research on gastric carcinogenesis. The understanding of potentially alternative pathways, the more accurate definition of the endpoints for research, and the identification of the carcinogenesis steps where each of the gastric cancer causal components may act will contribute for a better understanding of cancer aetiology and support the development of preventive strategies.
2.1. The effect of risk factors for gastric cancer across the carcinogenesis pathway
The research on the determinants of gastric cancer precursors has been less extensive than for the cancer endpoints. In Table 1 we present a summary of the systematic reviews and meta-analyses of research conducted to assess the determinants of the lesions that precede the cancer. The contribution of these findings for improvement of the currently accepted gastric carcinogenesis model will be discussed in the following sections of this chapter.
Author, year (ref)
Exposure
Outcome
Databases searched
Number of studies included
Main results
Adamu, 2010 (Adamu et al., 2010)
H. pylori infection
CAG incidence
MEDLINE, EMBASE
14
H. pylori-infected vs. uninfected RR=5.0 (95%CI: 3.1-8.3)
Includes studies with follow-up periods ranging from 5 to 32 years
Peleteiro, 2010 (Peleteiro et al., 2010b)
IL1RN VNTR IL1B-511 TNFA-308
CAG prevalence IM prevalence
PubMed
15
IL1RN VNTR (22 vs. LL) CAG and IM: OR=2.27 (95%CI: 1.40-3.70) CAG: OR=1.65 (95%CI: 1.02-2.66) IM: OR=2.27 (95%CI: 1.14-4.51)
IL1B-511 (TT vs. CC) CAG and IM: OR=1.34 (95%CI: 0.87-2.07) CAG: OR=1.20 (95%CI: 0.70-2.05) IM: OR=1.94 (95%CI: 1.14-3.31)
TNFA-308 (AA vs. GG) CAG and IM: OR=0.93 (95%CI: 0.35-2.43)
Dias-Neto, 2010 (Dias-Neto et al., 2010)
Salt intake
IM prevalence
PubMed
17
Salted/salty meat intake (highest vs. lowest exposure) OR=1.68 (95%CI: 0.98-2.90)
Preference for salted/salty foods or use of table salt (highest vs. lowest exposure) OR=1.53 (95%CI: 0.72-3.24)
Weck, 2008 (Weck & Brenner, 2008)
H. pylori infection
CAG prevalence evaluated by: - gastroscopy with biopsy - PG I only - PG I/PG II ratio - combi-nation of PG I and PG I/PG II ratio
MEDLINE
66
H. pylori-infected vs. uninfected Gastroscopy with biopsy: OR=6.4 (95%CI: 4.0-10.1) PG I only *: OR=0.9 (95%CI: 0.7-1.2) PG I/PG II ratio: OR=7.2 (95%CI: 3.1-16.8) Combination of PG I and PG I/PG II ratio: OR=5.7 (95%CI: 4.4-7.4) All methods: OR=4.7 (95%CI: 3.7-6.0) All methods, except PG I only: OR=6.1 (95%CI: 4.8-7.7)
Peleteiro, 2008 (Peleteiro et al., 2008)
H. pylori infection Smoking
IM prevalence
PubMed
22
Systematic review for identification of estimates for IM prevalence among H. pylori-infected subjects in different populations and ecological analysis of the association with smoking
Pearson correlation coefficient = 0.45 (p=0.02)
Rokkas, 2007 (Rokkas et al., 2007)
H. pylori eradica-tion
CAG incidence IM incidence
MEDLINE
8
H. pylori-eradicated vs. placebo CAG in the antrum: OR=0.554 (95%CI: 0.372-0.825) CAG in the corpus: OR=0.209 (95%CI: 0.081-0.538) IM in the antrum: OR=0.795 (95%CI: 0.587-1.078) IM in the corpus: OR=0.891 (95%CI: 0.633-1.253)
Includes studies with follow-up periods ranging from 10 to 137 months
Table 1.
Summary of systematic reviews and meta-analyses † addressing the role of genetic and environmental factors on the occurrence of gastric precancerous lesionsCAG – chronic atrophic gastritis; RR – relative risk; VNTR – variable number tandem repeat; IM – intestinal metaplasia; OR – odds ratio; PG – pepsinogen.* the magnitude of the association depends on the method used to assess atrophy; previous studies showed that PG I alone had a low sensitivity for serological definition of chronic atrophic gastritis (Miki, 2006).† systematic reviews and meta-analyses were identified through PubMed search, from its inception to December 2010, under the following expression (gastritis OR chronic OR atroph* OR intestinal metaplasia OR dysplasia) AND (gastric OR stomach) AND (helicobacter pylori OR gene OR polymorphism OR SNPs OR smoking OR tobacco OR cigarette OR salt OR antioxidant OR diet OR lifestyle OR environmental OR behaviour) AND (meta-analysis OR "systematic review").
2.1.1. The role of Helicobacter pylori infection
The association between H. pylori infection and gastric cancer is well established, with several meta-analyses reporting an odds ratio of approximately 2 (Figure 2). The prevalence of H. pylori infection is high (74% in developing and 58% in developed countries, on average) and nearly two-thirds of all gastric cancers occurring worldwide are attributed to it (Parkin, 2006).
Pelayo Correa proposed that H. pylori infection acted at the early phases of the carcinogenesis based on the fact that the inflammatory reaction could disappear after clearance of the bacteria with antibiotic treatment (Correa, 1992), and this has received support from several lines of evidence. On the one hand, the longer the lag between the assessment of H. pylori infection status and the diagnosis of gastric cancer, the stronger is the association between infection and cancer (Helicobacter and Cancer Collaborative Group, 2001; Huang et al., 1998), as H. pylori clearance tends to occur with the progression to the cancer endpoint (Gao et al., 2009; Kokkola et al., 2003). Case-control designs tend to underestimate the relation between infection and gastric cancer, but studies that used more sensitive methods to detect past infection or restricted the analysis to less advanced cases yielded stronger relative risk estimates (Brenner et al., 2004; Ekstrom et al., 2001; Mitchell et al., 2008; Peleteiro et al., 2010a). On the other hand, this is also in accordance with the stronger associations observed between H. pylori and precancerous lesions (Table 1) than with gastric cancer, as depicted in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Meta-analyses on the association between Helicobacter pylori infection and chronic atrophic gastritis, and gastric cancer (Adamu et al., 2010; Cavaleiro-Pinto et al., 2011; Danesh, 1999; Eslick et al., 1999; Helicobacter and Cancer Collaborative Group, 2001; Huang et al., 1998; Weck & Brenner, 2008; Xue et al., 2001).
A direct correlation between H. pylori prevalence and gastric cancer rates is not observed when countries with different patterns of infection and gastric cancer risk are considered, namely because some of them present low gastric cancer incidences despite the high prevalences of infection, the so-called African and Asian enigmas (Holcombe, 1992; Miwa et al., 2002). In the latter settings, the cancer precursor lesions, especially intestinal metaplasia, are also less frequent than expected given the high prevalence of infection (Campbell et al., 2001; Carrilho et al., 2009; Kalebi et al., 2007; Kidd et al., 1999; Oluwasola & Ogunbiyi, 2004), supporting the hypothesis that H. pylori infection acts before their development (in earlier steps of the carcinogenesis) and that other genetic and/or environmental exposures modulate the progression towards cancer (Campbell et al., 2001; Louw et al., 2001; Lunet & Barros, 2003; Mitchell et al., 2002).
2.1.1.1. The impact of Helicobacter pylori eradication
Since the recognition of the causal link between H. pylori and gastric cancer, research has focused on the potential of eradication of the infection as preventive tool. Some clinical trials concluded that H. pylori eradication reduces gastric cancer risk (Fuccio et al., 2009; Ito et al., 2009) (Figure 3). However, one of the trials (Wong et al., 2004) analysed separately the subjects with and without precancerous lesions, and eradication of H. pylori infection was significantly associated with a decreased risk of developing gastric cancer only among the
Figure 3.
Meta-analyses on the association between Helicobacter pylori eradication and incidence of chronic atrophic gastritis, intestinal metaplasia, and gastric cancer (Fuccio et al., 2009; Ito et al., 2009; Rokkas et al., 2007).* this report refers to a systematic review but does not include a meta-analysis, and summary estimates were computed by the authors of this chapter based on the results presented for each individual study.
latter, supporting the hypothesis of the effects of infection in the early stages of gastric carcinogenesis. This is also in accordance with the lack of association between eradication and cancer in a trial conducted in Colombia, which only included subjects with gastric precancerous lesions at baseline evaluation (Correa et al., 2000; Mera et al., 2005).
Also, a meta-analysis from Rokkas et al. (Rokkas et al., 2007) estimated the long-term impact of H. pylori eradication on the incidence of gastric precancerous lesions (Table 1), with significant reduction in chronic atrophic gastritis risk but not for intestinal metaplasia (Figure 3).
Taken together, these results support the irreversibility of intestinal metaplasia, since H. pylori eradication must occur before a point of no return in order to be effective. This represents one more piece of evidence of an early role for H. pylori infection in the gastric carcinogenesis, as it leads to intestinal metaplasia but must be complemented with other factors for progression towards cancer.
2.1.2. The role of lifestyle factors
Although H. pylori infection is the most important gastric cancer determinant, only a small proportion of infected subjects will reach this endpoint (Hsu et al., 2007; Uemura et al., 2001), and several other potential causal components have to be considered.
2.1.2.1. Smoking
Stomach cancer is now considered a tobacco-related cancer, with 17% of cases among men and 11% among women being attributed to it in the more developed countries (IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2004). Compared to never-smokers, current smokers have a 20% (among women) to 62% (among men) higher risk of gastric cancer, while gastric cancer is 16% (among women) to 34% (among men) more frequent in former smokers (Ladeiras-Lopes et al., 2008). This shows that the interruption of the exposure to tobacco contributes to a reduction in gastric cancer risk, supporting that its effects are exerted at the later steps of carcinogenesis. Furthermore, the risk of cancer was higher in subjects quitting smoking more recently (summary RR for studies with a mean/median follow-up time < 10 vs. ≥ 10 years: 1.39, 95%CI: 1.30-1.49 vs. 1.09, 95%CI: 0.95-1.25, among men) (Ladeiras-Lopes et al., 2008), in accordance with the hypothesis that smoking acts predominantly by promoting the progression from the more advanced precursor lesions to cancer.
Among lifestyle exposures, the relation between smoking and precancerous lesions, especially intestinal metaplasia, has been the more extensively studied, but no systematic reviews of studies quantifying this association are available. The individual reports that have been published yielded relative risk estimates ranging from 1.42 to 4.91 (Kim et al., 2008; Mesquita et al., 2006). An ecological analysis showed a strong correlation between apparent tobacco consumption and the frequency of intestinal metaplasia among H. pylori-infected subjects (Peleteiro et al., 2008), suggesting that the low cigarette consumption observed in developing countries may be a contributory factor for the disruption of the carcinogenesis pathway, precluding the progression to the more advanced lesions. This was also supported by another ecological analysis that showed lower gastric cancer incidence rates in settings with high prevalence of infection and low apparent tobacco consumption than in those where smoking was more frequent (Lunet & Barros, 2003).
Taken together, these results are indicative of a role for smoking in the stages closer to cancer.
2.1.2.2. Salt
The proposed mechanisms by which salt can cause gastric cancer are either the direct damage of the gastric mucosa causing excessive cell replication or an indirect effect by increasing of the mutagenic potential of N-nitroso compounds, which is compatible with the action of salt intake at the initial and late stages of gastric carcinogenesis, respectively (Correa, 1992). More recently, it was shown that the damage caused by salt may also increase gastric H. pylori colonization (Fox et al., 1999; Nozaki et al., 2002), which is also supportive of an early role in the pathway.
Many methodological limitations preclude valid measurements of salt consumption (Chen et al., 1990), and the excretion of sodium in urine over a 24-h period is the method that reflects more accurately the sodium ingested from different sources (World Cancer Research Fund & American Institute for Cancer Research, 2007). The latter, however, was used only in an ecological study assessing the association between salt and intestinal metaplasia (ECP-EURONUT, 1994).
The summary estimates for the relation between total salt use and gastric cancer obtained in the World Cancer Research Fund meta-analysis correspond to a relative risk of approximately 2 (Figure 4). However, only 17 of the 71 studies identified trough systematic review were included in the meta-analysis, due to the large heterogeneity in the presentation of results (World Cancer Research Fund & American Institute for Cancer Research, 2007).
Figure 4.
Meta-analyses on the association between salt intake and intestinal metaplasia, and gastric cancer (Dias-Neto et al., 2010; World Cancer Research Fund & American Institute for Cancer Research, 2007).
In the meta-analysis conducted by Dias-Neto et al. (Dias-Neto et al., 2010), salted/salty meat intake and preference for salted/salty foods or use of table salt were associated with an approximately 60% increased risk of intestinal metaplasia (Figure 4), but the authors concluded that the large methodological heterogeneity and in the presentation of the results did not allow a more comprehensive quantitative synthesis or a conclusive overall interpretation of the findings.
The evidence currently available on this topic precludes definite conclusions on the magnitude of the effects of salt consumption, overall and in different steps of carcinogenesis.
2.1.2.3. Antioxidants
Based on the inverse association between ingestion of fresh fruits and vegetables and gastric cancer observed in epidemiological studies, antioxidants such as ascorbic acid and beta-carotene were postulated to play a protective role in the stages closer to cancer by acting as free-radical scavengers (Correa, 1992). This protective effect of fruits and vegetables, however, seems to be weaker than initially expected. The summary estimates from several meta-analyses on this topic are closer to 1 when derived from cohort studies, ranging from 0.89 to 0.95 for fruits intake and from 0.89 to 0.98 for vegetables consumption (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Meta-analyses on the association between salt intake and Meta-analyses on the association between fruits and vegetables intake and gastric cancer (Lunet et al., 2005; Lunet et al., 2007; Riboli & Norat, 2003; World Cancer Research Fund & American Institute for Cancer Research, 2007).
However, a stronger protective effect was observed in studies with a follow-up of 10 or more years (OR=0.66, 95%CI: 0.52-0.83 for fruits and OR=0.71, 95%CI: 0.53-0.94 for vegetables in incidence studies) (Lunet et al., 2005), which may be seen as evidence of a relatively early effect of these factors in the gastric carcinogenesis pathway. Research on this topic having cancer precursor lesions as the outcome has seldom been conducted, with few studies reporting conflicting results regarding chronic atrophic gastritis and intestinal metaplasia (Jedrychowski et al., 1999; Kato et al., 2004; Kuwahara et al., 2000; Sierra et al., 2008).
Although it is plausible that naturally occurring antioxidants may inhibit the carcinogenesis progression, there is limited evidence on the specific steps where these factors may act.
2.1.2.4. N-nitroso compounds
N-nitroso compounds were hypothesized to act in gastric carcinogenesis by promoting the synthesis of carcinogens via nitrosation reactions (Correa, 1992). Processed meat is often an important source of exposure to carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds, and a meta-analysis of studies that quantified the association between processed meat consumption and stomach cancer found stronger associations for case-control studies (case-control vs. cohort: OR=1.63, 95%CI: 1.31-2.01 vs. OR=1.24, 95%CI: 0.98-1.56) (Larsson et al., 2006). The relation between these exposures and cancer precursor lesions has seldom been addressed (Sobala et al., 1991; You et al., 1996) and the effect of these compounds in the gastric carcinogenesis pathway remains to be fully understood.
2.1.3. The role of genetic factors
The genetic profile of the individuals was not included in the first versions of the model proposed by Correa (Correa, 1992; Correa et al., 1975) but, along with the advent of new technologies and their use in epidemiological research, several studies addressing the association between genetic polymorphisms and gastric cancer have been conducted. In the aetiological model of gastric cancer, individual genetic susceptibility may be critical in a variety of processes relevant to gastric carcinogenesis, namely mucosal protection, inflammatory response, carcinogen detoxification, antioxidant protection, DNA repair and oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes expression. The most widely studied polymorphisms, and for which more promising results have been achieved, are those related to proinflammatory cytokines, namely within interleukin-1 (IL1) and tumour necrosis factor α (TNFA) gene clusters.
2.1.3.1. Cytokine gene polymorphisms
H. pylori infection induces both interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) production, and these cytokines inhibit gastric acid secretion, leading to the development of gastric precancerous lesions and cancer (El-Omar et al., 2000; Hwang et al., 2002). The IL1B gene codes for the IL-1β and the IL1RN gene for an anti-inflammatory cytokine, interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra). Polymorphisms within the IL1B gene increase IL-1β expression and IL-1ra binds to the IL-1 receptors, modulating the pro-inflammatory effects of IL-1β. Regarding the IL1RN gene, a variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) polymorphism has been detected within intron 2, and five allelic variants have been identified in the number of repeats varying from 2 to 6 (El-Omar, 2001; Gonzalez et al., 2002). The ability of H. pylori to infect and remain in the human stomach induces a chronic inflammatory response, which may be of variable magnitude depending on the genetic make-up of the host. Most of the single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) studied are situated in the gene promoter region and play important roles in modulating gene expression and thus the inflammatory response.
Previous meta-analyses have shown an increased gastric cancer risk associated with polymorphisms in IL1RN, IL1B-511 and TNFA-308 (Figure 6). The IL1RN*22 genotype increases the risk of gastric precancerous lesions, suggesting a role for this polymorphism in the early stages of gastric carcinogenesis, while positive associations between IL1B-511 TT genotype and gastric precancerous lesions only became apparent when studies addressing intestinal metaplasia as the outcome were considered (Figure 6). These associations were
Figure 6.
Meta-analyses on the association between cytokine gene polymorphisms and chronic atrophic gastritis, intestinal metaplasia, and gastric cancer (Camargo et al., 2006; Gorouhi et al., 2008; Kamangar et al., 2006; Loh et al., 2009; Peleteiro et al., 2010b; Vincenzi et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2007).
stronger among studies conducted in samples with high H. pylori prevalence, in accordance to what is known about the gene function and its potential interaction with infection. No overall association was found for TNFA-308 AA genotype (Figure 6).
2.2. Other markers of gastric cancer development
The currently available evidence shows no substantial aetiological differences between the main Laurén subtypes, despite the relatively small number of studies addressing the effect of environmental exposures on the risk of gastric cancer according to histological subtypes (Figures 2 and 5). This may partially reflect misclassification of the histological type, due to inter-observer variability, the type of specimen available for diagnosis, and the proportion of tumours classified as unknown (Carneiro et al., 2007).
An additional concern is the ability for the classification proposed by Laurén to define aetiologically homogeneous subgroups of gastric cancer cases. The cascade of events that involve intestinal differentiation is mediated by CDX1 and/or CDX2 (Guo et al., 2004), and may result in the development of both intestinal and diffuse gastric carcinoma (Almeida et al., 2003). In particular, CDX2 expression is regarded as a marker of the intestinal epithelial phenotype, and the transdifferentiation of normal epithelia has been experimentally induced by changes in local environment (Marchetti et al., 2003), which supports the hypothesis that environmental exposures may modulate the CDX2 expression. This may be seen as an early marker of intestinal differentiation, that may be used as an endpoint occurring in the gastric carcinogenesis pathway even earlier than chronic atrophic gastritis or intestinal metaplasia. Research relying on these tools to define the outcomes is still scarce (Yuasa et al., 2009; Yuasa et al., 2005), but may be important to understand the aetiological heterogeneity of gastric cancer.
Histopathological and histochemical studies allowed the identification of two main types of intestinal metaplasia. The complete, also designated type I, and the incomplete, comprising types II and III (Filipe & Jass, 1986). In the classical multistep model of the gastric precancerous process, incomplete follows complete intestinal metaplasia sequentially (Correa, 1992). However, according to the patterns of mucin expression observed within each intestinal metaplasia type, it has been hypothesised that the complete and incomplete types of intestinal metaplasia may represent two alternative pathways, rather than successive steps; or that type II may represent a first step in the pathway, which may evolve to type I or to type III (Reis et al., 1999). The evaluation of specific risk factors for these endpoints may clarify the gastric carcinogenesis pathways and the role of environmental exposures in the aetiology of cancer (Peleteiro et al., 2007; Pintalhao et al., 2010).
3. Conclusion
The accumulated evidence so far led to the gradual acceptance and better understanding of the role of H. pylori infection and smoking in gastric carcinogenesis. For other exposures, however, there is much less robust evidence on the magnitude of the associations or their role throughout carcinogenesis. This allows an update of the model proposed by Correa, that still provides the best framework for gastric cancer etiological research, taking into account the evidence generated in the last two decades (Figure 7).
Research relying on more accurate tools to define specific gastric cancer subtypes and the evaluation of specific risk factors for early endpoints in the gastric carcinogenesis pathway may further contribute to the understanding of gastric cancer aetiology.
Figure 7.
Framework for the carcinogenesis pathway leading to gastric cancer, taking into account the model proposed by Correa (Correa, 1992) and the more robust evidence gathered up to 2010.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/19876.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/19876.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19876",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19876",totalDownloads:2219,totalViews:334,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:59,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 29th 2010",dateReviewed:"May 21st 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 15th 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/19876",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/19876",book:{id:"351",slug:"gastritis-and-gastric-cancer-new-insights-in-gastroprotection-diagnosis-and-treatments"},signatures:"Bárbara Peleteiro and Nuno Lunet",authors:[{id:"53069",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Bárbara",middleName:null,surname:"Peleteiro",fullName:"Bárbara Peleteiro",slug:"barbara-peleteiro",email:"barbarap@med.up.pt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"58911",title:"Prof.",name:"Nuno",middleName:null,surname:"Lunet",fullName:"Nuno Lunet",slug:"nuno-lunet",email:"nlunet@med.up.pt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58911/images/3622_n.jpg",institution:{name:"University of Porto",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Gastric carcinogenesis models",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. The effect of risk factors for gastric cancer across the carcinogenesis pathway",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1. The role of Helicobacter pylori infection",level:"3"},{id:"sec_2_4",title:"2.1.1.1. The impact of Helicobacter pylori eradication",level:"4"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.2. The role of lifestyle factors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_4",title:"2.1.2.1. Smoking",level:"4"},{id:"sec_5_4",title:"2.1.2.2. Salt",level:"4"},{id:"sec_6_4",title:"2.1.2.3. Antioxidants",level:"4"},{id:"sec_7_4",title:"2.1.2.4. N-nitroso compounds",level:"4"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.1.3. The role of genetic factors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_4",title:"2.1.3.1. Cytokine gene polymorphisms",level:"4"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"2.2. Other markers of gastric cancer development",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"3. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'AdamuM. A.WeckM. 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Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Predictive Medicine and Public Health, University of Porto Medical SchoolInstitute of Public Health – University of Porto (ISPUP), Portugal
Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Predictive Medicine and Public Health, University of Porto Medical SchoolInstitute of Public Health – University of Porto (ISPUP), Portugal
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1. Introduction
Medicinal plants are getting more demand because of their distinctive features as an abundant source of curative phytochemicals that may be used to develop new medications. Approximately 20% of all known plants have been employed in pharmacological investigations, positively improving the healthcare system by treating cancer and other ailments [1]. Many of these medicinal plants are good sources of phytochemicals like polyphenols, carotenoids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and vitamins that possess antioxidant activities. Today, medicinal plants are finding diverse use in society from medicine to cosmetics, nutraceuticals, herbal drinks, herbal foods, and other articles in their daily uses. Plant phytoconstituents are created as secondary metabolites, which are produced through a variety of biological routes in secondary metabolism. The choice of solvents for extracting phytoconstituents from plants is critical. A suitable solvent has an appropriate extraction capacity as well as the ability to maintain the chemical structure of the desired molecules stable [2].
Green technologies are increasingly being employed in practically every scientific sector to promote ecologically acceptable activities that do little or no harm to humans. Ionic liquids, aqueous biphasic systems, and pressurized hot water have all become attractive research topics in recent years [3]. Traditional techniques of extracting phytoconstituents require the use of more powerful and toxic solvents (nonenvironmentally friendly), as well as more energy. Each method’s extraction time varies, ranging from minutes to 7 days in the case of maceration [4]. Another problem is that none of the current plant processing methods meets all the economical, safety, and scalability requirements. Other concerns include security hazards, solvent toxicity, and the existence of solvent remnants in the extracts. The high cost of feedstock, the high cost of extracting desirable bioactive compounds, their comparatively low yield, and the resulting substantial concentration of residual waste biomass are the major roadblocks to commercially viable phytochemical production [5]. In many process sectors, microwave-assisted extractions like ultrasound-assisted extraction, pulsed electric field extraction, and molecular distillation have been reported. Green chemistry, as ecological and economic chemistry, could be one of the solutions to humanity’s future [6]. The entire process of green extraction of phytoconstituents from natural sources is concluded in the Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Extraction of crude drugs using green solvent, green extraction process, and purification techniques.
2. Green extraction
A vast diversity of plants, animals, and microorganisms can produce a wide spectrum of chemical compounds with amazing health-care properties in nature. Science is steadily changing our world by finding the possibilities of natural products [7]. Natural product extraction has been practised since civilization. Extraction methods are used in the perfume, cosmetics, pharmaceutical, food, and chemicals sectors. Recent extraction technique advancements have mostly focused on creating solutions that employ lower solvents [8].
Soxhlet extraction, maceration, and hydro distillation (HD) are examples of traditional/conventional extraction processes. The choice of specific solvents has a considerable impact on any extraction rate. The polarity of the target biochemical is the most significant factor to consider, and when choosing a solvent, the solvent’s molecular affinity for the solute, as well as its environmental friendliness, toxicity, and economic efficiency, must all be considered. Simple, safe, repeatable, low-cost, and adaptable to a variety of applications are all desirable characteristics in an extraction procedure. High-temperature extraction (e.g., Soxhlet technique, HD) has been shown to cause changes in the composition due to phytoconstituent degradation [9].
To circumvent the constraints of classic extraction procedures, green extraction techniques can be employed to extract phytoconstituents from plants. The majority of these include less harmful chemical synthesis, nontoxic chemicals, safe solvent aides, energy efficiency patterns, use of sustainable feedstock, fewer derivatives, catalysis, design to avoid deterioration, and time scheduling for pollution avoidance, hazardous air pollutants, and naturally safer chemistry for safety programs. The development of effective and selective technologies for extracting and isolating bioactive phytoconstituent is crucial. This article aims to provide a detailed overview of green solvents employed, as well as the methods for extracting and isolating natural compounds form natural sources. Green solvents can help to improve old procedures significantly, especially when incorporated with new and novel methodologies. Hydrolysis of cellulose from biomass with supercritical water and the extraction of hydrophobic compounds using supercritical CO2 are few examples of green extraction process.
3. Solvent selection for green extraction
Solvents, their vapors, and mists have a variety of health impacts. Many contain narcotic properties, causing lethargy, dizziness, carcinogens, etc. Solvents irritate the eyes and respiratory system, as well as causing skin problems. High doses can cause unconsciousness and death in certain people. Petroleum-based solvents, which are mostly sourced from fossil fuels, are commonly utilized in various stages of the analytical process [10]. Solution preparation, extraction, and enrichment of phytoconstituents, washing of extracts, solvent exchange, sample preservation, dilution, cleaning of glassware, liquid desorption, derivatization, analytical separation, and detection are all activities that involve solvents in phytochemistry. A suitable solvent has an appropriate extraction capacity as well as the ability to maintain the chemical structure of the desired molecules stable.
3.1 Water
Water is one such “green” solvent that can have its properties changed by changing the temperature. Water’s polarity allows it to be employed as an extraction solvent for both natural and inorganic substances that are aqueous soluble, like proteins, carbohydrates, and organic acids. Water is an important green solvent for the extraction of phytoconstituents. It has no harmful health or environmental consequences [11]. Furthermore, it is the safest and cheapest solvent. The technology used has an impact on the extractability of biologically active chemicals. Water is used as the only extractant in several ways, including decoction, infusion, and hydro distillation. Water as a solvent can be used in a variety of traditional and modern procedures. Extraction with pressurized hot water is one of the most promising new green extraction techniques and procedures, especially in a dynamic mode [11]. Water, on the other hand, has several drawbacks in terms of the less solubility of nonpolar molecules and energy required to enrich products. This difficulty can be overcome in part by employing supercritical water or a mixture of alcohol and water.
When using hydro distillation, high temperatures and long distillation times might cause volatiles to change and be lost. Supercritical water extraction (SWE) was shown to have a quicker extraction time, cheaper costs, and higher purity than hydro distillation. In terms of oxygenated components, SWE’s products yielded higher valuable essential oil. To boost extraction yields, microwave-assisted extraction with water as a solvent has been proposed.
3.2 Alcohol
Alcohols like methanol, ethanol, and isopropyl alcohol have similar solvent properties such as solvent strengths, dielectrics, critical points, and hydrogen donating abilities. However, due to its nontoxic nature, ethanol has ascended to the top [12]. Alkanes (heptane, hexane) and simple alcohols (methanol, ethanol) are healthier for the environment than dioxane, acetonitrile, acids, formaldehyde, and tetrahydrofuran [13]. The main disadvantage of alcohol is that they are flammable and some of them are toxic (i.e., methanol). In addition, extended exposure to their vapors can also lead to health problems.
3.3 Supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2)
CO2 as a liquid or supercritical solvent possesses multiple features of an admirable green solvent. They are incombustible, nonpoisonous, nonenvironmentally harmful, plentiful, inexpensive, easy to produce, simple to eliminate from a product, do not add to smog, and do not contribute to global warming [14]. Purified CO2 is produced, pressurized, and cooled to a liquid state at 20 psi and −20°C before being stored or transported in insulated bulk containers for use in a variety of liquid and supercritical CO2 processes. The viscosity of CO2 is extremely low, and supercritical CO2 has negligible surface tension [15]. The strong diffusivity, along with the low viscosity, causes significant improvements in the condensed phases. Supercritical fluid extraction of a crude drug is achieved by passing supercritical CO2 over a column packed drug material. Until the substrate is depleted, supercritical CO2 travels over the column of packed material and dissolves soluble components. The loaded solvent is then transported through a separator, where the soluble components precipitate as pressure and temperature are reduced. The CO2 is recirculated once it has been condensed. It is employed in the removal of caffeine from coffee and tea, the removing fatty material from cacao, the production of hops extracts, sesame seed oil, and pesticide extraction from rice. Under high pressure, SC CO2 is used to extract triglycerides and volatile compounds. Volatile, triglyceride and phenolic chemicals etc. are extricated at high pressure (300–400 bars) with EtOH. Add water or alcohols like ethanol or iso-propyl-alcohol to the SC-CO2 extraction has already been used to modify the polarity [16].
3.4 Deep eutectic solvents (DES)
DES is formed when the melting point of a mixture of substances is much lower than the melting points of the two constituents. A hydrogen bond donor (HBD) and a hydrogen bond acceptor (HBA) are required to build a DES system, and when mixed in the right proportions, they generate a novel “mesh” of hydrogen-bond-interconnected molecules with remarkable physicochemical features [17]. Their extraordinary physicochemical features (like ionic liquids) combined with remarkable green properties, low cost, and ease of handling are piquing researchers’ attention in a variety of sectors. The eutectic composition of DESs is formed by heating and stirring two or more solid starting components to generate a transparent, viscous homogenous liquid. Other techniques involve grinding (combining and powdering solid components till clear liquid forms), evaporation (dissolving all starting elements in water and then removing the water via evaporation at reduced pressure), and freeze-drying (dissolving all starting components in water and then draining the water via evaporation at reduced pressure).
Among them, heating and stirring below the melting points of the individual constituents is possibly the most acceptable method [18]. Because DESs are nonflammable and nonvolatile, they are easier to store. They are also biodegradable, unlike standard organic solvents. Furthermore, DES manufacture is cost-effective, simple to run, and requires no modification, making their use on a broad scale possible. DESs can be made by mixing molecules derived from natural sources (e.g., glycerol and glucose), which makes them environmentally friendly. Within the HBD section, polymerized deep eutectic solvents (PDEs) are a novel category of DESs that can be polymerized [17].
The high viscosity of DES is a key disadvantage that can limit their usage as extraction solvents since it prevents the solvent from penetrating the extraction matrix. Although increasing the temperature of the extraction process helps reduce viscosity, this is not always the best solution because it consumes energy, and some heat-sensitive phytochemicals may not withstand the higher temperature. The addition of a co-solvent to the extraction medium is a straightforward technique to remedy this problem. Most of the time, this co-solvent is water, which keeps the process green; nevertheless, organic solvents like methanol have also been utilized. Alkaloids, phenolic acids, flavonoids, and saponins are all extracted using DES [19].
The DES is called natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) when amino acids, organic acids, sugars etc. are used to make DES [20]. Due to the natural nature of its ingredients, NADESs are deemed environmentally beneficial and “readily biodegradable,” and the resulting extracts can use in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics preparations. Because of their great stability and solubilization properties, NADES is ideal candidates to replace traditional solvents. NADESs combinations have efficiently extracted bioactive compounds including flavonoids, phenolic acids, alkaloids, natural pigments, sugars, peptides, and volatile components from natural matrices [21].
3.5 Ionic liquids (IL)
ILs were a type of organic salt that consisted of an organic cation (e.g., imidazolium, pyrrolidinium, pyrrolidinium tetra alkyl ammonium, pyrrolidinium tetra alkyl phosphonium) and an inorganic or organic anion (e.g., tetrafluoroborate, hexafluorophosphate, and bromide) that form of liquid below 100°C [22]. Because of their distinctive and construction dependent features, like low nucleophilicity, mixability with water or organic solvents, and good extractability, ILs have been frequently used [23]. A variety of organic and inorganic substances are perhaps enriched and separated using IL-based methods. As a result, they have been frequently used in food safety, drug testing, environmental monitoring, biological analysis, and other areas. The ability of ILs could be tailor-made for the extraction of alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, phenylpropanoids, quinones, and other phytoconstituents from plants. A vast number of research organizations have also created IL-based silica and polymers that can improve the extraction/separation of target chemicals.
3.6 Aqueous enzymatic extraction (AEE)
Extraction is an important step in the isolation of bioactive chemicals from plant matter. However, because of the existence of complex cell wall polysaccharides including cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin alginate, and carrageenan, the extraction yield of bioactive chemicals is poor. Researchers are now considering modern methods of extracting these compounds because of the low specific gravity of bioactive compounds, the low productivity of the solvents used to extract these compounds, high energy, high durability, solvent residue in the extracts, and the decline in the quality of the final product, as well as environmental concerns [23]. The use of enzymes to extract bioactive chemicals from plants could be a viable substitute for traditional solvent extraction methods. Enzymes are excellent catalyzers for extracting, modifying, or synthesizing complex bioactive substances from nature. The natural ability of enzymes to accelerate reactions with perfect particularity, regiospecificity, and the ability to employ under gentle processing conditions in an aqueous medium facilitate enzyme-based extraction [24]. The use of enzymes for sugar extraction is a new topic that needs further research. To improve extraction processes, custom enzymes must be developed, either by biodiversity screening, genetic engineering perspective, or a mix of the two. From plant sources, enzyme-aided extraction can be utilized to obtain lipophilic, polyphenolic, and hydrophilic chemicals [25]. Factors including high enzyme production and downstream processing costs, extended incubation times, and an extra stage (de-emulsification) in the process are still preventing aqueous enzyme extraction from becoming commercially viable. Commercial enzyme production has been accelerated, and enzyme synthesis has now become more affordable. The downstream processing expenses could be reduced by using appropriate technology rather than the traditional technique [26].
3.7 Limonene
The predominant element of essential oils derived from citrus fruit peels is d-limonene, which belongs to the terpene family. Since its cleaner and degreaser properties were discovered and considered, d-limonene has sparked a surge of interest. In this sense, this chemical has been classified as a viable alternative to halogenated carbon hydrates or traditional degreasing chemicals commonly used in industry and households. Several authors have attempted to create a commercial application for d-limonene. Sustainable chemistry has generated a lot of study into the processing of renewable fuels due to the demand for environment-friendly techniques and products [27].
Because d-limonene has a higher boiling point (175°C) than n-hexane (69°C), it uses more energy to recover the solvent by evaporation. To minimize the difficulty of solvent recovery caused by high d-limonene’s boiling point, a technique based on steam or hydro-distillation employing Clevenger can be used. Distilled water was added to the extracted oil and d-limonene mixture after Soxhlet extraction with d-limonene. D-limonene and extracted oil were separated using a Clevenger device and azeotropic water distillation at less than 100°C [28]. It is a valuable and practical method for determining the lipids and oils in olive seeds. Waste minimization, rapid operation, and energy saving are all possible with Soxhlet microwave-integrated with limonene and microwave Clevenger distillation [29]. Limonene has a dielectric constant that is very similar to that of hexane and has been used to extract rice bran oil, oil from olive leftovers, carotenoids from tomatoes or algae and, more recently, algal lipids from wet algae [30].
3.8 Solvent-free extraction
Solvent-free extraction of a variety of important natural products (essential oils, fragrances, edible oils, antioxidants, and other organic compounds) eliminates the price and threats correlated with large amounts of solvent. It minimizes the amount of wastewater after extraction and uses a fraction of the energy that a traditional solvent-solid extraction process does.
In 2008, Chemat et al. developed the MHG method, which uses in situ dielectric heating on plant cell water to stretch the structure and cause membrane and wall ruptures. As a result, plant matter is used to gather primary and secondary metabolites, as well as the water in the cells. The behavior described is known as hydro diffusion. Gravity then drops the diffused components into a container. A continuous condensation system is maintained using a perforated Pyrex disc. MHG has been used to extract pigments, aroma components, and antioxidants from a variety of natural sources on a lab and commercial scale [21].
4. Pre-treatment techniques
Crude drugs can be extracted in fresh or dried form. Grinding and drying of plant materials are examples of pre-preparation. This has an impact on the preservation of phytochemicals in final extracts. Air drying takes anywhere from 3 to 7 days. To optimize extraction operations and save energy, mechanical disruption pre-treatments can be employed alone or in combination. Bead milling, high-pressure homogenization, and hydrodynamic cavitation are all methods for mechanical disruption. The extraction of lipids has been demonstrated to be aided using a bead mill. Powdered samples, on the other hand, have a more homogenized and smaller particle size, developing in substantial surface contact with extraction solvents [31].
Nanotechnologies, including microwave, ultrasound, and pulse electric field, were found to improve operation efficacy as a pre-treatment before drying. After size reduction and before extraction, microwave pre-treatments upgraded the extraction of polyphenols, sugars, and other compounds. Pre-treatments with a pulsed electric field (PEF) improved extraction efficiencies in terms of yield and extract standard. PEF pre-treatment of rapeseed, apple, and sugar beet fruit extracts before mechanical expression resulted in higher yields [26]. Oven-drying is one more pre-extraction method that uses heat energy to eliminate moisture from substances. This procedure for preparing a sample is regarded as particular easiest and most rapid thermal processing method available for phytochemicals.
Costly drugs can be dried by freeze-drying. In freeze-drying before use, the sample is frozen at −80°C to −20°C to lyophilize any liquid (e.g., solvent, moisture) in the body samples. The mouth of the test tube or other container holding the sample is wrapped in needle-poked-parafilm to avoid sample loss during the operation. Freeze-drying resulted in a greater phenolic content compared to air-drying because most phytochemicals are preserved. This strategy is used to keep phytoconstituents safe. Freeze-drying, on the other hand, is a difficult process. Microwave drying is more expensive than traditional air drying. As a result, only fragile, heat-sensitive goods and high-quality materials are permitted [32].
5. Green technologies for extraction
The main goal of green extraction procedures is to obtain a rapid extraction, increased efficient energy usage, higher mass and heat transfer, smaller apparatus, and fewer processing stages [3]. Several novel alternatives to traditional techniques for obtaining target compounds from a variety of crude drugs have been proposed, such as ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), subcritical and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), and accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) [33]. These extraction methods, which are alternatives to traditional procedures, have piqued the curiosity of academics, who see future applications for recovering bioactive molecules from plants in less time using green solvents. Most of these new methods have already shown promise in extracting high-value chemicals, particularly natural antioxidants, from various sources such as plants or food processing by-products [34].
5.1 Expression
It is a physical technique in which pressure is employed to extract the oil or juice from a material. A tincture press was used to do this. When essential oils are temperature sensitive, this approach is used. It’s used to extract essential oils from citrus peels like lemons and oranges. Squeezing any plant material at high pressures to extract oils or other liquids is known as expression. In remote rural locations, hand-operated presses or crushes are used, while in industrial hubs, massive mechanical presses are used. However, the products obtained are impure and frequently contain impurities such as water, mucoid particles, and cell tissues, making them murky, and pressing the volatile oil in plants completely is difficult. As a result, the crushed residue is frequently steam distilled to remove all volatile oils. Black soybean oil, for example, is frequently extracted using the low-temperature pressing process [31].
5.2 Effleurage (extraction with cold fat)
Enfleurage is the method of extracting aroma from flowers by absorbing it through contact with cold lipids. This method is used for fragrant flowers like jasmine and tuberose, which retain their unique aroma even after being plucked. To prevent fat odors from entering, fats should be saturated and odorless. It’s best to use refined lard or beef suet. On both sides of a glass plate mounted on a rectangular hardwood frame or chassis, fat is thinly deposited. On a fat-coated chassis, fresh aromatic flowers are delicately stacked. Enfleurage produces far more floral oil than other processes.
5.3 Ultrasound extraction
Ultrasound extractions can now be finished in minutes with high reliability, reducing solvent consumption, clarifying control and work-up, improving final product purity, removing wastewater after treatment, and consuming only a fragment of the fossil energy required for a traditional extraction method [35]. USAE (ultrasound-assisted extraction) has been used to extract polyphenols from vegetable tissues, protein, sugar, and starch from cereals and legumes, oil, and flavor components. Extraction efficiency and rate are improved by sonication. It lowers the required temperature, saves solvents, and promotes the solubilization of the desired chemicals. Solubility is enhanced by a significant increase in the very temperature [36].
To extract phytochemicals from plants, both the cell wall and the cell membrane must be broken. Because of this, ultrasounds are used in ultrasound-assisted extraction for cell disintegration. Ultrasounds are sound waves that are above the human hearing range, with frequencies ranging from 20 kHz to a few gigahertz. Plant materials and liquids absorb the energy emitted by ultrasonic waves and convert it to heat. The frequency, intensity, and duration of ultrasonic therapy affect the amount of heat created in plant materials [37]. This heat energy debases proteins, destroys plant cells, and causes therapeutic substances to be released from plant cells. In most cases, the highest extraction rate is attained in the initial few minutes, which is also the most profitable time [38].
5.4 Super critical fluid extraction (SCFE)
The extraction of thermally labile chemicals is possible because of carbon dioxide’s low critical temperature (304.1 K). It can replicate a variety of organic solvents by adjusting the density of SCF carbon dioxide. Because of its variable solvating strength, this feature allows for selective extraction, purification, and fractionation techniques. SCF carbon dioxide media provide the prime possibility for fractionation of reaction products and solvent separation, which can be performed by simply depressurizing the media. This is because SCF quickly penetrates and leaves solid matrices, compared to the use of organic solvents with a higher viscosity [39]. It has a broad variety of applications, including the extraction of common spices such as black pepper, celery seed, cumin, cinnamon, clove bud, and nutmeg. Extraction of Natural Colors: Paprika Pigments, etc. Dry Ginger, Saw Palmetto, Rosemary, and other botanicals are used to extract active ingredients. Forskolin, Turmerones—from Turmeric, Oscimum sanctum, Neem Leaf, and other plants; Cholesterol and other lipids are extracted from dried egg yolks. Hops are extracted to use in the beverage sector. Precipitation of Human Immunoglobulin G (IgG), viral deactivation, and other biochemical components. The main disadvantage of supercritical carbon dioxide extraction is the high cost of the device. Because supercritical carbon dioxide is nonpolar, polar co-solvents of 5% and 10% ethanol were added to change the polarity and improve solubility.
5.5 Microwave-assisted extraction
Nontraditional ways are more prominent when it comes to improving the quality and quantity of desired items. By directly linking microwave energy with the bulk reaction mixture, microwave irradiation creates efficient internal heating. The magnitude of energy transfer is determined by the molecules’ dielectric characteristics. Radiation absorption and heating can be quite selective in this approach (Hoz et al.). The reduction in operating time and solvent use are two major benefits of microwave treatments. However, during microwave processing, acceleration in chemical reactions of target substances such as epimerization, oxidation, and polarization should be considered with dielectric heating.
Microwave-assisted extraction without solvents is a long-term technology for extracting and separating chemicals from natural plant resources. Microwave heating is directed at the moisture content of new material. Under microwave irradiation, plant cell water and charged molecules are stimulated; this internal alteration causes a significant amount of pressure to be imposed on plant cell walls, resulting in cell swelling. Due to the rupturing of plant cells, this swelling causes an increase in the mass transfer of solutes. As a result, phytochemical leaching from the plant cellular matrix into the extractant is facilitated during MAE [40]. The best extraction conditions were a microwave power of 150 W for 90 min. Concerning the efficiency and yield of essential oils, solvent-free microwave extraction was superior. As a result, increased rates of adsorption, diffusion, and separation of phytochemicals from the plant matrix into the extracting solvent are more likely [41].
An MAE can be performed using two different types of equipment. The apparatus runs at atmospheric pressure in the open mode, which is often coupled with a refluxing mechanism. Domestic microwaves are frequently modified to accommodate this model. The closed mode, on the other hand, allows for high-pressure operation. Pumping inert gas into the extraction chamber increases the pressure. During the heating of the extraction mixture, however, vapor pressure may generate a degree of pressure. Since these molecules were stable at microwave heating settings of up to 100°C for 20 min, this approach was confined to small-molecule phenolic compounds like phenolic acids (gallic acid and ellagic acid), quercetin, isoflavones, and trans-resveratrol. Due to compound oxidation, more MAE cycles (e.g., from 2 10 s to 3 10 s) resulted in a considerable reduction in phenolic and flavanone yields. Because tannins and anthocyanins are prone to temperature degradation, they may not be suitable for MAE [32].
Microwave-assisted hydro distillation (MAHD) is like standard hydro distillation, with the exception that the solvent is heated using microwaves. The solvent (typically water) and plant parts are placed inside a microwave oven (normally running at 2.45 GHz), and different output powers and reaction periods can be used to improve the extraction process. Again, using microwaves for the heating process speeds up the extraction of chemicals, requiring shorter timeframes to generate comparable amounts of extracts. Furthermore, the chemical makeup of extracts obtained by standard hydro distillation and MAHD is not comparable.
5.6 Pulsed electric field (PEF) extraction
In batch mode, the electric field strength (EFS) ranges from 100 to 300 V/cm, while in continuous mode, the EFS ranges from 20 to 80 kV/cm. An external electrical force is used in electro-permeabilization or electroporation to increase the permeability of cell membranes. The cell membrane is perforated by the formation of hydrophilic holes, which result in the opening of protein channels. When high-voltage electrical pulses are applied across the electrodes, the sample experiences a force per unit charge termed the electric field. The plant material is removed once the membrane loses its structural functioning [41]. Anthocyanin, carotenoids, lycopene, lutein, polyphenols, alkaloids, lactase, protein, polysaccharides, fat, oil, and other bioactive compounds are extracted using PEF. PEF-assisted extraction provides more bioactive component extracts, uses less energy, and takes less time to process, according to the study, resulting in the optimal process parameters [42].
6. Purification of phytoconstituents
The extracts, which contain numerous phytoconstituents, must be separated and purified further to obtain the fraction or pure phytoconstituents. The techniques utilized for isolation and purification from the extract are determined by the physical and chemical properties of the component to be separated. The physical approaches employed for this goal are as follows.
6.1 Fractional crystallization
The point of supersaturation in the solvent in which phytopharmaceuticals are soluble causes them to crystallize. The processes involved in the crystallization of phytoconstituents are slow concentration, slow evaporation, and chilling. Crystallization is an ideal purification procedure. It is operationally easy, very inexpensive, and may be done in quantities ranging from a few micrograms to hundreds of kilograms. The results are normally highly pure (unlike the mixes that can sometimes be obtained with distillation). Using chromatography to purify that much material is a nightmare. Another key point to remember about crystallization is that X-ray crystallography can be used to discover the structure of unknown molecules. With very few exceptions, X-ray crystallography is the gold standard for structure determination: if you can get a substance to crystallize, you can determine its structure. The only issue is that not all compounds crystallize, and finding circumstances that can preferentially recrystallize one chemical can take a long time [43].
6.2 Fractional distillation
This is a process of purifying phytoconstituents from a mixture. It’s commonly used to separate hydrocarbons like crude oil, citral, and eucalyptol. Purification is accomplished by comparing the boiling points of the different substances. When heat is applied, the fractional distillation equipment is built in such a way that each chemical evaporates and separates at its boiling point. As a result, each fractionated chemical will condense and be collected separately via numerous syphons coupled to fractional distillation apparatus [44].
The fractional distillation method is based on differences in compound volatility and is affected by physicochemical properties of the components, as well as the pressure and temperature of the distillation process. The mass and energy transition between the fluid and vapor stages of the mixture has an impact on separation efficiency. Most terpenes are thermally unstable, dissolving, or oxidizing when exposed to high temperatures, light, or oxygen. As a result, the distillation technique is typically used at vacuum pressures to lower the vaporization temperature of the volatile mixture. Due to the boiling temperature reduction, the vacuum also slows processes such as thermal deterioration in temperature-sensitive chemicals. In the chemical industry, vacuum fractional distillation is used to separate compounds with extremely high boiling points that would need a lot of energy to separate under atmospheric pressure [45].
6.3 Fractional liberation
Fractional liberation separates some components from a mixture. The weakest base in the free salt is liberated first when an aqueous solution of alkaloid salts is treated with aliquots of alkali, followed by base liberation in ascending order of basicity. After each addition, shake the mixture with an organic solvent to get a fractionated sequence of bases. Organic acids that are soluble in water-immiscible solvents take a similar route. It is feasible to fractionally liberate acids in this case by adding mineral acids to a mixture of acid salts.
6.4 Chromatography
6.4.1 Column chromatography
Chromatography on a column separates and purifies phytochemicals on a laboratory and industrial scale without the use of complicated technology. The “eluent” is the liquid employed as the mobile phase, and the stationary phase is usually a solid or a liquid. The sample solution is supplied to a porous stationary phase, and the mobile phase is delivered at a greater pressure via the column, causing separation depending on the solute’s affinity for the stationary phase. The development of HPLC (High-Performance Liquid Chromatography) was aided by the need for a higher degree of separation and faster analysis, which was met by refining the stationary phase packing material to a size of 3–10 m and eluent delivery via a high-pressure pump. Despite its extensive and time-consuming nature, commercial use of column chromatography is comparable to that of other techniques. The advantages of column chromatography include efficient sample handling regardless of the number or nature of the samples, the availability of a wide range of adsorbents, the selection and recyclization of a large solvent system, improved purity of the product, and minimal space requirements. Column chromatography has a few disadvantages, including the use of a large amount of mobile phase, compared to other techniques it is a complicated technique, time consumption, the requirement for an expert, and a greater cost of identifying the separated product.
6.4.2 Vacuum liquid chromatography (VLC)
The fundamental disadvantage of column chromatography is that it is a time-consuming technique; however, vacuum liquid chromatography can solve this problem. In vacuum chromatography, rather than using pressure, vacuum is employed to improve the flow rate and hence speed up the fractionation process. The stationary phase is usually 40–60 mesh particle size silica or reversed-phase silica, and the crude extracts are separated by gradient elution. TLC is a typical method for examining eluted fractions [43].
6.4.3 Simulated moving bed chromatography (SMB)
In the pharmaceutical sector, simulated moving bed (SMB) technology is an economical and eco-friendly process for purifying crude extracts and fractions [46]. It has a higher purity and yield than other techniques. A traditional Simulated Moving Bed system has 4–24 columns divided into four zones. In general, a four-column SMB should be sufficient for testing and optimizing purification conditions. Purification of sugars, proteins, monoclonal antibodies, separation of organic solvents, optical isomers, charged molecules, and desalting are all common applications. For the separation of crude medicines, the SMB technique utilizes extremely less solvent. The SMB technique is simple to adapt to a continuous process and can be integrated with other equipment such as evaporation. SMB, on the other hand, necessitates meticulous process control and is less adaptable than traditional elution chromatography.
6.5 Capillary electrophoresis (CE)
CE provides several advantages, including a smaller sample, high efficiency leads to shorter analysis time, cheap, environmental friendliness, reduced solvent usage, and a powerful tool appropriate for drug discovery [47]. CE is a new method for analyzing different phytochemical groups. Variations in mass to charge ratios are used to separate phytochemicals in capillary electrophoresis. Because borate can form compounds with the flavonoid nucleus’ ortho dihydroxyl groups and the sugar’s vicinal cis-dihydroxyl groups, borate buffers with a pH of 8–11 and a concentration of 25–200 mM are generally used [48].
Capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) is the most basic characteristic, and it’s been utilized to isolate a variety of target molecules, especially polyphenolic compounds like epicatechin, catechin, quercetin, gentistic acid, caffeic acid, gallic acid, trans-resveratrol, myricetin, and rutin from wine and grape samples. A CZE technique was also used to isolate antioxidants in Ginkgo leaf extracts. For the separation of anthocyanins in wine, a new CZE approach was developed recently [49]. Food analysis, environmental monitoring, clinical diagnostics, and pharmaceutical analysis have mostly used capillary electrophoresis. Since it allows the use of chirality selectors with limited aqueous solubility, nonaqueous capillary electrophoresis can be utilized to separate enantiomeric drugs. Furthermore, the low dielectric constant of organic solvents can let chiral counter-ions that have less selectivity in aqueous environments form ion pairs and therefore increase their selectivity. CE-MS is one of many multidimensional techniques used in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries, particularly for drug development. Because high resolution and structural and/or molecular weight information of an analyte may be collected along with using a mass spectrometer as a detector for CE splitting, could be useful. CE has various advantages (for example, high speed, efficiency, and low price); yet, combining CE with MS produces several problems. CE solvents, for example, are not accepted by MS.
6.6 Molecular imprinted technology
Molecular imprinting knowledge has been a prominent isolation method in the last years because of its distinctive qualities, such as high selectiveness, economical, and ease of preparation. Many correlative cavities with the memory of the template molecules’ size, shape, and functional groups are produced when the template molecules are removed from the molecular imprinted polymer (MIP). As a result, the template molecule and its analogues will be able to recognize the MIP and adsorb it selectively. MIPs have been extensively used in the isolation of phytoconstituents and as sorbents for solid-phase extraction of herbal materials to enrich phytoconstituent components. MIP was made with methyl methacrylate as the monomer, solanesol as the template molecule, and ethylene glycol as the crosslinker by a suspension polymerization method. This technique is used for the purification of enriching in water extract of Panax notoginseng, solanesol from tobacco leaves, thermo-responsive magnetic MIP is used to isolate curcuminoids, curcumin, dimethoxy curcumin, and bisdemethoxycurcumin, from the TCM Curcumae Longa Rhizoma [50].
7. Conclusion
Plant materials go through several processes to acquire the necessary secondary metabolites and/or extract, including drying, extraction, separation, and purification. To produce better eco-friendly processes, the current investigation of the use of green solvents in the field of extraction needs more awareness for a greater perception of different factors such as innate solvent properties (polarity, viscosity, solubility, and pH), external factors (temperature, time, and solid-liquid ratio), and cytotoxicity. However, more study is needed on green or smart solvents that have high specificity for phytochemical compounds, as well as improved stability, recovery, and reduced operational costs. Until now, the framework has only been used to evaluate organic solvents. To expand the currently established techniques to new solvents, more study is required. This entails looking into novel waste-solvent treatment technologies as well as alternative solvent production techniques. Will the eventual transfer of DES/NADES-based extraction technologies to industrial sectors need further investments? Would their use result in a shorter lifespan for the extractors and the analytical tools required for their identification and quantification in the long run? All the questions are still open, and there are a lot of options for answers in the future.
\n',keywords:"green extraction, phytoconstituents, pharmaceuticals, solvents",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82283.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82283.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82283",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82283",totalDownloads:6,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 15th 2022",dateReviewed:"April 28th 2022",datePrePublished:"June 17th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"June 17th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The use of green extraction techniques for extracting phytoconstituents from natural sources minimizes the amount of solvents needed and the amount of waste generated during the extraction process. Traditional extraction processes generate a lot of solvent waste, which causes a lot of environmental and health issues. Furthermore, by employing automated modern processes, exposure to solvents and vapor is reduced. Green extraction is based on the analytical procedures that employ less energy, allow the use of different solvents and sustainable natural products, and provide a safe and superior extract/product. According to a life cycle analysis of waste created in Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API) manufacturing plants, solvent-related waste accounts for 80% of the waste. In case other pharmaceutical companies generate equal amounts of solvent waste, addressing solvent selection, use, recovery, and disposal will go a long way toward tackling the issue. Solvent considerations will feature regularly in the case histories of the drug development process. Natural extracts comprise phytoconstituents such as proteins, lipids and oils, dietary fibres, carbohydrates, antioxidants, essential oils and fragrances, and colours, and can be found in wide variety of plant materials. In this chapter, we will discuss principles, techniques, and solvents used for green extraction techniques of phytoconstituents.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82283",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82283",signatures:"Bincy Raj, Soosamma John, Venkatesh Chandrakala and Gajula Harini Kumari",book:{id:"11299",type:"book",title:"Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Medicinal Plants",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sanjeet Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11299.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-033-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-032-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-034-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"258148",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanjeet",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"sanjeet-kumar",fullName:"Sanjeet Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Green extraction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Solvent selection for green extraction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Water",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Alcohol",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Deep eutectic solvents (DES)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5 Ionic liquids (IL)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.6 Aqueous enzymatic extraction (AEE)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.7 Limonene",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.8 Solvent-free extraction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Pre-treatment techniques",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Green technologies for extraction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.1 Expression",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.2 Effleurage (extraction with cold fat)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.3 Ultrasound extraction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"5.4 Super critical fluid extraction (SCFE)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"5.5 Microwave-assisted extraction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"5.6 Pulsed electric field (PEF) extraction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"6. Purification of phytoconstituents",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"6.1 Fractional crystallization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"6.2 Fractional distillation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"6.3 Fractional liberation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"6.4 Chromatography",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"6.4.1 Column chromatography",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"6.4.2 Vacuum liquid chromatography (VLC)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"6.4.3 Simulated moving bed chromatography (SMB)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"6.5 Capillary electrophoresis (CE)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"6.6 Molecular imprinted technology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Abubakar AR, Haque M. Preparation of Medicinal Plants: Basic Extraction and Fractionation Procedures for Experimental Purposes. Journal of Pharmacy & Bioallied Sciences. 2020;12(1):1-10. https://doi.org/10.4103/JPBS. 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Supercritical carbon dioxide and its potential as a life-sustaining solvent in a planetary environment. Life (Basel, Switzerland). 2014;4(3):331-340. DOI: 10.3390/life4030331'},{id:"B15",body:'Mayadevi S. Reactions in supercritical carbon dioxide. Indian Journal of Chemistry. 2012;51:1298-1305'},{id:"B16",body:'Vandeponseele A, Draye M, Piot C, Chatel G. Subcritical water and supercritical carbon dioxide: Efficient and selective eco-compatible solvents for coffee and coffee by-products valorization. Green Chemistry. 2020;22(24):8544-8571. DOI: 10.1039/D0GC03146A'},{id:"B17",body:'Skarpalezos D, Detsi A. Deep eutectic solvents as extraction media for valuable flavonoids from natural sources. Applied Sciences. 2019;9(19):4169. DOI: 10.3390/APP9194169'},{id:"B18",body:'Ishaq M, Gilani MA, Afzal ZM, Bilad MR, Nizami A-S, Rehan M, et al. Novel poly deep eutectic solvents based supported liquid membranes for CO2 capture. Frontiers in Energy Research. 2020;0:272. 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1Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dayananda Sagar University, India
Department of Pharmaceutics, East Point College of Pharmacy, Bidarahalli, India
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Motyka",authors:[{id:"101690",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Maciej",middleName:null,surname:"Motyka",slug:"maciej-motyka",fullName:"Maciej Motyka"},{id:"109232",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Sieniawski",slug:"jan-sieniawski",fullName:"Jan Sieniawski"}]},{id:"46882",doi:"10.5772/58534",title:"Additive Manufacturing of Al Alloys and Aluminium Matrix Composites (AMCs)",slug:"additive-manufacturing-of-al-alloys-and-aluminium-matrix-composites-amcs-",totalDownloads:10089,totalCrossrefCites:52,totalDimensionsCites:117,abstract:null,book:{id:"3844",slug:"light-metal-alloys-applications",title:"Light Metal Alloys Applications",fullTitle:"Light Metal Alloys Applications"},signatures:"Diego Manfredi, Flaviana Calignano, Manickavasagam Krishnan,\nRiccardo Canali, Elisa Paola Ambrosio, Sara Biamino, Daniele Ugues,\nMatteo Pavese and Paolo Fino",authors:[{id:"16648",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Manfredi",slug:"diego-manfredi",fullName:"Diego Manfredi"},{id:"18978",title:"Dr.",name:"Matteo",middleName:null,surname:"Pavese",slug:"matteo-pavese",fullName:"Matteo Pavese"},{id:"19187",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Biamino",slug:"sara-biamino",fullName:"Sara Biamino"},{id:"19188",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ambrosio",slug:"elisa-ambrosio",fullName:"Elisa Ambrosio"},{id:"19189",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Fino",slug:"paolo-fino",fullName:"Paolo Fino"},{id:"170227",title:"Dr.",name:"Flaviana",middleName:null,surname:"Calignano",slug:"flaviana-calignano",fullName:"Flaviana Calignano"},{id:"170228",title:"MSc.",name:"Riccardo",middleName:null,surname:"Canali",slug:"riccardo-canali",fullName:"Riccardo Canali"},{id:"170229",title:"MSc.",name:"Manickavasagam",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnan",slug:"manickavasagam-krishnan",fullName:"Manickavasagam Krishnan"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70661",title:"Bioremediation Techniques for Polluted Environment: Concept, Advantages, Limitations, and Prospects",slug:"bioremediation-techniques-for-polluted-environment-concept-advantages-limitations-and-prospects",totalDownloads:2538,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Environmental pollution has been rising in the past few decades due to increased anthropogenic activities. Bioremediation is an attractive and successful cleaning technique to remove toxic waste from polluted environment. Bioremediation is highly involved in degradation, eradication, immobilization, or detoxification diverse chemical wastes and physical hazardous materials from the surrounding through the all-inclusive and action of microorganisms. The main principle is degrading and converting pollutants to less toxic forms. Bioremediation can be carried out ex-situ and in-situ, depending on several factors, which include but not limited to cost, site characteristics, type, and concentration of pollutants. Hence, appropriate bioremediation technique is selected. Additionally, the major methodologies to develop bioremediation are biostimulation, bioaugmentation, bioventing, biopiles, and bioattenuation provided the environmental factors that decide the completion of bioremediation. Bioremediation is the most effective, economical, eco-friendly management tool to manage the polluted environment. All bioremediation techniques have its own advantage and disadvantage because it has its own specific applications.",book:{id:"9343",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",fullTitle:"Trace Metals in the Environment - New Approaches and Recent Advances"},signatures:"Indu Sharma",authors:[{id:"301262",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Indu",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"indu-sharma",fullName:"Indu Sharma"}]},{id:"60680",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:16114,totalCrossrefCites:178,totalDimensionsCites:384,abstract:"The environment and its compartments have been severely polluted by heavy metals. This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]},{id:"59905",title:"Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles",slug:"synthesis-of-silver-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:6825,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Nanoparticles of noble metals, especially the silver nanoparticles, have been widely used in different fields of science. Their unique properties, which can be incorporated into biosensor materials, composite fibers, cosmetic products, antimicrobial applications, conducting materials and electronic components, make them a very important subject to be studied by chemistry, biology, healthcare, electronic and other related branches. These unique properties depend upon size and shape of the silver nanoparticles. Different preparation methods have been reported for the synthesis of the silver nanoparticles, such as electron irradiation, laser ablation, chemical reduction, biological artificial methods, photochemical methods and microwave processing. This chapter aims to inform the synthesis methods of the silver nanoparticles.",book:{id:"6552",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-fabrication-characterization-and-applications",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",fullTitle:"Silver Nanoparticles - Fabrication, Characterization and Applications"},signatures:"Remziye Güzel and Gülbahar Erdal",authors:[{id:"226613",title:"Dr.",name:"Remziye",middleName:null,surname:"Güzel",slug:"remziye-guzel",fullName:"Remziye Güzel"},{id:"240772",title:"MSc.",name:"Gülbahar",middleName:null,surname:"Erdal",slug:"gulbahar-erdal",fullName:"Gülbahar Erdal"}]},{id:"71326",title:"Stability of Metal Complexes",slug:"stability-of-metal-complexes",totalDownloads:2314,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The stability of coordination complex is an important factor that decides the stability and reactivity of a metal complex. The stability of metal complex is governed by two different aspects such as thermodynamic and kinetic stabilities. The correlation between stability and reactivity of coordination compounds has been described in this chapter. This chapter also enlists the factors influencing the stability of metal complexes such as the nature of metal ions, ligands, bonding between metal ions and ligands, etc. In addition, the methods available for the determination of stability constants are given in detail.",book:{id:"9190",slug:"stability-and-applications-of-coordination-compounds",title:"Stability and Applications of Coordination Compounds",fullTitle:"Stability and Applications of Coordination Compounds"},signatures:"Senthilkumar Muthaiah, Anita Bhatia and Muthukumar Kannan",authors:null},{id:"60518",title:"Synthetic Methods for Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles: A Review",slug:"synthetic-methods-for-titanium-dioxide-nanoparticles-a-review",totalDownloads:5208,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:53,abstract:"Titanium dioxide (TiO2) semiconductor nanoparticles are one kind of important and promising photocatalysts in photocatalysis because of their unique optical and electronic properties. Their properties, which are determined by the preparation method, are very crucial in photocatalysis. In this chapter, an overview was carried out on the different methods that are used or have been used to prepare titanium dioxide nanoparticles. There are various methods that can be used to synthesize TiO2 and the most commonly used methods include sol-gel process, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and hydrothermal method among others. This review will focus on selected preparation methods of titanium dioxide photocatalyst.",book:{id:"6426",slug:"titanium-dioxide-material-for-a-sustainable-environment",title:"Titanium Dioxide",fullTitle:"Titanium Dioxide - Material for a Sustainable Environment"},signatures:"Pardon Nyamukamba, Omobola Okoh, Henry Mungondori,\nRaymond Taziwa and Simcelile Zinya",authors:[{id:"196100",title:"Dr.",name:"Raymond",middleName:null,surname:"Taziwa",slug:"raymond-taziwa",fullName:"Raymond Taziwa"},{id:"219920",title:"Prof.",name:"Omobola",middleName:null,surname:"Okoh",slug:"omobola-okoh",fullName:"Omobola Okoh"},{id:"226567",title:"Dr.",name:"Pardon",middleName:null,surname:"Nyamukamba",slug:"pardon-nyamukamba",fullName:"Pardon Nyamukamba"},{id:"239758",title:"Mr.",name:"Simcelile",middleName:null,surname:"Zinya",slug:"simcelile-zinya",fullName:"Simcelile Zinya"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"158",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81781",title:"Experimental Investigation of Mechanical and Wear Behaviour of AZ91 Magnesium Hybrid Composite Materials",slug:"experimental-investigation-of-mechanical-and-wear-behaviour-of-az91-magnesium-hybrid-composite-mater",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104703",abstract:"In recent years, emerging requisite for advanced materials gave a path for hybrid composites. Magnesium metal matrix composites are gaining more interest and a better substitute for heavier steel, aluminium, titanium and even for plastic based materials. At present the AZ91 magnesium alloy is most widely in transport vehicle industry. However, the application of AZ91 magnesium alloys are limited due to several negative effects such as poor creep resistance, wear resistance and inferior corrosion resistance when it is exposed to atmospheric conditions. Future to improve the strength, better corrosion resistance and wear resistance are important for their extend applications of exciting alloy AZ91. The main objective of the present investigation is to achieve above mentioned properties. The AZ91 alloy was reinforced with titanium dioxide/0.5% graphene and with titanium/0.5% graphene in varying weight percentage (1%, 2%) by stir casting technique. These combinations are called hybrid metal matrix composite of materials such as AZ91 + 1%Ti +0.5% Gr (A1), AZ91 + 2%Ti +0.5% Gr (A2), AZ91 + 1%TiO2 + 0.5% Gr (B1) and AZ91 + 2%TiO2 + 0.5% Gr (B2) alloys. The following experiments such as tensile, compressive, hardness and wear tests have been carried out to find all the properties from the newly developed hybrid metal matrix composite of materials and compared with AZ91. Wear tests have been carried out by pin on disc tribometer for both dry and wet sliding condition under 20 N,40 N,60 N, and 80 N. The results indicated the AZ91–1%TiO2–0.5%Gr having high wear resistance compared to other three combinations as well as AZ91. The present experimental investigations of hybrid metal matrix composite of materials have wear resistance in the order of B1 > A2 > A1 > B2 > AZ91 and AZ91–2%TiO2–0.5% Gr showed good tensile strength and hardness. The enhanced these properties were discussed in this paper.",book:{id:"11208",title:"Current Trends in Magnesium (Mg) Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11208.jpg"},signatures:"Palanivel Mathiazhagan and S. Jayabharathy"},{id:"81342",title:"Magnesium Borates: The Relationship between the Characteristics, Properties, and Novel Technologies",slug:"magnesium-borates-the-relationship-between-the-characteristics-properties-and-novel-technologies",totalDownloads:23,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104487",abstract:"Magnesium borates are compounds including mainly magnesium (Mg), boron (B) oxygen (O), and hydrogen (H). Magnesium borates are traditionally famous for their strong thermoluminescence, mechanical and thermal features due to their high elasticity coefficient, corrosion, and heat resistance. Because of being beneficial, especially in the applications such as thermoluminescence and X-ray screening, and ease of synthesis, magnesium borates are produced by using different experimental procedures exhibiting different characteristics. Main traditional synthesis techniques can be classified as liquid state and solid-state synthesis methods. With the help of novelties in synthesis technology, new techniques are beginning to emerge in magnesium borate syntheses such as hybrid synthesis, ultrasound, microwave, and capping agent addition. The strengthened characteristics of the compounds would lead to new applications such as stomach cancer chemotherapy and wastewater treatment. In this chapter, it is aimed to make a comparison between the characteristics of synthesized magnesium borates and their properties. In addition, new types of magnesium borates obtained by various synthetic techniques are expected to be useful for industrial applications such as space technology, radiation dosimetry, X-ray screening, ion batteries, and hydrocarbon reaction catalysis. Such classification of properties and the synthesis techniques will enlighten the relationship between the characteristics and novel applications of magnesium borates.",book:{id:"11208",title:"Current Trends in Magnesium (Mg) Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11208.jpg"},signatures:"Fatma Tugce Senberber Dumanli"},{id:"81125",title:"Magnesium Alloys for Sustainable Weight-Saving Approach: A Brief Market Overview, New Trends, and Perspectives",slug:"magnesium-alloys-for-sustainable-weight-saving-approach-a-brief-market-overview-new-trends-and-persp",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102777",abstract:"In the transportation sector, weight-saving strategies emphasize greenhouse gas reductions by improving fuel efficiency. Furthermore, it is a fact that consumers appreciate less-consuming vehicles. Lighter battery electric vehicles (BEV) mean higher travel distance covered with the same battery charge. Still, the fuel range of BEV is today not a secondary issue for choosing an e-vehicle as a unique family vehicle. Weight-saving strategies are also a priority for hydrogen gas-fuelled vehicles. Until hydrogen fuel for the transport sector is not produced at affordable costs in fully renewable pathways, increased fuel efficiency is critical for the product appeal. Magnesium is an environmentally compatible and biodegradable material with a similar density to structural plastics. On the contrary, plastics are responsible for nonbiodegradable microplastics in deep-marine environments when not recycled or correctly treated at their end of life. Due to the costly usage of lightweight materials, priority is given to activities to reduce costs by developing new materials and increasing the affordability of manufacturing costs. In this chapter, magnesium is presented from much perspective point of view: we will base it on comprehension of the past, considering the present, but with some ambition to propel hearts over today’s obstacles.",book:{id:"11208",title:"Current Trends in Magnesium (Mg) Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11208.jpg"},signatures:"Fabrizio D’Errico, Martin Tauber and Michael Just"},{id:"80267",title:"Magnesium in Synthesis of Porous and Biofunctionalized Metallic Materials",slug:"magnesium-in-synthesis-of-porous-and-biofunctionalized-metallic-materials",totalDownloads:56,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102083",abstract:"Magnesium particles are used in metallurgic routes, where it can be total or partially evaporated creating pores for ingrowth bone tissue. This book chapter contains the latest findings on the microstructural physical and mechanical properties of β-Ti alloys with Mg additions designed and obtained by the authors. As well as the main new techniques used to fabricate Ti-Mg alloys. An especial emphasis on the microstructure-properties relationship was made to assist on the guide for future efforts of the scientific community towards developing more efficient biomaterials. The β % were related to the low elastic modulus which were in the range of 31–49 GPa close to cortical bone and hardness close to commercial Ti grade 2. The compressive strength was greater than the value of cortical bone. Pore size were in the range of 5–100 μm depending on the sintering temperature, with higher wettability the samples with more porosity. These findings were promising to application of β titanium alloys containing Mg for orthopedic application.",book:{id:"11208",title:"Current Trends in Magnesium (Mg) Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11208.jpg"},signatures:"Mariana Correa Rossi, Liliana Romero Resendiz and Vicente Amigó Borrás"},{id:"80226",title:"The Role of Silane Sol-Gel Coatings on the Corrosion Protection of Magnesium Alloys",slug:"the-role-of-silane-sol-gel-coatings-on-the-corrosion-protection-of-magnesium-alloys",totalDownloads:103,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102085",abstract:"Magnesium alloys, as the lightest structural metallic material with promising physical, mechanical, and biodegradable properties, have become very attractive for different technical applications, especially for industrial and biomedical fields. However, rapid corrosion is the most critical obstacle that limits its use to play a major role in large-scale applications. The simplest way to control the corrosion rate is to prevent a direct contact of the magnesium substrate with the environment by using surface modification technologies. Silica sol-gel coatings are considered a promising solution to enhance the corrosion resistance of magnesium alloys because sol-gel-based coating systems form very stable chemical bonds with the metallic surface. In this chapter, an insight about the advances in silica sol-gel coatings as an alternative method to control the corrosion of Mg and its alloys will be exposed. A wide overview of the most relevant aspects and their current applications, specifically for aerospace, automobile, and biomedical applications will be described. The modification of silica sol-gel matrix by the incorporation of different types of inhibitors to achieve an active barrier property on Mg alloys has been also considered. Finally, the future perspective based on the development of new silica sol-gel coatings on Mg alloy will be presented.",book:{id:"11208",title:"Current Trends in Magnesium (Mg) Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11208.jpg"},signatures:"Emilia Merino, Alicia Durán and Yolanda Castro"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:5},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 20th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. 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