Selected properties of polystyrene colloids and suspension chemistry used in the experiments.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"969",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Lung Diseases - Selected State of the Art Reviews",title:"Lung Diseases",subtitle:"Selected State of the Art Reviews",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The developments in molecular medicine are transforming respiratory medicine. Leading clinicians and scientists in the world have brought their knowledge and experience in their contributions to this book. Clinicians and researchers will learn about the most recent advances in a variety of lung diseases that will better enable them to understand respiratory disorders. This treatise presents state of the art essays on airways disease, neoplastic diseases, and pediatric respiratory conditions. Additionally, aspects of immune regulation, respiratory infections, acute lung injury/ARDS, pulmonary edema, functional evaluation in respiratory disorders, and a variety of other conditions are also discussed. The book will be invaluable to clinicians who keep up with the current concepts, improve their diagnostic skills, and understand potential new therapeutic applications in lung diseases, while scientists can contemplate a plethora of new research avenues for exploration.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0180-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6860-7",doi:"10.5772/1475",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"lung-diseases-selected-state-of-the-art-reviews",numberOfPages:704,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"b4344208b8b993d83e0131d23db46343",bookSignature:"Elvis Malcolm Irusen",publishedDate:"March 2nd 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/969.jpg",numberOfDownloads:101978,numberOfWosCitations:40,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:47,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:101,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 2nd 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 30th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 4th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 3rd 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 1st 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"87213",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Malcolm",surname:"Irusen",slug:"elvis-irusen",fullName:"Elvis Irusen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/87213/images/system/87213.jpg",biography:"Professor E. M. Irusen, FCP(SA), Pulmonology, PhD, is a principal specialist and Clinical Head of the Pulmonology and Critical Care Division of the Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Stellenbosch and Tygerberg Academic Hospital in Cape Town, South Africa. He is widely published and has tremendous experience in these speciality fields.\nHis PhD training in molecular immunology and biology related to asthmatic inflammation was undertaken under the supervision of Professors Fan Chung and Peter Barnes at the Royal Brompton Hospital and the Unit of Thoracic Medicine of the National Heart and Lung Institute at Imperial College. \nHe has won numerous awards for his research, both local and international. He has served on the Council of SA Thoracic Society and is the immediate former president. 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Year after year new species are reported and the existing species are classified on the basis of molecular, morphological, anatomical and chemical approaches. However, some controversies have been pointed out in the systematic work; i.e. discrepancies between molecular phylogenies and the anatomical characters as well as difficulty for reconstruction of ancestral states.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will focus on the recent research on the Cactaceae and emphasize emergent approaches that help to improve the understanding of the taxonomy, as well as biological, chemical, adaptive and evolutionary events within this family. Furthermore, since some Cactaceae have important implications in different cultures, the traditional knowledge and sustainable use of those species are examined for future application in the industry.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"136aa39b0d091f7394186524a76c8131",bookSignature:"Prof. Marcos Soto-Hernández, Dr. Jorge Reyes-Rivera, Dr. Agustin Maceda-Rodríguez and Dr. Mariana Palma-Tenango",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9639.jpg",keywords:"Secondary Metabolites, Metabolomics in Cactaceae, Structural Composition, Chemoinformatics, Paper Industry, Biofuels, Morphoanatomy of Cactaceae, Seed Anatomy, Systematics of Cactaceae, Phylogenetic Inference, Ethnobotany, Sustainable Management",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 12th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 27th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 26th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 14th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 13th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"65790",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Soto-Hernández",slug:"marcos-soto-hernandez",fullName:"Marcos Soto-Hernández",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/65790/images/system/65790.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marcos Soto Hernández is a pharmacist from the National University of México. He has obtained his PhD from the University of Wales Cardiff UK and he is now a full time Professor at Colegio de Postgraduados where conducts research in phytochemistry and bioactivity natural products. He has established collaboration with research groups in UK, The Netherlands, Spain and others groups in México. He has received several awards locally and abroad. Today his main line of research is the bio-guided isolation of secondary metabolites with importance in medicine and agriculture (the potential of the local aromatic plants are part of his recent research). He has published more than 150 research papers and several book chapters and conference proceedings. 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The results of his research work have been published in several scientific articles in JCR journals as well as in book chapters. His most recent work focuses on the study of gene expression in the cambial zone, the structural chemical characterization of internal and external lignocellulosic organs and their relationship to the taxonomy and evolution of species in Cactaceae. He is currently performing a postdoctoral research in the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México on the chemotaxonomy of different species of Cactaceae using the spines of the stem.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"316361",title:"Dr.",name:"Agustin",middleName:null,surname:"Maceda-Rodríguez",slug:"agustin-maceda-rodriguez",fullName:"Agustin Maceda-Rodríguez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/316361/images/system/316361.jpg",biography:"Dr. Agustin Maceda is a biologist from Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, and holds a PhD degree in Botany from the Colegio de Postgraduados, Mexico. Dr. Agustin Maceda conducts different investigations in Cactaceae issues, focused mainly on chemical compositions and their possible uses in industry. He has participated in many meetings and symposiums in Mexico.",institutionString:"Colegio de Postgraduados",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Colegio de Postgraduados",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"193077",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Palma-Tenango",slug:"mariana-palma-tenango",fullName:"Mariana Palma-Tenango",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/193077/images/system/193077.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mariana Palma-Tenango is an engineer agronomist from the Universidad Autónoma Chapingo and holds a PhD degree in Plant Physiology from the Colegio de Postgraduados, México. Dr. Tenango has teaching duties in the National Autonomous University of Mexico, and is an assistant professor of Phytochemistry at the Colegio de Postgraduados. She has participated in the organization of meetings and symposiums in México and is a supervisor of master and PhD degree students. Her research line is phytochemistry, medicinal, and aromatic plants.",institutionString:"Colegio de Postgraduados",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Colegio de Postgraduados",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6029",title:"Phenolic Compounds",subtitle:"Natural Sources, Importance and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"348060e7a0fee08ee1feb9d82b330ec3",slug:"phenolic-compounds-natural-sources-importance-and-applications",bookSignature:"Marcos Soto-Hernandez, Mariana Palma-Tenango and Maria del Rosario Garcia-Mateos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6029.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65790",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcos",surname:"Soto-Hernández",slug:"marcos-soto-hernandez",fullName:"Marcos Soto-Hernández"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5609",title:"Phenolic Compounds",subtitle:"Biological Activity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"008b92507ee2f757322ec4565e631bb5",slug:"phenolic-compounds-biological-activity",bookSignature:"Marcos Soto-Hernandez, Mariana Palma-Tenango and Maria del Rosario Garcia-Mateos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5609.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65790",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcos",surname:"Soto-Hernández",slug:"marcos-soto-hernandez",fullName:"Marcos Soto-Hernández"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7688",title:"Plant Physiological Aspects of Phenolic Compounds",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"16f7407afbf69173f4fa419b4338a6c8",slug:"plant-physiological-aspects-of-phenolic-compounds",bookSignature:"Marcos Soto-Hernández, Rosario García-Mateos and Mariana Palma-Tenango",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7688.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65790",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcos",surname:"Soto-Hernández",slug:"marcos-soto-hernandez",fullName:"Marcos Soto-Hernández"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6418",title:"Hyperspectral Imaging in Agriculture, Food and Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9005c36534a5dc065577a011aea13d4d",slug:"hyperspectral-imaging-in-agriculture-food-and-environment",bookSignature:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado, Humberto Rodríguez Fuentes and Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6418.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105774",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Isabel",surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"alejandro-isabel-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10359",title:"Landraces",subtitle:"Traditional Variety and Natural Breed",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0600836fb2c422f7b624363d1e854f68",slug:"landraces-traditional-variety-and-natural-breed",bookSignature:"Amr Elkelish",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10359.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231337",title:"Dr.",name:"Amr",surname:"Elkelish",slug:"amr-elkelish",fullName:"Amr Elkelish"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"39836",title:"Geological Disposal of Nuclear Waste: Fate and Transport of Radioactive Materials",doi:"10.5772/50391",slug:"geological-disposal-of-nuclear-waste-fate-and-transport-of-radioactive-materials",body:'Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission for generating tremendous amount of heat for the production of electrical energy. Currently, there are many nuclear power plants in operation worldwide, which produces high-level nuclear wastes at the same time. Nuclear wastes are being produced as by-product of nuclear processes, like nuclear fission (spent fuel) in nuclear power plants, the radioactive elements left over from nuclear research projects and nuclear bomb production. The management and disposal of these previously stored and continuously generated nuclear wastes is a key issue worldwide. A huge amount of radioactive wastes have been stored in liquid and solid form from nuclear electricity/bomb production plants from several decades at different locations in the world. For example, the Hanford Site is a most decommissioned nuclear production complex on the Columbia River in the U.S. state of Washington, operated by the United States federal government as shown in fig 1 [21, 28, 50]. Hanford was the first large-scale plutonium production reactor in the world. The Hanford site represents approximately two-thirds of the nation’s high-level radioactive waste by volume [28].
Radioactive/nuclear wastes are specific or mixture of wastes which contain radioactive chemical elements that can not be used for further power production and need to be stored permanently/long term in environmentally safe manner [63]. The ultimate disposal of these vitrified radioactive wastes or spent fuel elements requires their complete isolation from the environment. One of the most favorite method is disposal in dry and stable geological formations approximately 500 meters deep. Recently, several countries in Europe, America and Asia are investigating sites that would be technically and publicly acceptable for deep geological storage of nuclear wastes. For example, a well designed geological storage of nuclear waste from hospital and research station is in operation at relatively shallow level in Sweden and a permanent nuclear repository site is planning to be built at deep subsurface system for nuclear spent fuel in Sweden in order to accommodate the stored and running nuclear waste from ten operating nuclear reactors which produce about 40 percent of Sweden’s electricity (In Sweden, the responsibility for nuclear waste management has been transferred in 1977 from the government to the nuclear industry, requiring reactor operators to present an acceptable plan for waste management with a so called absolute safety to obtain an operating license. The conceptual design of a permanent repository was determined by 1983, calling for a placement of copper-clad iron canisters in a granite bedrock about 500 m underground, below the water table known as the KBS-3 method, an abbreviation of kärnbränslesäkerhet, nuclear fuel safety. Space around the canisters will be filled with bentonite clay. On June 3rd 2009, Swedish government choose a location for deep level waste site at Östhammar, near Forsmark nuclear power plant.).
The recent accident in 2011 in nuclear power plant in Fukushima, Japan due to Tsunami has caused release of underground stored radioactive elements/wastes into the subsurface system. This is a big concern for clean-up operation as they can migrate to farther locations with pore water flow of subsurface system and can create big environmental disaster. It has led to re-thinking of researcher and responsible organizations for protecting their underground stored radioactive wastes and implementing multi-protection mechanisms for deep geological storage of the hazardous radioactive wastes. In the event of accidental release/leakage of radioactive materials into the subsurface system, there is a possibility of its migration with the soil-pore water flow and to be transported to the surface and groundwater bodies as shown in fig 1 [21, 50, 76]. Furthermore, some radioactive contaminants do not move through soil pores in dissolved form but rather attach strongly to fine soil particles (1 nm to 1
An example of underground storage of radioactive waste and leakage into subsurface system at Hanford site, Richland, WA, USA (from McKinley et al. 2001) [
Flow and transport of colloidal particles attached with possible radioactive contaminants.
In the infiltration/rainfall events, the colloidal size radioactive particles or radioactive elements attached with mobile colloids would be transported to the groundwater through unsaturated porous media, where gaseous phase can play a critical role in association with the liquid and solid phases [13, 68, 82]. Several mechanisms are responsible for colloid transport in unsaturated zone in addition to that of saturated zone, such as, liquid-gas interface capture, solid-liquid-gas interface capture, liquid-film straining, and storage in immobile liquid zones [13, 18, 27, 44, 51, 68, 70, 79, 85, 87]. The strong force (capillary force) associated with the moving liquid-gas interfaces led to particle mobilization in the natural subsurface environment. As the water content decreases, a thin film of liquid forms over the grain surfaces and in the pendular rings (smaller pores). Phenomenon of colloid deposition on these liquid film and pendular ring created between the pore spaces had different opinion in different literature [73, 81]. This chapter will review all the possible mechanisms responsible for attachment of colloids in the partially saturated system. The discrepancies in literature about colloid removal and deposition mechanisms at different locations in three phase system will also be discussed to guide the researcher and decision making bodies for designing deep geological storage for storing nuclear wastes (to ensure uninterrupted and cheap nuclear power generation) and to combat the extreme situation of their release into subsurface systems through unsaturated zone and protecting the natural water bodies and environment from radioactive contamination.
The colloid retention in saturated porous media is primarily controlled by attachment at the solid-liquid interface in relation to the surface properties of the solid and background solution, which has been well documented in literature [37, 42, 46, 48, 49, 60, 65, 69]. Whereas the presence of gaseous phase in the unsaturated subsurface system introduces an additional mechanism for colloid retention. Although several steps has been taken to enhance the understanding of mechanisms responsible for colloid transport and retention through unsaturated porous media, there is a need to put extra effort in this area for better understanding [4, 24, 42, 47, 55]. In the unsaturated porous media, the additional mechanisms (compared to saturated system) for colloid transport were reported as: colloid captured at the liquid-gas interface [1, 12, 43, 44, 54, 66–68, 70, 72, 80, 83], colloid captured due to straining [4, 7, 74, 78], the colloid captured at solid-liquid-gas interface [10, 17, 18, 27, 51, 87, 88], and colloid storage in immobile zone [15, 25, 26, 61]. The flow chart lists the above four retention mechanisms (fig 3). The colloids trapped due to different mechanisms, as mentioned in the flow chart, govern the movement of colloidal/nano-size particles in a porous media (Fig. 4). The figure 4 shows the example of the colloid captured by liquid-gas interface, solid-liquid-gas triple point, straining, immobile zone, and solid-liquid interface. Many of the colloid retention mechanisms are still poorly understood and debating [73, 81]. To improve our knowledge and understanding about the fate of radioactive particles (alone or attached with colloidal particle) in unsaturated porous media, the colloid capture mechanisms are discussed in detail below.
Different possible colloid retention mechanisms in unsaturated porous media.
Attachment of colloid in three-phase system.
It has been stated in the past that the moving liquid-gas interface plays an important role in colloid mobilization in unsaturated porous medium [1, 12, 43, 44, 54, 66–68, 70, 72, 80, 83]. A considerable amount of colloids were captured at the liquid-gas interfaces and moved with the infiltration front depending on flow velocity and the solution ionic strength [68]. This has been verified by numerical solution of the Young-Laplace equation that expanding water film can lift the subsurface colloids from the mineral surfaces [66]. The detachment of sub-micron sized particles from initially wet solid surfaces had been investigated by air-bubble experiments to understand the strength of moving liquid-gas interfaces [30–32, 45, 53]. In a direct visualization experiments, it had been found that a significant number of colloids were detached from initially dried solid surfaces by the moving liquid-gas interface and remain attached to the liquid-gas interfaces (Fig 5) [70]. The irreversible nature of colloid attachment from the liquid-gas interface has been observed earlier, which validate the strength of moving liquid-gas interface [1, 80].
Detachment of amine-modified microspheres from glass slide after moving the liquid-gas interface: (a) no interface movement, (b) 1 interface movements, (c) 2 interface movements, and (d) 3 interface movements.
Three consequent steps might occur in the colloid detachment from a solid surface and its attachment to the liquid-gas interface. These are interception of the particle, attachment or thinning of the liquid film in between the particle and the liquid-gas interface, and stabilization of the particle on the liquid-gas interface [22, 30, 67, 70]. The total detachment probability (
where
For the transport and mobilization of radioactive materials in colloidal size or its attachment with colloidal particle, the balance among electrostatic, hydrodynamic, and capillary forces are responsible for attraction of particle towards the liquid-gas interface [29, 67, 68, 70, 72, 79]. If capillary force dominates then the colloidal particles attracted towards the liquid-gas interface and if electrostatic dominates then the colloidal particles remain stay over the grain surface. The hydrodynamic forces may be neglected for the colloidal size particles [57, 58, 64]. Figure 6 shows the force balance between electrostatic force and the capillary force for hydrophilic and hydrophobic particle attached with the solid surface when liquid-gas interface moved in the upward direction. The attachment force (
Schematic of forces exerted on an adhered particle: (a) hydrophilic and (b) hydrophobic particle, in contact with a liquid-gas interface. Gravity and buoyancy forces are neglected. (
The DLVO profiles for the colloids and their interaction with the glass surface were calculated according to [35]:
where Δ
The van derWaals interaction energy was calculated by [36]:
where
where
Finally, the total DLVO forces were calculated as:
To see an example of particle detachment from initially dried glass surfaces, [70] performed experiments by selecting different types of colloids with their modified surface properties. Parameters for the DLVO calculations for one of the colloids are shown in Table 1, and the Hamaker constant was chosen as that for a polystyrene-water-glass system (polystyrene:
Selected properties of polystyrene colloids and suspension chemistry used in the experiments.
The total force exerted by a moving liquid-gas interface on a colloidal particle is the sum of gravity, buoyancy, and interfacial forces. However, the gravity and buoyancy forces can be neglected for small particles with radii <500
where
The experiments were conducted using hydrophilic and hydrophobic modified surface and positively and negatively charged colloids attached over the negatively charged glass slide to estimate the number of colloids removed by moving liquid-gas interface [70]. Colloids over the glass slide were visualized using laser scanning confocal microscopy. Figure 5 shows an example of confocal images before and after moving the liquid-gas interfaces over the glass slide. The figure shows that a considerable amount of colloids were removed by the passage of the first liquid-gas interface (Fig 5a,b), however more number of passages of liquid-gas interface did not affect the colloid left after the first interface movement (Fig 5c,d). This was caused because some of the particles might have attached in the primary energy minimum from the glass slide, so
DLVO profile of amino-modified colloid (at given condition in
The above discussion based on force balance complimented with visualization experiments imply that moving liquid-gas interface tends to dominate colloid movement during water infiltration into soils and sediments. The strong force associated at the liquid-gas interface can overcome colloid aggregation and settling, which otherwise dominate colloid dispersion and mobility in porous media. The strong affinity of colloidal particle towards the liquid-gas interface may also be applied in remediation technology, as the inert gases in the form of gas-bubbles can be injected in soils or aquifers to preferentially mobilize colloidal size radioactive contaminants.
The infiltration and drainage scenarios are quite common in the event of rainfall and drying on the unsaturated zone of the subsurface system. This processes can complex the mobilization of radioactive particles in the upper layers if there is any spill or leakage of those material. In the unsaturated zone as the water drain, sorb or evaporate, the water thickness over the solid surface becomes thinner and thinner; and once the water film becomes thinner than colloid diameters that mechanism is called water film staining. In this case, a strong force exerted on the colloid towards the solid surface which is called capillary force [70, 77, 78, 90]. Other possibility of film straining was explained by the colloid trapped in the pendular rings (smaller pores) region separated by thin water films from the remaining fluids [4, 78], which can be remobilized after expanding the water films [26, 61]. The straining of colloids also happen if the pore sizes are smaller than colloid size. This phenomenon commonly occurs in the saturated zone which can also happen in the unsaturated zone.
Different types of straining mechanism for colloid attachment were studied by Bradford group and others [2–8, 19, 40, 59, 71, 74, 84–86]. Figure 8 shows the different types of straining locations for colloids in the saturated and unsaturated media. Colloids trapped at the intersection point of two solid grains in the saturated systems at location 1 by single and 2 by multiple colloidal particles are also called wedging [40] and bridging [59] respectively. The straining of single particle (location 1) occurs if the pore spaces in a porous medium are smaller than the colloid diameter, which is a common phenomenon applied in mechanical filtration [49]. However, straining of multiple particles (location 2) occur as a result of aggregation of colloidal particles in the solution, although the pore space is larger than the single colloid diameter.
In addition, straining of colloids in the saturated system also depends on solution properties, colloid size, colloid shape, colloid size distribution as well as grain size and heterogeneity [2, 3, 5, 6, 71, 85, 86]. The straining of colloids were more dominant for large, irregular shape, and multi-disperse colloids [84–86]. Straining of colloids in the unsaturated porous media become very complex due to the presence of gaseous phase. The capillary force controls the distribution of liquid and gas phases in the pores. As the amount of liquid decreased from the porous medium, the liquid form a film over the solid surface or retain the smaller pores due to strong capillary forces and the larger pores are filled with gases [75]. Straining behavior of colloids due to pore sizes in the unsaturated systems were not studied yet, however few efforts had been taken on straining of colloid by liquid film [62, 78] and the colloid attachment at the solid-liquid-gas triple point [17, 18, 27, 51, 87, 88]. The example of colloids retained at the solid-liquid-gas triple point are shown in Fig 8 at location 3, which has been discussed in detail in the next section. Straining of colloids in the unsaturated porous media due to liquid film occurred if the liquid thickness is smaller than colloid diameters (location 4 in Fig 8). [78] concluded, using different size of colloids and by changing flow velocity, that colloids with smaller diameter than water film thickness passed easily but colloids bigger than film thickness were trapped on the water film.
Attachment of colloids in porous media due to straining.
The contact point of solid-liquid and liquid-gas is called solid-liquid-gas interface. Steenhuis and coworkers used infiltration chambers, light source, and imaging system (camera setup or confocal microscope) to study the colloids attached at so called air/water-meniscus/solid (AW
Relationship between grain contact angle and friction coefficient for colloid retention at the AW
Contrarily, the deposition of colloids were found at the liquid film (liquid-gas interface) from glass micromodel experiments and modeling studies [78, 80]. In another visualization studies, colloids accumulationwere found at thin films outside the pendular ring, which was air-water interface not connected with the solid grains [26]. A column and micromodel experiments and thermodynamic calculations showed that colloids were most likely to be retained near the sediments of liquid-gas interface i.e., solid-liquid-gas interface attachment [10]. These discrepancies in the literature between the colloid attachment mechanisms due to the presence of the solid-liquid-gas interface in the unsaturated porous media had been debated [73, 81]. [81] argued that the possible cause of colloid attachment at AW
In the partially saturated systems, colloids were found to be captured into stagnant/immobile zone. There was evidence of exchange of colloids between immobile and mobile zone due to long breakthrough curve tailing on colloid transport through unsaturated porous media [15, 25, 61, 68]. In a visualization study, it was found that colloids present in the immobile zone at the liquid-gas interface were not moved to mobile zone in steady flow, but the exchange of colloids between immobile and mobile zone occurred in varied flow rate [26]. The exchange of colloids between mobile and immobile zones were likely controlled by slow advection in addition to diffusion. The occurrence of larger quantity of colloids from unsaturated column studies were found in transient flow condition due to movement of colloids present in immobile zone [61, 66, 89]. All these studies indicated that the colloid can be attached in the immobile zone created by heterogeneity of the medium and by the presence of gaseous phase, which could be remobilized in the large rainfall and infiltration events.
The study of colloid fate and transport in important as there is strong affinity of radioactive contaminants to attach with the moving colloidal particles or radioactive elements can fall under colloidal size range. In subsurface systems (like soils and sediments) moving air-water interfaces are common, e.g., during infiltration and drainage of water, air and water displace each other in continuous cycles. Such moving air-water interfaces have a profound effect on detachment of colloids from surfaces. Several research efforts had been made to understand the mechanism of colloid retention and mobilization in unsaturated porous media. The possible cause for colloid attachment in the presence of gaseous phase are discussed in this chapter. As discussed in this chapter, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions about the colloid capture locations in unsaturated porous media. The column experiments, modeling techniques, and visualization studies reveal a number of possible mechanisms of colloid retention and deposition in the partially saturated systems. It is likely that the colloidal particles attached with the solid grain can be removed by moving liquid-gas interface and then colloids can be either deposited and restrained from further moving due to different types of straining, solid-liquid-gas interface capture, and the presence of immobile zone of heterogeneous medium or remain attached at the liquid-gas interfaces.
The strong attachment of radioactive particles to liquid-gas interfaces leading to removal of stationary surfaces offers opportunities for management of subsurface systems in terms of flow and transport. Infiltration fronts in soils can be readily generated by flooding, for instance, and radioactive particle can be effectively “washed” out of a soil profile. Air-bubbles in the form of N2 or other inert gases may be injected in soils or aquifers to preferentially mobilize and remove radioactive contaminants. Such techniques offer ways to enhance the mobility of otherwise immobile particles in the vadose zone and in groundwater. The results from this study point to the relevance of moving air-water interfaces for nuclear waste mobilization and transport in the vadose zone. Such moving air-water interfaces are common in soils and near-surface sediments, where rainfall, snow melt, or irrigation cause infiltration and drainage. Current theory for colloid transport in unsaturated porous media does not consider the effect of moving air-water interfaces for release of contaminants. Evidently, the colloid removal, transport, and deposition mechanisms remain a fertile area of research with much still left to investigate and opportunities for progress in both theory and experiments that are likely to have significant practical impact in vadose zone fate and transport of colloid attached contaminants for better understanding of any radioactive contamination transport from the release point to farther location.
AWmS: Air/water-meniscus/solid
DLVO: Derjaguin, Landau, Verwey and Overbeek
KBS: Kärnbränslesäkerhet
Energy has been a fundamental need of a human society. On the other hand, energy consumption has increased exponentially due to rapid growth in population and modernization [1]. The population of world has grown after Second World War, from two billion to seven billion in the 21st century [2, 3]. Currently fossil fuels are the major source for the primary energy of the world (Figure 1) [4, 5].
Global energy consumption in 2013 [
According to the International Energy Outlook 2013 set by the U.S Energy Information Administration [6, 7], the total energy consumed in 2010 was 5.5282 × 1020 J, which is predicted to rise further to 8.6510 × 1020 J by 2040. Accordingly, the total world energy consumption will grow by 56% between 2010 and 2040; as given in Figure 2. The mismatch between the energy supply and energy demand has increased dramatically all over the world.
Total world energy consumption, history and projection [
The limited fossil fuelsand the associated problems such as energy security environmental issueshave emphasized the need for sustainable, reliable renewable energy sources.
In the view of the current energy scenario, renewable energy sources could be fantastic choice for the world to meet the increasing energy demand and socio economic development. Renewable energy sources are gaining much attention due to their non-toxicity, biodegradability and low emissions profile as compared to petro diesel [8, 9]. According to US energy information administration, there are seven countries (Paraguay (100), Iceland (100%), Costa Rica (99%) Norway (98.5%) Austria (80%), Brazil (75%) and Denmark (69.4%) in the World to have or very near to 100 percent renewable energy sources. Resources of renewable energy are available on large scale such as hydropower, solar, biomass, wind and geothermal energy Figure 1. The fossil fuels substitution with renewable energy sources will have very positive effect on greenhouse gases emissions. It has been reported that 2% replacement of fossil fuels with renewable energy sources will result in 1.8% reduction of emissions of CO2 while replacement of 100% will lead to 90% reduction [10]. In the current energy scenario, renewable energy sources could be a fantastic choice for the World to meet the increasing energy demand. Among them, biodiesel is considered to be the most reliable and consistent source of renewable energy supply.
Biodiesel may be defined as an oxygenated, non-toxic, biodegradable, eco-friendly and sulfur-free alternative diesel oil. Chemically biodiesel may be defined as a fuel that is composed of mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids obtained from renewable sources such as animal fats, vegetable oilsthat comply the ASTM and European quality standards. Different natural oils are used for the production of biodiesel such as coconut, rapeseeds, soybeans and waste cooking oil (Figure 3).
Advantages of biodiesel [
Several efforts have been made to produce derivatives of vegetable oil that can approximate the performance and properties of hydrocarbon-based diesel fuels. The problems associated with the vegetable oil to be used as diesel fuel are high viscosity, low stability against oxidation and the subsequent reactions of polymerization, low volatility due to which incomplete combustion occurs, resulting in the formation of high amount of ash [12]. Different process can be used in order to change these properties such as direct use or blending, micro emulsion, pyrolysis (thermal cracking) and the most conventional process is the transesterification.
In beginning of 1980, there was a considerable discussion about the use of vegetable oil as a fuel. The concept of using food as a fuel was explained in 1981 by Bartholomew, demonstrating that petroleum should be the alternative fuel for combustion rather than the vegetable oil. Direct use of vegetable oils has been considered impractical and not satisfactory for both direct and indirect diesel engines. The high viscosity, free fatty acid content, acid composition and the formation of gum due to polymerization and oxidation during storage and combustion are the obvious problems.
Ma et al. [13] highlighted two severe problems such as incomplete combustion and oil deterioration associated with the direct use of vegetable oil as a fuels. Therefore, it will be significant to dilute the vegetable oils with some materials such as diesel fuels, ethanol or solvents to reduce the density and viscosity of vegetable oils.
Bilgin et al. [14] reported that 4% ethanol addition to diesel fuel increased the brake torque, brake thermal efficiency and brake power while decreasing the consumption of brake specific fuel. As the ethanol boiling point is less than the diesel fuel, ethanol could assist the process of combustion through an unburned blend spray.
Generally, pyrolysis may be defined as the thermochemical decomposition of feedstock at medium (300–800℃) to high temperatures (800–1300℃) in an inert atmosphere. Pyrolysis means a chemical change that is caused by the application of thermal energy in the absence of oxygen or air or by the application of heat in the presence of catalyst that results in the bonds cleavage and formation of various small molecules [15]. Being a type of destructive distillation, it is performed in an inert atmosphere in the temperature range of 300–1300℃. Based on the operating conditions, pyrolysis may be classified into three subclasses such as conventional pyrolysis that occur in the temperature range of 550 K–900 K, (400–500℃) fast pyrolysis occurring in 850 K–1250 K (400–650℃) and the flash pyrolysis occurs in the 1050 K–1300 K (700–1000℃) range of temperature. Pyrolysis is the process used for the synthesis of fuel from triglycerides, vegetable oil, animal fats or natural fatty acids. Fast pyrolysis is used for the bio-oil production. Vegetable oils can be cracked to improve cetane number and reduce the viscosity. The products obtained as a result of cracking include carboxylic acids, alkanes, alkadienes, alkenes and aromatics in various proportions. Rape seed oil, cotton seed oil, soybean oil and other oils with the use of appropriate catalyst were successfully cracked to get biofuel.
Micro-emulsions are isotropic, translucent or clear, thermodynamically stable dispersion of water, oil, surfactants, co-surfactants (amphiphilic molecule) for stabilization. In micro-emulsions, the droplet diameters range from 100 to 1000 Å (10 nm–100 nm). A micro-emulsion can be made of vegetable oils with an ester and dispersant (co-solvent) or vegetable oil with alcohol and surfactant with or without diesel fuels [16].
Alcohols such as ethanol or methanol are frequently used as a viscosity lowering additives. Whereas higher alcohols are used as surfactants. The alkyl nitrates are also used as cetane improvers. It has been reported that micro-emulsion can results in the reduction of viscosity, increase in cetane number and good spray characters in the biodiesel. However, continuous use of micro-emulsified diesel causes problems in engine such as formation of carbon deposits, injector needle sticking and incomplete combustion.
Transesterification is a process that involves the reaction of triglycerides such as vegetable oil, with alcohol in the presence of a catalyst to produce 3 moles of fatty acid esters and one mole of glycerol [17]. Catalyst is used to increase the rate and yield of the reaction. The reaction is reversible. Excess alcohol is used to shift the equilibrium to the product side. Suitable alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol and amyl alcohol are used for the transesterification reaction. Among these methanol and ethanol are most frequently used because of their low cost and physical and chemical advantages (polar and shortest chain alcohol). The fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) obtained by this process can be used as an alternative fuel for diesel engines [18]. The catalyst used for transesterification may be acid or base (homogeneous or heterogeneous) and lipase enzymes. Transesterification reaction depends on various factors such as catalyst concentration, nature of the feedstock, molar ratio of alcohol-oil, agitation rate, temperature, reaction time, amount of free fatty acids and moisture content [19]. Transesterification is a reversible reaction and proceeds by mixing the reactants under heat. In this process, 1 mole of triglyceride react with 3 moles of alcohol gives 3 mole of fatty acid alkyl ester and 1 mole of glycerol in a sequence of three reversible reactions where the triglyceride are converted to diglycerides and then to monoglycerides as shown in Figure 4. From each step, one molecule of alkyl ester is produced (Figure 5).
Transesterification reaction [
Schematic representation of transesterification.
The catalysts used in the transesterification reaction, are extremely important to the group. The presence of a catalyst speeds up the reaction, increasing the yield of the final product. These catalysts are classified into two major categories: homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts, each of which can further be divided into subgroups. The classification is shown in Figure 6.
Catalysts used for biodiesel production.
The base catalysts used for the process of Transesterification include KOH, NaOH, carbonates and corresponding potassium and sodium alkoxides such as sodium ethoxide, sodium methoxide, sodium butoxide and sodium propoxide. The alkaline catalyzed Transesterification reactions are 4000 times faster than acid catalyzed Transesterification reactions. As compared to acidic catalyst, the base catalyst are less corrosive to industrial equipments, hence alkaline catalysts are mostly employed in commercial. However, the base catalysedTransesterification reaction is affected significantly by the presence of free fatty acid (FFA) and moisture content in the feedstock. Therefore, the glycerides and alcohol used for Transesterification must be substantially anhydrous. It has been recommended that the FFA contents should be less than 2%, whereas the moisture content below 0.5 wt%. As the value of FFA is inversely proportional to the conversion efficacy, therefore small amount of water and high FFA contents present in animal fats and vegetable oils results in the deactivation of the catalyst and cause saponification (soap formation), which consequently decrease the biodiesel yield and renders the separation of glycerol and ester [21]. So, low free fatty acid content in triglycerides is required for base catalyzed Transesterification. Homogeneous acid catalyst is then referred for Transesterification.
Generally, the mechanism of base-catalyzed Transesterification of animal fats or vegetable oils involves four steps [13, 21]. In the first step, the base react with the alcohol gives an alkoxide and protonated catalyst. In the second step, nucleophilic attack of the alkoxide at the carbonyl group of the triglycerides and generates a tetrahedral intermediate. In the third step, alkyl ester and corresponding anion of diglyceride is produced. The final step involves the deprotonation of the catalyst to regenerate the active species that is able to start another catalytic cycle by reacting with the second molecule of the alcohol. Same mechanism is followed by the diglycerides and monoglycerides to convert to a mixture of alkyl esters and glycerol. The mechanism is summarized in the Figure 7.
Mechanism for base-catalyzed transesterification [
Mineral acids such as H2SO4, HCl and H3PO4are widely used for the acid catalyzed transesterification reaction. Acid catalysts are recommended for the oils that have higher free fatty acid contents such as waste oil or palm oil [23]. Such types of oils are first treated with acid catalyst (esterification) before the basic transesterification in order to convert the free fatty acids to esters. In this case, the FFA is esterified until the free fatty acid content becomes lower than 0.5% [24] In acid catalysis the oil is treated with acid catalyst and gives biodiesel and water but the water must be removed immediately because it will results in the soap] formation in base catalyzed transesterification.
In the acid catalyzed transesterification, the protonation of carbonyl group of the ester results in the formation of carbocation, which after a nucleophilic attack of the alcohol produces a tetrahedral intermediate. This intermediate then eliminates the glycerol to form a new ester and to regenerate the catalyst. This mechanism is related to a monoglyceride. However, this reaction can be extended to di- and triglycerides (Figure 8).
Mechanism for acid-catalyzed transesterification [
In enzyme catalyzed Transesterification, the reaction is catalyzed by various lipases such as candida rugasa, candida Antarctica, immobilized lipase (lipozyme RMIM) pseudomonas cepacia, pseudomonas spp. Or rhizomucarmiehei. The yield of biodiesel greatly depends on the type of enzyme used [23]. 60% biodiesel yield was achieved from transesterification of soyabean oil using commercially avalaibleimobalized lipase (Lipozyme RMIM) [26, 27]. More importantly sufficient time is required for the enzyme catalyzed Transesterification as compared to base catalyzed Transesterification. However, the various parameters such as pH, temperature, solvent, type of micro-organism that generate enzyme etcmust be optimized to achieve the industrial goals. This process is highly selective, more efficient, produces less side products or waste i.e., environmentally favorable and involves less consumption of energy because reaction can be carried out in mild conditions [28].
Arumugam et al. [29] used the sardine oil (byproduct of fish industry) as a low cost feedstock for the production of biodiesel. The FFA content of the oil was high (32mgKOH/G of oil) and the lipase enzyme immobilized on activated carbon was used for the Transesterification. Various reaction conditions were optimized such as methano/oil ratio 9:1, water content 10 v/v% and temperature 30℃. Reusability of the catalyst was studies for 5 cycles and 13% drop in FAME yield occurred.
In heterogeneous catalysis, the phase of the catalyst is different from the phase of the reactants. Heterogeneous catalysts are very important in various fields such as industrial bulk chemical production, synthesis of selective chiral molecueles and energy [30]. Various process problems associated with homogeneous Transesterification, such as regeneration or separation of the catalyst, soap formation, disposal of byproducts, treatment of waste effluents and corrosion in case of acid catalyst have been solved by the use of heterogeneous Transesterification. Heterogeneous catalysts they are easily recovered at the end of the reaction by decantation or filteration, reusablility, show potential activity, selectivity, longer catalyst lifetimes and cost effective green process [31]. Interestingly heterogeneous catalysts could be used in certain harsh conditions such as high temperature and pressure. Heterogeneous catalysts may be solid base catalyst or solid acid catalyst.
Heterogeneous catalysts can be designed to bring out entrapment and grafting of the active molecules on the surface or inside the pores of the solid support such as alumina, silica or ceria. Mixed metal oxides [32], transition metal oxides [33], ion exchange resin [34], Alkali earth metal oxides [35] and alkali metal compounds supported on zeolite or alumina [36] have been used in different chemical reactions such as aldol condensation, isomerization, oxidation, Michael condensation, Knoevenagel condensation, and transesterification [37].
Heterogeneous base catalysts are used to overcome the constraints such as saponification that hinders the glycerol separation from the layer of methyl ester associated with the homogeneous base catalysts. These catalysts show superior catalytic activities under mild conditions and are non-corrosive, environmentally friendly, have less disposal problems and easily separated from the reaction mixture [38, 39]. Moreover, the properties of these catalysts can be tuned accordingly to enhance activity, selectivity and longer catalyst lifetime. Various metal-based oxides such as alkali metal, alkaline earth metals and transition metal oxides can be used as a base catalyst for the biodiesel production from oils by trans-esterification process. The structure of metal oxides consists of cations (positive metal ions) that possess Lewis acid characteristics and anions (negative oxygen ions) that possess Brønstedbase characteristics. The combination of Lewis acid and Bronsted base characteristics make them potential catalyst for transesterification reaction.
Alkaline earth metal oxides such as CaO, MgO, BaO, BeO and SrOhave successfully been used as a catalysts for biodiesel production by many researchers.
Calcium oxide is favored ecofriendly material that haslonger life time because it is cheap catalyst, moderate reaction conditions and high activity. Generally, calcium hydroxide and calcium nitrate are used as precursors for the CaO production. Recently, several calcium-rich waste materials such as mollusk shell and bones, chicken eggshells have been used for CaO synthesis to minimize the biodiesel production cost, problem of waste disposal.
Demirbas [40] described the supercritical conditions effect on the sunflower oil catalytic Transesterification in the presence of 3 wt% of CaO with 60–120 mesh size, 40: 1 of alcohol/oil molar ratio, at pressure of 24 MPa and 252℃ The author reported 98.9% yield of methyl ester in reaction time of 26 min.
Mixed metal oxides consist of two or more type of metal cations. Oxides may be binary, ternary and quaternary and so on with respect to the presence of the number of different metal cations [41]. Mixed metal-based oxides are mainly used as basic catalyst depending on the mixture of the catalyst. More importantly, the basicity of these catalysts can be tuned by changing their chemical composition and procedure for synthesis. Similarly, activation energy, type of synthesis method and structure of the catalyst have a strong impact on the final basicity of the mixed metal oxides.
It has been reported that, calcining MgO with ZrO2 gives a bimetallic oxide MgO-ZrO2having high basicity character and is almost unaffected by dissolution. Similarly, MnO, CuO and CuO supported on Al2O3 have been investigated in transesterification reaction at room temperature, yielded upto 97%. Al2O3-ZnO mixed oxide and rare earth oxides were studied but require high temperature for biodiesel production from vegetable oils. Calcium bimetallic oxides such as CaCeO3, CaZrO3, CaMnO3, CaTiO3 and Ca2Fe2O5 have also been investigated for the transesterification at 60℃, which displayed good activity and reusability [42, 43].
Xie et al. [44] used the Zinc aluminate catalyst (ZnAl2O4) in a batch processing for the biodiesel production from waste cooking oil. More than 95% ester yield was obtained at temperature greater than 150 C, alcohol to oil molar ratio 40:1, stirrer speed of 700 rpm, reaction time of 2 h and varying the catalyst amount in the range of 1–10 wt%. The catalyst was reused for 3 cycles and the yield reduced after the 3 run. The authors reported that the decrease may be due to the carbon deposition on the surface catalyst or loss of tiny particles of the catalyst during the process of recovery.
Basic catalyst may have several problems during the process of transesterification because they are sensitive to free fatty acid content. If the free fatty acid content is higher than 2 wt %, soap formation occurs resulting in decrease in the yield of biodiesel. The downstream purification process raises problems such as producing a large amount of wastewater [45].
Metal oxides such as FeTiO, ZrFeO, ZrFeTiO and Cesium-doped heteropolyacid have been used successfully as solid acid catalysts for the Transesterification of oil using ethanol and methanol as a solvent. Acid catalysts are insensitive to water content and free fatty acid (FFAs) present in the feedstock and is a are preferable method for cheaper feedstock [45].
Alhassan et al. [46] developed Ferric-manganese-based solid catalyst by impregnating the support material of sulfated zirconia with Fe2O3-MnO. The catalyst wascalcined for 3 h at 600℃. The synthesized catalyst was then used for the waste cooking oil Transesterification. The author found 96.5% yield of biodiesel under optimum reaction conditions of oil to alcohol molar ratio of 1:20, at 180℃ temperature and catalyst loading of 3 wt%. The yield of the catalyst remained the same (96.5%) for 6 runs but decreased upto 87% upon the seven run. They reported that the decrease may be due to blockage of the energetic centers as a result of the accumulation of triglycerides in the pores of the catalyst.
Heteropolyacids and their salts are also used as solid acid catalysts for the biodiesel production. HPAs withKeggin structure can be prepared very easily as compared to other HPAs. They possess high thermal stability and are preferably used for production of biodiesel from different feedstocks. Keggin-type HPA has a low specific surface area, which can be overcome using appropriate supportive material. Similarly, HPAs supported on the carriers are used in biodiesel production because of their structural mobility and superacidity.
Sakthivel et al. [47] used the tungstophosphoric acid (HPW) and MCM-48-supported HPW catalysts for the esterification of long chain fatty acids and alcohol in supercritical CO2 (sc-CO2) medium. High yield was obtained in the supercritical CO2 medium due to the rapid diffusion of reactants and products in the MCM-48 channels and high contact of the reactants with the catalyst.
Acidic catalyst may have several problems such as very slow reaction rate, corrosive to reactors and pipelines. Normally, high reaction temperature, high oil to methanol molar ratio and long reaction time are required [45].
As the alkali catalyzed transesterification of the feedstock with higher FFA contents can produce low yield of biodiesel, because the FFA reacts with the alkali catalyst and produce the foam that results in separation and emulsification problems [48]. To solve this problem, a two steps catalytic process for the biodiesel production is recommended. In the first step, the free fatty acid contents of the feedstock are esterified using the acidic catalyst such as ferric sulfate or sulfuric acid. In the second step, biodiesel are produced by the transesterification using the basic catalyst such as CaO or ZnO. The problem of the catalyst removal in the first step can be avoided by neutralizing the acid catalyst by using the extra alkaline catalyst in the second step. But the use of extra catalyst can increase the overall cost of the biodiesel production. The residues of the acidic or alkaline catalyst in the products of biodiesel can cause the engine problems because the acidic catalyst can attack the metallic parts of the engine. On the other hand, basic catalyst can produce higher level of incombustible ash. Therefore, both the catalyst must be removed properly from the biodiesel to avoid the aforementioned problems [49, 50]. Further, it can be concluded that there is substantial room for the development of an efficient and effective catalyst for profitable biodiesel technology (Figure 9).
Schematic representation of operating principle of bifunctional catalyst [
Recently, bifunctional heterogeneous catalysts has been introduced to solve the drawbacks adhere with the solid base/acid catalyst and develop more economical biodiesel technology. The bifunctional heterogeneous solid catalyst can be used as an alternative for the biodiesel production that can promote both esterification and Transesterification simultaneously [52].
In recent years, bifunctional heterogeneous catalysts have been used widely for the production of industrial fine chemicals. The bifunctionality concept has been designed to drive complex reactions through the advance approach of combining two hostile functions, such as acid and base, with cooperative interactions between their active sites precisely positioned functional groups [53]. Therefore, bifunctional heterogeneous catalyst can perform simultaneous esterification and transeseterification of free fatty acids and triglycerides respectively without being affected by the water content present or produced during the formation of biodiesel [54].
Generally, heterogeneous reactions involve three steps such as adsorption, surface reaction and desorption [55]. In the first step, carbonyl group of free fatty acids (FFA) adsorbs on acid sites while methanol adsorb on the basic site of the catalyst to produce carbocation and oxygen anion for esterification and transesterification respectively. In the second step, at the surface of the catalyst, nucleophilic attacked carbocation and oxygen anion at each methanol hydroxyl group and triglyceride carbonyl group for esterification and transesterification reactions, respectively. The nucleophilic attack would generate tetrahedral intermediate. Finally, the product (FAME) is formed from desorption of hydroxyl group and alkyl triglycerides from catalyst surface after breaking the -OH and -C-O- bond respectively, while the deprotonated catalyst regenerated the active species for starting another catalytic cycle. Glycerol, H2O, are produced as by-product during esterification and transesterification reactions (Figure 10).
Mechanism for esterification and transesterification reactions on a bifunctional heterogeneous catalyst [
Transition metals such as Ni, Fe and Co based compounds have been extensively investigated as bifunctional heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production. The TiO and MnO have shown good catalytic activity for biodiesel production. These catalysts have been used for the simultaneous esterification of FFAs and transesterification of triglycerides under continuous flow conditions by using low grade feedstock with high fatty acids contents ofupto 15%.
Cannilla et al. [57] used a novel MnCeOx system for the transesterification of refined sunflower with the methanol. The performance of such catalyst was compared with that of common acid supported catalyst. The results showed that MnCeOx system have a superior activity especially by operating at low temperature i.e., ≤120°C. The catalytic performance was the result of synergic role played by the presence of both base/acid character and textural porosity.
Mixed metal oxides have shown potential applicationsin terms of their catalytic activity in various reactions due to their increased active acidic or basic sites and large surface area. As a result of these characteristic, the mixed metal oxides can simultaneously catalyze the esterification and transesterification and increases the yield of reaction under mild reaction condition [32].
Many researchers have investigated the catalytic activity of mixed metal oxide for biodiesel production. Furata et al. [58] prepared the Al2O3/ZrO2/WO3 solid catalyst by co-precipitation method for biodiesel production from soybean oil. The catalyst was compatible for both esterification and transesterification at 250℃ temperature and alcohol to oil molar ratio of 40:1, provided 90% methyl ester yield.
The feedstock is one of the key factor that plays vital role in the economics of the biodiesel technology. More than 350 oil-bearing crops have been identified as a potential feedstock for the production of biodiesel. The feedstock should fulfill two main requirements (i) large production scale (ii) low production cost [59]. The feedstock availability for the production of biodiesel depends upon the geographical location, local soil conditions, regional climate and agricultural practices of any country. The suitability of feedstock depends upon various factors such as oil yield per hectare, production cost, oil content of the seeds and relevant product properties of the oil. It has been found that, the cost of the feedstock is about 75% of overall production cost of biodiesel [60]. Therefore, selection of cheapest feedstock is a major problem and high relevant to the biodiesel industry. Biodiesel feedstocks are generally categorized into four classes as shown (Figure 11).
Feedstocks used for biodiesel production [
Resources of edible oil such as peanut [62], soybeans [63], sunflower [64], rapeseed [65], safflower, coconut and palm oil are extensively utilized for biodiesel production and are classified as first generation biofuels because these were the first crops used for production of biodiesel [66]. Many countries of the World such as USA, Malaysia and Germany, have well off plantations of these vegetable oils. Currently, more than 95% of the world biodiesels are produced from the edible oils where rapeseed oil contributes 84%, sunflower 13%, 1% palm oil, 2% soybean and others. However, economic and social problems such as food versus fuel crisis and various environmental issues (such as destruction of vital soil resources), usage and deforestation of the available arable land are adhere with use of edible oils.
Due to the presence of some toxic components in the non-edible vegetable oils, they are not suitable to be used for human food. The use of non-edible vegetable oil for the production of biodiesel would pave the ways to overcome the economic, social and environmental problems and tackle the energy crises worldwide [60]. Non-edible vegetable crops are grown on the lands that are largely unproductive, located in poverty-stricken areas and in degraded forests. These plants can also be planted on fallow lands, cultivator’s field boundaries and in public land such as roads, railways and irrigation canals. Plants of non-edible feedstocks are well adapted to arid, semi-arid conditions require low moisture and fertility. Moreover, these plants can grow and propagated through cutting or seeds [67]. As these plants oilsdo not compete with food therefore the seed cake may be used as fertilizers for soil enrichment. Therefore, from economic and social prospective, edible oils must be replaced by some suitable feedstock for biodiesel production. Hence, non-edible feedstocks for biodiesel production could be considered as sustainable and alternative fuels.
Mazari is the local name for dwarf palm (
Mazari palm seeds.
Mazarifibres are widely used for making ornamental products, ropes, mates, banns, different commodities for mosques, trays, baskets, grain bins, brooms, cupboards, hand fans and decoration pieces etc. (shown in Figure 13) [68, 69].
Different products of mazari palm.
Fresh and dried leaves both are used for making products. Raw mazari production in the Pakistan is about 37,315 tons. Baluchistan is the biggest producer of the mazari with an average annual production of 27,265 tons [70]. In 1991, the total exports of the products prepared from mazari by rural people were 126 milion rupees. Main buyer of these products are the local people because most of the products are used for domestic purposes and also these fascinating products attract both domestics and international tourists. Figure 14 shows the main buyer of the products.
Main buyer of mazari palm products [
The fruits of
Jatropha curcas is the bionomical name of Jatropha, belongs to spurge family. It is commonly known as Barbados, Purging or Physic nut. The height of Jatropha plant is about 6 m and is a flowering plant. The plant matures in 9–10 months and yield 2–3 times per year. On maturation, green rounded shaped seeds appeared on the plants and then turn into light blue or purple colored hard shells. The oil bearing mass located inside the shells known as meat or kernels. Oil content in the seeds varies from 20–60% by weight [74, 75]. J. curcas oil could be a valuable feedstock for the production of biodiesel in Pakistan (Figure 15).
Jatropha curcas [
Jatropha is a multipurpose drought resistant plant that is widely distributed in the wild or semi-cultivated areas in South East Asia, Pakistan, India and Central and South America. It is well adapted to arid and semi-arid conditions [76]. Jatropha is rich source of hydrocarbons. Therefore, it is considered as commercial source for biofuel production all over the world. Jatropha oil contains 42% oleic, 35% linoleic, 14% palmatic and 6% stearic acid by composition [77].
In Pakistan, certain institutions are promoting Jatropha cultivation at the nursery level in various locations across Baluchistan, Punjab, and Sindh. In nurseries, these cultivated plants ranged in age from a few weeks to 18 months [78]. However, after three years of private sector efforts in2008, oil bearing crop cultivation increased from 2 acres to over 400 acres. PSO (Pakistan State Oil) took a step in this direction in 2008, planting 20,000 saplings in farms. They’ve recently increased the number of samples taken for each transplantation, up to 20,000 or more. PSO’s initiatives aimed to plant more than 6 million trees produce 24 million kg of oil bearing seeds, and produce 7.2 million L of biodiesel worth 345 million PKR at a unit price of PKR 48 L−1 [79].
Other interested parties, such as the Karachi Forest Department and the Pakistan Army, have also successfully planted Jatropha plants in Sindh [80]. So far, the Forest Department has been successful in cultivating 3000 samples on a trial basis in Malir Cantonment in 2010 for the cultivation of Jatropha seeds supplied by PS [81]. Similarly, the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) and KijaniEnergy, a Canadian company, are interested in establishing large-scale Jatropha cultivation for the production of biodiesel on marginal lands [79]. Kijani Energy invested approximately US$ 150 million in2009, resulting in the use of 200,000 acres of land for Jatropha cultivation in Umerkot, Khairpur, Tharparker, Cholistan, and Sanghar.
Date or date palm is a flowering plant species belongs to the palm family Arecaceae cultivated for its edible sweet fruit. It is a dioecious having separate male and female plants. It is a source of human nutrition rich with dietary fibers, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, some vitamins and mineral matter [86]. For millennia, the date palm tree has been cultivated in the Middle East and North Africa, and it is thought to be the world’s oldest domesticated fruit tree. Because of the variety of resources it provides, it has traditionally been the most valuable fruit crop in harsh arid or desert environments where water scarcity and extreme temperatures are common. Date palm trees are now grown in semi-arid climates and other parts of the world, including southern Europe, Australia and America. There are now over 100 million date palm trees in the world with around 2000 cultivars [87, 88]. A palm tree produces 500 kg of fresh dates per year on average, with production beginning at 5 years and lasting up to 60 years. Date production and consumption have increased rapidly, from 1.88 million t in 1965 to 3.43 million tons in 1990 and 8.46 million tons in 2016, with Middle Eastern and African countries dominating production [89]. It’s a pitted fruit with a seed in the centre surrounded by a fleshy pericarp as shown in Figure 17.
Date fruit and seeds [
The date seeds are very hard ranging from 5 to 15 mm in length with oblong shape with a ventral groove. The weight is about 11–18% of the total fruit mass and contain 4–13% of oil. Based on these digits, an estimated 1.3 million tons of date seeds and 127,000metric tons of date seed oil (similar amount of biodiesel) could be annually produced. In 2015, the total annual production of biodiesel was 38,700 tons in the Middle East and Africa [90, 91]. Date production in the world reached 9.07 million metric tons in 2019, up from 8.4 million metric tons in 2017. Similarly, date palm is widely distributed in different areas of Baluchistan, Sindh, KPK and Punjab. It has been reported that the annual production of date seed is around 600,000 metric ton per year in Pakistan [92]. These seeds are used as feed for animals in some areas. However, most of these seeds degrade without any proper utilization. Therefore, the use of date seeds as biodiesel feedstock could be a promising to concern energy solution (Figure 18).
Top 10 global date-producing countries [
Karanja (
Karanja (
Many researchers have utilized karanja oil as feedstock for biodiesel production. It has been reported that the biodiesel obtained from karanja shows excellent properties such as low acid value, lower viscosity and higher flash point. Naik et al. [95] followed two steps process for the production of biodiesel from karanja oil with 20% free fatty acid. First, acid-catalyzed esterfication was applied using 0.5% (w/w) H2SO4, 6:1 methanol to oil ratio at 65℃. The acid treated oil was later transesterifiued with KOH using 1% (w/w) potassium hydroxide, 6:1 methanol to oil ratio to lower the FFA content. The yield of biodiesel obtained by dual step process from karanja oil was 96.6–97% at 65℃.
Neem (
Muthu et al. [97] produced the neem methyl ester from the neem oil in the presence of catalysts by two steps process of esterfication and Transesterification. Sulfated Zirconia was used as solid acid catalyst for esterfication, while alkali catalyst i.e., KOH was used for Transesterification. Optimum conversion of free fatty acid was achieved with 1 wt% of sulfated zirconia (acid) catalyst, at 65℃ temperature, 9:1 methanol/oil ratio and 2 h reaction time. The acid value of the raw oil was reduced by 94% (24.76 mg KOH/g) which show the successful conversion. The authors noted that when the pretreated oil was transesterified in the presence of KOH, 95% conversion efficiency was achieved (Figure 20).
Neem (
Microalgae are eukaryotic or prokaryotic photosynthetic micro-organism that can grow rapidly and live in harsh conditions due to their unicellular or simple multicellular structure [98]. Examples of eukaryotic micro-organisms are green algae i.e., chlorophytaand diatoms i.e., bacillariophyta and prokaryotic micro-organisms are cyanobacteria. Microalgae are present in all existing ecosystem of the earth, not only in aquatic but also terrestrial ecosystem that lives in a wide range of environmental conditions [99]. Interestingly, it is observed in small ponds and ditches in the villages and towns become fully green within a week during the rainy season in Pakistan. Although in Pakistan, the cultivation of oleaginous microalgae is in its infancy, however several species of algae are reported in the literature that can further process or cultivated for the production of oil [100]. Microalgae can provide feedstock for several types of renewable fuels such as methane, biodiesel, ethanol and hydrogen. Biodiesel produced from algae contains no sulfur, reduce emissions of particulate matter, hydrocarbons, CO and SOx. However, NOx emissions may be higher in some types of engine.
Furthermore, a Pakistani researcher at Japan’s Mie University claims that the country could benefit from using its 27–28 million acre saline lands for algal farming, which would create jobs and benefit the rural community [101]. Four algae strains suitable for cultivation in Pakistan’s deserts have been identified by other researchers. Other researchers have identified four strains of algae that are suitable for cultivation in Pakistan’s deserts and produce acceptable lipid yields, i.e. 40% by weight
To produce biodiesel, researchers at the National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST) cultivated Chlorella vulgaris in a closed photo-bioreactor (20 L) in a controlled environment and characterized its properties. At 5000 and 9000 psi and 50 and 80°C, the highest biodiesel yield (more than 99%) was achieved. The biodiesel produced was found to be of ASTM D6751 quality [102].
The term waste cooking oil (WCO) refers to vegetable oil that has been used in production of food and no longer viable for its intended use. Sources of waste cooking oil are domestic, industrial and commercial products [103]. Waste cooking oils are problematic waste streams that need to manage properly because if WCO is disposed improperly, down streams of the kitchen, the oil solidifies and cause blockages of sewer pipes [98, 104]. Degraded waste cooking oil gets into sewage system and causes corrosion to metal and concrete elements [105]. Thus, the waste cooking oil can be used as an effective feedstock for the biodiesel production via Transesterification [99].
In Pakistan, waste cooking oil sources include hotel chains, confectioneries, restaurants and domestic cooking. Pakistan is basically an agricultural country and has diverse ecological conditions, so the people mainly depend upon the agricultural products. Plants and crops that yield edible oils for cooking purposes are cultivated on extensive scale in the country. These oils are used in local shops, hotels, huts and every home of Pakistan [80]. Pakistani people use meat of cows, buffaloes, camels, goats, poultry on large scale and use fats for cooking purposes. These all are the major sources for collection of waste cooking oil.
Animal fats and vegetable oils are of two types of biological lipid materials that are made up of mainly triacylglycerides (TAGs) and less diacyglycerides DAG and monoacylglycerides (MAGs) [106]. Fats and oil have similar physical properties and chemical structures such as hydrophobicity, water-insolubility and solubility in nonpolar organic solvents. However, the high fatty acids content in fats and their different distributions make it different from oil. Oils are generally liquid at room temperature while fats and greases are solids due to their high content of saturated fatty acids (SFA). Different waste animal fats such as tallow (mutton tallow from sheep and beef tallow from domestic cattle), pork lard (rendered pork fat), chicken fats and grease. Since, many animal meat processing facilities, rendering companies of collecting and processing of animal mortalities, large food service and processing facilities create large amount of waste animal fats (WAFs), that will be a great opportunity to produce biodiesel from these very cheap raw material [107]. The use of these waste animal fats as a feedstock for biodiesel production will eliminate the need of their disposal.
Pakistan is the world’s sixth largest country in terms of population, (213 million) and an annual growth rate of 2%.A significant portion (63%) of this population lives in rural areas, while 37 percent live in urban areas [108]. The recent economic growth and an ever-increasing population, has resulted in an increase in energy consumption. The country still depends on conventional resources of fossil oil.
Various initiatives to promote renewable energy in Pakistan have been taken over the years, but their outcomes are still pending due to a lack of sound policy [109]. Recently, Alternative Energy Development Board (AEDB), was established in 2003 [78], in Pakistan to improve green technologies that can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote renewable technologies through a variety of projects that have been recognized on an international level by the International Solar Energy Society (ISES) and the World Wind Energy Association (WWEA) [110].
There is a significant gap between Pakistan’s energy production and energy demands, which is being bridged by the import of fossil fuels and requires substantial state revenue to be spent on these imports. Pakistan imported 13.57 Milliontons of oil equivalent (MTOE) of petroleum during fiscal year 2014–2015, ultimately putting tremendous pressure on the economy by increasing the import bills [111]. Transportation and power generation are the main fossil fuel consuming sectors in Pakistan. Fuel price increases frequently, leading to increases in transportation costs and utility bills for both public and private consumers and pose socioeconomic challenges for the country. At present, Pakistan’s indigenous resources account for only up to 15 percent of the country’s energy requirements [112]. Pakistan spends approximately 60% of its currency exchange on importing fuels to meet energy needs, and these import bills can be significantly reduced if indigenous alternative energy resources are used appropriately [110].
Pakistan’s government is searching for cost-effective, environmentally friendly alternative energy sources in order to address current energy crises and maintain economic stability [108].
The use of agricultural residues as a renewable energy resource in Pakistan can provide a sustainable way to enhance the country’s energy mix in order to meet ever-increasing energy needs. Energy production through suitable and efficient technologies can have multiple positive economic impacts on Pakistan, (1) by saving huge investments in energy imports, (2) by reducing harmful gas emissions in order to protect the environment and (3) by empowering the people of the country in terms of social aspects [111]. It can provide multiple job opportunities to people working in the agricultural, transportation and daily wagering sectors. Furthermore, public awareness campaigns emphasizing the importance of renewable energy resources, as well as basic education on how to effectively manage these resources, should be launched [113]. This can be achieved by distinct financial assistance programs should be made available to encourage business investments in the renewable energy production sector [114].
Various important steps and measures must be taken as soon as possible, such as the establishment of generous research and development programs at the Country’s Universities and research institutions, with a focus on research activities involving renewable resources in the country.
This review presents an extensive analysis of the potential of biomass for renewable energy production in Pakistan. It also emphasizes the availability of local biomass resources as well as state-of-the-art of biomass conversion technologies. Heavy reliance on imported fossil fuels and global climate change are key factors contributing to Pakistan’s economic problems. To address these issues, relying on locally available renewable energy sources is a promising and cost-effective financial solution. The transportation sector is a major importer of petroleum fuels, accounting for the majority of the total import bill. Biodiesel and bio-ethanol, can supplement HSD/petrol, transportation fuels. To overcome this issue biodiesel production with full utilization of its by-products can provide a sustainable and environmentally friendly replacement of mineral high speed diesel (HSD).
Moreover, comprehensive detail of the locally abundantly available feedstocks for biodiesel production has also been discussed in this chapter. Overall, this study further concludes that Pakistan has the immense potential to produce economical viable biodiesel from the locally available feedstocks.
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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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